title: Eric Carr

text: Flasher played the club circuit in New York City and Long Island for several months, before their keyboard player, Paul Turino quit; they then continued as a power trio, with the three sharing vocal duties. They played songs by Joe Jackson, Van Halen, Led Zeppelin and Jimi Hendrix, among others." Bookings diminished, and Caravello handed in his resignation in May 1980. At that point, he considered quitting music, having reached the age of 30 without any real success. Shortly afterwards, he had a chance meeting with Turino in a club in Queens; Turino told Caravello about Peter Criss' departure from Kiss, and urged Caravello to audition to become Kiss' drummer.


title: Eric Carr

text: Caravello applied for Kiss, submitting a cassette tape of Kiss' current single "Shandi" but with his vocals over the music instead of Paul Stanley's vocals. "It sounded great!" he enthused years later. The application was put into a bright orange folder to make it stand out visually. Jane Grod, a Kiss staffer, told him later she had noticed the brightly colored envelope and so picked it to be one reviewed from the pile.


title: Eric Carr

text: While sitting outside the room used for the audition, Caravello watched the three members of Kiss — Ace Frehley, Gene Simmons and Stanley — walk by to enter the room. He was one of the few people outside of the band's circle of friends, family and music business partners, to see Kiss without make-up. "Paul, I knew right away", he told a fanzine in 1990. "The others I wasn't sure about."


title: Eric Carr

text: Caravello was the last drummer to audition for the band and asked Stanley, Simmons and Frehley to autograph the list of Kiss songs he was to play with the band, in case he never saw them again. "But I knew I had it", he told a fanzine in 1990. According to Caravello, his audition was videotaped. He was also immediately comfortable, feeling the songs he had to play "...were a snap." He knew the arrangements better than the band did, from learning the recorded versions off Kiss' albums. "They had been on tour, and changed little things around," he said. He was not impressed with Kiss' performance at the audition. "They were awful!" he emphasized, "I had to remind them, "'No, I sing this harmony, you sing that one', stuff like that. It was great! Right away we were working together. I know it impressed them."


title: Eric Carr

text: A significant advantage for Caravello may have been his relative anonymity, as it was important for the band to maintain the mystique surrounding the members. Said Paul Stanley, "It was really important to us that we got somebody who was unknown... We didn't want somebody who last week was in Rod Stewart's band or in Rainbow." The press release announcing the induction of Caravello into Kiss deducted three years from his actual age in part to confuse those seeking information about his true identity, but also to help create an identification with Caravello – a young fan chosen out of the crowd to be the new Kiss drummer.


title: Eric Carr

text: After Caravello passed the audition, time was short but the band had some trouble coming up with a character persona and a stage name for him before his debut concert. "We never actually told him he was in the band," stated Paul Stanley on USA Network's "Night Flight" program in 1983, "We just said: "In two weeks we're playing.'"


title: Eric Carr

text: Caravello was alleged by Gene Simmons to have originally considered going by the name "Rusty Blade" until Simmons dissuaded him. He decided on "Eric Carr" quite carefully. He noticed that while the four members' full stage names were each three syllables long, Criss' name was the inverse of the other three band members' name syllable pattern – 'Peter Criss' was two syllables followed by a single syllable. He decided to make his stage name sound the same rhythmically as Peter Criss' by choosing a double syllable first name and a single syllable last name so when people said all four names together it would still fit the same to the ear. Carr was shortened from his birth name Caravello, and he chose Eric from a list of first names his girlfriend at the time had given him. Paul Caravello remained his legal name.


title: Eric Carr

text: For his Kiss persona, Carr initially tried "The Hawk"; this concept was apparently very difficult to realize in greasepaint – a suitable make-up design was never created, and the "Hawk" costume was a "bright orange yellow!" The idea was dropped after Paul Stanley mentioned that it looked like Big Bird. With the band on deadline (only two weeks before Carr's stage debut), Carr came up with the make-up design for the persona of "The Fox"; Simmons liked it and thus the character was born. The original design was modified within days of Carr's initial photo sessions and debut concert as a KISS member.


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr was introduced to the public on an episode of the syndicated television youth show "Kids Are People Too!" filmed in late July 1980 and aired in September 1980. His first public performance was with the band in New York City's Palladium on July 25, 1980. His parents, warned to not tell "anyone" their son was in Kiss (to maintain the mystique that no one knew what the new member looked like without make up), attended the concert, and were recognized by a friend who worked with Carr at a repair shop – and had no idea the new Kiss member behind the kit was his former coworker. "'What are you doing here?'", Carr's father, Albert Caravello, related in the "Tale of the Fox" DVD, "'You like Kiss?' I said, "Yeah!'" Carr also, immediately after joining Kiss, still did a few stove repair jobs. For Christmas in 1980, the Kiss organization bought Carr a Porsche—so their new drummer would ride around in appropriate rock star-style. The car broke down often, and caused Carr quite a bit of grief.


title: Eric Carr

text: His persona remained consistent for three years until the band's well-publicized removal of their stage makeup in September 1983, live on MTV. The drastic move came after declining album sales and a poorly attended US tour. Carr thought the band was coming to an end, but Kiss slowly turned their career descent into a rebound, and the band thrived. Carr earned a reputation amongst fans for being very friendly and approachable. He answered more mail than other band members, and often added messages to his autographs. Despite being a replacement of an original member, his popularity soared among fans based on his personality and percussion skills.


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr's first album with Kiss was 1981's "Music from "The Elder"", which marked a departure for the band toward a mystical art-rock direction. One of Carr's contributions to the album, "Under the Rose", is one of the few Kiss songs written in 6/8 time and featured a Gregorian chant-style chorus. Later, he would also have cowriter credits on "All Hell's Breakin' Loose", "Under the Gun", and "No, No, No", amongst others. Carr said he found writing lyrics harder than writing music.


title: Eric Carr

text: Besides drumming, Carr also played guitar, bass guitar and piano and sang background vocals. Occasionally he sang lead vocals, such as on "Black Diamond" and "Young and Wasted" live with Kiss. His first lead vocal in the studio was a re-recording of "Beth" (a song originally sung by Peter Criss) for the 1988 compilation album "Smashes, Thrashes & Hits". Carr recorded his version of the song in the same room in the Record Plant where the song was originally recorded, using the same backing track as Criss.


title: Eric Carr

text: In 1989, he recorded a demo with Kiss lead guitarist Bruce Kulick. Carr wrote the music, played bass and drums, while Kulick played guitar. As Carr was not a proficient lyricist, he presented the demo to Simmons with the words to Marvin Gaye's 1965 classic "Ain't That Peculiar". Simmons wrote new lyrics, which Carr recorded for the subsequent "Hot in the Shade" release. The song was released as "Little Caesar". He performed the song a few times, but it wasn't performed beyond the first month of the tour. Carr's last live performance with Kiss was November 9, 1990, in New York City, at Madison Square Garden.


title: Eric Carr

text: As a replacement member Carr was merely a paid employee with no vote, unlike the four founding members who shared profits and voting rights equally. Through Carr's years in Kiss, his lower rank was a source of significant pain for him. He felt excluded and unfairly treated as a second-class Kiss citizen, for instance not being allowed to share Simmons' and Stanley's limousine, only getting minimal exposure in videos such as the Kiss eXposed VHS, or being partially cropped out of the Asylum album cover. Unlike fellow bandmember Bruce Kulick with the same status, Carr grew ever-more frustrated and unhappy, culminating in his feeling ditched by Kiss during his 1991 hospitalization. In his autobiography Peter Criss listed Carr as one of the people that Simmons and Stanley "drove mad": Carr "was reduced to sitting in his hotel room naked with the blinds all drawn, drinking and refusing to come out."


