title: Elephant seal

text: Females and males utilize different feeding strategies in order to maximize their reproductive success. Males feed in benthic regions with more abundant food sources, but also more abundant predators. Females feed in pelagic regions where they are less likely to find prey, but also less likely to be preyed upon. They employ these different strategies because females are smaller, requiring less food, and it is also most important for them to have as many breeding seasons as possible in order to maximize reproductive success. On the other hand, males can adopt a riskier strategy in the hopes of gaining as much mass as possible, and thus being able to have one extremely successful breeding season.


title: Elephant seal

text: Once a year, elephant seals go through a process called molting where they shed the outer layer of hair and skin. This molting process takes up to a month to complete. When it comes time to molt, they will haul out on land to shed their outer layer, and will not consume any food during this time. The females and juveniles will molt first, followed by the sub adult males, and finally the large mature males.


title: Elephant seal

text: The main predators of elephant seals are killer whales and great white sharks. Cookie cutter sharks can take bites from their skin.


title: Elephant seal

text: Sheathbills, Skuas, Western Gulls, and African feral cats have been reported to directly pilfer milk from the elephant seals' teats.


title: Elephant seal

text: The IUCN lists both species of elephant seal as being of least concern, although they are still threatened by entanglement in marine debris, fishery interactions, and boat collisions. Though a complete population count of elephant seals is not possible because all age classes are not ashore at the same time, a 2005 study of the California breeding stock estimated approximately 124,000 individuals. The animal is protected in most countries where it lives. In Mexico, the northern elephant seal is protected in the Guadalupe Island Biosphere Reserve where it was rediscovered after being believed to be extinct.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Francis Newton Gifford (August 16, 1930 – August 9, 2015) was an American football player, actor, and television sports commentator. After a 12-year playing career as a halfback and flanker for the New York Giants of the National Football League (NFL), he was a play-by-play announcer and commentator for 27 years on ABC's "Monday Night Football".


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award from United Press International in 1956, the same season his team won the NFL Championship. During his career, he participated in five league championship games and was named to eight Pro Bowls. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1977. After retiring as a player Gifford was an Emmy Award-winning sportscaster, known for his work on ABC's "Monday Night Football", "Wide World of Sports", and the Olympics. He was married to television host Kathie Lee Gifford from 1986 until his death.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford was born in Santa Monica, California, the son of Lola Mae (née Hawkins) and Weldon Gifford, an oil driller. He graduated from Kern County Union High School, now named Bakersfield High School.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Following Gifford's death in 2015, his wife Kathie Lee Gifford said that her late husband grew up in a poverty-stricken home and that he and his family sometimes ate dog food. She said they lived in 29 places before Gifford attended high school, because his father could not find work during the Depression. She also said that as a young child, the family attended church every week and Gifford "asked Jesus into his heart and that remained with him for the rest of his life".


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford was unable to gain an athletic scholarship to the University of Southern California (USC) because of his low grade point average in high school. As a result he played a season of football for Bakersfield Junior College. While at Bakersfield, he made the Junior College All-America team and earned the grades needed to enroll at USC. At USC, Gifford was named an All-American after rushing for 841 yards on 195 carries during his final season. While at USC he was a member of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. He graduated from USC in 1952.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford spent his entire NFL career with the New York Giants, beginning in 1952, playing both offense and defense. He made eight Pro Bowl appearances and had five trips to the NFL Championship Game. Gifford's best season may have been 1956, when he won the league's Most Valuable Player Award and led the Giants to the NFL title over the Chicago Bears.


title: Frank Gifford

text: He lost 18 months in the prime of his career when he was tackled by Philadelphia Eagles linebacker Chuck Bednarik in what is widely considered the hardest defensive hit, or one of the hardest, in the history of the National Football League and is often referred to simply as The Hit. During a November 20, 1960 game against the Philadelphia Eagles, he was knocked out by Bednarik on a passing play, suffering a severe head injury that led him to retire from football in 1961. However, Gifford returned to the Giants in 1962, changing positions from running back to flanker (now a type of "wide receiver").


title: Frank Gifford

text: His Pro Bowl selections came at three positions — defensive back, running back, and flanker. He permanently retired following the 1964 season.


title: Frank Gifford

text: During his 12 seasons with the Giants (136 regular-season games) Gifford had 3,609 rushing yards and 34 touchdowns in 840 carries; he also had 367 receptions for 5,434 yards and 43 touchdowns. Gifford completed 29 of the 63 passes he threw for 823 yards and 14 touchdowns with 6 interceptions. The 14 touchdowns is the most among any non-quarterback in NFL history; the 6 interceptions is tied with Walter Payton for most thrown by a non-quarterback.


title: Frank Gifford

text: After his death, an autopsy on his brain revealed that he lived with Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE), a disease closely related to repeated head trauma. As of September 18, 2015, 87 out of 91 former NFL players tested had been diagnosed with the disease.


title: Frank Gifford

text: After his playing days ended, Gifford became a broadcaster for CBS, covering football, golf and basketball. When "Monday Night Football" was launched in 1970, ABC had originally planned to have Gifford in their broadcast booth, but he still had a year remaining on his contract with CBS. Instead Gifford recommended his friend Don Meredith who was hired. The following year, Gifford replaced Keith Jackson as "Monday Night Football"'s play-by-play announcer, and remained involved with the show for 27 of its next 28 years. His low-key delivery provided a perfect counterbalance to broadcast partners Meredith and Howard Cosell. In an era with only three television broadcast networks, the series became the longest-running prime-time sports program in television history, and developed into one of television's most valuable franchises.


title: Frank Gifford

text: On January 20, 1985, Gifford provided play-by-play for the first Super Bowl to be broadcast on ABC, Super Bowl XIX between the San Francisco 49ers and Miami Dolphins in Stanford, California. Gifford was joined in the booth by Don Meredith and Joe Theismann.


title: Frank Gifford

text: In 1986, Al Michaels took over play-by-play duties, and Gifford switched to a color commentator role. However, Gifford did play-by-play for the next several years (Gifford was joined by Lynn Swann and O. J. Simpson on color commentary in 1986 and by Dan Dierdorf for the rest of his run on "Monday Night Football") whenever Michaels was covering post-season baseball games for the network.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Following his affair with airline flight attendant Suzen Johnson in 1997, Gifford was replaced in the broadcast booth by Boomer Esiason in 1998. That season he was reassigned to a nominal role for ABC's Monday night pregame show, but the program was cancelled after one season. Gifford was not offered a new role by the network. Gifford was also host of British TV network Channel 4's NFL coverage with British born former New England Patriots kicker John Smith in 1986, which included coverage of Super Bowl XXI. Additionally, he narrated the official Super Bowl XLVIII highlight film for NFL Films, for which he had narrated the New York Giants' annual highlight films.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford was also a reporter and commentator on other ABC sports programs, such as coverage of the Olympics (including the controversial men's basketball gold medal game between the United States and Soviet Union at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, which Gifford called alongside Bill Russell), skiing and golf. He announced Evel Knievel's jumps for ABC's "Wide World of Sports" in the 1970s, including when Knievel failed to clear 13 buses at Wembley Stadium in 1975. Gifford also guest hosted "Good Morning America" on occasion, including once when he met his future wife Kathie Lee.


title: Frank Gifford

text: In 1977, Gifford won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Sports Personality. He was given the Pete Rozelle Radio-Television Award by the Pro Football Hall of Fame In 1995 for his NFL television work.


title: Frank Gifford

text: "Monday Night Football" paid tribute to Gifford on September 14, 2015, by having ESPN announcers Mike Tirico and Jon Gruden wear the gold jackets that Gifford helped make famous as a broadcaster.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Frank Gifford appeared as Ensign Cy Mount in the 1959 World War II submarine film drama "Up Periscope", starring James Garner, Edmond O'Brien, Andra Martin, and Alan Hale Jr.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford appeared as himself as a guest star on the NBC television series, "Hazel", in the episode, "Hazel and the Halfback", which originally aired December 26, 1963. In the story, Gifford is interested in investing in a local bowling alley. In 1977, Gifford appeared as himself in the episode "The Shortest Yard" of the ABC sitcom "The San Pedro Beach Bums". He also appeared as himself in a two-hour episode of "The Six Million Dollar Man" titled "The Bionic Boy" in the same year. In 1994, Gifford also appeared as himself in the Nickelodeon kids show called "The Adventures of Pete & Pete" as a customer for the boy's Dad's driving range. In season one episode 4 titled "Rangeboy", Gifford and his wife Kathie Lee appeared in the February 28, 1995, episode of the ABC sitcom "Coach", titled "The Day I Met Frank Gifford", in which a character on the show plots to meet the former football star who will attend an event to receive an award.


