title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: On February 18, WWE announced via its website that the fourth annual Money in the Bank ladder match would take place at WrestleMania XXIV, a match where the objective is to retrieve a briefcase suspended in the air using a ladder. The match involved wrestlers from all three WWE brands. The winner would earn a contract to challenge for any of the three WWE World Championships (the WWE Championship of Raw, the World Heavyweight Championship of SmackDown, or the ECW Championship of ECW) at any time and any place over a one-year period. Qualifying matches occurred to determine the participants in the match at WrestleMania, starting on that night's "Raw" with Jeff Hardy and Mr. Kennedy defeating Snitsky and Val Venis respectively to qualify. Shelton Benjamin became the third participant when he defeated Jimmy Wang Yang on the following episode of "SmackDown". During the next two weeks on "Raw", Chris Jericho defeated Hardy, and Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify. At a non-televised SmackDown/ECW house show held on March 8, Montel Vontavious Porter qualified when he defeated Jamie Noble. On the March 11 episode of "ECW", CM Punk became the seventh entrant when he defeated Big Daddy V. John Morrison was the final person to qualify when he beat The Miz on the March 14 episode of "SmackDown". Hardy was later removed from the match after a legitimate suspension by WWE for a drug violation of the company's Wellness Policy. WWE decided not to add another superstar in his place, making that year's Money in the Bank ladder match the first year to have seven participants.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: Before the show aired live on pay-per-view, Kane won a 24-man Interpromotional Battle Royal, an elimination style match where the last person remaining was the winner, to win an ECW Championship match against Chavo Guerrero later that night. The event officially began with John Legend singing a rendition of "America the Beautiful".


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The first match was a Belfast Brawl between Finlay and John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL), a match in which there were no disqualifications or countouts and the match outcomes could have occurred anywhere. Finlay was accompanied to the ring by his storyline son, Hornswoggle, who was returning from a scripted injury suffered at the hands of JBL. During the match, JBL hit Finlay with a trash can lid when the latter was about to perform a suicide dive on him through the ropes on the outside. Later on, Finlay tossed JBL through a table that he had set up earlier on the turnbuckle. Hornswoggle also got involved during the match by hitting JBL with a kendo stick, while later on JBL threw a trash can at him. Attacking Finlay's knee with a kendo stick, JBL delivered a Clothesline from Hell to Finlay to score a successful pinfall. This was an interpromotional match.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The next match of the evening was the fourth-annual Money in the Bank ladder match, in which there were no disqualifications or countouts, and the only way to win the match was to climb a ladder in the ring and retrieve a contract briefcase hanging above. The match featured Chris Jericho, Mr. Kennedy, and Carlito from the Raw brand; CM Punk, Shelton Benjamin and John Morrison from the ECW brand; and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) from the SmackDown brand. Jeff Hardy was supposed to be in the match, but he violated the wellness program and was taken out of the match. Early in the match, Morrison climbed a turnbuckle and performed a moonsault onto other competitors outside the ring while holding a ladder against his chest. Later, while Kennedy and Morrison were battling on top of a ladder, Benjamin climbed another ladder placed adjacent to the first one and performed a sunset flip powerbomb on Kennedy, who in turn superplexed Morrison from the top of the ladder. Later, Carlito and Kennedy flipped Benjamin off a ladder in the ring, sending him crashing through another ladder set-up between the barricade and the ring apron. When MVP was close to retrieving the contract briefcase, Matt Hardy (returning to action after suffering a legitimate injury), entered the ring from the crowd, climbed the ladder, and delivered a Twist of Fate to MVP off that ladder. As soon as Morrison started to climb a ladder, see-sawing with another ladder, Jericho flipped the other one and Morrison landed on the ring-ropes groin-first. Jericho even performed a Codebreaker on Punk using a ladder. In the end, Jericho and Punk fought each other on a ladder, but Punk trapped Jericho's one leg in the ladder's steps and retrieved the briefcase to win the match. This was an interpromotional match.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: Next after that match, Howard Finkel introduced the 2008 WWE Hall of Fame class: Jack and Gerald Brisco, Gordon Solie (represented by his family), Rocky Johnson, High Chief Peter Maivia (represented by his wife Lia and daughter Ata), Eddie Graham (represented by his son Mike), Mae Young, and Ric Flair (represented by his family).


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The next match, which was billed as a "Battle for Brand Supremacy", was between "SmackDown's" Batista and "Raw's" Umaga. Early in the match, both Batista and Umaga exchanged blows and Batista knocked Umaga outside with a shoulder block. Umaga later kicked Batista in the face, which caused him to fall back-first outside the ring from the ring-apron. As a result, Umaga started targeting Batista's injured back. In the end, however, when Umaga tried to perform his Samoan Spike, Batista countered the attempt and gave him a spinebuster. Batista won the match by pinning Umaga after a Batista Bomb.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The fourth match for the event featured Chavo Guerrero defending his ECW Championship against Kane. Kane surprised Chavo by emerging from underneath the ring instead of from the entrance stage during his ring entrance. Kane instantly pinned Chavo after a chokeslam and won the ECW Championship in eleven seconds.<ref name="Guerrero/Kane"></ref> This was the only ECW match on the show and the only ECW Championship match in WrestleMania history.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: Ric Flair's "Career Threatening" match against Shawn Michaels was next, which stipulated that Flair would have to retire from wrestling if he had lost. At the start of the match, both superstars engaged in a series of counters, and then Flair shoved Michaels in a corner, making "Old Yeller" comments to him. In retaliation, Michaels slapped Flair in the face, which caused him to start bleeding from the mouth. Later, Michaels attempted Sweet Chin Music, but stopped in the process and Flair capitalized by trapping him in his figure four leglock. Afterward, Michaels finally delivered the Sweet Chin Music to Flair for a near-fall. Michaels then trapped Flair in his modified figure four leglock, but Flair delivered a thumb to the eye to Michaels to break the submission. As Flair was delivering chops to Michaels' chest, Michaels executed a second Sweet Chin Music. After getting up on his feet with a worried face, Michaels said to Flair "I'm sorry, I love you", before nailing a final Sweet Chin Music and thus pinning Flair to end his 35-year-long wrestling career. After the match, Michaels left quickly and Flair got a standing ovation from the crowd. An emotional Flair embraced his family at ringside and then, as he proceeded to go backstage, he thanked the crowd for their support.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The sixth match was the "Playboy" BunnyMania Lumberjack match, in which Maria and Ashley (the latter who replaced Candice Michelle due to injury) faced Beth Phoenix and Melina, who were accompanied to the ring by Santino Marella. Rapper Snoop Dogg served as the official "Master of Ceremonies" for the match. In the match, several WWE Divas surrounded the ring and were able to interfere in the match without disqualifications. Due to some technical difficulties, the lights at Citrus Bowl temporarily went out during the match. Near the end, a pin attempt by Maria was prevented when Marella pulled Maria's leg. In response, Raw commentator Jerry Lawler approached and knocked Marella down with a punch. Phoenix executed a Fisherman Suplex and pinned Maria to win the match. After the match, Snoop Dogg executed a Clothesline on Marella and kissed Maria, before leaving with her and Ashley.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: Next was Randy Orton defending his WWE Championship against Triple H and John Cena in a triple threat match, which is a standard match involving three wrestlers with no disqualifications. For his entrance, Cena had the Jones High School Marching Tigers marching band perform an instrumental version of his theme song "The Time Is Now" live. During the match, when Triple H had held Orton in a sleeper hold, Cena picked up both Orton and Triple H for an FU, but Triple H dropped down and low blowed him. Orton then dominated the match for some time; one highlight of the match featured Orton performing a crossbody from the top rope on Cena, while the latter was held on Triple H's shoulders in a seating position. Orton also performed an DDT to both Cena and Triple H simultaneously. Orton then tried to perform an RKO on Cena, but he countered and threw Orton onto Triple H. Triple H then started targeting Orton's legs and using some submissions on him. The match came to an end when Cena had Triple H on his shoulders for the FU, but was countered into a Pedigree. As Triple H was in the pin, Orton punted Triple H and pinned Cena to win the match and retain the WWE Championship.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The next match was the No Disqualification match between Big Show and Floyd Mayweather Jr. Early in the match, Mayweather repeatedly escaped Big Show's grasp and delivered body shots to him. Mayweather and his accomplices tried to "walk out" of the match, but Big Show walked up the ramp and brought Mayweather back in the ring. As Big Show was about to chokeslam Mayweather, one of Mayweather's accomplices struck a steel chair on Big Show's back, and the latter chokeslammed him in retaliation. Capitalizing from this distraction, Mayweather grabbed that chair and hit Big Show multiple times on the head with it. Finally, Mayweather removed his right glove and put on a pair of brass knuckles to hit Big Show in the face. As a result, Big Show was knocked out as he could not answer the referee's ten count, and Mayweather was declared the winner.<ref name="Mayweather/Show"></ref>