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr's last recording with Kiss was for the song "God Gave Rock 'N' Roll to You II", which featured him on backing vocals. The last time Carr worked with Kiss was in July 1991 when Kiss filmed the video for "God Gave Rock 'N Roll to You" with Carr playing drums. Carr's last public appearance with the band was at the MTV Video Music Awards in September 1991.


title: Eric Carr

text: In his 2014 memoirs "Face the Music: A Life Exposed", Kiss frontman Paul Stanley described Carr as a kind and talented, but troubled soul. Carr allegedly fixated on the fact that he was neither going to be a founding member of Kiss, nor the band's first drummer. After having just met drummer Eric Singer and remaining insecure despite being in good standing with Kiss, Carr made the prescient claim that Singer was going to replace him as the new drummer in the band, which ultimately did occur in 1992 (after Carr's death). For long periods, he would not even talk to Stanley. In his book, Stanley also recalls several memorable Carr episodes, including one in which he went out with a female photographer who later took nude photos of him in a bathtub holding a glass of champagne, claiming that the photographer had promised not to publish them (the photos were soon publicized in the journal with which the photographer was associated).


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr was a powerful hard-hitting drummer and one of the first drummers to adopt the classic 1980s snare drum sound: a highly reverberated and low-tuned sound. In his 1980 resume sent to Kiss, Carr stated that his drumming style ranged from heavy metal and hard rock to pop and new wave claiming that "I can adapt to most situations easily." He listed drummers John Bonham, Keith Moon and Lenny White as influences.


title: Eric Carr

text: In addition, Carr was an avid fan of The Beatles and the band's drummer Ringo Starr. In an interview he recalled, "I was caught up in the whole Beatlemania thing. I guess I was attracted to the drums because of the feeling of the rhythm and how it moved you, just sitting in your seat. I loved the way Ringo moved. I identified with him at the time". Photographs of Carr during his high school years show him wearing his hair like Starr did.


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr's interest in double bass drumming came from his admiration of Ginger Baker and John Bonham, once telling "16" magazine, "I just loved the way John Bonham played drums". Carr also had a love of all types of music; songwriter Adam Mitchell once described Carr as knowing a lot about folk, R&B and other non-rock styles. In a 1983 interview, Carr told USA Network interviewer Al Bandero that he listened to "a lot" of Neil Young, and liked many different types of music. Simmons has stated that Carr's harder drumming style pushed Kiss into becoming a heavier band than it had been when jazz-inspired Criss was the band's drummer.


title: Eric Carr

text: In February 1991, Carr began feeling ill. Medical tests initially revealed what appeared to be manageable health issues. However, further tests determined that he had heart cancer. In April 1991, Carr underwent a series of surgeries to remove tumors in his right atrium and lungs in an effort to restore heart function and prevent the cancer's growth. Soon after Carr's diagnosis, Paul Stanley and Gene Simmons replaced him with session drummer Eric Singer to commence new recordings for the band's upcoming album "Revenge". After recovering from the multiple surgeries, Carr pressed Stanley and Simmons to let him back in the band. Stanley and Simmons refused; both have stated they repeatedly told Carr to focus on his cancer treatments and they would allow him to return to Kiss once he regained his health. By mid-1991, the band was preparing to shoot the music video for their upcoming single "God Gave Rock and Roll to You II". Despite his poor health, Carr asked Stanley and Simmons to allow him to be in the video. They ultimately agreed.


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr flew to Los Angeles in July 1991. By that point, he had lost his hair due to chemotherapy treatments and was wearing a wig. After the video shoot, Carr flew back to New York to continue cancer treatments; his health had deteriorated to the point where he was unable to play drums for the recording sessions for "Revenge". Carr's replacement, Eric Singer, played on the album's tracks.


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr's last public appearance with Kiss was at the MTV Video Music Awards in September 1991. Not long afterwards, he suffered an aneurysm and was rushed to the hospital. Several days later, he suffered a brain hemorrhage and never regained consciousness. On November 24, 1991, Carr died at the age of 41. He died on the same day as Freddie Mercury, the lead singer of the British rock band Queen, whose death attracted more media attention. Carr had also been in a nearly four-year relationship with future model/actress Carrie Stevens at the time of his death.


title: Eric Carr

text: In keeping with Carr's accessibility to his fans, his family decided to open his funeral service to the public while reserving the interment as a private event. Carr is interred in Cedar Hill Cemetery in the town of Newburgh, New York.


title: Eric Carr

text: Although it was not publicised at the time, Carr's death was considered controversial amongst his family and Kiss. Both Paul Stanley and Gene Simmons were labeled the "bad guys" by Carr for booting him out of the band and not supporting him in his time of need. The two were not made aware of this until they attended his funeral and were treated with hostility by Carr's family and friends. Stanley wrote in his autobiography that, at the time, he believed the allegation of mistreating Carr was simply untrue and that he did what he thought was right to support him. However, during Carr's service, Stanley admitted to "sobbing uncontrollably" and came to regret how he had treated Carr during his illness.


title: Eric Carr

text: Former Kiss guitarist Bruce Kulick, along with Carr's family, released Carr's first and only solo album in 1999, titled "Rockology", which featured many demos that Kulick and Carr worked on together (along with songwriter and friend Adam Mitchell). The CD features several songs with Carr on lead vocals as well as on bass guitar, along with Kulick on guitars and Mitchell assisting Carr with many of the background vocals. This album includes "Somebody's Waiting" and "Tiara", a song that he originally wrote for his planned children's cartoon show called "Rockheads", a rock band parody featuring four characters (Slider, Clive, Scruffy and Punky) with different characteristics and personalities. Carr is a relative of skater Perry Caravello, star of the cult film classic "Windy City Heat". Carr's family had published one of his unreleased albums called "Unfinished Business" in 2011,the album consists of 18 songs and being 43 minutes. The album has Carr's audition song "Shandi".


title: Eric Carr

text: As a tribute, the group's 1992 release "Revenge" featured what is said to be the only drum solo Carr ever recorded with the band, entitled "Carr Jam 1981", a jam session recorded for the "Music From "The Elder"" sessions (former Kiss guitarist Ace Frehley's original guitar part was overdubbed by Bruce Kulick). Much of the soloing was seasoned during Kiss' 1980 Unmasked Tour of Europe and Australia, and put down during the "Music From "The Elder"" sessions. Carr had for years been trying to get his hands on a copy of the solo for his personal collection, but his request was always rebuffed by Bob Ezrin with the excuse that he did not know where the masters for the session were. After Carr's death, the solo surfaced as "Carr Jam 1981".


title: Eric Carr

text: The "Revenge" album was dedicated to Carr. He was also paid homage on the "Kiss My Ass" and "Kissology 2" videos. However, the band declined a tribute concert that was requested by a circle of fans the year after his death. Simmons stated, "We didn't want to do a tribute concert. We are dedicating the album to his name, but no concerts in his name. It's not our style."


title: Eric Carr

text: A further tribute was produced in 1992 called "Eric Carr: The Memorial Tribute". It was first broadcast live on 88.1 FM / WCWP, where Carr had been interviewed three years earlier while doing press for the "Hot in the Shade" album. Running for approximately three hours, the tribute featured a re-broadcast of the interview, interspersed with biographical information and details of Carr's extracurricular projects, along with all the officially released songs Carr had written or cowritten. Though broadcast just once, "Eric Carr: The Memorial Tribute" was released several years later (seemingly in an unofficial capacity) as a two-tape box set, designed to resemble the Kiss solo albums. It featured a newly commissioned painting of Carr in his fox makeup, patterned after the rarely seen original by Eraldo Carugati (the artist who did the paintings for the original four Kiss solo album covers, plus one of Carr that was never officially released).


title: Eric Carr

text: On numerous solo tours since Carr's death, Frehley would play "Breakout" (with lyrics written by Carr and Frehley and later re-recorded as "Carr Jam '81" on Kiss' "Revenge" album) and dedicate it to Carr, who Frehley hopes is "checking out the show up there". Frehley also dedicated his 2009 solo album "Anomaly" to Carr.