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford married his college sweetheart, USC's homecoming queen Maxine Avis Ewart, on January 13, 1952, after she became pregnant while they were students at USC. They had three children, Jeff (b. 1952), Kyle and Victoria, and five grandchildren. Victoria Gifford married Michael LeMoyne Kennedy, son of Robert F. Kennedy. Frank Gifford was next married to fitness trainer Astrid Lindley from 1978 to 1986. His first two marriages ended in divorce. Gifford married television presenter and singer Kathie Lee Johnson, who was 23 years his junior, on October 18, 1986. The couple settled in Greenwich, Connecticut, with their son, Cody Newton Gifford and daughter, Cassidy Erin Gifford. Gifford and his third wife Kathie Lee shared the same birthday, August 16. The couple co-hosted ABC's coverage of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary.


title: Frank Gifford

text: In 1997, the tabloid magazine "Globe" paid a woman named Suzen Johnson to meet, get to know, and lure Gifford into a New York City hotel room secretly equipped with videotape systems enabling the Globe to take and obtain photos of Gifford being seduced. They published photos and stories. ESPN reported that the tabloid paid Johnson $75,000 to lure Gifford to the room while "The Atlantic" said it was $125,000. "National Enquirer" editor Steve Coz observed, "There's a difference between reporting the news and creating the news ... [w]ithout "The Globe", there would be no story here. I'm in the tabloid industry, and this is way over the top. It's downright cruel."


title: Frank Gifford

text: The former lawyer of Johnny Carson, Henry Bushkin, claimed that Gifford had an affair with Carson's second wife Joanne in 1970.


title: Frank Gifford

text: On August 9, 2015, a week before his 85th birthday, Gifford died from natural causes at his Greenwich, Connecticut, home at the age of 84.


title: Frank Gifford

text: In November 2015, Gifford's family revealed that he had chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). The family said, "After losing our beloved husband and father, Frank Gifford, we as a family made the difficult decision to have his brain studied in hopes of contributing to the advancement of medical research concerning the link between football and traumatic brain injury... We decided to disclose our loved one's condition to honor Frank's legacy of promoting player safety dating back to his involvement in the formation of the NFL Players Association in the 1950s."


title: Frank Gifford

text: Gifford is a character in Frederick Exley's novel "A Fan's Notes". In the novel, Gifford becomes the narrator's hero while both are at USC. Subsequently, the narrator continues to be an intense fan of Gifford and his team, the New York Giants, during his NFL career.


title: Erotomania

text: Erotomania, also known as de Clérambault's Syndrome, named after French psychiatrist Gaëtan Gatian de Clérambault, is listed in the DSM-5 as a subtype of a delusional disorder. It is a relatively uncommon paranoid condition that is characterized by an individual's delusions of another person being infatuated with them. This disorder is most often seen (though not exclusively) in female patients who are shy, dependent and sexually inexperienced. The object of the delusion is typically a male who is unattainable due to high social or financial status, marriage or uninterest. The object of obsession may also be imaginary, deceased or someone the patient has never met. Delusions of reference are common, as the erotomanic individual often perceives that they are being sent messages from the secret admirer through innocuous events such as seeing license plates from specific states, but has no proof. Commonly, the onset of erotomania is sudden, and the course is chronic.


title: Erotomania

text: Erotomania is more common in women, but men are more likely to exhibit violent and stalker-like behaviors. The core symptom of the disorder is that the individual holds an unshakable belief that another person is secretly in love with them. In some cases, the person with the condition may believe several people at once are "secret admirers". Most commonly, the individual has delusions of being loved by an unattainable person who is usually an acquaintance or someone the person has never met. They may also experience other types of delusions concurrently with erotomania, such as delusions of reference, wherein the perceived admirer secretly communicates their love by subtle methods such as body posture, arrangement of household objects, colors, license plates on cars from specific states, and other seemingly innocuous acts (or, if the person is a public figure, through clues in the media). Some delusions may be extreme such as the conception, birth, and kidnapping of children that never existed. The delusional objects may be replaced by others over time, and some may be chronic in fixed forms. Denial is characteristic with this disorder as the patients do not accept the fact that their object of delusion may be married, unavailable, or uninterested. The phantom lover may also be imaginary or deceased.


title: Erotomania

text: Erotomania has two forms: primary and secondary. Primary erotomania is also commonly referred to as de Clerambault's syndrome and Old Maid's Insanity and it exists alone without comorbidities, has a sudden onset and a chronic outcome. The secondary form is found along with mental disorders like paranoid schizophrenia, often includes persecutory delusions, hallucinations, and grandiose ideas, and has a more gradual onset. Patients with a "fixed" condition are more seriously ill with constant delusions and are less responsive to treatment. These individuals are usually timid, dependent women that are often sexually inexperienced. In those with a more mild, recurrent condition, delusions are shorter-lived and the disorder can exist undetected by others for years. Problematic behaviors include actions like calling, sending letters and gifts, making unannounced house visits and other persistent stalking behaviors.


title: Erotomania

text: Erotomania may present as a primary mental disorder, or as a symptom of another psychiatric illness. With secondary erotomania, the erotomanic delusions are due to other mental disorders such as bipolar I disorder or schizophrenia. Symptoms may also be precipitated by alcoholism and the use of antidepressants. There may be a potential genetic component involved as family histories of first degree relatives with histories of psychiatric disorders are common. Sigmund Freud explained erotomania as a defense mechanism to ward off homosexual impulses which can lead to strong feelings of paranoia, denial, displacement and projection. Similarly, it has been explained as a way to cope with severe loneliness or ego deficit following a major loss. Erotomania may also be linked to unsatiated urges dealing with homosexuality or narcissism. Some research shows brain abnormalities occurring in patients with erotomania such as heightened temporal lobe asymmetry and greater volumes of lateral ventricles than those with no mental disorders.


title: Erotomania

text: Prognosis differs from person to person, and the ideal treatment is not completely understood. Treatment for this disorder gains the best results when tailored specifically for each individual. To date, the mainline pharmacological treatments have been pimozide (a typical antipsychotic which was also approved for treating Tourette's Syndrome), and atypical antipsychotics like risperidone and clozapine. Non-pharmacologic treatments that have shown some degree of efficacy are electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), supportive psychotherapy, family and environment therapy, rehousing, risk management and treating underlying disorders in cases of secondary erotomania. ECT may provide temporary remission of delusional beliefs; antipsychotics help attenuate delusions and reduce agitation or associated dangerous behaviors, and SSRIs may be used to treat secondary depression. In delusional disorder there is some evidence that pimozide has superior efficacy compared with other antipsychotics. Psychosocial psychiatric interventions can enhance the quality of life through allowing some social functioning, and treating comorbid disorders is a priority for secondary erotomania. Family therapy, adjustment of socio-environmental factors, and replacing delusions with something positive may be beneficial to all. In most cases, harsh confrontation should be avoided. Structured risk assessment helps to manage risky behaviors in those individuals more likely to engage in actions that include violence, stalking, and crime. For particularly troublesome cases, neuroleptics and enforced separation may be moderately effective.


title: Erotomania

text: Early references to the condition can be found in the work of Hippocrates, Freud (1911), G.G. de Clérambault (1942), Erasistratus, Plutarch and Galen. Parisian physician, Bartholomy Pardoux (1545-1611) covered the topics of nymphomania and erotomania. In 1623, erotomania was referred to in a treatise by Jacques Ferrand (Maladie d'amour ou Mélancolie érotique) and has been called "erotic paranoia" and "erotic self-referent delusion" until the common usage of the terms erotomania and de Clérambault's syndrome. In 1971 and 1977, M.V. Seeman referred to the disorder as "phantom lover syndrome" and "psychotic erotic transference reaction and delusional loving". Emil Kraepelin and Bernard also wrote of erotomania and more recently, Winokur, Kendler, and Munro have contributed to knowledge on the disorder.


title: Erotomania

text: G. E. Berrios and N. Kennedy outlined in 'Erotomania: a conceptual history' (2002) several periods of history through which the definition of erotomania has changed considerably:


title: Erotomania

text: In one case, erotomania was reported in a patient who had undergone surgery for a ruptured cerebral aneurysm.


title: Erotomania

text: In his paper that described the syndrome, de Clérambault referenced a patient he had counselled who was obsessed with British monarch George V. She had stood outside Buckingham Palace for hours at a time, believing that the king was communicating his desire for her by moving the curtains.


title: Erotomania

text: Parallels were drawn between this and a 2011 case where the body of a homeless American man was found on a secluded island in St James Park, within sight of Buckingham Palace. The man had sent hundreds of "strange and offensive" packages to Queen Elizabeth II over the previous fifteen years.


title: Erotomania

text: The attempted assassination of United States president Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley Jr. has been reported to have been driven by an erotomaniac fixation on actress Jodie Foster, whom Hinckley was attempting to impress.


title: Erotomania

text: Late-night TV entertainer David Letterman and former astronaut Story Musgrave were both stalked by Margaret Mary Ray, who had erotomania.


title: Erotomania

text: Michael David Barrett allegedly had erotomania, stalking ESPN correspondent Erin Andrews across the country, trying to see her and taking lewd videos.


title: Erotomania

text: Many cases of obsession or stalking can be linked to erotomania but do not always necessarily go hand in hand.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Survivor: Cambodia — Second Chance is the 31st season of the American CBS competitive reality television series "Survivor". Unlike previous seasons, which were completely cast by producers, this season featured 20 returning contestants chosen by an online public vote. The ballot, with the 32 finalists that were considered for this season, was revealed on May 6, 2015, the same day that voting began. The final cast was revealed on May 20, at the reunion of the . After the reveal occurred, the chosen cast members immediately began the trip to Koh Rong, Cambodia, where the season was filmed. The season premiered on September 23, 2015 and concluded on December 16, 2015 when Jeremy Collins was declared the winner over Spencer Bledsoe and Latasha "Tasha" Fox in a unanimous 10–0–0 jury vote.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: It is the tenth season to feature returning players, and the third to feature a cast consisting entirely of returning players, after "" and "". Though this season was the 31st to air, it was the 32nd to film, after the subsequently-aired ""; the two seasons were filmed back-to-back in the same location.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: This season featured several new alterations to the game format. Hidden immunity idols, typically hidden either at tribal camps or Exile Island, were hidden this season at immunity challenges before the merge. Additionally, this season marked the first time the number of regular tribes increased over the course of a season (in this case, from two to three), and the first time the tribes merged with 13 players remaining. It also introduced the vote stealer, in which one player could prohibit another from voting and cast a second ballot in their stead.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: According to host and executive producer Jeff Probst, 75 former contestants were initially considered regarding on returning for this season. On Twitter and in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Probst revealed that Greg Buis from "", Ian Rosenberger from "", Shannon "Shambo" Waters" from ", Roberta "R.C." Saint-Amour and Jeff Kent from "" were contacted to return but all of them declined the offers. Josh Canfield, Reed Kelly, and Jon Misch from "" were all contacted, however Canfield and Kelly's Broadway contracts prevented them from being able to play, and Misch missed the call.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: The vote was conducted on the CBS website, and was open to residents of the U.S., Canada (where the show is simulcast on Global), and Australia (where the show airs the following day on Go!). On the website, each candidate was featured in a video displaying a series of clips from their original season followed by a plea to voters as to why they should be selected for "Cambodia". Registered voters were required to submit ballots of exactly ten men and ten women, and each voter could only submit a ballot once every 24 hours. This public voting process was similar to one CBS used in 2006 for the first all-star edition of reality program "Big Brother".