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The main event of the night saw Edge putting his World Heavyweight Championship on the line against The Undertaker. The early going of the match was slow-paced, in which both superstars countered each other's maneuvers. During the match, Undertaker ran and leapt over the top rope from the ring onto Edge on the outside. Then throughout the match, Edge was able to counter Undertaker's numerous signature moves, including the Chokeslam, Old School and the Last Ride, a variation of the powerbomb. Near the end, Edge hit Undertaker with a television camera while the referee was knocked down. When he proceeded to deliver a Tombstone Piledriver to Undertaker, Undertaker countered it into his own version and successfully delivered it to Edge for a two-count. Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder came to the ring for Edge's aid, but Undertaker took them out. Because of their distraction, Edge was able to execute a spear on Undertaker, but was unable to pin him. When Edge delivered another spear to Undertaker, Undertaker applied Hell's Gate and forced Edge to submit to win the World Heavyweight Championship, improving his WrestleMania record to 16–0.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: Approximately 1,058,000 people ordered WrestleMania XXIV, grossing $23.8 million in revenue. This number was fewer than the 1,188,000 buys that WrestleMania 23 achieved. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event 9 out of 10 stars. The rating was higher than WrestleMania 23 which received 8 out of 10 stars. The main event between The Undertaker and Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 9.5 out of 10 stars. The Career Threatening match between Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels was rated a perfect 10 out of 10. Big Show vs. Floyd "Money" Mayweather Jr. was rated 7 out of 10 stars, and the Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between Randy Orton, Triple H and John Cena was rated 8.5 out of 10 stars.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: After the show, WWE was criticized for a malfunction in the pyrotechnics during The Undertaker's victory celebration. During the celebration, a hot cable for pyrotechnics was sent flying into audience members in the upper seating bowl of the stadium, leaving 45 injured, with some hospitalized. The accident was apparently due to a cable which fireworks were traveling across snapping, thus resulting in the fireworks exploding into the top rows of the upper bowl of the stadium. WWE's corporate website released a statement afterward stating that they would investigate the incident, but the results of the investigation were never released.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: On the following episode of "Raw", Ric Flair made his farewell speech, which led to Triple H introducing various people from Flair's past, such as the Four Horsemen, Ricky Steamboat, and others, each coming out to give an emotional farewell. Afterward, the entire WWE roster came out to say thank you to Flair (Including Undertaker, who came out after Raw went off the air and hugged Flair and did his kneeling stance). Shawn Michaels, who was clearly upset about retiring Flair, was forgiven by Flair. Despite Flair's forgiveness, his former protégé Batista later started a feud with Michaels, citing Michaels' "selfishness" at WrestleMania for not lying down for Flair. The two had a match booked at Backlash, and after a confrontation between Michaels and Chris Jericho, Jericho was later added into the match as a Special Guest Referee. Michaels won with a superkick.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The feud between Randy Orton, John Cena and Triple H continued after WrestleMania with the added involvement of John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) leading to a Fatal Four-Way Elimination match between all four at Backlash. At Backlash, Triple H won his seventh WWE Championship by last pinning Orton. With Matt Hardy's return at WrestleMania, his feud with Montel Vontavious Porter over the WWE United States Championship, that had started in July 2007, was revived with a match booked at Backlash, which Hardy won. The rivalries between The Undertaker and Edge and the one between Kane and Chavo Guerrero both continued with successful title defenses at Backlash. On the May 2 episode of "SmackDown", General Manager Vickie Guerrero stripped The Undertaker of the World Heavyweight Championship because of his continued use of his illegal chokehold, claiming she did it to protect the other wrestlers.


title: WrestleMania XXIV

text: The event was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc by WWE Home Video in the U.S. on May 20, 2008, after it had completed broadcast on pay-per-view. It was the first WWE event to be released via the Blu-ray format. As well as the event, the DVD/BD release features bonus material in the form of the 2008 Hall of Fame ceremony in its entirety and the battle royal that took place before the event.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone, also known as dihydromorphinone, and sold under the brand name Dilaudid among others, is an opioid used to treat moderate to severe pain. Typically, long-term use is only recommended for pain due to cancer. It may be used by mouth or by injection into a vein, muscle, or under the skin. Effects generally begin within half an hour and last for up to five hours.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Common side effects include dizziness, sleepiness, nausea, itchiness, and constipation. Serious side effects may include abuse, low blood pressure, seizures, respiratory depression, and serotonin syndrome. Rapidly decreasing the dose may result in opioid withdrawal. Generally, use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is not recommended. Hydromorphone is believed to work by activating opioid receptors, mainly in the brain and spinal cord. Hydromorphone 2 mg IV is equivalent to approximately 10 mg morphine IV.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone was patented in 1923. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 250th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions. Hydromorphone is made from morphine.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is used to treat moderate to severe pain. It may be used by mouth or by injection into a vein, muscle, or under the skin. Effects generally begin within half an hour and last for up to five hours. Typically, long-term use is only recommended for pain due to cancer. A 2016 Cochrane review found little difference in benefit between hydromorphone and other opioids for cancer pain.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Adverse effects of hydromorphone are similar to those of other potent opioid analgesics, such as morphine and heroin. The major hazards of hydromorphone include dose-related respiratory depression, urinary retention, bronchospasm, and sometimes, circulatory depression. More common side effects include lightheadedness, dizziness, sedation, itching, constipation, nausea, vomiting, headache, perspiration, and hallucinations. These symptoms are common in ambulatory patients and in those not experiencing severe pain.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Simultaneous use of hydromorphone with other opioids, muscle relaxants, tranquilizers, sedatives, and general anesthetics may cause a significant increase in respiratory depression, progressing to coma or death. Taking benzodiazepines (such as diazepam) in conjunction with hydromorphone may increase side effects such as dizziness and difficulty concentrating. If simultaneous use of these drugs is required, dose adjustment may be made.


title: Hydromorphone

text: A particular problem that may occur with hydromorphone is accidental administration in place of morphine due to a mix-up between the similar names, either at the time the prescription is written or when the drug is dispensed. This has led to several deaths and calls for hydromorphone to be distributed in distinctly different packaging from morphine to avoid confusion.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Massive overdoses are rarely observed in opioid-tolerant individuals, but when they occur, they may lead to circulatory system collapse. Symptoms of overdose include respiratory depression, drowsiness leading to coma and sometimes to death, drooping of skeletal muscles, low heart rate, and decreasing blood pressure. At the hospital, individuals with hydromorphone overdose are provided supportive care, such as assisted ventilation to provide oxygen and gut decontamination using activated charcoal through a nasogastric tube. Opioid antagonists, such as naloxone, also may be administered concurrently with oxygen supplementation. Naloxone works by reversing the effects of hydromorphone, and only is administered in the presence of significant respiratory depression and circulatory depression.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Sugar cravings associated with hydromorphone use are the result of a glucose crash after transient hyperglycemia following injection, or a less profound lowering of blood sugar over a period of hours, in common with morphine, heroin, codeine, and other opiates.


title: Hydromorphone

text: As with other opioids, hydromorphone (particularly during heavy chronic use) often causes temporary hypogonadism or hormone imbalance.


title: Hydromorphone

text: In the setting of prolonged use, high dosage, and/or kidney dysfunction, hydromorphone has been associated with neuroexcitatory symptoms such as tremor, myoclonus, agitation, and cognitive dysfunction. This toxicity is less than that associated with other classes of opioids such as the pethidine class of synthetics in particular.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Users of hydromorphone may experience painful symptoms if the drug is suspended. Some people cannot tolerate the symptoms, which results in continuous drug use. Symptoms of opioid withdrawal are not easy to decipher, as there are differences between drug-seeking behaviors and true withdrawal effects. Symptoms associated with hydromorphone withdrawal include:


title: Hydromorphone

text: In the clinical setting, excessive secretion of tears, yawning, and dilation of pupils are helpful presentations in diagnosing opioid withdrawal. Hydromorphone is a rapid acting pain killer; however, some formulations may last up to several hours. Patients who stop taking this drug abruptly may experience withdrawal symptoms, which may start within hours of taking the last dose of hydromorphone, and last up to several weeks. Withdrawal symptoms in people who stopped taking the opioid may be managed by using opioids or non-opioid adjuncts. Methadone is an opioid commonly used for this kind of therapy. However, the selection of therapy should be tailored to each specific person. Methadone also is used for detoxification in people who have opiate addiction, such as heroin or drugs similar to morphine. It may be given orally or intramuscularly. There is controversy regarding the use of opioids for people experiencing withdrawal symptoms, since these agents also may cause relapse on patients when they suspend therapy. Clonidine is a non-opioid adjunct, which may be used in situations where opioid use is not desired, such as in patients with high blood pressure.


title: Hydromorphone

text: CNS depressants may enhance the depressant effects of hydromorphone, such as other opioids, anesthetics, sedatives, hypnotics, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, phenothiazines, chloral hydrate, dimenhydrinate, and glutethimide. The depressant effect of hydromorphone also may be enhanced by monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO inhibitors), first-generation antihistamines (brompheniramine, promethazine, diphenhydramine, chlorphenamine), beta blockers, and alcohol. When combined therapy is contemplated, the dose of one or both agents should be reduced.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is a semi-synthetic μ-opioid agonist. As a hydrogenated ketone of morphine, it shares the pharmacologic properties typical of opioid analgesics. Hydromorphone and related opioids produce their major effects on the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. These include analgesia, drowsiness, mental clouding, changes in mood, euphoria or dysphoria, respiratory depression, cough suppression, decreased gastrointestinal motility, nausea, vomiting, increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure, increased biliary pressure, and increased pinpoint constriction of the pupils.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is available in parenteral, rectal, subcutaneous, and oral formulations, and also can be administered via epidural or intrathecal injection. Hydromorphone also has been administered via nebulization to treat shortness of breath, but it is not used as a route for pain control due to low bioavailability. Transdermal delivery systems are also under consideration to induce local skin analgesia.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Concentrated aqueous solutions of hydromorphone hydrochloride have a visibly different refractive index from pure water, isotonic 9‰ (0·9 per cent) saline and the like, especially when stored in clear ampoules and phials may acquire a slight clear amber discolouration upon exposure to light; this reportedly has no effect on the potency of the solution, but 14-dihydromorphinones such as hydromorphone, oxymorphone, and relatives come with instructions to protect from light. Ampoules of solution which have developed a precipitate should be discarded.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Battery-powered intrathecal drug delivery systems are implanted for chronic pain when other options are ruled out, such as surgery and traditional pharmacotherapy, provided that the patient is considered a suitable fit in terms of any contraindications, both physiological and psychological.


title: Hydromorphone

text: An extended-release (once-daily) version of hydromorphone is available in the United States. Previously, an extended-release version of hydromorphone, Palladone, was available before being voluntarily withdrawn from the market after a July 2005 FDA advisory warned of a high overdose potential when taken with alcohol. As of March 2010, it is still available in the United Kingdom under the brand name Palladone SR, Nepal under the brand name Opidol, and in most other European countries.