title: Eric Carr

text: There is a hidden "easter egg" in the 2007 "Kissology II" DVD collection (on disc three at the end of the production credits) showing a family videotape made of Carr, on his hospital bed, speaking into the camera thanking his fans for their cards, letters, and concern about his health. Dressed in white, Carr then exits the bed, and begins walking away only to return and moon the camera in rock n' roll style.


title: Eric Carr

text: On March 21, 2011, a book that explored Carr's entire life and musical career was released, titled "The Eric Carr Story".


title: Eric Carr

text: On August 13, 2011, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Carr's death, a tribute concert was held in Atlanta, Georgia called "Night of the Fox: The Eric Carr Tribute Concert". The main act, going under the name Little Caesar, played a 90-minute set of songs related to Carr. Made up mostly of Kiss songs from Carr's time in the band, the show also featured a song from "Rockology" ("Eyes of Love") plus songs written or co-written by Carr but recorded by other artists, such as "Don't Leave Me Lonely", a song recorded by Bryan Adams which was written by Carr for inclusion on "Creatures of the Night" album, but was rejected. Also, a tribute album featuring never released songs and interviews called "Unfinished Business" was released by his family. The album featured members and former members of Kiss, Twisted Sister, Seether, ZO2, Europe. The album was released on November 8, 2011.


title: Eric Carr

text: Fifteen years to the day of Carr's Kiss debut, he was posthumously inducted into the "Rock Walk Hall of Fame" at Guitar Center in Hollywood. Carr's parents, Albert and Connie Caravello, accepted a plaque in Carr's honor. Former Kiss guitarist Ace Frehley was inducted in the "Rock Walk" during the same ceremony. Frehley's handprint was not added to the Kiss display. Carr's acknowledgment was a bronze plaque with his name, autograph and a separate icon of the Fox makeup he wore. Both were added to the Kiss display.


title: Eric Carr

text: In July 2005, Carr was voted the tenth best drummer of all time by Planet Rock. No other member of Kiss was given the distinction of making the top ten in the categories of vocalist, bassist or guitarist. Carr was one of only two American drummers to make the list, with all others being either British or Canadian.


title: Eric Carr

text: Carr's family announced in 2006 that they would release material written and recorded by Carr between 1980 and 1991, including the following songs:


title: Eric Carr

text: Though stated by Carr's family that the recordings would be released in 2006, they remain unreleased as of 2022. Some of the songs were released on the 2011 album, "Unfinished Business", while others wound up on "Rockology".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Rupi Kaur (born 4 October 1992) is a Canadian poet, illustrator, photographer, and author. Born in Punjab, India, Kaur emigrated to Canada at a young age with her family. She began performing poetry in 2009 and rose to fame on Instagram, eventually becoming a popular poet through her three collections of poetry.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: In March 2015, as a part of her university photography project, Kaur posted a series of photographs to Instagram depicting herself with menstrual blood stains on her clothing and bedsheets. Instagram removed the image, in response to which Kaur wrote a viral critique of the company's actions. As a result of the incident, Kaur's poetry gained more traction and her initially self-published debut collection, "Milk and Honey" (2014), was reprinted to widespread commercial success.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: The success of "Milk and Honey" proved worrisome for Kaur as she struggled throughout the creation of the follow-up, "The Sun and Her Flowers" (2017). She experienced burnout after the release, but soon recovered. She wanted to feel less pressure for commercial success, which influenced her third collection, "Home Body" (2020) – a partial response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Considered to be a part of the "Instapoetry" group, Kaur's work is simplistic in nature and explores South Asian identity, immigration and femininity; her childhood and personal life serve as sources of inspiration. Line drawings accompany her poetry with stark subject matters.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Her social media numbers are similar to that of pop music, TV and film stars. Since its release in 2014, her collection "Milk and Honey," has sold over 2.5 million copies in 25 languages, spending 77 weeks on the New York Times Best-Seller List. Kaur has been praised for influencing the modern literary scene, although Kaur's poetry has had mixed critical reception and been subject to frequent parody; she has been dogged by claims of plagiarism by fellow "Instapoets". Kaur has been included on congratulatory year-end lists by the BBC and "Elle"; "The New Republic" controversially called her the "Writer of the Decade".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Kaur was born into a Sikh family in Punjab, India, on 4 October 1992. At age three, she emigrated to Canada with her parents. Her father had left before and wasn't present for Kaur's birth. Due to financial instability, he would send back supplies suitable for Kaur and her upbringing. She lived with her parents and three younger siblings in a one-bedroom basement flat, where they slept in the same bed. Her family eventually settled in Brampton, Ontario, alongside a large South Asian diaspora community, while Kaur's father worked as a truck driver.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: When her father lived in Japan he'd write Punjabi poetry to Kaur's mother, who practiced painting. At the age of 5, Rupi Kaur began to take on her mother's hobby of painting. However, she was imposed to do so as she was given a paintbrush and forced to draw. Her mother wanted to instill this art in her since it was so close to home. Also, Kaur recalled that poetry was a recurrent aspect of her faith, spirituality and everyday life: "There were evenings when my dad would sit around for hours, analyzing a single verse for hours". As a child, Kaur would find herself embarrassed by her mother's accent and try to distance herself. Kaur was generally self-conscious about her identity. Her mother was occasionally distant to Kaur, as a result of her family and culture, particularly when Kaur was on her period; menstruating, alongside her childhood abuse, often left Kaur debilitated. Her relationship with her parents, in particular her mother, become turbulent in her adolescence; there were extensive arguments over mundane activities that Kaur later interpreted as a result of wishing to preserve their original culture. As a young child she witnessed relatives and friends experience domestic violence or sexual abuse; watching her parents be subject to racism, she inferred, resulted in her coy disposition. Her environment growing up led to her developing what she deemed "constant survival mode".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: She performed kirtan and Indian classical music for several years. Kaur aspired to be an astronaut or a social worker or a fashion designer; her ambitions changed frequently and her father prohibited her from studying the latter subject in university. She expressed an interest in reading from a young age, finding it relieved her loneliness. Her interest was hindered by Kaur having English as a second language, first learning it at age 10, although she considered her affinity for books as akin to a friendship. She only began to amass confidence and social skills in fourth grade.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: An initial aversion to English meant Kaur was effectively mute for a period of time. Throughout middle school she partook in "speech competitions", winning one in seventh grade, thus helping her find progress and hope in spite of isolation and bullying. According to Kaur, she was an easy target for ridicule due to her outward appearance and vulnerability. Kaur was subject to various comments about her appearance from her parents and peers. She had begun to grow in confidence following sixth grade and it was writing and performing that led her to "[find] her voice". She experienced the nadir of her education during high-school, as she sustained, what she considered, toxic care. Her feelings were relieved upon forgoing people who she described as "very dangerous for me". Poetry brought her solace as she dealt with being self-conscious – of literature, she read, among others, Amrita Pritam, Maya Angelou, Roald Dahl, Dr. Seuss and J. K. Rowling.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: She studied rhetoric and professional writing at the University of Waterloo; she'd teach creative-writing classes for high school and college students while in education herself. When studying poetry she'd "agonize over each and every word": "I would have to pull out the list of literary devices my teacher gave me and my 10 colorful pens. It was like doing surgery on the damn thing."