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Voting commenced on May 6, 2015, while the "" season of "Survivor" was still in progress. The ballot consisted entirely of players who had played only once before and had not won; however, two of the candidates from "Worlds Apart" (Mike Holloway and Carolyn Rivera) had not yet been eliminated from that season when voting began; if either of them were revealed to be that season's winner, they would be deemed ineligible for "Cambodia" and, if they were among the top ten vote receivers of their gender, their spot would be given to the person on their ballot with the 11th highest vote total. Holloway won "Worlds Apart" and per Jeff Probst's announcement had finished in the top 10 among male candidates, so the 11th place male candidate joined the cast instead. Probst has since stated that, out of respect for the contestants, there is no intention to reveal the final vote counts or ranks.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: The cast is composed of 20 returning players initially split into two tribes. On day 7, the tribes were shuffled from two to three. The three tribes are named after Cambodian temples: Ta Keo, Bayon, and Angkor. The merged tribe name Orkun is the Khmer word for "thank you", which was suggested by contestant Kimmi Kappenberg.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Ciera Eastin and Jeff Varner returned for "". Joe Anglim and Kelley Wentworth returned for "". Jeremy Collins returned to compete on "".


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Outside of "Survivor", Yung "Woo" Hwang, Wentworth, Collins, and Anglim competed on the premiere of "Candy Crush". Abi-Maria Gomes competed with two-time "Survivor" contestant Sierra Dawn Thomas on a "Survivor" vs "Big Brother" episode of "Fear Factor". In 2022, Tasha Fox competed on "".


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: The 20 returning castaways were initially divided into two tribes of ten: Bayon and Ta Keo. Bayon was led by a core alliance spearheaded by Andrew and Jeremy, the entire tribe promising to stay loyal in the face of upcoming tribe swaps. Throughout the two tribe shuffles, the original Ta Keo tribe fractured while most original Bayon members continued acting in the interest of reforming at the merge. However, some—such as Ciera and Kass—were not as loyal, creating a new alliance on the second Ta Keo tribe. On the third Ta Keo tribe, Ciera and Kass's new alliance came into conflict with Andrew, and they blindsided his ally Woo.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: The tribes merged the next day with 13 players remaining, setting Andrew and Jeremy's reformed Bayon alliance against Ciera and Kass's. Though the Bayon alliance initially held the majority, the tribe's large size and multitude of intertwining relationships as a result of the tribe swaps caused the players to eschew long-term alliances in favor of creating temporary voting blocs to get rid of common threats.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: While the voting bloc strategy prevailed well into the merge, stable alliances began to form as the numbers dwindled. With seven players remaining, Jeremy formed a majority alliance with Spencer, who had had no consistent allies throughout the game, and original Bayon members Kimmi and Tasha. However, Kimmi later betrayed them to align with outsiders Keith and Kelley. Kimmi was eliminated after the ensuing deadlock tie, and Jeremy, Spencer, and Tasha reached the end of the game together. Ultimately, at the Final Tribal Council, Jeremy was rewarded for his strategic and social dominance throughout the entire game, earning the title of Sole Survivor by a unanimous jury vote.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: The premiere episode was watched by 9.70 million viewers and received a 2.5/8 rating/share in the critical 18–49 demographic. Though the ratings were down from the "" premiere the year before, it ranked first in its timeslot and third for the night, behind "Empire" and "Modern Family". Including three-day DVR figures, the premiere was watched by a total of 11.4 million viewers and scored a 3.1 18–49 rating. The first and second episodes were consistent with the average ratings of the last seven seasons of the show (from to ), which averaged 11.5 million viewers and 18–49 ratings between 3.1 and 3.5.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: The season received extremely positive reviews. Daniel Fienberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" reviewed the season positively, saying "The episodes this fall were a reminder of why this show works so well and why you can never rule out "Survivor" to produce twists and turns that rival what you might find on a Netflix or HBO drama." Dan Heaton of "Rob Has a Website" gave the finale—and the season—a favorable review, saying, "This week's very satisfying finale included one of the show's greatest Tribal Councils and barely took a breath in the rush to the finish. Three different players won immunity, tears were shed, and no one backed down. There were no horrible gaffes at the Final Tribal Council, and the jury mostly avoided the bitter route. Kimmi emerged from a quiet edit to nearly dethrone the champ while Keith remained his unique self. Spencer and Tasha made a strategic error by sticking with Jeremy, but both showed real determination throughout the season to make the end. To put it mildly, I enjoyed this season."


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Dalton Ross of "Entertainment Weekly" ranked "Cambodia" as his sixth-favorite season, only behind "", "", "", "", and "". He stated that despite some confusion with the season's constantly-shifting "voting blocs" and his disappointment with some of the challenges, he found the season appealing due to "how hard the bulk of the cast was playing," while also praising the numerous twists such as the fan-vote, the idols hidden in challenges, the tribe swaps, and the vote-stealing advantage. Caroline Framke of "Vox" raved the season, saying "The high level of game play in "Survivor: Second Chance" made a 15-year-old formula feel new again." In 2020, "Purple Rock Podcast" ranked this season 4th out of 40 saying that "the cast is an obvious strength. The gameplay is great as well, with ever-shifting strategies as players jostle for position to make the most of their second shot at the game." Later that same year, "Inside Survivor" ranked this season 16th out of 40 saying that "what really makes a season is the cast. And best believe this cast plays hard. Voting blocs, alliances, immunity idols, and vote steals, no obstacle is too great for these players who have everything to prove to their fans and themselves." In 2021, "Rob Has a Podcast" ranked "Cambodia" 9th during their "Survivor All-Time Top 40 Rankings" podcast.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: On December 15, the day before the live reunion show, one of the season's castaways, Vytas Baskauskas, announced on Twitter that he had been banned from participating in the reunion, simply for leaving Cambodia early following his elimination. Baskauskas was the first person voted out of the game, but rather than remain sequestered from the public for the duration of filming, per the show's protocol, he chose to return to the United States early to be with his infant son. According to "Inquisitr", when fans of "Survivor" read about his ban, many of them were irate that he was being excluded from the reunion show. However, one fan in particular claimed that Baskauskas had committed breach of contract with CBS, by making a post on Instagram during the time period in which the season was filming, thus revealing that he was indeed out of the game at the time and, therefore, potentially spoiling part of the outcome of the season.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Baskauskas defended himself by stating that the social media post in question wasn't a spoiler, since an assistant of his, with access to his Instagram account, was the one who had made that post on his behalf. Baskauskas further claimed that he couldn't have been on social media during that time, since he hadn't even gotten his phone back yet. He also pointed out that there is nothing in the "Survivor" contract that says that a player's social media account cannot be run by a third party.