title: Hydromorphone

text: The chemical modification of the morphine molecule to hydromorphone results in higher lipid solubility and greater ability to cross the blood–brain barrier to produce more rapid and complete central nervous system penetration. On a per milligram basis, hydromorphone is considered to be five times as potent as morphine; although the conversion ratio may vary from 4–8 times, five times is in typical clinical usage. The development of tolerance also may vary among individuals.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Patients with renal abnormalities must exercise caution when dosing hydromorphone. In those with renal impairment, the half-life of hydromorphone may increase to as much as 40 hours. The typical half-life of intravenous hydromorphone is 2.3 hours. Peak plasma levels usually occur between 30 and 60 minutes after oral dosing.


title: Hydromorphone

text: The onset of action for hydromorphone administered intravenously is less than 5 minutes and within 30 minutes of oral administration (immediate release).


title: Hydromorphone

text: While other opioids in its class, such as codeine or oxycodone, are metabolized via CYP450 enzymes, hydromorphone is not. Hydromorphone is extensively metabolized in the liver to hydromorphone-3-glucoronide, which has no analgesic effects. As similarly seen with the morphine metabolite, morphine-3-glucoronide, a build-up in levels of hydromorphone-3-glucoronide may produce excitatory neurotoxic effects such as restlessness, myoclonus and hyperalgesia. Patients with compromised kidney function and older patients are at higher risk for metabolite accumulation.


title: Hydromorphone

text: With a formula of CHNO and a molecular weight of 285.343, both identical to morphine, hydromorphone can be considered a structural isomer of morphine and is a hydrogenated ketone thereof.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is made from morphine either by direct re-arrangement (made by reflux heating of alcoholic or acidic aqueous solution of morphine in the presence of platinum or palladium catalyst) or reduction to dihydromorphine (usually via catalytic hydrogenation), followed by oxidation with benzophenone in presence of potassium tert butoxide or aluminium tert butoxide (Oppenauer oxidation). The 6 ketone group may be replaced with a methylene group via the Wittig reaction to produce 6-Methylenedihydrodesoxymorphine, which is 80× stronger than morphine.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Changing morphine into hydromorphone increases its activity and, therefore, makes hydromorphone approximately eight times stronger than morphine on a weight basis, all other things being equal. Changed also is lipid solubility, contributing to hydromorphone's having a more rapid onset of action and alterations to the overall absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination profile as well as the side effect profile (in general, less nausea and itching) versus that of morphine. The semi-synthetic opiates, of which hydromorphone and its codeine analogue hydrocodone are among the best-known and oldest, include a huge number of drugs of varying strengths and with differences among themselves both subtle and stark, allowing for many different options for treatment.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is more soluble in water than morphine; therefore, hydromorphone solutions may be produced to deliver the drug in a smaller volume of water. The hydrochloride salt is soluble in three parts of water, whereas a gram of morphine hydrochloride dissolves in 16 ml of water; for all common purposes, the pure powder for hospital use can be used to produce solutions of virtually arbitrary concentration. When the powder appeared on the street, this very small volume of powder needed for a dose means that overdoses are likely for those who mistake it for heroin or other powdered narcotics, especially those that have been diluted prior to consumption.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is made from morphine via catalytic hydrogenation and also is produced in trace amounts by human and other mammalian metabolisms of morphine. It occasionally appears in assays of opium latex in very small quantities, apparently forming in the plant in an unknown percentage of cases under poorly understood conditions.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Some bacteria have been shown to be able to turn morphine into closely related drugs, including hydromorphone and dihydromorphine among others. The bacterium "Pseudomonas putida" serotype M10 produces a naturally-occurring NADH-dependent morphinone reductase that can work on unsaturated 7,8 bonds, with result that, when these bacteria are living in an aqueous solution containing morphine, significant amounts of hydromorphone form, as it is an intermediary metabolite in this process; the same goes for codeine being turned into hydrocodone.


title: Hydromorphone

text: The process gave rise to various concentrations of hydromorphone, dihydromorphine, hydromorphinol, and oxymorphone during the experiments. Three paths were found: from morphine to hydromorphone with dihydromorphine as the penultimate step, from morphine to hydromorphone with morphinone as the penultimate step, and from morphine to hydromorphinol to hydromorphone.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone was patented in 1923. It was introduced to the mass market in 1926 under the brand name "Dilaudid", indicating its derivation and degree of similarity to morphine (by way of laudanum).


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is known in various countries around the world by the brand names Hydal, Dimorphone, Exalgo, Sophidone LP, Dilaudid, Hydrostat, Hydromorfan, Hydromorphan, Hymorphan, Laudicon, Opidol, Palladone, Hydromorph Contin, and others. An extended-release version of hydromorphone, called Palladone, was available for a short time in the United States before being voluntarily withdrawn from the market after a July 2005 FDA advisory warned of a high overdose potential when taken with alcohol. As of March 2010, it is still available in Nepal under the brand name Opidol, in the United Kingdom under the brand name Palladone SR, and in most other European countries.


title: Hydromorphone

text: There has also been a once-daily prolonged release version of hydromorphone available in Australia under the brand name Jurnista as of May 2009.


title: Hydromorphone

text: In the United States, the main drug control agency, the Drug Enforcement Administration, reports an increase in annual aggregate production quotas of hydromorphone from in 1998 to in 2006, and an increase in prescriptions in this time of 289%, from about 470,000 to 1,830,000. The 2013 production quota was .


title: Hydromorphone

text: Like all opioids used for analgesia, hydromorphone is potentially habit-forming and is listed in Schedule II of the United States Controlled Substances Act of 1970 as well as in similar levels under the drugs laws of practically all other countries and it is listed in the Single Convention On Narcotic Drugs. The DEA ACSCN for hydromorphone is 9150.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone is listed under the German Betäubungsmittelgesetz as a Betäubungsmittel in the most restricted schedule for medicinal drugs; it is controlled similarly in Austria (Suchtgift) under the SMG and the Swiss BetmG. The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (United Kingdom) and comparable French, Canadian, Australian, Italian, Czech, Croatian, Slovenian, Swedish, Polish, Spanish, Greek, Russian, and other laws similarly control it, as do regulations in virtually all other countries.


title: Hydromorphone

text: In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions by lethal injection when a suitable vein cannot be found for intravenous injection.


title: Hydromorphone

text: Hydromorphone and midazolam was injected intravenously to execute double-murderer Joseph Wood in Arizona on 24 July 2014. Wood was heavily sedated ("surgical anesthesia") within four minutes from start, but took almost two hours to transition to stage 4 (cessation of respiration) and death.


title: Berry (botany)

text: In botany, a berry is a fleshy fruit without a stone (pit) produced from a single flower containing one ovary. Berries so defined include grapes, currants, and tomatoes, as well as cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines) and bananas, but exclude certain fruits that meet the culinary definition of berries, such as strawberries and raspberries. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible "pericarp". Berries may be formed from one or more carpels from the same flower (i.e. from a simple or a compound ovary). The seeds are usually embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary, but there are some non-fleshy exceptions, such as peppers, with air rather than pulp around their seeds.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Many berries are edible, but others, such as the fruits of the potato and the deadly nightshade, are poisonous to humans.


title: Berry (botany)

text: A plant that bears berries is said to be bacciferous or baccate (a fruit that resembles a berry, whether it actually is a berry or not, can also be called "baccate").


title: Berry (botany)

text: In everyday English, a "berry" is any small edible fruit. Berries are usually juicy, round, brightly coloured, sweet or sour, and do not have a stone or pit, although many small seeds may be present.


title: Berry (botany)

text: In botanical language, a berry is a simple fruit having seeds and fleshy pulp (the pericarp) produced from the ovary of a single flower. The ovary can be inferior or superior. It is indehiscent, i.e. it does not have a special "line of weakness" along which it splits to release the seeds when ripe. The pericarp is divided into three layers. The outer layer is called the "exocarp" or "epicarp"; the middle layer, the "mesocarp" or "sarcocarp"; the inner layer, the "endocarp". Botanists have not applied these terms consistently. Exocarp and endocarp may be restricted to more-or-less single-layered "skins", or may include tissues adjacent to them; thus on one view, the exocarp extends inwards to the layer of vascular bundles ("veins"). The inconsistency in usage has been described as "a source of confusion".


title: Berry (botany)

text: The nature of the endocarp distinguishes a berry from a drupe, which has a hardened or stony endocarp (see also below). The two kinds of fruit intergrade, depending on the state of the endocarp. Some sources have attempted to quantify the difference, e.g. requiring the endocarp to be less than 2 mm thick in a berry.


title: Berry (botany)

text: "True berries", or "baccae", may also be required to have a thin outer skin, not self-supporting when removed from the berry. This distinguishes, for example, a "Vaccinium" or "Solanum" berry from an "Adansonia" (baobab) amphisarca, which has a dry, more rigid and self-supporting skin. The fruit of citrus, such as the orange, kumquat and lemon, is a berry with a thick rind and a very juicy interior divided into segments by septa, that is given the special name "hesperidium". A specialized term, pepo, is also used for fruits of the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, which are modified to have a hard outer rind, but are not internally divided by septae. The fruits of "Passiflora" (passion fruit) and "Carica" (papaya) are sometimes also considered pepos.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Berries that develop from an inferior ovary are sometimes termed epigynous berries or false berries, as opposed to true berries, which develop from a superior ovary. In epigynous berries, the berry includes tissue derived from parts of the flower besides the ovary. The floral tube, formed from the basal part of the sepals, petals and stamens can become fleshy at maturity and is united with the ovary to form the fruit. Common fruits that are sometimes classified as epigynous berries include bananas, coffee, members of the genus "Vaccinium" (e.g., cranberries and blueberries), and members of the family Cucurbitaceae (gourds, cucumbers, melons and squash).