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Kaur first began performing poetry in 2009. Although she found spoken-word poetry "really natural", describing her first show as "Like a damn hug", she'd fidget with the paper above her face, leaving before audiences clapped due to her anxiety. Her poetry at first received a lukewarm reception, having been told that she was too aggressive for certain venues or made some people uncomfortable. "So many people around me early on thought it was absolutely ridiculous". Kaur started writing in an attempt to articulate her personal trauma, having just left an abusive relationship – which influenced her decision to perform poetry: "I wanted to find a voice, because I had been voiceless for so long". At university, her writing became more reflective than before, having previously written about boys she liked and the political changes she wanted to see in the world – although she was, by her own admission, ignorant on the matter, her poems at first lambasted the Canadian government. Kaur would often be in conflict with her parents over her choice to pursue poetry.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Throughout high school, Kaur shared her writing anonymously. She took the stage surname of Kaur because "Kaur is the name of every Sikh woman – brought in to eradicate the caste system in India – and I thought, wouldn't it be empowering if a young Kaur saw her name in a book store?". From 2013 onward, she began sharing her work without a pseudonym on Tumblr before moving to Instagram in 2014 where she started adding simple illustrations. Around this time, she began to garner a cult following and, at times, had 600 attendees at her shows, her career, thus far, having been subject to "[almost] word of mouth". Her first poem posted on Instagram regarded a wife coping with her husband's alcoholism; she described the experience as cathartic.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: At first submitted her poetry to literary anthologies, magazines and journals, to little success. Kaur's first book, "Milk and Honey", was self-published on Createspace on 4 November 2014, after she begun work at age 18. She created the poems in "Milk and Honey" "entirely for [herself], with zero concept of book in mind", and sold more than 10,000 copies. Kaur recalled that she was hesitant to submit to magazines or journals because it "felt like I was taking apart ["Milk and Honey"] and throwing things at different walls, hoping they would stick. I feel like it only made sense when it was [collected] because this is a body of work".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: In March 2015, as a part of her university photography project, Kaur – intending to challenge prevalent societal menstrual taboos and the objectification of women – posted a series of photographs to Instagram depicting herself with menstrual blood stains on her clothing and bed sheets. Internet trolls harassed Kaur over the photos, which were twice removed for not complying with the site's terms of service; Kaur claimed that she was not notified beforehand or given a reason and criticised their censorship as misogynistic and reaffirming what she sought to condemn – deeming the act an "attack on my humanity". Instagram apologized and brought back the images, citing a mistaken removal.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Her response went viral, credited with bringing Kaur more followers and leading to the subsequent rise in popularity of her poetry. She later regretted writing her response, finding widespread disdain affected her mental health, experiencing anxiety that "sort of set in and never really left" and suicidal thoughts for a period of time. That same year, she wrote 10 chapters of a yet unpublished novel.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: As Kaur rose to prominence on social media, "Milk and Honey" was re-released by Andrews McMeel Publishing, which saw her work alongside an editor for the first time. It became a "blockbuster" success and, as of 2017, has sold 2.5 million copies worldwide and translated into 25 languages – the same year, it was the best-selling book in Canada. During a poetry reading in 2015, Kaur, upon seeing a line of her fans that extended four street blocks, fully realised the extent of her audience and grew more confident in her poetry as a result. She performed a TED Talk the next year. Kirsty Melville, publisher and president of AMP, credits the book's success with Kaur's connection to her readers.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: At age 22, she employed seven people to aid her, as a part of a company she founded. While writing, her team often manages her social media. She would later describe the success of "Milk and Honey" as surreal, noting a deeply sentimental and inspiring attachment.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Following a three-month writing trip in California, and in the same year as her induction into the Brampton Arts Walk of Fame, Kaur's second book, "The Sun and Her Flowers", was published, on 3 October 2017. She views it as a "one long continuous poem that goes on for 250 pages", "which while birthed in Instagram, is a concept that depends on being bound". As of 2020, the book has sold upwards of a million copies and has been translated into multiple languages. In 2018, she made nearly $1.4 million from poetry sales. That same year, she performed at the Jaipur Literary Festival: "It was as if I had waited my whole life for this moment. It was my only show, where I wasn't nervous. The crowd was energetic."