title: Survivor: Cambodia

text: Nonetheless, the reunion show went on without Baskauskas, nor was there any on-air acknowledgement of his absence.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Maurizio Sarri (; born 10 January 1959) is an Italian professional football manager who is the current manager of club Lazio.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri did not play football professionally, taking part as an amateur centre back and coach while working as a banker. In 2005, he had his first Serie B job at Pescara. In 2014, Sarri won promotion to Serie A with Empoli, and after preserving their place in the top flight he was hired by Napoli. He won several individual awards while managing the Naples-based club; after finishing as league runners-up in 2017–18, Sarri moved to English club Chelsea, where he won the UEFA Europa League in his only season with the club. He returned to Italy to coach Juventus in 2019, with whom he went on to win the Serie A title in his first season, becoming the oldest manager to ever win the Serie A.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Son of a Tuscan worker (his father Amerigo, a former professional cyclist, worked as a crane operator at Italsider in Bagnoli, a district of Naples), Sarri was raised in Castro (province of Bergamo) and then in Faella (municipality of Castelfranco Piandiscò, in the province of Arezzo), where he divided his time as an amateur footballer and banker for Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena in Tuscany. His work as a banker saw him travel Europe, working in London, Zürich and Luxembourg.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri played only at an amateur level, in Figline's local team, having failed trials with Torino and Fiorentina. At the age of 19, Montevarchi was close to signing Sarri but Figline asked for a compensation of 50 million lire, and the deal eventually collapsed. He later refused a move to Pontedera, and subsequently retired with Figline after struggling with injuries.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri used to work in the bank in the morning, and trained and played in games in the afternoon and evening. In 1990, aged 30, he transitioned into coaching, following the same schedule he adhered to for his entire work life. After gaining employment with minor side Tegoleto, he decided to quit his job to devote himself exclusively to his coaching career.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri's first club as manager was U.S.D. Stia 1925, whom he started coaching in 1990 in Seconda Categoria. In the following year he was appointed manager of fellow league team U.S. Faellese, and took the club up to the Promozione.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri subsequently worked for U.S.D. Cavriglia and U.S. Antella, taking both sides to the Eccellenza. In 1998 he was named manager of fellow league team A.C. Valdema, but was fired the following January. He took over U.S.D. Tegoleto in the same division in September 1999.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: In 2000, Sarri signed for Sansovino in Eccellenza, and achieved promotion to Serie D with the side in his first season; he would remain two further seasons in charge of the club, reaching the play-offs in his last season. His successes with Sansovino caused Serie C2 side Sangiovannese to sign him in 2003, where he remained for two seasons and took the club to Serie C1 in his first campaign.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 18 June 2005, Sarri resigned from Sangiovannese, and was appointed manager of Serie B side Pescara on 9 July. After avoiding relegation, he left the club on 30 June 2006 and was appointed at the helm of fellow second division side Arezzo on 1 November, in the place of the sacked Antonio Conte. On 13 March 2007, he was relieved from his duties, and Conte returned to the post.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 18 July 2007 Sarri joined Avellino in the second tier, but resigned on 23 August after severe altercations with the club's board. On 31 December he replaced fired Davide Pellegrini at the helm of Hellas Verona, but was himself sacked the following 28 February after winning only one point during his six matches in charge.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 23 September 2008, Sarri was named Perugia manager in the place of Giovanni Pagliari. Sacked on 15 February of the following year, he only returned to coaching duties on 24 March 2010 with Grosseto. On 6 July of that year Sarri was appointed manager of Alessandria in Lega Pro Prima Divisione, and reached the promotion play-offs, being knocked out in the semifinals by Salernitana.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri resigned from Alessandria on 24 June 2011, and on 6 July 2011, he was appointed at the helm of Sorrento. He coached the club through the first months of the season until the mid-season break, playing an attractive, slick brand of attacking football. Despite the club's being in sixth place, he was dismissed on 13 December.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 25 June 2012, Tuscan Serie B club Empoli hired Sarri as their new coach. In his first season, he led the club to fourth place and the playoff final, before losing to local rivals Livorno.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: The following season, Sarri guided Empoli to second place in the final table and direct promotion to Serie A after six years away. In the 2014–15 Serie A, Empoli avoided relegation by coming 15th.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 11 June 2015, Sarri left Empoli and signed for the club of his city of birth, Napoli, replacing Rafael Benítez, who left after missing out on a UEFA Champions League place.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: In his first season, Sarri brought in Elseid Hysaj, Pepe Reina, and Allan. The trio would go on to be first-team stalwarts for the following campaign, as Napoli finished runners-up to Juventus. Sarri extended his stay at the club until 2020 on 27 May 2016. Two months later, Juventus would manage to sign Gonzalo Higuaín from Napoli for €90 million in the summer, who had managed to equal the record for most goals scored in a singular Serie A season, with 36. However, Sarri vetoed the possibility of spending the money on a like-for-like replacement, instead, spending sparingly on weaker positions in the side to improve on depth, while tinkering with his squad to compensate for the loss of Higuaín. This was achieved through the positional change of Dries Mertens, originally a wide-forward, who was played more centrally the following season. This worked to great effect, as the Belgian netted 28 goals as the club finished third in 2017, while Sarri was voted the league's coach of the year, and received the Enzo Bearzot Award.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri, whose Napoli side had concluded the first half of the 2015–16 season Serie A in first place, gained the title "Campioni d'Inverno" ("Winter Champions") for the first time in 26 years. Although Napoli ultimately ended the season in third place, the team's results in the first half of the season led him to believe he had constructed a side capable of winning the league the following season. Napoli would begin the 2017–18 season in fantastic form, setting a team record for most consecutive league victories, with 8. It also took the club until December to register a league defeat, while waiting three months for another, registering ten straight victories in the process. The club also regained the title of "Campioni d'Inverno" from the previous campaign. Napoli finished the 2017–18 Serie A season in second place, four points behind Juventus. On 23 May 2018, Sarri was replaced as head coach by Carlo Ancelotti.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 14 July 2018, Sarri was appointed head coach of Chelsea, replacing Antonio Conte who was sacked the day before. In his first competitive game on 5 August, the team lost the Community Shield 2–0 to Manchester City at Wembley Stadium. The following week, he recorded his first win as Chelsea manager in a 3–0 league win away to Huddersfield Town. Sarri became the first head coach or manager to remain undefeated throughout his first 12 Premier League fixtures, until 24 November, where they lost 3–1 to Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: During the 2019 EFL Cup Final against cup holders Manchester City, with the match at 0–0 and a penalty shootout imminent, Sarri called for goalkeeper Kepa Arrizabalaga to be substituted off for Willy Caballero; formerly of City, and whose penalty saves won City the same competition in 2016. However, Arrizabalaga refused to be substituted. An irate Sarri nearly stormed into the stadium tunnel, and was later held back by Chelsea defender Antonio Rüdiger from confronting the keeper. Chelsea went on to lose the shoot-out 3–4. After the game, both Arrizabalaga and Sarri said that the situation was a misunderstanding, with Sarri believing that Arrizabalaga was too injured with a cramp to continue, but Arrizabalaga felt okay to continue. On 29 May, Sarri won his first major trophy as a manager after Chelsea beat Arsenal 4–1 in the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final in Baku. Chelsea managed to win the title undefeated throughout the entirety of the Europa League campaign.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: At the end of the 2018–19 season, Chelsea announced that Sarri was departing to become manager of Juventus, with the club statement also mentioning his desire to be closer to his elderly parents in Italy.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 16 June 2019, Juventus announced the signing of Sarri on a three-year contract. In August 2019, he was treated for pneumonia; he would miss the first two matches of the 2019–20 season over Parma and Napoli.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Under Sarri's management, Juventus participated in the 2019 Supercoppa Italiana on 22 December following their league title victory in the previous season, where they lost 1–3 against Lazio at the King Saud University Stadium in Riyadh.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On 17 June 2020, Juventus suffered a 4–2 penalty shoot defeat to Sarri's former club Napoli in the Coppa Italia Final, following a 0–0 draw after regulation time. On 26 July, Juventus secured a ninth straight Serie A title with a 2–0 home win over Sampdoria. The result saw Sarri win his first major trophy in Italian football, also saw him become the oldest manager to win the "Serie A" at the age of , breaking the previous record set by Nils Liedholm with Roma in 1982–83 (60 years and 219 days). On 8 August 2020, one day after Juventus were eliminated from the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League in the round of 16 by Lyon, Sarri was sacked by the club.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: From a tactical standpoint, Sarri is known for his intelligence, attention to detail, and his meticulous approach as a manager when it comes to preparing matches during weekly training sessions. He often has his team prepare many different plays on set-pieces. One of the main trademarks of his highly organised system is a four-man back-line; his teams usually play a high defensive line and adopt the offside trap and a zonal marking system, as he requires his defensive players to be synchronised in their movements, anticipate plays, and look at the ball as a point of reference, not their opponents. Other key elements of Sarri's line-up are the presence of a deep-lying playmaker who dictates play in front of the back-line, such as Jorginho, and overlapping attacking full backs, in order to provide width to his team, as his players often attack from the flank, looking to play quick exchanges and make runs in behind into the box rather than deliver crosses into the area, however. As such, he favours dynamic wingers in his team, as well as defenders and goalkeepers who are comfortable on the ball, in order to help his team retain possession, and hard-working players who can implement his high pressing game.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: When defending off the ball, Sarri's teams often employ an aggressive use of energetic pressing, tight lines, and pressure high up the pitch in order to win back the ball quickly. Throughout his coaching career, Sarri has adopted several formations, such as the 4–3–1–2 or the 4–2–3–1, but he later came to be known for using a "free-flowing, possession based 4–3–3 system" during his time with Napoli. During the 2016–17 season, following the departure of Gonzalo Higuaín to rivals Juventus and an injury to the club's main striker Arkadiusz Milik, Sarri frequently deployed Dries Mertens in a false nine role, seemingly positioned as a lone centre-forward, rather than as a left winger, where he had previously faced competition from Lorenzo Insigne for a starting role; as a result of Sarri's tactical change, Mertens's goalscoring output increased dramatically.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri received his coaching diploma in 2006 through the Technical Centre of Coverciano; the title of his thesis was "La preparazione settimanale della partita" ("The weekly preparation of a match"). One of his major influences as a coach is Arrigo Sacchi. Aside from his tactical prowess, Sarri is known for his outspokenness as a manager. He has also stood out for his attire; unlike many other managers who wore suits in Italian football, he usually wore a tracksuit during matches. At Chelsea, he also adopted a more relaxed approach than his predecessor Antonio Conte when it came to his players' diets and curfew before matches, which along with the changes in tactics to a more offensive-minded, possession game based on passing, helped create a more positive team environment; receiving praise from his Chelsea player Antonio Rüdiger for doing so.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: On the ball, Sarri's teams are known for playing an attractive, exciting, and attacking-minded brand of football, based on retaining possession, movement off the ball, and many quick, short passes on the ground; this style has come to be known as "Sarri-ball" or "liquid football" in the media, while "L'Équipe" has described it as "vertical tiki-taka". The Italian encyclopaedia Treccani instead coined the term "Sarrismo" to describe the offensive and spectacular style of football that Sarri's teams play.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri's teams' modern, innovative, and creative playing style, as well as their mentality, ability to move up the pitch quickly on counter-attacks and score many goals, has won praise from several pundits, players, and managers, including Pep Guardiola and Cesc Fàbregas; in 2018, former manager Arrigo Sacchi praised the style employed by Sarri's Napoli side as "the most important thing seen in Italy in the last 20 years". However, despite receiving plaudits for his tactical approach to the game, he also initially came under criticism from some in the sport for his failure to win a title as a manager, until leading Chelsea to victory in the Europa League in 2019; he has also been accused in the media of being stubborn and tactically inflexible at times.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: Sarri is a heavy smoker and in 2018, Napoli's UEFA Europa League opponents, RB Leipzig, built a special smoking section in the locker-room area of their stadium, Red Bull Arena, specifically for him. He often chews on cigarette butts while on the touch-line.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: In addition to his native Italian, Sarri also speaks English albeit with the help of an interpreter in some English interviews.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: During the 2015–16 season, Sarri found himself embroiled in a heated exchange with Roberto Mancini, then head coach of Inter Milan, in the final minutes of a Coppa Italia match on 20 January 2016, where Mancini accused Sarri of directing a homophobic slur at him. Sarri responded to the accusations by saying that he was not a homophobe, stating "what happens on the field, stays on the field". Sarri was consequently fined €20,000 and banned for two Coppa Italia matches by Lega Serie A for "directing extremely insulting epithets at the coach of the opposing team".