title: Berry (botany)

text: Many fruits commonly referred to as berries are not actual berries by the scientific definition, but fall into one of the following categories:


title: Berry (botany)

text: Drupes are varyingly distinguished from botanical berries. Drupes are fleshy fruits produced from a (usually) single-seeded ovary with a hard woody layer (called the endocarp) surrounding the seed. Familiar examples include the stonefruits of the genus "Prunus" (peaches, plums and cherries), olives, coconut, dates, bayberry and "Persea" species. Some definitions make the mere presence of an internally differentiated endocarp the defining feature of a drupe; others qualify the nature of the endocarp required in a drupe, e.g. defining berries to have endocarp less than 2 mm thick. The term "drupaceous" is used of fruits that have the general structure and texture of a drupe, without necessarily meeting the full definition. Other drupe-like fruits with a single seed that lack the stony endocarp include sea-buckthorn ("Hippophae rhamnoides", Elaeagnaceae), which is an achene, surrounded by a swollen hypanthium that provides the fleshy layer. Fruits of "Coffea" species are described as either drupes or berries.


title: Berry (botany)

text: The pome fruits produced by plants in subtribe Pyrinae of family Rosaceae, such as apples and pears, have a structure (the core) in which tough tissue clearly separates the seeds from the outer softer pericarp. Pomes are not berries. However, some of the smaller pomes are sometimes referred to as berries. "Amelanchier" pomes become so soft at maturity that they resemble a blueberry and are known as Juneberries, serviceberries or Saskatoon berries.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Aggregate or compound fruits contain seeds from different ovaries of a single flower, with the individual "fruitlets" joined at maturity to form the complete fruit. Examples of aggregate fruits commonly called "berries" include members of the genus "Rubus", such as blackberry and raspberry. Botanically, these are not berries. Other large aggregate fruits, such as soursop ("Annona muricata"), are not usually called "berries", although some sources do use this term.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Multiple fruits are not botanical berries. Multiple fruits are the fruits of two or more multiple flowers that are merged or packed closely together. The mulberry is a berry-like example of a multiple fruit; it develops from a cluster of tiny separate flowers that become compressed as they develop into fruit.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Accessory fruits are not botanical berries. In accessory fruits, the edible part is not generated by the ovary. Berry-like examples include:


title: Berry (botany)

text: The female seed cones of some conifers have fleshy and merged scales, giving them a berry-like appearance. Juniper "berries" (family Cupressaceae), in particular those of "Juniperus communis", are used to flavour gin. The seed cones of species in the families Podocarpaceae and Taxaceae have a bright colour when fully developed, increasing the resemblance to true berries. The "berries" of yews ("Taxus" species) consist of a female seed cone with which develops a fleshy red aril partially enclosing the poisonous seed.


title: Berry (botany)

text: The Latin word ' or ' (plural ') was originally used for "any small round fruit". Andrea Caesalpinus (1519–1603) classified plants into trees and herbs, further dividing them by properties of their flowers and fruit. He did not make the modern distinction between "fruits" and "seeds", calling hard structures like nuts ' or seeds. A fleshy fruit was called a '. For Caesalpinus, a true ' or berry was a ' derived from a flower with a superior ovary; one derived from a flower with an inferior ovary was called a '.


title: Berry (botany)

text: In 1751, Carl Linnaeus wrote "Philosophia Botanica", considered to be the first textbook of descriptive systematic botany. He used eight different terms for fruits, one of which was ' or berry, distinguished from other types of fruit such as ' (drupe) and ' (pome). A ' was defined as "'", meaning "unvalved solid pericarp, containing otherwise naked seeds". The adjective "'" here has the sense of "solid with tissue softer than the outside; stuffed". A berry or ' was distinguished from a drupe and a pome, both of which also had an unvalved solid pericarp; a drupe also contained a nut (') and a pome a capsule ('), rather than the berry's naked seeds. Linnaeus' use of ' and "" was thus significantly different from that of Caesalpinus. Botanists continue to differ on how fruit should be classified.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Joseph Gaertner published a two-volume work, "De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum" (on the fruits and seeds of plants) between 1788 and 1792. In addition to Linnaeus' eight terms, he introduced seven more, including ' for the berry-like fruits of cucurbits. A pepo was distinguished by being a fleshy berry with the seeds distant from the axis, and so nearer the fruit wall (i.e. by having "parietal placentation" in modern terminology). Nicaise Auguste Desvaux in 1813 used the terms ' and ' as further subdivisions of berries. A hesperidium, called by others ' (berry with a cortex), had separate internal compartments ("""" in the original French) and a separable membraneous epicarp or skin. An amphisarca was described as woody on the outside and fleshy on the inside. "Hesperidium" remains in general use, but "amphisarca" is rarely used.


title: Berry (botany)

text: There remains no universally agreed system of classification for fruits, and there continues to be "confusion over classification of fruit types and the definitions given to fruit terms".


title: Berry (botany)

text: By definition, berries have a fleshy, indehiscent pericarp, as opposed to a dry, dehiscent pericarp. Fossils show that early flowering plants had dry fruits; fleshy fruits, such as berries or drupes, appeared only towards the end of the Cretaceous Period or the beginning of the Paleogene Period, about . The increasing importance of seed dispersal by fruit-eating vertebrates, both mammals and birds, may have driven the evolution of fleshy fruits. Alternatively, the causal direction may be the other way round. Large fleshy fruits are associated with moist habitats with closed tree canopies, where wind dispersal of dry fruits is less effective. Such habitats were increasingly common in the Paleogene and the associated change in fruit type may have led to the evolution of fruit eating in mammals and birds.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Fruit type has been considered to be a useful character in classification and in understanding the phylogeny of plants. The evolution of fruits with a berry-like pericarp has been studied in a wide range of flowering plant families. Repeated transitions between fleshy and dry pericarps have been demonstrated regularly. One well-studied family is the Solanaceae, because of the commercial importance of fruit such as tomatoes, bell peppers, and eggplants or aubergines. Capsules, which are dry dehiscent fruits, appear to be the original form of the fruit in the earliest diverging members of the family. Berries have then evolved at least three times: in "Cestrum", "Duboisia", and in the subfamily Solanoideae. Detailed anatomical and developmental studies have shown that the berries of "Cestrum" and those of the Solanoideae are significantly different; for example, expansion of the fruit during development involves cell divisions in the mesocarp in Solanoideae berries, but not in "Cestrum" berries.


title: Berry (botany)

text: When fruits described as berries were studied in the family Melastomaceae, they were found to be highly variable in structure, some being soft with an endocarp that soon broke down, others having a hard, persistent endocarp, even woody in some species. Fruits classified as berries are thus not necessarily homologous, with the fleshy part being derived from different parts of the ovary, and with other structural and developmental differences. The presence or absence of berries is not a reliable guide to phylogeny. Indeed, fruit type in general has proved to be an unreliable guide to flowering plant relationships.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Berries, defined loosely, have been valuable as a food source to humans since before the start of agriculture, and remain among the primary food sources of other primates. Botanically defined berries with culinary uses include:


title: Berry (botany)

text: Some berries are brightly coloured, due to plant pigments such as anthocyanins and other flavonoids. These pigments are localized mainly in the outer surface and the seeds. Such pigments have antioxidant properties "in vitro", but there is no reliable evidence that they have antioxidant or any other useful functions within the human body. Consequently, it is not permitted to claim that foods containing plant pigments have antioxidant health value on product labels in the United States or Europe.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Some spices are prepared from berries. Allspice is made from the dried berries of "Pimenta dioica". The fruits (berries) of different cultivars of "Capsicum annuum" are used to make paprika (mildly hot), chili pepper (hot) and cayenne pepper (very hot).


title: Berry (botany)

text: Pepos, characterized by a hard outer rind, have also been used as containers by removing the inner flesh and seeds and then drying the remaining exocarp. The English name of "Lagenaria siceraria", "bottle gourd", reflects its use as a liquid container.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Some true berries have also been used as a source of dyes. In Hawaii, these included berries from a species of "Dianella", used to produce blue, and berries from black nightshade ("Solanum americanum"), used to produce green.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Cucurbit berries or pepos, particularly from "Cucurbita" and "Lagenaria", are the earliest plants known to be domesticated – before 9,000–10,000 BP in the Americas, and probably by 12,000–13,000 BP in Asia. Peppers were domesticated in Mesoamerica by 8,000 BP. Many other early cultivated plants were also berries by the strict botanical definition, including grapes, domesticated by 8,000 BP and known to have been used in wine production by 6,000 BP.


title: Berry (botany)

text: Bananas were first domesticated in Papua New Guinea and Southeast Asia. Archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 7,000 BP, and possibly to 10,000 BP.


title: Berry (botany)

text: The history of cultivated citrus fruit remains unclear, although some recent research suggests a possible origin in Papuasia rather than continental southeast Asia. Chinese documents show that mandarins and pomelos were established in cultivation there by around 4,200 BP.


title: Berry (botany)

text: According to FAOSTAT data, in 2013 four of the five top fruit crops in terms of world production by weight were botanical berries. The other was a pome (apples).