title: Rupi Kaur

text: While touring the world, she experienced feelings of depression and anxiety. The process of creating "The Sun and Her Flowers" and trying to replicate her success affected her mental health, reporting "furious 12-hour [writing] stretches" and 72-hour migraines. She experienced months of writer's block and frustration at her work, ultimately calling its creation the "greatest challenge of my life". Following its release, she dealt with feelings of burnout – writing the poem ""Timeless"" in response. These feelings began to subside as she viewed them as transient – aided by Elizabeth Gilbert's "Big Magic," which she said "saved my life"."" By early 2019, she entered therapy to ease her depression and anxiety.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: That year, she was commissioned by Penguin Classics to write an introduction for a new edition of Kahlil Gibran's "The Prophet", in anticipation of that book entering the public domain in the United States and performed at the London Book Fair. Kaur considers Gibran an influence and has dubbed "The Prophet" her "life bible".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Kaur released her new poetry collection, entitled "Home Body", on 17 November 2020. The collection featured illustrations from Kaur and became one of the best-selling books of 2020. Intent with feeling less pressure for commercial profit, Kaur reached out to fellow authors for guidance – having felt imposter syndrome during its creation due to "Milk and Honey"'s success. She begun work in 2018, during a time of depression and concluded the process amidst a period of introspection, a by-product of the COVID-19 pandemic, as is "Home Body", in Kaur's eyes.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Kaur moved back in to her parents' house in Brampton and began teaching workshops on Instagram Live, due to feelings of loneliness and fear and a desire to connect with her audience. To her students, she emphasizes a natural and therapeutic approach to writing.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: She self-released a poetry special, "Rupi Kaur Live", consisting of poetry readings and anecdotes accompanied by visuals and music, in April 2021, after it was turned down by streaming services – Kaur acknowledged that it was an atypical prospect. By August that year it had been released on Amazon Prime in a limited capacity. Explaining the impetus, Kaur recalled her separation of performance and prose, attempting to hide the former, and how her eventual marriage of the two styles "in maybe 2016" allowed the show to occur. In 2021, she performed as a part of a tribute to Jack Layton.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Since Gurmukhi script has no concept of separate lower and upper case, her work is written exclusively in lowercase, using only the period as a form of punctuation; Kaur writes this way to honour the Punjabi language. She said that she enjoys the equality of letters and that the style reflects her worldview. The experience of learning English upon moving to Canada and studying poetry has influenced her writing style, subsequently tailoring her work to be accessible, particularly by readers learning English. Kaur has emphasized her poetry's relation to South Asian culture – to the point that she's weary of Western readers fully understanding it.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Her poems often conclude with either a final italicized line that either identify its audience or articulate its theme or her name. In her article for "The Globe and Mail", Tajja Isen described this as Kaur's "trademark move" and likened it to the use of a hashtag. Kaur's style ranges from aphoristic, inspirational and confessional, although her poems aren't "100 percent autobiographical" – the fictional elements being often opaque in regards to their authenticity. Kaur's childhood: her fickle temperament, her Sikh identity and her dad's activism – which included Kaur partaking in protests as a child – affected her poems.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: The writing process begins with her starting on paper and then transferring the "most promising" material to an extended Microsoft Word document. Oftentimes after this process culminates, she attaches a compelling image along with her poems to complement the verses. Lastly, it concludes after she has narrowed the poem to its main elements and she has received affirmation from her sister. Her printed poems are often excerpts from longer spoken-word work, publishing "the part that really made my stomach turn". Due to treating writing as a "form of healing", she doesn't consider the audience, solely valuing her response and engagement. Across all her projects, she maintains "full creative control", contributing towards aspects such as the cover and minutiae of her books. Kaur has said that she approaches her poetry like running a business and writes "to perform it", seeing the stage as where her ambitions are fully achieved. Within the context of performance, her use of line breaks and periods represent where she would pause and where a new idea would be introduced, respectively.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Her written poetry focus upon design, whereas her performances centre on rhyme, narrative and delivery. She performs in a sing-song manner, at times alongside audience members, Kaur making use of original music scores and ornate projections. Carol Muske-Dukes highlighted that, in being a "performative poet", Kaur continues a tradition of "the page enact[ing] [the performance] in the mind". Elisa New spotlighted Kaur's proximity and similarities with spoken-word and hip-hop artists.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Sparse line drawings accompany her poems. They have been compared to outsider art; her drawings and poetry have seen allusions to childhood artistry. The National Poetry Library noted that the art in "Milk and Honey", functions like a graphic novel. The style of drawing continues in "The Sun and Her Flowers." Her illustrations, juxtaposed with the poems, are "striking" and "often disturbing", with one, for example, linking self-harm with despair. Images that appear in her work include twisting bodies, crawling flowers, and fingers forming the shapes of hearts. Kaur explained that her style is intended to be recognisable and evoke a brand, akin to Apple's. She creates them following their respective poem being written. Since its inception, Kaur's public image has been denoted as authentic and individual; spiritual and boldly feminist.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Alongside her peers – Nayyirah Waheed, Lang Leav, Warsan Shire – and other "Instapoets", Kaur's plainspoken and free verse poetry is delivered in a "bite-size" manner – some poems only composing of one line. With "The Sun and Her Flowers", her poems expanded their length. "[W]ith its epigrammatic brevity, plain language, and empowering messages", Kaur's poetry has been said to be emblematic of the common "Instapoet" style. Kaur, who dislikes the term "Instapoet", has also been said to belong to a "new generation of migrant writers, a generation who 'sits-in, tweets, posts and broadcasts'". She has been said to be possibly the "representative of an entire generation's values and ethos". She differs from her peers in her focus upon self-care and depiction of pain as intertwined with triumph. Kaur has said that she writes for "the generation that's reading my work...I am writing something that is believable to that generation".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Tina Daheley and "The New York Times"' Gregory Cowles recognized a candid and lyrical nature in Kaur's poetry with Cowles saying that her "artless vulnerability [is] like a cross between Charles Bukowski and Cat Power". Due to her usage of dry, open-ended, and colloquial language, Kaur has been said to break from and reject traditional standards and features of poetry which are held in importance. Matthew Zapruder, Becky Robertson of "Quill & Quire" and Kaur identified a universal quality in her work. Literature scholar Alyson Miller wrote that Kaur makes use of "gendered yet ostensibly universal themes relating to sexism, trauma, friendship, and violence".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Following "Milk and Honey", she became more selective in regards to publishing her poetry online, having extensively showcased her work online unless embarrassed by the content. "Over the years, I've distanced myself from it...When the numbers started to grow, I started to overthink things. I felt more pressure to be correct and perfect all the time". Focusing upon "design, marketing, creative writing and branding", Kaur's Instagram account, with 3.5 million followers, fluctuates between photographs of Kaur and her poetry, with South Asian people and iconography as a prominent focus. Using "The Sun and Her Flowers" as a base, her poetry special had an "ethereal nature-driven aesthetic", featuring large yellow flower petals around the stage and projected. She refined her aesthetic into a more stylised manner following the release of "Beyoncé" (2013). Kaur has described Beyoncé as an influence, as well as Sharon Olds, Marina Abromovich, Adele, Kahlil Gibran, Nizzar Qabbani, Amrita Sher-Gil and Frida Kahlo. Furthermore, Kaur takes inspiration from herself, her friends and her mother.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Kaur' poetry explores a small selection of themes alongside issues faced by Indian women and immigrants, female trauma and the "South Asian experience". Her mother is a subject she treats with reverence in her work and pays tribute to her parents in her poem "Broken English" – Kaur credits her mother, due to significant sacrifices made in Kaur's childhood, with her career as a poet. Eleanor Ty wrote that Kaur, by means of her poetry, "reveals a sophisticated understanding of the psychological complexities of family dynamics". Although examined differently, her written and performed poetry share the same themes.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Domestic and sexual violence were a particular focus of her initial work and rape related trauma became more explicit after "Milk and Honey". She explored violence and trauma heavily in her early work because "I had this desire to unpack so many deeper emotions and issues that I'd seen affecting me and so many women around me". Her poem, "I'm Taking My Body Back", concerns her surviving a sexual assault. Kaur has admitted that writing about these heavy subjects can be both cathartic and troublesome to her mental wellbeing. She writes in the second person in her most solemn depictions of domestic abuse, "as if [she] is attempting to distance herself from her experience of physical abuse".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Common cultural metaphors and motifs such as honey, fruit and water arise in her work. Many of her poems concern "women as a collective". A sense of mystic transcendentalism can be found, often intertwined with discourse on 'natural' beauty. "Milk and Honey" has themes of abuse, love, loss and healing. Love serves as her general primary theme. Feminism, refugees, immigration and her South Asian identity became more prominent in "The Sun and Her Flowers," alongside musings on body dysmorphia, abuse, rape and self-love. Kaur said of the books that they're are "inward" and "outward" journeys, respectively; "The Sun and Her Flowers" has more breadth of themes. Influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic, "Home Body" examines themes of capitalism, productivity and mental health, more than before.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: The most popular of the "Instapoets", and dubbed the "Oprah of her generation," Chiara Giovanni of Buzzfeed News noted that Kaur's celebrity – which has led her peer Kazim Ali to call her perhaps the most famous poet of all time – is "more akin to that of a pop star like [Ariana] Grande than a traditional poet", crediting her accessibility. Agatha French, writing for the "Los Angeles Times", compared reactions to the announcement of "The Sun and Her Flowers," by Kaur's majority young and female fans, to "the fervent devotion of Beatles fans" – she's been credited with "spearhead[ing] the merging of poetry and pop culture". Her live performances routinely have hundreds of attendees, with turnout, at times, as high as 800 people.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: According to Kaur, her success has "democratised poetry and literature in general" – Kaur also credits Instagram with the perceived democratisation of poetry, feeling that her working class and racial background wouldn't allow her to be published otherwise. Regarded as a "pioneer" of the "Instapoet" style, Erica Wagner noted Kaur's influence in what she called the "biggest overall shift [in reading habits] we've seen in the past decade". Kaur has instigated greater focus on poetry by booksellers, American adults and young people. In 2017, a rise of poetry sales in Canada and in the United Kingdom prompted attribution to Kaur.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Fans have praised her for writing about her personal trauma and elevating diversity in a "overwhelmingly" white literary scene. Her poetry has been credited with "inspir[ing] [a] hub of creativity for young black girls"; author Tanya Byrne argued that fellow BAME writers should replicate Kaur's self-publishment. Her style of menstrual activism has become "more the norm than the exception", with many women of color generating similar media attention since Kaur. She has inspired various young poets to begin the practice. "Kaur has become...a voice for the marginalized", wrote Sadaf Ahsan, for "National Post;" literature scholar Lili Pâquet saw such a signifier as resulting from the fallout of her menstrual photographs. Scholars have characterized her as a "decolonial feminst poet".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Her series of menstrual photographs elicited a very mixed reception. She received death threats levied towards her, which led to emotional numbness and a subsequent distancing from social media. In retrospect, Amika George, a British activist who campaigns against period poverty in the United Kingdom, credits Kaur's menstrual photographs with being the "catalyst for opening up the conversation about periods". Allison Jackson of "The World", Jane Helpern of "i-D" and, literary scholar Anna Camilleri espoused similar notions in 2015. Various feminist artists defended Kaur when her menstrual photographs were taken down. Kaur noted an effect on her friends in Punjab, as they had frank discussions with their families regarding periods. In response to the reception of her photos, Kaur initially said:Kaur later admitted that for many years internet trolls had "left me broken", having previously dismissed such ideas. To resolve her dismay, she came to the conclusion that "I'm here to speak my truth and connect with readers, and that's it. None of the negative voices matter in the end". Her work have been the subject of memes online, usually in the form of parody poems mocking Kaur's writing style, their prominence having been compared to a cottage industry. Ahsan described Kaur as a "social media commodity", a status from which she prospers. In 2017, a book parodying Kaur's poetry, entitled "Milk and Vine", was released. Kaur considers disdain for the fame her work has garnered to be analogous to the reception of contemporary art, seeing both as disparaged for being "easy".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Waheed and Shire, among Kaur's influences, have accused her of plagiarism. Claims by Waheed's supporters are based on Kaur and her lack of punctuation and use of honey as a metaphor. Kaur has denied claims of plagiarism, speculating about the likelihood of similar experiences and that their similar themes and use of honey is a "by-product of our times", comparing contemporary concurrent artistic development to that in the Renaissance or Victorian periods – Kaur attributing their namesakes as said development.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Critics have been less laudatory than general audiences. Kaur has become "something of a polarizing figure in the literary, publishing, and media communities", whose "work is often knocked as being lowbrow or trite, or not in the rich tradition of serious poetry". Her use of contemporary vernacular has drawn ire. Other criticisms include her work being formulaic, attenuated and juvenile. Kaur feels that her work can't be "fully reviewed or critiqued through a white lens or a Western one". According to Ali, "no criticism has been leveled at Kaur that hasn't been similarly leveled at "actual" poets", citing Mary Oliver, Jane Hirshfield, Sharon Olds and Lucille Clifton.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Rebecca Watts lambasted her poems' popularity and accessibility, describing them as "artless" and characterised by "the open denigration of intellectual engagement and rejection of craft" – Priya Khaira-Hanks, writing for "The Guardian", remarked that Kaur's accessibility often led to "over-simplicity". Watts' criticism was supported and disparaged by poets alike. Isen disparaged what she regarded as an overly explanatory style, particularly when performed, as "the belated imposition of rhythm" fails to conceal compositional shortcomings. Carl Wilson and Khaira-Hanks argued that her mainstream success and personal identity contributed towards people disregarding her work. Kaur's poetry and her status as a poet has been dismissed and seen to be of inauthentic quality; this perception has been rebuked.