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: In March 2018, Sarri came under further criticism in the media when he was accused of making sexist comments when responding to female reporter Titti Improta of Canale 21, who had asked him in a post-match interview if he thought that Napoli's title challenge had been compromised; he subsequently apologised, later also adding that he had been joking.


title: Maurizio Sarri

text: When asked about these two incidents in his first press conference with Chelsea in 2018, Sarri expressed regret regarding his behaviour, commenting: "These were mistakes, that is for sure. I think that those who know me very well cannot define me in this way – not homophobic or sexist or racist, absolutely not. I am an extremely open person, and I do not have these kinds of problems, and I hope to show this when I work here and live here."


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen (, ) (, ,<ref name="BGN/PCGN"></ref> ) is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by 2 million people, mostly in the Chechen Republic and by members of the Chechen diaspora throughout Russia and the rest of Europe, Jordan, Central Asia (mainly Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan) and Georgia.


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen is a Northeast Caucasian language. Together with the closely related Ingush, with which there exists a large degree of mutual intelligibility and shared vocabulary, it forms the Vainakh branch.


title: Chechen language

text: There are a number of Chechen dialects: Ehki, Chantish, Chebarloish, Malkhish, Nokhchmakhkakhoish, Orstkhoish, Sharoish, Shuotoish, Terloish, Itum-Qalish and Himoish. The Kisti dialect of Georgia is not easily understood by northern Chechens without a few days' practice. One difference in pronunciation is that Kisti aspirated consonants remain aspirated when they are doubled (fortis) or after /s/, but they then lose their aspiration in other dialects.


title: Chechen language

text: Dialects of Chechen can be classified by their geographic position within the Chechen Republic. The dialects of the northern lowlands are often referred to as "" (literally "lowlander's language") and the dialect of the southern mountain tribes is known as "" (lit. "mountainer's language"). forms the basis for much of the standard and literary Chechen language, which can largely be traced to the regional dialects of Urus-Martan and contemporary Grozny. Laamaroy dialects include Chebarloish, Sharoish, Itum-Qalish, Kisti, and Himoish. Until recently, however, Himoy was undocumented and was considered a branch of Sharoish, as many dialects are also used as the basis of intertribal (teip) communication within a larger Chechen "". Laamaroy dialects such as Sharoish, Himoish and Chebarloish are more conservative and retain many features from Proto-Chechen. For instance, many of these dialects lack a number of vowels found in the standard language which were a result of long-distance assimilation between vowel sounds. Additionally, the Himoy dialect preserves word-final, post-tonic vowels as a schwa [ə], indicating Laamaroy and Ohwaroy dialects were already separate at the time that Oharoy dialects were undergoing assimilation.


title: Chechen language

text: Chechens in Jordan have good relations with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and are able to practice their own culture and language. Chechen language usage is strong among the Chechen community in Jordan. Jordanian Chechens are bilingual in both Chechen and Arabic, but do not speak Arabic among themselves, only speaking Chechen to other Chechens. Some Jordanians are literate in Chechen as well, having managed to read and write to people visiting Jordan from Chechnya.


title: Chechen language

text: Some phonological characteristics of Chechen include its wealth of consonants and sounds similar to Arabic and the Salishan languages of North America, as well as a large vowel system resembling those of Swedish and German.


title: Chechen language

text: The Chechen language has, like most indigenous languages of the Caucasus, a large number of consonants: about 40 to 60 (depending on the dialect and the analysis), far more than most European languages. Typical of the region, a four-way distinction between voiced, voiceless, ejective and geminate fortis stops is found. Furthermore, all variants except the ejective are subject to phonemic pharyngealization.


title: Chechen language

text: Nearly any consonant may be fortis because of focus gemination, but only the ones above are found in roots.


title: Chechen language

text: Except in the literary register, and even then only for some speakers, the voiced affricates , have merged into the fricatives , . A voiceless labial fricative is found only in European loanwords.


title: Chechen language

text: Approximately twenty pharyngealized consonants (marked with superscript ) also appear in the table above. Labial, alveolar and postalveolar consonants may be pharyngealized, except for ejectives. Pharyngealized consonants do not occur in verbs or adjectives and in nouns and adverbs they occur predominantly before the low vowels ().


title: Chechen language

text: Except when following a consonant, is phonetically , and can be argued to be a glottal stop before a "pharyngealized" (actually epiglottalized) vowel. However, it does not have the distribution constraints characteristic of the anterior pharyngealized (epiglottalized) consonants. Although these may be analyzed as an anterior consonant plus (they surface for example as when voiced and when voiceless), Nichols argues that given the severe constraints against consonant clusters in Chechen, it is more useful to analyze them as single consonants.


title: Chechen language

text: The voiceless alveolar trill contrasts with the voiced version , but only occurs in two roots, "seven" and "eight".


title: Chechen language

text: Unlike most other languages of the Caucasus, Chechen has an extensive inventory of vowel sounds, about 44, putting its range higher than most languages of Europe (most vowels being the product of environmentally conditioned allophonic variation, which varies by both dialect and method of analysis). Many of the vowels are due to umlaut, which is highly productive in the standard dialect. None of the spelling systems used so far have distinguished the vowels with complete accuracy.


title: Chechen language

text: All vowels may be nasalized. Nasalization is imposed by the genitive, infinitive, and for some speakers the nominative case of adjectives. Nasalization is not strong, but it is audible even in final vowels, which are devoiced.


title: Chechen language

text: In closed syllables, long vowels become short in most dialects (not Kisti), but are often still distinct from short vowels (shortened , , and vs. short , , , and , for example), although which ones remain distinct depends on the dialect.


title: Chechen language

text: Pharyngealization appears to be a feature of the consonants, though some analyses treat it as a feature of the vowels. However, Nichols argues that this does not capture the situation in Chechen well, whereas it is more clearly a feature of the vowel in Ingush: Chechen "one", Ingush , which she analyzes as and . Vowels have a delayed murmured onset after pharyngealized voiced consonants and a noisy aspirated onset after pharyngealized voiceless consonants. The high vowels are diphthongized, , whereas the diphthongs undergo metathesis, .


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen permits syllable-initial clusters and non-initially also allows plus any consonant, and any obstruent plus a uvular of the same manner of articulation. The only cluster of three consonants permitted is .


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen is an agglutinative language with an ergative–absolutive morphosyntactic alignment. Chechen nouns belong to one of several genders or classes (6), each with a specific prefix with which the verb or an accompanying adjective agrees. The verb does not agree with person or number, having only tense forms and participles. Among these are an optative and an antipassive. Some verbs, however, do not take these prefixes.


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen is an ergative, dependent-marking language using eight cases (absolutive, genitive, dative, ergative, allative, instrumental, locative and comparative) and a large number of postpositions to indicate the role of nouns in sentences.


title: Chechen language

text: Word order is consistently left-branching (like in Japanese or Turkish), so that adjectives, demonstratives and relative clauses precede the nouns they modify. Complementizers and adverbial subordinators, as in other Northeast and in Northwest Caucasian languages, are affixes rather than independent words.


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen also presents interesting challenges for lexicography, as creating new words in the language relies on fixation of whole phrases rather than adding to the end of existing words or combining existing words. It can be difficult to decide which phrases belong in the dictionary, because the language's grammar does not permit the borrowing of new verbal morphemes to express new concepts. Instead, the verb dan (to do) is combined with nominal phrases to correspond with new concepts imported from other languages.


title: Chechen language

text: Chechen nouns are divided into six lexically arbitrary noun classes. Morphologically, noun classes may be indexed by changes in the prefix of the accompanying verb and, in many cases, the adjective too. The first two of these classes apply to human beings, although some grammarians count these as two and some as a single class; the other classes however are much more lexically arbitrary. Chechen noun classes are named according to the prefix that indexes them:


title: Chechen language

text: When a noun denotes a human being, it usually falls into v- or y-Classes (1 or 2). Most nouns referring to male entities fall into the v-class, whereas Class 2 contains words related to female entities. Thus "lūlaxuo" (a neighbour) is class 1, but takes v- if a male neighbour and y- if a female. In a few words, changing the prefixes before the nouns indicates grammatical gender; thus: "vоsha" (brother) → "yisha" (sister). Some nouns denoting human beings, however, are not in Classes 1 or 2: "bēr" (child) for example is in class 3.


title: Chechen language

text: Only a few of Chechen's adjectives index noun class agreement, termed "classed adjectives" in the literature. Classed adjectives are listed with the -d class prefix in the romanizations below:


title: Chechen language

text: Whereas Indo-European languages code noun class and case conflated in the same morphemes, Chechen nouns show no gender marking but decline in eight grammatical cases, four of which are core cases (i.e. absolutive, ergative, genitive, and dative) in singular and plural. Below the paradigm for "говр" (horse).


title: Chechen language

text: Verbs do not inflect for person (except for the special d- prefix for the 1st and 2nd persons plural), only for number and tense, aspect, mood. A minority of verbs exhibit agreement prefixes, and these agree with the noun in the absolutive case (what in English translation would the subject, for intransitive verbs, or the object, with transitive verbs).


title: Chechen language

text: Here, both the verb's future stem "-oghur" (will come) and the auxiliary "-u" (present tense of 'be') receive the prefix "v-" for masculine agreement and "y-" for feminine agreement.


title: Chechen language

text: In transitive clauses in compound continuous tenses formed with the auxiliary verb "-u" 'to be', both agent and object are in absolutive case. In this special case of a "biabsolutive" construction, the main verb in participial form agrees with the object, while the auxiliary agrees with the agent.


title: Chechen language

text: Here, the participle "d-iesh" agree with the object, whereas the auxiliary "v-u" agrees with the agent.