title: Berry (botany)

text: According to FAOSTAT, in 2001, bananas (including plantains) and citrus comprised over 25% by value of the world's exported fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits being more valuable than bananas. Export quantities of fruit are not entirely comparable with production quantities, since slightly different categories are used. The top five fruit exports by weight in 2012 are shown in the table below. The top two places are again occupied by bananas and citrus.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The temptation of Christ is a biblical narrative detailed in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. After being baptized by John the Baptist, Jesus was tempted by the devil after 40 days and nights of fasting in the Judaean Desert. At the time, Satan came to Jesus and tried to tempt him. Jesus having refused each temptation, Satan then departed and Jesus returned to Galilee to begin his ministry. During this entire time of spiritual battle, Jesus was fasting.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews also refers to Jesus having been tempted "in every way that we are, except without sin."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Mark's account is very brief, merely noting the event. Matthew and Luke describe the temptations by recounting the details of the conversations between Jesus and Satan. Since the elements that are in Matthew and Luke but not in Mark are mostly pairs of quotations rather than detailed narration, many scholars believe these extra details originate in the theoretical Q Document. The temptation of Christ is not explicitly mentioned in the Gospel of John but in this gospel Jesus does refer to the Devil, "the prince of this world", having no power over him.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In church calendars of many Christian denominations, Jesus' forty days of fasting in the Judaean Desert is remembered during the season of Lent, in which many Christians fast, pray and give alms to the poor.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Discussion of the literary genre includes whether what is represented is a history, a parable, a myth, or compound of various genres. This relates to the reality of the encounter. Sometimes the temptation narrative is taken as a parable, reading that Jesus in his ministry told this narrative to audiences relating his inner experience in the form of a parable. Or it is autobiographical, regarding what sort of Messiah Jesus intended to be. Writers including William Barclay have pointed to the fact that there is "no mountain high enough in all the world to see the whole world" as indication of the non-literal nature of the event, and that the narrative portrays what was going on inside Jesus' mind. Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas explained, "In regard to the words, 'He showed Him all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them,' we are not to understand that He saw the very kingdoms, with the cities and inhabitants, their gold and silver: but that the devil pointed out the quarters in which each kingdom or city lay, and set forth to Him in words their glory and estate."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The debate on the literality of the temptations goes back at least to the 18th-century discussion of George Benson and Hugh Farmer.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The Catholic understanding is that the temptation of Christ was a literal and physical event. "Despite the difficulties urged, …against the historical character of the three temptations of Jesus, as recorded by St. Matthew and St. Luke, it is plain that these sacred writers intended to describe an actual and visible approach of Satan, to chronicle an actual shifting of places, etc., and that the traditional view, which maintains the objective nature of Christ's temptations, is the only one meeting all the requirements of the Gospel narrative."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The account of Matthew uses language from the Old Testament. The imagery would be familiar to Matthew's contemporary readers. In the Septuagint Greek version of Zechariah 3 the name "Iesous" and term "diabolos" are identical to the Greek terms of Matthew 4. Matthew presents the three scriptural passages cited by Jesus (, , and ) not in their order in the Book of Deuteronomy, but in the sequence of the trials of Israel as they wandered in the desert, as recorded in the Book of Exodus. Luke's account is similar, though his inversion of the second and third temptations "represents a more natural geographic movement, from the wilderness to the temple". Luke's closing statement that the devil "departed from him until an opportune time" may provide a narrative link to the immediately following attempt at Nazareth to throw Jesus down from a high place, or may anticipate a role for Satan in the Passion (cf. Luke 22:3).


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In Luke's (Luke 4:1–13) and Matthew's (–) accounts, the order of the three temptations differ; no explanation as to why the order differs has been generally accepted. Matthew, Luke and Mark make clear that the Spirit has led Jesus into the desert.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Fasting traditionally presaged a great spiritual struggle. Elijah and Moses in the Old Testament fasted 40 days and nights, and thus Jesus doing the same invites comparison to these events. In Judaism, "the practice of fasting connected the body and its physical needs with less tangible values, such as self-denial and repentance." At the time, 40 was less a specific number and more a general expression for any large figure. Fasting may not mean a complete abstinence from food; consequently, Jesus may have been surviving on the sparse food that could be obtained in the desert.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Mark does not provide details, but in Matthew and Luke "the tempter" (, "ho peirazōn") or "the devil" (, "ho diabolos") tempts Jesus to:


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The temptation of bread out of stones occurs in the same desert setting where Jesus had been fasting. Alexander Jones reports that the wilderness mentioned here has since the fifth century been believed to be the rocky and uninhabited area between Jerusalem and Jericho, with a spot on Mount Quarantania traditionally being considered the exact location. The desert was seen as outside the bounds of society and as the home of demons such as Azazel (Leviticus 16:10). Robert H. Gundry states that the desert is likely an allusion to the wilderness through which the Israelites wandered during the Exodus, and more specifically to Moses. Jesus' struggle against hunger in the face of Satan points to his representative role of the Israelites, but he does not fail God in his urge for hunger. This temptation may have been Jesus' last, aiming towards his hunger.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In response to Satan's suggestion, Jesus replies, "It is written: "Man does not live on bread alone, but on every word that proceeds from the mouth of God"" (a reference to Deuteronomy 8:3). Only in Matthew's gospel is this entire sentence written.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Most Christians consider that "holy city" refers undoubtedly to Jerusalem and the "temple" to which the "pinnacle" belongs is thus identified as the Temple in Jerusalem. Gospel of Matthew refers to "the temple" 17 times without ever adding "in Jerusalem". That Luke's version of the story clearly identifies the location as Jerusalem may be due to Theophilus' unfamiliarity with Judaism.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: What is meant by the word traditionally translated as "pinnacle" is not entirely clear since the Greek diminutive form "pterugion" ("little wing") is not extant in other architectural contexts. Though the form "pterux" ("large wing") is used for the point of a building by Pollianus, Schweizer feels that "little tower" or "parapet" would be more accurate, and the New Jerusalem Bible does use the translation "parapet". The only surviving Jewish parallel to the temptation uses the standard word "šbyt" "roof" not "wing": "Our Rabbis related that in the hour when the Messiah shall be revealed he shall come and stand on the roof (šbyt) of the temple." (Peshiqta Rabbati 62 c–d) The term is preserved as "wing" in Syriac translations of the Greek.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: "If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down from hence: For it is written, 'He shall give his angels charge over thee, to keep thee: And in their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone.'" (Luke ) citing .


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Once more, Jesus maintained his integrity and responded by quoting scripture, saying, "It is said, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.'" () quoting .


title: Temptation of Christ

text: For the third and final temptation in Matthew (presented as the second temptation of the three in Luke) the devil takes Jesus to a "high place", which Matthew explicitly identifies as a very high mountain, where "all the kingdoms of the world" can be seen. The spot pointed out by tradition as the summit from which Satan offered to Jesus dominion over all earthly kingdoms is the "Quarantania", a limestone peak on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Instead of a literal reading, George Slatyer Barrett viewed the third temptation as inclining to a doubt of Christ's mission, or at least the methodology. Barrett sees this as a temptation to accept the adulation of the crowds, assume leadership of the nation to overthrow Roman rule, take the crown of his own nation, and from there initiate the kingdom of God on earth. The kingdoms Jesus would inherit through Satan are obtained through love of power and political oppression. Barrett characterizes this "the old but ever new temptation to do evil that good may come; to justify the illegitimacy of the means by the greatness of the end."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The mountain is not literal if the temptations only occur in the mind's eye of Jesus and the Gospel accounts record this mind's eye view, as related in parable form, to the disciples at some point during the ministry.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Satan says, "All these things I will give you if you fall down and do an act of worship to me." Jesus replies "Get away, Satan! It is written: 'You shall worship the Lord your God and only Him shall you serve.'" (referencing Deuteronomy 6:13 and 10:20). Readers would likely recognize this as reminiscent of the temptation to false worship that the Israelites encountered in the desert in the incident of the Golden Calf mentioned in Ex. 32:4.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: At this, Satan departs and Jesus is tended by angels. While both Mark and Matthew mention the angels, Luke does not, and Matthew seems once again here to be making parallels with Elijah, who was fed by ravens. The word "ministered" or "served" is often interpreted as the angels feeding Jesus, and traditionally artists have depicted the scene as Jesus being presented with a feast, a detailed description of it even appearing in "Paradise Regained". This ending to the temptation narrative may be a common literary device of using a feast scene to emphasize a happy ending, or it may be proof that Jesus never lost his faith in God during the temptations.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The Mark () account is very brief. Most of the Mark account is found also in the Matthew and Luke versions, with the exception of the statement that Jesus was "with the wild animals." Despite the lack of actual text shared among the three texts, the language and interpretations Mark uses draw comparison among the three Gospels. The Greek verb Mark uses in the text is synonymous with driving out demons, and the wilderness at times represents a place of struggle. The two verses in Mark used to describe Jesus' Temptation quickly progress him into his career as a preacher.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Thomas Aquinas argued that Jesus allowed himself to be tempted as both an example and a warning. He cites Sirach 2: "Son, when thou comest to the service of God, stand in justice and in fear, and prepare thy soul for temptation." Following this, he cites : "We have not a high-priest, who cannot have compassion on our infirmities, but one tempted in all things like as we are, without sin."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The temptation of Christ is not found in the Gospel of John. However, some readers have identified parallels inside John which indicate that the author of John may have been familiar with the Temptation narratives in some form.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Taken in the sense of denoting enticement to evil, temptation cannot be referred directly to God or to Christ. For instance in Gen. 12.1, "God tempted Abraham", and in John 6.6, "This [Jesus] said tempting [Philip]", the expressions must be taken in the sense of testing, or trying. According to St. James, the source of man's temptations is his proneness to evil which is the result of the fall of Adam, and which remains in human nature after baptismal regeneration, and even though the soul is in the state of sanctifying grace, mankind's concupiscence (or proneness to evil) becomes sinful only when freely yielded to; when resisted with God's help it is an occasion of merit. The chief cause of temptation is Satan, "the tempter", bent on man's eternal ruin.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In the Lord's Prayer, the clause "Lead us not into temptation" is a humble and trusting petition for God's help to enable people to overcome temptation. Prayer and watchfulness are the chief weapons against temptation. God does not allow man to be tempted beyond his strength. Like Adam, Christ (the second Adam) endured temptation only from without, inasmuch as his human nature was free from all concupiscence; but unlike Adam, Christ withstood the assaults of the Tempter on all points, thereby providing a perfect model of resistance to mankind's spiritual enemy, and a permanent source of victorious help.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In the first three Gospels, the narrative of Christ's temptation is placed in immediate connection with his baptism and then with the beginning of his public ministry. The reason for this is clear. The Synoptists regarded the baptism of Christ as the external designation of Jesus from [the Father] for Christ's Messianic work under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. The first three Gospels agree concerning the time to which they assign the temptation of Christ, so they are at one in ascribing the same general place to its occurrence, viz. "the desert", whereby they [probably] mean the Wilderness of Judea, where Jesus would be, as St. Mark says: "with beasts".