title: Rupi Kaur

text: Watts considered Kaur to be more concerned with authenticity than the "traditional craft of poetry". In an essay for "The Baffler", Soraya Roberts chastised Kaur as disingenuously representative of female South Asian oppression, when she is purportedly chiefly concerned with commodification; Pâquet echoed similar sentiments. The lack of distinction between personal and collective trauma has received further criticism. Miller viewed Kaur's work as vague and clichéd, citing an example depicting oppression: "kaur, a woman of sikhi".


title: Rupi Kaur

text: In 2017, BBC and "Vogue" listed Kaur in their lists of women of the year; "Quill & Quire" chose "The Sun and Her Flowers" for their annual list of the best books. The next year she was included on "Forbes" and "Elle"'s complimentary lists of emerging artists. In 2019, "The New Republic" named Kaur "Writer of the Decade", due to her impact on the medium of poetry; this led to a debate on whether the award was deserved, as well as about her work in general.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The Roman conquest of Britain refers to the conquest of the island of Britain by occupying Roman forces. It began in earnest in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius, and was largely completed in the southern half of Britain by 87 when the Stanegate was established. Conquest of the far north and Scotland took longer with fluctuating success.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The Roman army was generally recruited in Italia, Hispania, and Gaul. To control the English Channel they used the newly formed fleet.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The Romans under their general Aulus Plautius first forced their way inland in several battles against British tribes, including the Battle of the Medway, the Battle of the Thames, and in later years Caratacus's last battle and the Roman conquest of Anglesey. Following a widespread uprising in AD 60 in which Boudica sacked Camulodunum, Verulamium and Londinium, the Romans suppressed the rebellion in the Defeat of Boudica. They went on eventually to push as far north as central Caledonia in the Battle of Mons Graupius. Even after Hadrian's Wall was established as the border, tribes in Scotland and northern England repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and forts continued to be maintained across northern Britain to protect against these attacks.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since Julius Caesar's expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the "status quo" of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. Augustus prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. According to Augustus's "Res Gestae", two British kings, Dubnovellaunus and Tincomarus, fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign, and Strabo's "Geographica", written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: By the 40s AD, the political situation within Britain was in ferment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester). The Atrebates tribe whose capital was at Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester) had friendly trade and diplomatic links with Rome and Verica was recognised by Rome as their king, but Caratacus' Catuvellauni conquered the entire kingdom some time after AD 40 and Verica was expelled from Britain.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Caligula may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to Suetonius' "The Twelve Caesars", he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the English Channel and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather seashells, referring to them as "plunder from the ocean due to the Capitol and the Palace". Alternatively, he may have actually told them to gather "huts", since the word "musculi" was also soldier's slang for engineers' huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers. In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at Bononia (modern Boulogne-sur-Mer), the "Tour d'Ordre", that provided a model for the one built soon after at Dubris (Dover).


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: In 43, possibly by reassembling Caligula's troops from 40, Claudius mounted an invasion force under overall charge of Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. A pretext of the invasion was to reinstate Verica, the exiled king of the Atrebates.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: It is unclear how many legions were sent as only the ", commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was directly attested to have taken part.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The ', the ' (later styled ') and the ' (later styled ") are known to have served during the Boudican revolt of 60–61, and were probably there since the initial invasion, but the Roman army was flexible, with cohorts and auxiliary units being moved around whenever necessary.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion. Cassius Dio mentions Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, who probably led the "IX Hispana", and Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a military tribune. Eutropius mentions Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Bononia (Boulogne), and the main landing at Rutupiae (Richborough, on the east coast of Kent). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne, it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough has a large natural harbour which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the Solent, landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus (Chichester) or Southampton, in territory formerly ruled by Verica.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway. The Battle of the Medway raged for two days. Gnaeus Hosidius Geta was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the Roman triumph. At least one division of auxiliary Batavian troops swam across the river as a separate force.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The British were pushed back to the Thames. They were pursued by the Romans across the river, causing some Roman losses in the marshes of Essex. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. The Praetorian cohorts accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in AD 43. The Arch of Claudius in Rome says he received the surrender of eleven British kings with no losses, and Suetonius' "The Twelve Caesars" says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought war elephants and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory. Caratacus escaped with his family, retainers, and treasure, to continue his resistance further west.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: After the invasion, Verica may have been restored as king of the Atrebates although by this time he would have been very elderly. In any case a new ruler for their region, Cogidubnus, soon appeared as his heir and as king of a number of territories following the first stage of the conquest as a reward as a Roman ally.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Vespasian took a force westwards, subduing tribes and capturing "oppida" settlements as he went. The force proceeded at least as far as Exeter, which became a base for the Roman legion, Legio II Augusta, from 55 until 75. Legio IX Hispana was sent north towards Lincoln () and by 47 it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is unlikely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was fixed with modern precision during this period.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula, began a campaign against the tribes of modern-day Wales, and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended the Welsh border country. Caratacus himself led this guerilla campaign but was defeated when he finally chose to offer a decisive battle; he fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines. Their queen Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however, given her own accommodation with the Romans, and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Anatolia. Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted a successful campaign across North Wales, famously killing many druids when he invaded the island of Anglesey in 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of Boudica forced the Romans to return to the south east in 60 or 61.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Following the successful suppression of Boudica's uprising in 60 or 61, a number of new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The leader of the Brigantes was queen Cartimandua. Her husband was Venutius; one speculation is that he might have been a Carvetian and may therefore have been responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into a Brigantian federation whose territory straddled Britain along the Solway-Tyne line. Cartimandua may have ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines (possibly with a centre at Stanwick), while Venutius was the chief of the Brigantes (or Carvetii) west of the Pennines in Cumbria (with a possible centre based at Clifton Dykes.) Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by Venutius in 69. The Romans evacuated Cartimandua leaving Venutius in power.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Tacitus says that in 71 Quintus Petillius Cerialis (governor AD 71–74) waged a successful war against the Brigantes. Tacitus praises both Cerialis and his successor Julius Frontinus (governor 75–78).