title: Chechen language

text: Verbal tenses are formed by ablaut or suffixes, or both (there are five conjugations in total, below is one). Derived stems can be formed by suffixation as well (causative, etc.):


title: Chechen language

text: Numerous inscriptions in the Georgian script are found in mountainous Chechnya, but they are not necessarily in Chechen. Later, the Arabic script was introduced for Chechen, along with Islam. The Chechen Arabic alphabet was first reformed during the reign of Imam Shamil, and then again in 1910, 1920 and 1922.


title: Chechen language

text: At the same time, the alphabet devised by Peter von Uslar, consisting of Cyrillic, Latin, and Georgian letters, was used for academic purposes. In 1911 it too was reformed but never gained popularity among the Chechens themselves.


title: Chechen language

text: The Latin alphabet was introduced in 1925. It was unified with Ingush in 1934, but abolished in 1938.


title: Chechen language

text: The single letters and digraphs that count as separate letters of the alphabet, along with their correspondences, are as follows. Those in parentheses are optional or only found in Russian words:


title: Chechen language

text: In addition, several sequences of letters for long vowels and consonants, while not counted as separate letters in their own right, are presented here to clarify their correspondences:


title: Chechen language

text: In 1992, a new Latin Chechen alphabet was introduced, but after the defeat of the secessionist government, the Cyrillic alphabet was restored.


title: Chechen language

text: Most Chechen vocabulary is derived from the Nakh branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Arabic (Islamic terms, like "Iman", "Ilma", "Do'a") and a smaller amount from Turkic (like "kuzga", "shish", belonging to the universal Caucasian stratum of borrowings) and most recently Russian (modern terms, like computer – "kamputar", television – "telvideni", televisor – "telvizar", metro – "metro" etc.).


title: Chechen language

text: Before the Russian conquest, most writings in Chechnya consisted of Islamic texts and clan histories, written usually in Arabic but sometimes also in Chechen using Arabic script. The Chechen literary language was created after the October Revolution, and the Latin script began to be used instead of Arabic for Chechen writing in the mid-1920s. The Cyrillic script was adopted in 1938. Almost the entire library of Chechen medieval writing in Arabic and Georgian script about the land of Chechnya and its people was destroyed by Soviet authorities in 1944, leaving the modern Chechens and modern historians with a destroyed and no longer existent historical treasury of writings.


title: Chechen language

text: The Chechen diaspora in Jordan, Turkey, and Syria is fluent but generally not literate in Chechen except for individuals who have made efforts to learn the writing system. The Cyrillic alphabet is not generally known in these countries, and thus most use the Latin alphabet.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Giuseppe di Buonaparte, ; ; ; 7 January 176828 July 1844) was a French statesman, lawyer, diplomat and older brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the Napoleonic Wars, the latter made him King of Naples (1806–1808), and then King of Spain (1808–1813). After the fall of Napoleon, Joseph styled himself "Comte de Survilliers" and emigrated to the United States, where he settled near Bordentown, New Jersey, on an estate overlooking the Delaware River not far from Philadelphia.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph was born in 1768 to Carlo Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino at Corte, the capital of the Corsican Republic. In the year of his birth, Corsica was invaded by France and conquered the following year. His father was originally a follower of the Corsican patriot leader Pasquale Paoli, but later became a supporter of French rule.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Bonaparte trained as a lawyer. In that role and as a politician and diplomat, he served in the Cinq-Cents and as the French ambassador to Rome. On 30 September 1800, as Minister Plenipotentiary, he signed a treaty of friendship and commerce between France and the United States at Morfontaine, alongside Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu, and Pierre Louis Roederer.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: In 1795 Bonaparte was a member of the Council of Ancients. Four years later, he used this position to help his brother Napoleon to overthrow the Directory.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: The Château de Villandry had been seized by the French Revolutionary government. In the early 19th century, his brother as Emperor Napoleon acquired the château for him.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Upon the outbreak of war between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand IV of Naples had agreed to a treaty of neutrality with Napoleon but, a few days later, declared his support for Austria. He permitted a large Anglo-Russian force to land in his kingdom. Napoleon, however, was soon victorious. After the War of the Third Coalition was shattered on 5 December at the Battle of Austerlitz, Ferdinand was subject to Napoleon's wrath.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: On 27 December 1805, Napoleon issued a proclamation from the Schönbrunn declaring Ferdinand to have forfeited his kingdom. He said that a French invasion would soon follow to ensure 'that the finest of countries is relieved from the yoke of the most faithless of men.'


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: On 31 December Napoleon commanded Joseph Bonaparte to move to Rome, where he would be assigned to command the army sent to dispossess Ferdinand of his throne. Although Bonaparte was the nominal commander-in-chief of the expedition, Marshal Masséna was in effective command of operations, with General St. Cyr second. But, St. Cyr, who had previously held the senior command of French troops in the region, soon resigned in protest at being made subordinate to Masséna and left for Paris. An outraged Napoleon ordered St. Cyr to return to his post at once.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: On 8 February 1806 the French invasion force of forty-thousand men crossed into Naples. The centre and right of the army under Masséna and General Reynier advanced south from Rome, while Giuseppe Lechi led a force down the Adriatic coast from Ancona. On his brother's recommendation, Bonaparte attached himself to Reynier. The French advance faced little resistance. Even before any French troops had crossed the border, the Anglo-Russian forces had beaten a prudent retreat, the British withdrawing to Sicily, and the Russians to Corfu. Abandoned by his allies, King Ferdinand had also already set sail for Palermo on 23 January. Queen Maria-Carolina lingered a little longer in the capital but, on 11 February, fled to join her husband.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: The first obstacle the French encountered was the fortress of Gaeta; its governor, Prince Louis of Hesse-Philippsthal, refused to surrender his charge. There was no meaningful delay of the invaders, as Masséna detached a small force to besiege the garrison before continuing south. Capua opened its gates after only token resistance. On 14 February Masséna took possession of Naples and, the following day, Bonaparte staged a triumphant entrance into the city. Reynier was quickly dispatched to seize control of the Strait of Messina and, on 9 March, inflicted a crushing defeat of the Neapolitan Royal Army at the Battle of Campo Tenese, effectively destroying it as a fighting force and securing the entire mainland for the French.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: On 30 March 1806 Napoleon issued a decree installing Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples and Sicily; the decree said as follows:


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: "Napoleon, by the Grace of God and the constitutions. Emperor of the French and King of Italy, to all those to whom these presents come, greetings. The interests of our people, the honour of our Crown, and the tranquillity of the Continent of Europe requiring that we should assure, in a stable and definite manner, the lot of the people of Naples and of Sicily, who have fallen into our power by the right of conquest, and who constitute a part of the Grand Empire, we declare that we recognise, as King of Naples and of Sicily, our well-beloved brother, Joseph Napoleon, Grand Elector of France. This Crown will be hereditary, by order of primogeniture, in his descendants male, legitimate, and natural, etc."