title: Temptation of Christ

text: "The Biblical meaning of temptation is 'a trial in which man has a free choice of being faithful or unfaithful to God'. Satan encouraged Jesus to deviate from the plan of his father by misusing his authority and privileges. Jesus used the Holy Scripture to resist all such temptation. When we are tempted, the solution is to be sought in the Bible."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In the temptations, according to Benedict XVI, Satan seeks to draw Jesus from a messianism of self-sacrifice to a messianism of power: "in this period of "wilderness"... Jesus is exposed to danger and is assaulted by the temptation and seduction of the Evil One, who proposes a different messianic path to him, far from God's plan because it passes through power, success and domination rather than the total gift of himself on the Cross. This is the alternative: a messianism of power, of success, or a messianism of love, of the gift of self."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Justus Knecht gives a typical commentary on "the different kinds of temptation of Christ", writing, "In the first temptation Satan wished to induce the Saviour, instead of trusting in God and patiently enduring hunger, to create bread by His own power, against His Father’s will. He sought, therefore, to make our Lord sin by sensuality and an unlawful desire for food, or in other words by gluttony. By the second temptation Satan tried to awaken a spiritual pride in Jesus, saying: “Throw yourself down; God will help you and see that no evil befalls you!” The cunning seducer wished thereby to change a humble and submissive confidence in God’s mercy into a proud presumption. By the third temptation Satan wished to arouse in Jesus concupiscence of the eyes, i. e. a desire for riches, power and pleasure. He had seduced the first man by inciting him to these three evil passions. The words: “Why hath God commanded you that you should not eat of every tree of Paradise?” were an inducement to gluttony, or to the concupiscence of the flesh. The words: “Your eyes shall be opened” were a temptation to pride, while the words: “You shall be as Gods” were an inducement to the concupiscence of the eyes, and a desire for power and glory. Our first parents succumbed to these temptations, because they gave ear to the suggestions of Satan, held intercourse with him, and gazed at the forbidden fruit. But Jesus overcame the temptation and conquered Satan. "


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The temptation of Christ has been a frequent subject in the art and literature of Christian cultures. A scene usually interpreted as the third temptation of Jesus is depicted in the Book of Kells. The third and last part of the Old English poem "Christ and Satan" concerns The Temptation of Christ, and can be seen as a precursor to John Milton's "Paradise Lost". The Temptation of Christ is indeed the subject of Milton's sequel to "Paradise Lost", "Paradise Regained". J. M. W. Turner did an engraving of "The Temptation on the Mountain" for an 1835 edition of "The Poetical Works of John Milton". Satan and Jesus stand in silhouette on a cliff overlooking a broad landscape that transitions into the sea. The "...image depicts the temptation of Christ by Satan, specifically the moment where Satan offers Christ the kingdoms of the world. This vision of the temptation as extending to the open sea is eerily similar to the possibilities of conquest as commonly depicted in British and American art during the Romantic era."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: "Quarantine" is a novel by Jim Crace with seven characters in the desert, fasting and praying, and includes Jesus as a peripheral cast member.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: An illuminated scene in the "Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry", a 15th-century book of hours, depicts Jesus standing atop a Gothic castle based upon the Duke's own castle at Mehun-sur-Yevre. Daniella Zsupan-Jerome sees this as a challenge to "...the Duke and meant to recall him to humility and conversion..."


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Fyodor Dostoyevsky's "The Brothers Karamazov", part of the novel, "The Grand Inquisitor", features an extended treatment of the temptation of Christ. Kathleen E. Gilligan draws parallels with J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" in which characters Gandalf and Galadriel, both powerful figures each in their own right, are tempted to acquire the ring and become more powerful for the best of reasons but with likely disastrous results.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Andrew Lloyd Webber's "Jesus Christ Superstar" has brief references to Christ being tempted by mortal pleasures, and Stephen Schwartz devotes a scene to it in "Godspell". In W. Somerset Maugham's "The Razor's Edge", the narrator uses the gospel of Matthew to introduce his own ending in which Jesus accepts death on the cross, "for greater love hath no man," while the devil laughs in glee, knowing that man will reject this redemption and commit evil in spite of, if not because of, this great sacrifice.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: In the 1989 film "Jesus of Montreal", the actor playing Jesus is taken to the top of a skyscraper and offered lucrative contracts by a lawyer if he will serve him. The 2019 television miniseries "Good Omens" credits the temptation of Christ to the demon Crowley, who claims to have shown Christ the kingdoms of the world as mere travel opportunities.


title: Temptation of Christ

text: The temptation of Christ in the desert is shown in the following theatrical and television films: "King of Kings" (US 1961, Nicholas Ray), "The Gospel According to Matthew" (Italy 1964, directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini), "The Greatest Story Ever Told" (US 1965, George Stevens), Jesus (US 1979, Peter Sykes and John Krish), "The Last Temptation of Christ" (US 1988, Martin Scorsese), Jesus (1999 TV film, Roger Young), The Miracle Maker (UK-US TV film, 2000), The Bible (US 2013 TV miniseries, Roma Downey and Mark Burnett), "Last Days in the Desert" (US 2015, Rodrigo Garcia), and "40: The Temptation of Jesus Christ" (US 2020, Douglas James Vail).


title: Temptation of Christ

text: Dave Matthews' single "Save Me" from the album "Some Devil" recounts Christ's time in the desert from Satan's point of view.


title: Renate Reinsve

text: Renate Reinsve (; born 24 November 1987) is a Norwegian actress. She made her film debut in "Oslo, August 31st" (2011), before starring in the critically acclaimed "The Worst Person in the World" (2021), with her performance earning her the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress, and a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.


title: Renate Reinsve

text: Born in Solbergelva in 1987 and educated at Kunsthøgskolen i Oslo, Reinsve then joined the Trøndelag Teater.


title: Renate Reinsve

text: Reinsve had a traumatic upbringing and suffers from posttraumatic stress after events which occurred when she was between nine and 16 years old. Although she has made reference to this period in her life, she is unwilling at present to go into details about what happened.


title: Renate Reinsve

text: After being expelled from school at 16, Reinsve left Norway for Scotland and stayed in a hostel in Edinburgh. Running out of money, she was given a job in the bar of the hostel by the manager as he "felt sorry for [her]".


title: Renate Reinsve

text: In 2014, she received the Hedda Award for her role in "Besøk av gammel dame", an adaptation of Friedrich Dürrenmatt's play . Since 2016, she has been contracted to Det Norske Teatret. Her films include "Oslo, August 31st" (2011), "The Orheim Company" (2012) and "Welcome to Norway" (2016). On television, she has been a main character in "Nesten voksen" and side character in "Hvite gutter".


title: Renate Reinsve

text: In 2021, Reinsve played the principal character Julie in Joachim Trier's film "The Worst Person in the World", which premiered at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival. On "Late Night with Seth Meyers", Reinsve mentioned that she was considering quitting acting the day before she was offered the role of Julie, and had considered carpentry as a backup plan to acting. Trier had written the part of Julie specifically for her. In 2022, she was cast opposite Sebastian Stan in Aaron Schimberg's psychological drama "A Different Man".


title: José Mujica

text: José Alberto "Pepe" Mujica Cordano (; born 20 May 1935) is a Uruguayan politician, former revolutionary and farmer who served as the 40th president of Uruguay from 2010 to 2015. A former guerrilla with the Tupamaros, he was tortured and imprisoned for 14 years during the military dictatorship in the 1970s and 1980s. A member of the Broad Front coalition of left-wing parties, Mujica was Minister of Livestock, Agriculture, and Fisheries from 2005 to 2008 and a Senator afterwards. As the candidate of the Broad Front, he won the 2009 presidential election and took office as president on 1 March 2010. He was the Second Gentleman of Uruguay from 13 September 2017 to 1 March 2020, when his wife Lucia Topolansky was vice president under his immediate predecessor and successor, Tabaré Vázquez.


title: José Mujica

text: He has been described as "the world's humblest head of state" due to his austere lifestyle and his donation of around 90 percent of his $12,000 monthly salary to charities that benefit poor people and small entrepreneurs. An outspoken critic of capitalism's focus on stockpiling material possessions which do not contribute to human happiness, Mujica is often seen riding his 60-year-old bicycle. The Times Higher Education called him the "philosopher president" in 2015, a play on words of Plato's conception of the philosopher king.


title: José Mujica

text: Mujica was born on 20 May 1935, to Demetrio Mujica, of Spanish Basque ancestry, and Lucy Cordano, a daughter of Italian immigrants. Mujica's father was a small farmer who went bankrupt shortly before his death in 1940, when his son was five. His mother's parents were very poor Italian immigrants from Liguria. Lucy Cordano was born in Carmelo, where her parents had bought in Colonia Jose to cultivate vineyards. Between the ages of 13 and 17, Mujica cycled for several clubs in different categories. He was also active in the National Party, where he became close to Enrique Erro.


title: José Mujica

text: In the mid-1960's, he joined the newly formed MLN-Tupamaros movement, an armed political group inspired by the Cuban Revolution. He participated in the brief 1969 takeover of Pando, a town close to Montevideo, leading one of six squads assaulting strategic points in the city. Mujica's team was charged with taking over the telephone exchange and was the only one to complete the operation without any mishaps. In March 1970 Mujica was gunned down while resisting arrest at a Montevideo bar; he injured two policemen and was in turn shot six times. The surgeon on call at the hospital saved his life. Tupamaros claimed that the surgeon was secretly Tupamaro and this is why his life was saved. In reality the doctor was simply following ordinary medical ethics. At the time, the president of Uruguay was the controversial Jorge Pacheco Areco, who had suspended certain constitutional guarantees in response to MLN and Communist unrest.


title: José Mujica

text: Mujica was captured by the authorities on four occasions. He was among the more than 100 Tupamaros who escaped Punta Carretas Prison in September 1971 by digging a tunnel from inside the prison that led to the living room of a nearby home. Mujica was re-captured less than a month after escaping, but escaped Punta Carretas once more in April 1972. On that occasion he and about a dozen other escapees fled riding improvised wheeled planks down the tunnel dug by Tupamaros from outside the prison. He was re-apprehended for the last time in 1972, unable to resist arrest. In the months that followed, the country underwent the military coup in 1973. In the meantime, Mujica and eight other Tupamaros were especially chosen to remain under military custody and in squalid conditions. In all, he spent 13 years in captivity. During the 1970s and 1980s, this included being confined to the bottom of an old, emptied horse-watering trough for more than two years. During his time in prison, Mujica suffered a number of health problems, particularly mental issues. Although his two closest cellmates, Eleuterio Fernández Huidobro and Mauricio Rosencof, often managed to communicate with each other, they rarely managed to bring Mujica into the conversation. According to Mujica himself, at the time he was suffering from auditory hallucinations and related forms of paranoia.