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Much of the conquest of the north may have been achieved under the governorships of Vettius Bolanus (governor AD 69–71), and of Cerialis. From other sources, it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle (Luguvalium) suggest that they were felled in AD 72, during the governorship of Cerialis. Lead ingots from Deva Victrix, the Roman fortress at Chester, indicate that construction there was probably under way by AD 74. Nevertheless, Gnaeus Julius Agricola played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX Valeria Victrix (71–73), while Cerialis led the IX Hispania in the east. In addition, the Legio II Adiutrix sailed from Chester up river estuaries to cause surprise to the enemy.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The western thrust was started from Lancaster, where there is evidence of a Cerialian foundation, and followed the line of the Lune and Eden river valleys through Low Borrow Bridge and Brougham (Brocavum). On the Cumbrian coast, Ravenglass and Blennerhasset were probably involved from evidence of one of the earliest Roman occupations in Cumbria. Beckfoot and Maryport may also have featured early on. At some point between 72 and 73, part of Cerialis's force moved across the Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola, as evidenced by campaign camps (which may have been previously set up by Bolanus) at Rey Cross, Crackenthorpe, Kirkby Thore and Plumpton Head. Signal- or watch-towers are also in evidence across the Stainmore area - Maiden Castle, Bowes Moor and Roper Castle, for example. The two forces then moved up from the vicinity of Penrith to Carlisle, establishing the fort there in AD 72–73.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: He returned to the conquest of Wales interrupted years before and with steady and successful progress finally subdued the Silures in circa 76 and other hostile tribes, establishing a new base at Caerleon for Legio II "Augusta" (Isca Augusta) in 75 and a network of smaller forts fifteen to twenty kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. During his tenure, he probably established the fort at Pumsaint in west Wales, largely to exploit the gold deposits at Dolaucothi. He left the post in 78, and later he was appointed water commissioner in Rome.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The new governor was Agricola, returning to Britain, and made famous through the highly laudatory biography of him written by his son-in-law, Tacitus. Arriving in mid-summer of 78, Agricola completed the conquest of Wales in defeating the Ordovices who had destroyed a cavalry ala of Roman auxiliaries stationed in their territory. Knowing the terrain from his prior military service in Britain, he was able to move quickly to subdue them. He then invaded Anglesey, forcing the inhabitants to sue for peace.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The following year he moved against the Brigantes of northern England and the Selgovae along the southern coast of Scotland, using overwhelming military power to establish Roman control.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Tacitus says that after a combination of force and diplomacy quieted discontent among the Britons who had been conquered previously, Agricola built forts in their territories in 79. In 80, he marched to the Firth of Tay (some historians hold that he stopped along the Firth of Forth in that year), not returning south until 81, at which time he consolidated his gains in the new lands that he had conquered, and in the rebellious lands that he had re-conquered. In 82, he sailed to either Kintyre or the shores of Argyll, or to both. In 83 and 84, he moved north along Scotland's eastern and northern coasts using both land and naval forces, campaigning successfully against the inhabitants and winning a significant victory over the northern British peoples led by Calgacus at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Archaeology has shown the Romans built military camps in the north along Gask Ridge, controlling the glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands, and also throughout the Scottish Lowlands in northeastern Scotland.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Agricola built a network of military roads and forts to secure the Roman occupation. Existing forts were strengthened and new ones planted in northeastern Scotland along the Highland Line, consolidating control of the glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands. The line of military communication and supply along southeastern Scotland and northeastern England (i.e., Dere Street) was well-fortified. In southernmost Caledonia, the lands of the Selgovae (approximating to modern Dumfriesshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright) were heavily planted with forts, not only establishing effective control there, but also completing a military enclosure of south-central Scotland (most of the Southern Uplands, Teviotdale, and western Tweeddale). In contrast to Roman actions against the Selgovae, the territories of the Novantae, Damnonii, and Votadini were not planted with forts, and there is nothing to indicate that the Romans were at war with them. Agricola was recalled to Rome in 84.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: In 2019, GUARD Archaeology team led by Iraia Arabaolaza uncovered a marching camp dating to the 1st century AD, used by Roman legions during the invasion of Roman general Agricola. According to Arabaolaza, the fire pits were split 30 metres apart into two parallel lines. The findings also included clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to between AD 77 and 86 and AD 90 loaded with burn and charcoal contents. Archaeologists suggested that this site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest of Ayrshire.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Agricola's successors are not named in any surviving source, but it seems they were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge in Perthshire, erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius, were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to leave the Caledonians alone and only under "de jure" submission.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: With the decline of imperial ambitions in Scotland (and Ireland) by AD 87 (the withdrawal of the XX legion), consolidation based on the line of the Stanegate road (between Carlisle and Corbridge) was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a "centurio regionarius" (or district commissioner). When the Stanegate became the new frontier it was augmented by large forts as at Vindolanda and additional forts at half-day marching intervals were built at Newbrough, Magnis (Carvoran) and Brampton Old Church.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The years 87–117 were of consolidation and only a few sites north of the Stanegate line were maintained, while the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made. There does not seem to have been any rout caused as a result of battles with various tribes.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Modifications to the Stanegate line, with the reduction in the size of the forts and the addition of fortlets and watchtowers between them, seem to have taken place from the mid-90s onwards. Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot, Maryport, Burrow Walls (near to the present town of Workington) and Moresby (near to Whitehaven). Other forts in the region were built to consolidate Roman presence (Beckfoot, for example may date from the late 1st century). A fort at Troutbeck may have been established from the period of Emperor Trajan (98–117) onwards. Other forts that may have been established during this period include Ambleside (Galava), positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the Lake District. From here, a road was constructed during the Trajanic period to Hardknott Roman Fort. A road between Ambleside to Old Penrith and/or Brougham, going over High Street, may also date from this period.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Under Hadrian (117–138), Roman occupation was withdrawn to a defendable frontier in the River Tyne-Solway Firth frontier area by the construction of Hadrian's Wall from around 122.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: When Antoninus Pius rose to the throne, he moved quickly to reverse the empire limit system put in place by his predecessor. Following his defeat of the Brigantes in 139 AD, Quintus Lollius Urbicus, the Roman Governor of Britannia, was ordered by Antoninus Pius to march north of Hadrian's Wall to conquer the Caledonian Lowlands which were settled by the Otadini, Selgovae, Damnonii and the Novantae, and to push the frontier further north. Lollius Urbicus moved three legions into position initially establishing his supply routes from Coria and Bremenium and moved three legions, the Legio II Augusta from Caerleon, the Legio VI Victrix from Eboracum, and the Legio XX Valeria Victrix from Deva Victrix into the theatre between 139 and 140 AD, and thereafter moved his army, a force of at least 16,500 men, north of Hadrian's Wall.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The Selgovae, having settled in the regions of present-day Kirkcudbrightshire and Dumfriesshire immediately northwest of Hadrian's Wall, were amongst the first of the Caledonian tribes to face Lollius Urbicus's legions together with the Otadini. The Romans, who were well versed in warfare on hilly terrain since their founding, moved quickly to occupy strategic points and high ground, some of which had already been fortified by the Caledonians with hill forts. One such was Burnswark Hill which was strategically located commanding the western route north further into Caledonia and where significant evidence of the battle has been found.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: By 142 the Romans had pacified the entire area and had successfully moved the frontier north to the River Clyde-River Forth area when the Antonine Wall was constructed. After two decades this was abandoned in 162 and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis. Meanwhile, the Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Roman troops, however, penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. Indeed, there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: The most notable later expedition was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus, claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the Maeatae tribe, campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy, a coalition of Brittonic Pictish tribes of the north of Britain. He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with cavalry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from the sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from the Danube for the purpose. According to Dio Cassius, he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics before having to withdraw to Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute the construction of the wall to him. During the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall, Septimius Severus's wife, Julia Domna, criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women; the wife of Argentocoxos, a Caledonian chief, replied: "We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst". This is the first recorded utterance confidently attributable to a native of the area now known as Scotland. The emperor Septimius Severus died at York while planning to renew hostilities, and these plans were abandoned by his son Caracalla.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Emperor Constantius came to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, after the provincial defences had been rebuilt following the Carausian Revolt. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn.