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph's arrival in Naples was warmly greeted with cheers and he was eager to be a monarch well liked by his subjects. Seeking to win the favour of the local elites, he maintained in their posts the vast majority of those who had held office and position under the Bourbons and was anxious to not in any way appear a foreign oppressor. With a provisional government set up in the capital, Joseph then immediately set off, accompanied by General Lamarque, on a tour of his new realm. The principal object of the tour was to assess the feasibility of an immediate invasion of Sicily and the expulsion of Ferdinand and Maria-Carolina from their refuge in Palermo. But, upon reviewing the situation at the Strait of Messina, Joseph was forced to admit the impossibility of such an enterprise, the Bourbons having carried off all boats and transports from along the coast and concentrated their remaining forces, alongside the British, on the opposite side. Unable to possess himself of Sicily, Joseph was nevertheless master of the mainland and he continued his progress through Calabria and on to Lucania and Apulia, visiting the main villages and meeting the local notables, clergy and people, allowing his people to grow accustomed to their new king and enabling himself to form first-hand a picture of the condition of his kingdom.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Upon returning to Naples, Bonaparte received a deputation from the French Senate congratulating him upon his accession. The King formed a ministry staffed by many competent and talented men; he was determined to follow a reforming agenda and bring Naples the benefits of the French Revolution, without its excesses. Saliceti was appointed Minister of Police, Roederer Minister of Finance, Miot Minister of the Interior and General Dumas Minister of War. Marshal Jourdan was also confirmed as Governor of Naples, an appointment made by Napoleon, and served as Bonaparte's foremost military adviser.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Bonaparte embarked on an ambitious programme of reform and regeneration, in order to raise Naples to the level of a modern state in the mould of Napoleonic France. Monastic orders were suppressed, their property nationalised, and their funds confiscated to steady the royal finances. Feudal privileges and taxes were abolished; however, the nobility was compensated by an indemnity in the form of a certificate that could be exchanged in return for lands nationalised from the Church. Provincial intendants were instructed to engage those dispossessed former monks who were willing to work in public education, and to ensure that elderly monks no longer able to support themselves could move into communal establishments founded for their care. A college for the education of young girls was established in each province. A central college was founded at Aversa for the daughters of public functionaries, and the ablest from the provincial schools, to be admitted under the personal patronage of Queen Julie.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: The practice of forcibly recruiting prisoners into the army was abolished. To suppress and control robbers in the mountains, military commissions were established with the power to judge and execute, without appeal, all those brigands arrested with arms in their possession. Public works programmes were begun to provide employment to the poor and invest in improvements to the kingdom. Highways were built to Reggio. The project of a Calabrian road was completed under Bonaparte within the year after decades of delay. In the second year of his reign, Bonaparte installed the first system of public street-lighting in Naples, modelled on that operating in Paris.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Although the kingdom was not at that time furnished with a constitution, and thus Joseph's will as monarch reigned supreme, there is yet no instance of him ever adopting a measure of policy without prior discussion of the matter in the Council of State and the passing of a majority vote in favour his course of action by the counsellors. Joseph thus presided over Naples in the best traditions of Enlightened absolutism, doubling the revenue of the crown from seven to fourteen million ducats in his brief two-year reign while all the time seeking to lighten the burdens of his people rather than increase them.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph ruled Naples for two years before being replaced by his sister's husband, Joachim Murat. Joseph was then made King of Spain in August 1808, soon after the French invasion.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph somewhat reluctantly left Naples, where he was popular, and arrived in Spain, where he was extremely unpopular. Joseph came under heavy fire from his opponents in Spain, who tried to smear his reputation by calling him "Pepe Botella" (Joe Bottle) for his alleged heavy drinking, an accusation echoed by later Spanish historiography, despite the fact that Joseph was abstemious. His arrival sparked a massive Spanish revolt against French rule, and the beginning of the Peninsular War. Thompson says the Spanish revolt was, "a reaction against new institutions and ideas, a movement for loyalty to the old order: to the hereditary crown of the Most Catholic kings, which Napoleon, an excommunicated enemy of the Pope, had put on the head of a Frenchman; to the Catholic Church persecuted by republicans who had desecrated churches, murdered priests, and enforced a "loi des cultes" (law of religion); and to local and provincial rights and privileges threatened by an efficiently centralized government.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph temporarily retreated with much of the French Army to northern Spain. Feeling himself in an ignominious position, Joseph then proposed his own abdication from the Spanish throne, hoping that Napoleon would sanction his return to the Neapolitan Throne he had formerly occupied. Napoleon dismissed Joseph's misgivings out of hand, and to back up the raw and ill-trained levies he had initially allocated to Spain, the Emperor sent heavy French reinforcements to assist Joseph in maintaining his position as King of Spain. Despite the easy recapture of Madrid, and nominal control by Joseph's government over many cities and provinces, Joseph's reign over Spain was always tenuous at best, and constantly resisted by pro-Bourbon guerrillas. Joseph and his supporters never established complete control over the country, and would eventually abdicate the throne.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: King Joseph's Spanish supporters were called "josefinos" or "afrancesados" (frenchified). During his reign, he ended the Spanish Inquisition, partly because Napoleon was at odds with Pope Pius VII at the time. Despite such efforts to win popularity, Joseph's foreign birth and support, plus his membership of a Masonic lodge, virtually guaranteed he would never be accepted as legitimate by the bulk of the Spanish people. During Joseph's rule of Spain, Venezuela declared independence from Spain. The king had virtually no influence over the course of the ongoing Peninsular War: Joseph's nominal command of French forces in Spain was mostly illusory, as the French commanders theoretically subordinate to King Joseph insisted on checking with Napoleon before carrying out Joseph's instructions.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: King Joseph abdicated the Spanish throne and returned to France after the main French forces were defeated by a British-led coalition at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. During the closing campaign of the War of the Sixth Coalition Napoleon left his brother to govern Paris with the title Lieutenant General of the Empire. As a result, he was again in nominal command of the French Army that was defeated at the Battle of Paris.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: He was seen by some Bonapartists as the rightful Emperor of the French after the death of Napoleon's own son Napoleon II in 1832, although he did little to advance his claim.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Bonaparte came to America onboard the "Commerce" under the name of M. Bouchard. British naval officers had searched the vessel three times but never found Bonaparte on board and the ship arrived on 15 July 1815. In the period 1817–1832, Bonaparte lived primarily in the United States (where he sold the jewels he had taken from Spain). He first settled in New York City and Philadelphia, where his house became the centre of activity for French expatriates. In 1823, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. Later he purchased an estate, called Point Breeze and formerly owned by Stephen Sayre. It was in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the east side of the Delaware River. It was located near the confluence of Crosswicks Creek and the Delaware. He considerably expanded Sayre's home and created extensive gardens in the picturesque style. When his first home was destroyed by fire in January 1820 he converted his stables into a second grand house. On completion, it was generally viewed - perhaps diplomatically - as the "second-finest house in America" after the White House. At Point Breeze, Bonaparte entertained many of the leading intellectuals and politicians of his day.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: In the summer of 1825, the Quaker scientist Reuben Haines III described Bonaparte's estate at Point Breeze, in a letter to his cousin:


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: "I partook of royal fare on solid silver and attended by six waiters who supplied me with 9 courses of the most delicious viands, many of which I could not possibly tell what they were composed of; spending the intermediate time in Charles' private rooms looking over the Herbarium and Portfolios of the Princess, or riding with her and the Prince drawn by two Elegant Horses along the ever varying roads of the park amidst splendid Rhododendrons on the margin of the artificial lake on whose smooth surface gently glided the majestic European swans. Stopping to visit the Aviary enlivened by the most beautiful English pheasants, passing by alcoves ornamented with statues and busts of Parian marble, our course enlivened by the footsteps of the tame deer and the flight of the Woodcock, and when alighting stopping to admire the graceful form of two splendid Etruscan vases of Porphyry 3 ft. high & 2 in diameter presented by the Queen of Sweden [Joseph's sister-in-law Desiree Clary Bernadotte] or ranging [?] through the different appartments of the mansion through a suite of rooms 15 ft. in [height] decorated with the finest productions of the pencils of Coregeo [sic]! Titian! Rubens! Vandyke! Vernet! Tenniers [sic] and Paul Potter and a library of the most splended books I ever beheld."


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Reputedly some Mexican revolutionaries offered to crown Bonaparte as Emperor of Mexico in 1820, but he declined. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: In 1832, Bonaparte moved to London, returning to his estate in the United States only intermittently. In 1844, he died in Florence, Italy. His body was returned to France and buried in Les Invalides, in Paris.


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Bonaparte married Marie Julie Clary, daughter of François Clary and his wife, on 1 August 1794 in Cuges-les-Pins, France. They had three daughters:


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Bonaparte had two American daughters born at Point Breeze, his estate in Bordentown, New Jersey, by his mistress, Annette Savage ("Madame de la Folie"):


title: Joseph Bonaparte

text: Joseph Bonaparte was admitted to Marseille's lodge "la Parfaite Sincérité" in 1793. He was asked by his brother Napoleon to monitor freemasonry as Grand Master of the Grand Orient of France (1804–1815). He founded the Grand Lodge National of Spain (1809). With Cambacérès, he encouraged the post-Revolution rebirth of the Freemasonry Order in France.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: Echinopsis pachanoi (syn. Trichocereus pachanoi)—known as San Pedro cactus—is a fast-growing columnar cactus native to the Andes Mountains at in altitude. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru, and it is cultivated in other parts of the world. Uses for it include traditional medicine and traditional veterinary medicine, and it is widely grown as an ornamental cactus. It has been used for healing and religious divination in the Andes Mountains region for over 3,000 years. It is sometimes confused with its close relative "Echinopsis peruviana" (Peruvian torch cactus).


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: Echinopsis pachanoi is known by many names throughout South America such as "achuma," "huachuma," "wachuma," "aguacolla," "hahuacollay," "San Pedro" or "giganton".


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: "Echinopsis pachanoi" is native to Ecuador and Peru. Its stems are light to dark green, sometimes glaucous, with a diameter of and usually 6–8 ribs. The whitish areoles may produce up to seven yellow to brown spines, each up to long although typically shorter in cultivated varieties, sometimes being mostly spineless. The areoles are spaced evenly along the ribs, approximately apart. "Echinopsis pachanoi" is normally tall and has multiple branches, usually extending from the base but will emerge around broken branches. The tallest recorded specimen was tall. White flowers are produced at the end of the stems; they open at night and last for about two days. Large numbers can be produced by well established cacti and may open new flowers over a period of weeks. The flowers are large, around long with a diameter of up to and are highly fragrant. There are black hairs along the length of the thick base leading to the flower. Oblong dark green fruits are produced after fertilization, about across and long.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: "Echinopsis pachanoi" has a long history of being used in Andean traditional medicine. Archaeological studies have found evidence of use going back two thousand years, to Moche culture, Nazca culture, and Chavín culture. Although Roman Catholic church authorities after the Spanish conquest attempted to suppress its use, this failed, as shown by the Christian element in the common name "San Pedro cactus" – Saint Peter cactus. The name is attributed to the belief that just as St Peter holds the keys to heaven, the effects of the cactus allow users "to reach heaven while still on earth." In 2022, the Peruvian Ministry of Culture declared the traditional use of San Pedro cactus in northern Peru as cultural heritage.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: The San Pedro cactus contains a number of alkaloids, including the well-studied chemical mescaline (from 0.053% up to 4.7% of dry cactus weight), and also 3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine, 3-Methoxytyramine, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenethylamine, 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine, anhalonidine, anhalinine, hordenine, and tyramine.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: Mescaline is a psychedelic drug and entheogen, which is also found in some other species of genus "Echinopsis" (i.e. "Echinopsis lageniformis", "Echinopsis peruviana", and "Echinopsis scopulicola") and the species "Lophophora williamsii" (peyote). Mescaline induces a psychedelic state comparable to those produced by LSD and psilocybin, but with unique characteristics.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: Anecdotal evidence suggests that the highest concentration of active substances is found in the layer of green photosynthetic tissue just beneath the skin.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: The San Pedro cactus grows in USDA hardiness zones 8b to 10. The range of minimum temperatures in which San Pedro is known to grow is between -9.4 °C and 10 °C.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: The San Pedro cactus is very easy to grow in most areas and grows best in a temperate climate. Because it grows naturally in the Peruvian Andes Mountains at high altitude and with high rainfall, it can withstand temperatures far below that of many other cacti. It requires fertile, free-draining soil. They average half a meter per year of new growth. They are susceptible to fungal diseases if over-watered, but are not nearly as sensitive as many other cacti, especially in warm weather. They can be sunburned and display a yellowing chlorotic reaction to overexposure to sunlight.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: In winter, plants will etiolate, or become thin, due to lower levels of light. This may be problematic if the etiolated zone is not sufficiently strong to support future growth as the cactus may break in strong winds.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: Like many other plants, "Echinopsis pachanoi" can be propagated from cuttings. The result is a genetic clone of the parent plant. A long cactus column can be also laid on its side on the ground (like a log), and eventually roots will sprout from it and grow into the ground. After time, sprouts will form and cactus columns will grow upward out of it along its length.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: Like a lot of its relatives, "Trichocereus pachanoi" as a species is easily grown from seed, often by means of a so-called ""Takeaway Tek"". This term refers to the practice of the sowing of "Trichocereus" (and sometimes other types of cactus) seed into plastic containers, such as those many food takeaways are delivered in. This creates a semi-controlled humidity environment chamber for six months to a year, in which the seed may germinate and then grow relatively unbothered by environmental contamination.