title: José Mujica

text: In 1985, when constitutional democracy was restored, Mujica was freed under an amnesty law that covered political and related military crimes committed since 1962.


title: José Mujica

text: Several years after the restoration of democracy, Mujica and many Tupamaros joined other left-wing organizations to create the Movement of Popular Participation, a political party that was accepted within the Broad Front coalition.


title: José Mujica

text: In the 1994 general elections, Mujica was elected deputy and in the elections of 1999 he was elected senator. Due in part to Mujica's charisma, the MPP continued to grow in popularity and votes, and by 2004, it had become the largest faction within the Broad Front. In the elections of that year, Mujica was re-elected to the Senate, and the MPP obtained over 300,000 votes, thus consolidating its position as the top political force within the coalition and a major force behind the victory of presidential candidate Tabaré Vázquez. Mujica was then elected in 2009 as president in the following elections.


title: José Mujica

text: On 1 March 2005, President Tabaré Vázquez designated Mujica as the Minister of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries (Mujica's own professional background was in the agricultural sector). Upon becoming minister, Mujica resigned his position as senator. He held this position until a cabinet change in 2008, when he resigned and was replaced by Ernesto Agazzi. Mujica then returned to his seat in the Senate.


title: José Mujica

text: Mujica's political ideology has evolved over the years from orthodox to pragmatist. In recent times he has expressed a desire for a more flexible political left.


title: José Mujica

text: His speaking style and manner is credited as part of his growing popularity since the late 1990s, especially among rural and poor sectors of the population. He has been variously described as an "antipolitician" and a man who "speaks the language of the people" while also receiving criticism for untimely or inappropriate remarks. Unlike president Vázquez, who vetoed a bill put forward by parliament that would make abortions legal, Mujica has stated that should it come before him in the future, he would not veto such a bill. In the sphere of international relations, he hopes to further negotiations and agreements between the European Union and the regional trade bloc Mercosur, of which Uruguay is a founding member.


title: José Mujica

text: On the Uruguay River pulp mill dispute between Argentina and Uruguay, Mujica was more conciliatory toward the Argentine government than the previous administration, and in 2010 the two nations ended their long-running dispute and signed an agreement detailing an environmental monitoring plan of the river and the setting up of a binational commission. Good personal relations between Mujica and Argentinian counterpart Cristina Kirchner helped lead to the accord. Other bilateral issues remain unsolved, including the dredging of the shared access channel of the River Plate.


title: José Mujica

text: He was close to Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, whom he considered to be "the most generous ruler I have ever known." In 2011, he spoke out against the military operations launched by several Western countries against Libya.


title: José Mujica

text: Asked about Brazilian President Lula da Silva's decision to receive Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he answered it was a "genius move" because "The more Iran is fenced in, the worse it will be for the rest of the world."


title: José Mujica

text: Even though President Vázquez favored his Finance Minister Danilo Astori as presidential candidate of the then unified Broad Front to succeed him in 2010, Mujica's broad appeal and growing support within the party posed a challenge to the president. On 14 December 2008, The Extraordinary Congress "Zelmar Michelini" (a party convention) proclaimed Mujica as the official candidate of the Broad Front for primary elections of 2009, but four more precandidates were allowed to participate, including Astori. On 28 June 2009, Mujica won the primary elections becoming the presidential candidate of the Broad Front for the 2009 general election. After that, Astori agreed to be his running mate. Their campaign was centered on the concept of continuing and deepening the policies of the highly popular administration of Vázquez, using the slogan "“Un gobierno honrado, un país de primera"" ("An honorable government - a first-class country") – indirectly referencing cases of administrative corruption within the former government of the major opposition candidate, conservative Luis Alberto Lacalle. During the campaign, Mujica distanced himself from the governing style of presidents like Hugo Chávez (Venezuela) or Evo Morales (Bolivia), claiming the center-left governments of Brazilian Luis Inácio Lula da Silva or Chilean socialist Michelle Bachelet as regional examples upon which he would model his administration. Known for his informal style of dress, Mujica donned a suit (without a tie) for some stops in the presidential campaign, notably during visits to regional heads of state.


title: José Mujica

text: In October 2009, Mujica won a plurality of over 48 percent of the votes compared to 30 percent for former president Lacalle, falling short of the majority required by the constitution, while at the same time renewing the Broad Front's parliamentary majority for the next legislature (2010–2015). A runoff was then held on 29 November to determine the winner; on 30 November Mujica emerged as the victor, with more than 52% of the vote over Lacalle's 43%. In his first speech as president-elect before a crowd of supporters, Mujica acknowledged his political adversaries and called for unity, stating that there would be no winners or losers (""Ni vencidos, ni vencedores""). He added that "it is a mistake to think that power comes from above, when it comes from within the hearts of the masses (...) it has taken me a lifetime to learn this fact".


title: José Mujica

text: Mujica formed a cabinet made up of politicians from the different components of the Broad Front, conceding the area of economics to aides of his vice president Danilo Astori.


title: José Mujica

text: In June 2012, Mujica's government made a controversial move to legalize state-controlled sales of marijuana in Uruguay in order to fight drug-related crimes and health issues, and stated that they would ask global leaders to do the same. Mujica said that by regulating Uruguay's estimated $40 million-a-year marijuana business, the state would take it away from drug traffickers, and weaken the drug cartels. The state would also be able to keep track of all marijuana consumers in the country and provide treatment to the most serious abusers, much like that which is done with alcoholics.


title: José Mujica

text: In September 2013, Mujica addressed the United Nations General Assembly, with a very long speech devoted to humanity and globalization. The speech called on the international community to strengthen efforts to preserve the planet for future generations and highlighted the power of the financial systems and the impact of economic fallout on ordinary people. He urged a return to simplicity, with lives founded on human relationships, love, friendship, adventure, solidarity and family, instead of lives shackled to the economy and the markets. Parts of his speech were incorporated into the intro to the song "Santiago" on Newen Afrobeat's first album.


title: José Mujica

text: In general terms, its policy was in line with the previous mandate. The share of social expenditure in total public expenditure thus rose from 60.9% to 75.5% between 2004 and 2013. During this period, the unemployment rate remained at about 7%, the national poverty rate was reduced from 18% to 9.7% and the minimum wage was raised from UYU$4,800 to UYU$10,000 (average annual inflation rate of 7%) and the Government's debt raised from 59% to 65%. It also supported the strengthening of trade unions. According to the International Trade Union Confederation, Uruguay has become the most advanced country in the Americas in terms of respect for "fundamental labor rights, in particular freedom of association, the right to collective bargaining and the right to strike".


title: José Mujica

text: Mujica was barred from running for reelection in 2014; the Constitution does not allow presidents to run for immediate reelection. Thus, on 1 March 2015, Mujica's term as president came to an end. He was succeeded by Vázquez, who returned to office for a second non-consecutive term. According to BBC correspondent Wyre Davies, "Mujica left office with a relatively healthy economy and with social stability those bigger neighbors could only dream of."


title: José Mujica

text: In 2005, Mujica married Lucía Topolansky, a fellow former Tupamaros member after many years living together. They have no children and live on a farm owned by Lucía in the outskirts of Montevideo, where they cultivate chrysanthemums for sale, having declined to live in the presidential palace or to use its staff. Also living at his farm is his three-legged dog, Manuela. Topolansky briefly served as acting president in November 2010 while her husband took part in a business delegation to Spain and Vice President Astori was on an official trip to Antarctica. Before then, she served in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.


title: José Mujica

text: Mujica has drawn worldwide attention for his simple lifestyle. He has used a 1987 Volkswagen Beetle as a means of transportation. In 2010, the value of the car was $1,800 and represented the entirety of the mandatory annual personal wealth declaration filed by Mujica for that year. In November 2014, the Uruguayan newspaper "Búsqueda" reported that he had been offered 1 million dollars for the car; he said that if he did get 1 million dollars for the car, it would be donated to house the homeless through a program that he supports.


title: José Mujica

text: During the last months of 2013, the Serbian film director Emir Kusturica started shooting a documentary on the life of Mujica, "El Pepe, una vida suprema" released in 2018, whom he considers "the last hero of politics". In 2014 Italian author Frank Iodice wrote the book "Breve dialogo sulla felicità", which centers on the life of Mujica. Ten thousand copies of the book were printed and distributed for free to local school children. In June 2016, Mujica received the Order of the Flag of Republika Srpska from the president of Republika Srpska, Milorad Dodik.


title: José Mujica

text: Uruguayan film director Álvaro Brechner's 2018 film "A Twelve-Year Night" ("La noche de 12 años") was based on Mujica's 12-year-long prison life under military dictatorship. It premiered in official selection at the 75th Venice International Film Festival, and it was selected as the Uruguayan entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 91st Academy Awards. The film won the Golden Pyramid Award at the 40th Cairo International Film Festival.


title: José Mujica

text: During a talk at the 28th Guadalajara International Book Fair (Mexico), on Sunday 7 December 2014, Mujica was interviewed by Mexican journalist Ricardo Rocha. Uruguay's President addressed several topics, such as drug trafficking, drug legalization, poverty and social injustice. "We live on the most unjust continent in the world, probably the richest, but with the worst distribution [of wealth]." On Latin America, José Mujica stated that he was "passionate about bringing Latin Americans together, about what defines us as belonging to a great nation that is to be created. There are multinational states, like China, like India, like what Europe is doing after a history of wars." Mujica also addressed the question of the shared linguistic heritage of Latin Americans, remarking with respect to the region's two major languages that "Portuguese is a sweet Spanish, if you speak it slowly... and even more so if it has a feminine sweetness." And he pointed out another element that unites the countries in Latin America: "We have another identity: the Christian and Catholic tradition." He concluded his talk by adding: "I see that there are many young people here; as an old man, a little advice: Life can set us a lot of snares, a lot of bumps, we can fail a thousand times, in life, in love, in the social struggle, but, if we search for it, we'll have the strength to get up again and start over. The most beautiful thing about the day is that it dawns. There is always a dawn after the night has passed. Don't forget it, kids. The only losers are the ones who stop fighting."


title: Kevin J. O'Connor (actor)

text: Kevin James O'Connor (born November 15, 1963) is an American actor, known for portraying character roles in major studio films such as "F/X2", "Lord of Illusions", "The Mummy", "Van Helsing", "There Will Be Blood" and "". He is a favorite of writer/directors Stephen Sommers and Paul Thomas Anderson, who often cast him in their films.


title: Kevin J. O'Connor (actor)

text: Kevin J. O'Connor was born in Chicago, the son of James O'Connor, a retired Chicago police officer, and Patricia Connelly, a teacher. He has a brother, Christopher O'Connor (a Southside school teacher). In 1988, he was married to Jane Elizabeth Unrue. O'Connor trained for the stage at The Theatre School at DePaul University in Chicago, before making his big-screen debut as high school rebel and beatnik poet Michael Fitzsimmons in Francis Ford Coppola's "Peggy Sue Got Married" (1986). His next major part was quizzical newspaper reporter Taggerty Hayes in the HBO miniseries "Tanner '88". He portrayed a young Ernest Hemingway in the 1988 film "The Moderns", had a small role in 1989's "Steel Magnolias", and a featured role in 1994's erotic thriller "Color of Night", which starred Bruce Willis and Jane March.


title: Kevin J. O'Connor (actor)

text: O'Connor worked with writer/director Stephen Sommers on the 1998 science-fiction adventure "Deep Rising". He subsequently appeared in Sommers' projects "The Mummy", in which he played the not-to-be-trusted and materialistic Beni; "Van Helsing", in which he played Count Dracula's devious servant (and Dr. Frankenstein's former assistant) Igor; and "", in which he portrayed Doctor Mindbender. O'Connor had a key supporting role in "There Will Be Blood" as Henry, the "brother" of Daniel Day-Lewis's oil man, Daniel Plainview. O'Connor also starred in John Candy's last film, "Canadian Bacon"; he portrayed Roy Boy, a suicidal, eccentric American intent on sabotaging Canada. He reunited with "There Will Be Blood" director Paul Thomas Anderson for a small role in "The Master".


title: Before Present

text: Before Present (BP) years, or "years before present", is a time scale used mainly in archaeology, geology and other scientific disciplines to specify when events occurred relative to the origin of practical radiocarbon dating in the 1950s. Because the "present" time changes, standard practice is to use 1 January 1950 as the commencement date (epoch) of the age scale. The abbreviation "BP" has been interpreted retrospectively as "Before Physics", which refers to the time before nuclear weapons testing artificially altered the proportion of the carbon isotopes in the atmosphere, which scientists must now account for.


title: Before Present

text: In a convention that is not always observed, many sources restrict the use of BP dates to those produced with radiocarbon dating; the alternative notation RCYBP stands for the explicit "radio carbon years before present".


title: Before Present

text: The BP scale is sometimes used for dates established by means other than radiocarbon dating, such as stratigraphy. This usage differs from the recommendation by van der Plicht & Hogg, followed by the "Quaternary Science Reviews", both of which requested that publications should use the unit "a" (for “annum”, Latin for “year”) and reserve the term "BP" for radiocarbon estimations.


title: Before Present

text: Some archaeologists use the lowercase letters "bp", "bc" and "ad" as terminology for uncalibrated dates for these eras.


title: Before Present

text: The Centre for Ice and Climate at the University of Copenhagen has proposed "b2k" as years before 2000 CE, based on the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 (GICC05) time scale.


title: Before Present

text: Radiocarbon dating was first used in 1940. Beginning in 1954, metrologists established 1950 as the origin year for the BP scale for use with radiocarbon dating, using a 1950-based reference sample of oxalic acid. According to scientist A. Currie Lloyd:


title: Before Present

text: The year 1950 was chosen because it was the standard astronomical epoch at that time. It also marked the publication of the first radiocarbon dates in December 1949, and 1950 also antedates large scale atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, which altered the global ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.


title: Before Present

text: Dates determined using radiocarbon dating come as two kinds: "uncalibrated" (also called "Libby" or "raw") and "calibrated" (also called "Cambridge") dates.


title: Before Present

text: "Uncalibrated" radiocarbon dates should be clearly noted as such by "uncalibrated years BP", because they are not identical to calendar dates. This has to do with the fact that the level of atmospheric radiocarbon (carbon-14 or C) has not been strictly constant during the span of time that can be radiocarbon-dated. Uncalibrated radiocarbon ages can be converted to calendar dates by means of calibration curves based on comparison of raw radiocarbon dates of samples independently dated by other methods, such as dendrochronology (dating on the basis of tree growth-rings) and stratigraphy (dating on the basis of sediment layers in mud or sedimentary rock). Such calibrated dates are expressed as cal BP, where "cal" indicates "calibrated years", or "calendar years", before 1950.


title: Before Present

text: Many scholarly and scientific journals require that published calibrated results be accompanied by the name (standard codes are used) of the laboratory concerned, and other information such as confidence levels, because of differences between the methods used by different laboratories and changes in calibrating methods.


title: Before Present

text: Conversion from Gregorian calendar years to Before Present years is by starting with the 1950-01-01 epoch of the Gregorian calendar and increasing the B. P. year count with each year into the past from that Gregorian date.


title: Before Present

text: For example, 1000 B. P. corresponds to 950 C. E., 1949 B. P. corresponds to 1 C. E., 1950 B. P. corresponds to 1 B. C. E., 2000 B. P. corresponds to 51 B. C. E., and so on.


title: Pulp magazine

text: Pulp magazines (also referred to as "the pulps") were inexpensive fiction magazines that were published from 1896 to the late 1950s. The term "pulp" derives from the cheap wood pulp paper on which the magazines were printed. In contrast, magazines printed on higher-quality paper were called "glossies" or "slicks". The typical pulp magazine had 128 pages; it was wide by high, and thick, with ragged, untrimmed edges.


title: Pulp magazine

text: The pulps gave rise to the term pulp fiction in reference to run-of-the-mill, low-quality literature. Pulps were the successors to the penny dreadfuls, dime novels, and short-fiction magazines of the 19th century. Although many respected writers wrote for pulps, the magazines were best known for their lurid, exploitative, and sensational subject matter, even though this was but a small part of what existed in the pulps. Successors of pulps include paperback books, digest magazines, and men's adventure magazines. Modern superhero comic books are sometimes considered descendants of "hero pulps"; pulp magazines often featured illustrated novel-length stories of heroic characters, such as Flash Gordon, The Shadow, Doc Savage, and The Phantom Detective.


title: Pulp magazine

text: The first "pulp" was Frank Munsey's revamped "Argosy" magazine of 1896, with about 135,000 words (192 pages) per issue, on pulp paper with untrimmed edges, and no illustrations, even on the cover. The steam-powered printing press had been in widespread use for some time, enabling the boom in dime novels; prior to Munsey, however, no one had combined cheap printing, cheap paper and cheap authors in a package that provided affordable entertainment to young working-class people. In six years, "Argosy" went from a few thousand copies per month to over half a million.


title: Pulp magazine

text: Street & Smith, a dime novel and boys' weekly publisher, was next on the market. Seeing "Argosy"s success, they launched "The Popular Magazine" in 1903, which they billed as the "biggest magazine in the world" by virtue of its being two pages (the interior sides of the front and back cover) longer than "Argosy". Due to differences in page layout however, the magazine had substantially less text than "Argosy". "The Popular Magazine" did introduce color covers to pulp publishing, and the magazine began to take off when in 1905 the publishers acquired the rights to serialize "Ayesha", by H. Rider Haggard, a sequel to his popular novel "She". Haggard's Lost World genre influenced several key pulp writers, including Edgar Rice Burroughs, Robert E. Howard, Talbot Mundy and Abraham Merritt. In 1907, the cover price rose to 15 cents and 30 pages were added to each issue; along with establishing a stable of authors for each magazine, this change proved successful and circulation began to approach that of "Argosy". Street and Smith's next innovation was the introduction of specialized genre pulps, with each magazine focusing on a particular genre, such as detective stories, romance, etc.


title: Pulp magazine

text: At their peak of popularity in the 1920s–1940s, the most successful pulps sold up to one million copies per issue. In 1934, Frank Gruber said there were some 150 pulp titles. The most successful pulp magazines were "Argosy", "Adventure", "Blue Book" and "Short Stories", collectively described by some pulp historians as "The Big Four". Among the best-known other titles of this period were "Amazing Stories", "Black Mask", "Dime Detective", "Flying Aces", "Horror Stories", "Love Story Magazine", "Marvel Tales", "Oriental Stories", "Planet Stories", "Spicy Detective", "Startling Stories", "Thrilling Wonder Stories", "Unknown", "Weird Tales" and "Western Story Magazine".


title: Pulp magazine

text: During the economic hardships of the Great Depression, pulps provided affordable content to the masses, and were one of the primary forms of entertainment, along with film and radio.


title: Pulp magazine

text: Although pulp magazines were primarily an American phenomenon, there were also a number of British pulp magazines published between the Edwardian era and World War II. Notable UK pulps included "Pall Mall Magazine", "The Novel Magazine", "Cassell's Magazine", "The Story-Teller", "The Sovereign Magazine", "Hutchinson's Adventure-Story" and "Hutchinson's Mystery-Story". The German fantasy magazine "Der Orchideengarten" had a similar format to American pulp magazines, in that it was printed on rough pulp paper and heavily illustrated.


title: Pulp magazine

text: During the Second World War paper shortages had a serious impact on pulp production, starting a steady rise in costs and the decline of the pulps. Beginning with "Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine" in 1941, pulp magazines began to switch to digest size; smaller, thicker magazines. In 1949, Street & Smith closed most of their pulp magazines in order to move upmarket and produce slicks.