title: Echinopsis pachanoi

text: In most countries, it is legal to cultivate the San Pedro cactus. In countries where possession of mescaline and related compounds is illegal and highly penalized, cultivation for the purposes of consumption is most likely illegal and also highly penalized. This is the case in the United States, Australia, Canada, Sweden, Germany, and New Zealand, where it is currently legal to cultivate the San Pedro cactus for gardening and ornamental purposes, but not for consumption.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The gauge (or commonly bore in British English) of a firearm is a unit of measurement used to express the inner diameter (bore diameter) of the barrel.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Gauge is determined from the weight of a solid sphere of lead that will fit the bore of the firearm and is expressed as the multiplicative inverse of the sphere's weight as a fraction of a pound, e.g., a one-twelfth pound lead ball fits a 12-gauge bore. Thus there are twelve 12-gauge balls per pound, etc. The term is related to the measurement of cannon, which were also measured by the weight of their iron round shot; an 8-pounder would fire an 8 lb (3.6 kg) ball.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Gauge is commonly used today in reference to shotguns, though historically it was also used in large double rifles, which were made in sizes up to 2 bore during their heyday in the 1880s, being originally loaded with black powder cartridges. These very large rifles, called "elephant guns", were intended for use primarily in Africa and Asia for hunting large dangerous game.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: An "n"-gauge diameter means that a ball of lead (density 11.34 g/cm or 0.4097 lb/in) with that diameter has a mass equal to part of the mass of the international avoirdupois pound (approx. 454 grams), that is, that "n" such lead balls could be cast from a pound weight of lead. Therefore, an "n"-gauge shotgun or "n"-bore rifle has a bore diameter (in inches) of approximately


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: This simplifies to the following formula for the internal diameter of the barrel of an "n"-gauge shotgun:


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The gauge of firearms is determined by: 1 pound/gauge = weight of lead sphere. Caliber of the bore is then measured. This is essential information for understanding gauges.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Since shotguns were not originally intended to fire solid projectiles, but rather a compressible mass of shot, the actual diameter of the bore can vary. The fact that most shotgun bores are not cylindrical also causes deviations from the ideal bore diameter.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The chamber of the gun is larger, to accommodate the thickness of the shotshell walls, and a "forcing cone" in front of the chamber reduces the diameter down to the bore diameter. The forcing cone can be as short as a fraction of an inch, or as long as a few inches on some guns. At the muzzle end of the barrel, the choke can constrict the bore even further, so measuring the bore diameter of a shotgun is not a simple process, as it must be done away from either end.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Shotgun bores are commonly "overbored" or "backbored", meaning that most of the bore (from the forcing cone to the choke) is slightly larger than the value given by the formula. This is claimed to reduce felt recoil and improve patterning. The recoil reduction is due to the larger bore producing a slower acceleration of the shot, and the patterning improvements are due to the larger muzzle diameter for the same choke constriction, which results in less shot deformation. A 12-gauge shotgun, nominally , can range from a tight to an extreme overbore of . Some also claim an increased velocity with the overbored barrels, up to , which is due to the larger swept volume of the overbored barrel. Once only found in expensive custom shotguns, overbored barrels are now becoming common in mass-marketed guns. Aftermarket backboring is also commonly done to reduce the weight of the barrel, and move the center of mass backward for a better balance. Factory overbored barrels generally are made with a larger outside diameter, and will not have this reduction in weight—though the factory barrels will be tougher, since they have a normal barrel wall thickness.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Firing slugs from overbored barrels can result in very inconsistent accuracy, as the slug may be incapable of obturating to fill the oversized bore.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The six most common shotgun gauges, in descending order of size, are the 10 gauge, 12 gauge, 16 gauge, 20 gauge, 28 gauge, and .410 bore. By far the most popular is the 12 gauge, particularly in the United States. The 20-gauge shotgun is the next most popular size being favored by shooters uncomfortable with the weight and recoil of a 12-gauge gun, and is popular for upland game hunting. The next most popular sizes are 28 gauge and .410 bore. Both the 10 gauge and 16 gauge, while less commonplace, are still available.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Shotguns and shells exceeding 10 gauge, such as the 8, 6, and 4 gauge, are historically important in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in mainland Europe. Today, they are rarely manufactured. Shells are usually black powder paper cartridges as opposed to the plastic or wax cartridge and smokeless powder of today.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The 18, 15, 11, 6, 3, and 2-gauge shells are the rarest of all; owners of these types of rare shotguns will usually have their ammunition custom loaded by a specialist in rare and custom bores. The 14 gauge has not been loaded in the United States since the early 1900s, although the hull is still made in France. The very small 24 and 32 gauges are still produced and used in some European and South American countries. Punt guns are rarely encountered.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Also seen in limited numbers are smoothbore firearms in calibers smaller than .360 such as .22 Long Rifle (UK No. 1 bore) and 9mm Flobert rimfire (UK No. 3 bore), designed for short-range pest control and garden guns. The No. 2 bore (7 mm) has long been obsolete. All three of these rimfires are available in shot and BB-cap.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The 10 gauge narrowly escaped obsolescence when steel and other nontoxic shot became required for waterfowl hunting, since the larger shell could hold the much larger sizes of low-density steel shot needed to reach the ranges necessary for waterfowl hunting. The move to steel shot reduced the use of 16 and 20 gauges for waterfowl hunting, and the smaller, , 12-gauge shells as well. However, the 12-gauge shell, with its higher SAAMI pressure rating compared to standard 12-gauge guns, began to approach the performance of the 10-gauge loads. Newer nontoxic shots, such as bismuth and tungsten-nickel-iron alloys, and even tungsten-polymer blends, regain much or all of the performance loss, but are much more expensive than steel or lead shot. However, laboratory research indicates that tungsten alloys can actually be quite toxic internally.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: The table below lists various gauge sizes with weights. The bores marked are found in punt guns and rare weapons only. However, 4 gauge were sometimes found used in blunderbuss guns made for coach defense and protection against piracy. The .410 and 23 mm are exceptions; they are actual bore sizes, not gauges. If the .410 and 23 mm were measured traditionally, they would be 67.62 gauge and 6.278 gauge, respectively.


title: Gauge (firearms)

text: Note: Use of this table for estimating bullet masses for historical large-bore rifles is limited, as this table assumes the use of round ball, rather than conical bullets; for example, a typical 4-bore rifle from circa 1880 used a bullet, or sometimes slightly heavier, rather than using a round lead ball. (Round balls give progressively much worse external ballistic performance than conical bullets at ranges greater than about ) In contrast, a 4-bore express rifle often used a bullet wrapped in paper to keep lead buildup to a minimum in the barrel. In either case, assuming a 4-ounce mass for a 4-bore rifle bullet from this table would be inaccurate, although indicative.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: Cabrini–Green Homes was a Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) public housing project on the Near North Side of Chicago, Illinois. The Frances Cabrini Rowhouses and Extensions were south of Division Street, bordered by Larrabee Street to the west, Orleans Street to the east and Chicago Avenue to the south, with the William Green Homes to the northwest.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: At its peak, Cabrini–Green was home to 15,000 people, mostly living in mid- and high-rise apartment buildings. Crime and neglect created hostile living conditions for many residents, and "Cabrini–Green" became a metonym for problems associated with public housing in the United States. In 1995, CHA began tearing down dilapidated mid- and high-rise buildings, with the last demolished in 2011. Today, only the original two-story rowhouses remain.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: The area has seen major redevelopment due to its proximity to downtown, resulting in a combination of upscale high-rises and townhouses, with some units being CHA-owned, creating a mixed-income neighborhood.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: The construction reflected the urban renewal approach to United States city planning in the mid-20th century. The extension buildings were known as the "Reds" for their red brick exteriors, while the Green Homes, with reinforced concrete exteriors, were known as the "Whites". Many of the high-rise buildings originally had exterior porches (called "open galleries"). According to the CHA, the early residents of the Cabrini row houses were predominantly of Italian ancestry. By 1962, however, a majority of residents in the completed complex were black.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: Cabrini–Green was composed of 10 sections built over a 20-year period: the Frances Cabrini Rowhouses (586 units in 1942), Cabrini Extension North and Cabrini Extension South (1,925 units in 1957), and the William Green Homes (1,096 units in 1962) (see Chronology below). As of May 3, 2011, all the high-rise buildings had been demolished. One hundred and fifty of the dilapidated Frances Cabrini Rowhomes (south of Oak Street, north of Chicago Avenue, west of Hudson Avenue, and east of Cambridge Street) have been renovated and remain inhabited.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: Poverty and organized crime have long been associated with the area: a 1931 "map of Chicago's gangland" by Bruce-Roberts, Incorporated notes Oak Street and Milton Avenue (now Cleveland Avenue) as "Death Corner" (captioned "50 murders: count 'em"). At first, the housing was integrated and many residents held jobs. This changed in the years after World War II, when the nearby factories that provided the neighborhood's economic base closed and thousands were laid off. At the same time, the cash-strapped city began withdrawing crucial services like police patrols, transit services, and routine building maintenance.


title: Cabrini–Green Homes

text: Lawns were paved over to save on maintenance, failed lights were left for months, and apartments damaged by fire were simply boarded up instead of rehabilitated and reoccupied. Later phases of public housing development (such as the Green Homes, the newest of the Cabrini–Green buildings) were built on extremely tight budgets and suffered from maintenance problems due to the low quality of construction.