title: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of "exploratores" in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the Goidelic-speaking island of Hibernia (modern Ireland) is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland.


title: Paparazzi

text: Paparazzi (, ; ; singular: masculine paparazzo or feminine paparazza) are independent photographers who take pictures of high-profile people; such as actors, musicians, athletes, politicians, and other celebrities, typically while subjects go about their usual life routines. Paparazzi tend to make a living by selling their photographs to media outlets that focus on tabloid journalism and sensationalism (such as gossip magazines).


title: Paparazzi

text: Paparazzi tend to be independent contractors, unaffiliated with mainstream media organizations, and photos taken are usually done so by taking advantage of opportunities when they have sightings of high-profile people they are tracking. Some experts have described the behavior of paparazzi as synonymous with stalking, and anti-stalking laws in many countries address the issue by seeking to reduce harassment of public figures and celebrities, especially when they are with their children. Some public figures and celebrities have expressed concern at the extent to which paparazzi go to invade their personal space. The filing and receiving of judicial support for restraining orders against paparazzi has increased, as have lawsuits with judgments against them.


title: Paparazzi

text: Walter Santesso portrays Paparazzo in the 1960 film "La Dolce Vita", marking the character as the eponym of the word paparazzi.


title: Paparazzi

text: Ron Galella is well known for his obsessive stalking of several celebrities, most notably Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. Galella has been defined "the Godfather of the U.S. paparazzi culture".


title: Paparazzi

text: Rino Barillari is an Italian paparazzo known as the "King of the Paparazzi" in Italy. He was awarded the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic in 1998.


title: Paparazzi

text: A news photographer named Paparazzo (played by Walter Santesso in the 1960 film "La Dolce Vita" directed by Federico Fellini) is the eponym of the word "paparazzi". In his book "The Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins", Robert Hendrickson writes that Fellini named the "hyperactive photographer ... after Italian slang for 'mosquito.'" As Fellini said in his interview to "Time" magazine, ""Paparazzo" ... suggests to me a buzzing insect, hovering, darting, stinging." Those versions of the word's origin are sometimes contested. For example, in the Abruzzo dialect spoken by Ennio Flaiano, co-scriptwriter of "La Dolce Vita", the term "paparazzo" refers to the local clam, "Venerupis decussata", and is also used as a metaphor for the shutter of a camera lens.


title: Paparazzi

text: Further, in an interview with Fellini's screenwriter Flaiano, he said the name came from the book "Sulla riva dello Jonio" (1957), a translation by Italian poet Margherita Guidacci of "By the Ionian Sea", a 1901 travel narrative in southern Italy by Victorian writer George Gissing. He further states that either Fellini or Flaiano opened the book at random, saw the name of a restaurant owner, Coriolano Paparazzo, and decided to use it for the photographer. This story is further documented by a variety of Gissing scholars and in the book "A Sweet and Glorious Land. Revisiting the Ionian Sea".


title: Paparazzi

text: By the late 1960s, the word, usually in the Italian plural form "paparazzi", had entered English as a generic term for intrusive photographers. A person who has been photographed by the paparazzi is said to have been "papped".


title: Paparazzi

text: A transliteration of "paparazzi" is used in several languages that do not use the Latin alphabet, including Japanese (), Korean (), Ukrainian, Russian (), Bulgarian (папараци), Thai and Hebrew. Chinese uses , meaning "puppy squad". Khmer uses (anak bramanh roub).


title: Paparazzi

text: Due to the reputation of paparazzi as a nuisance, several countries and states restrict their activities by passing laws and curfews, and by staging events in which paparazzi are specifically not allowed to take photographs. In the United States, celebrity news organizations are protected by the First Amendment.


title: Paparazzi

text: To protect the children of celebrities, California passed Senate Bill No. 606 in September 2013. The purpose of the bill is to stop paparazzi from taking pictures of children or wards in a harassing manner because of their parent's occupation. This law increased the penalty for harassment of children. California Civil Code sections 1708.7 and 1708.8 explicitly address stalking and invasion of physical privacy.


title: Paparazzi

text: In 1972, paparazzo photographer Ron Galella sued Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis after the former First Lady ordered her Secret Service agents to destroy Galella's camera and film following an encounter in New York City's Central Park. Kennedy counter-sued claiming harassment. The trial lasted three weeks and became a groundbreaking case regarding photojournalism and the role of paparazzi. In "Galella v. Onassis", Kennedy obtained a restraining order to keep Galella away from her and her children. The restriction was later reduced to . The trial is a focal point in "Smash His Camera", a 2010 documentary film by director Leon Gast.


title: Paparazzi

text: In 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales and Dodi Fayed were killed in a limousine crash as their driver was speeding, trying to escape paparazzi. An inquest jury investigated the role of paparazzi in the incident, but no one was convicted. The official inquests into the accident attributed the causes to the speed and manner of driving of the Mercedes, as well as the following vehicles, and the impairment of the judgment of the Mercedes driver, Henri Paul, through alcohol.


title: Paparazzi

text: In 1999, the "Oriental Daily News" of Hong Kong was found guilty of "scandalizing the court", an extremely rare charge where the judiciary find that the newspaper's conduct undermines confidence in the administration of justice. The charge was brought after the newspaper had published abusive articles challenging the judiciary's integrity and accusing it of bias in a lawsuit the paper had instigated over a photo of a pregnant Faye Wong. The paper had also arranged for a "dog team" (slang for paparazzi in the Chinese language) to track a judge for 72 hours, to provide the judge with first-hand experience of what paparazzi do.


title: Paparazzi

text: "Time" magazine's Style & Design special issue in 2005 ran a story entitled "Shooting Star", in which Mel Bouzad, one of the top paparazzi in Los Angeles at the time, claimed to have made US$150,000 for a picture of Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez in Georgia after their breakup. "If I get a picture of Britney and her baby," Bouzad claimed, "I'll be able to buy a house in those hills (above Sunset Boulevard)." "Paparazzi" author Peter Howe told "Time" that "celebrities need a higher level of exposure than the rest of us so it is a two-way street. The celebrities manipulate."


title: Paparazzi

text: In 2006, Daniella Cicarelli went through a scandal when a paparazzo caught video footage of her having sex with her boyfriend on a beach in Spain, which was posted on YouTube. After fighting in the court, it was decided in her favor, causing YouTube to be blocked in Brazil. This caused major havoc among Brazilians, including threatening a boycott against MTV Brasil, where Cicarelli worked, unless she was fired. The block only lasted a few days, and Cicarelli was not dismissed. The legal action backfired as the court decided she had no expectation of privacy by having sex in a public location.


title: Paparazzi

text: The E! network program "Celebrities Uncensored" used often-confrontational footage of celebrities made by paparazzi.


title: Paparazzi

text: Following the publication of photographs showing Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge sunbathing whilst topless at the French holiday home of her husband's cousin Viscount Linley, it was announced on September 14, 2012, that the royal couple were to launch legal action against the French edition of "Closer" magazine. It was the first time that a senior British royal has sued in a court outside the UK. The reason cited for the legal action is that the Duchess had a right of privacy whilst at the home—the magazine responded that the pictures had been taken from the public highway. The injunction was granted on September 18, 2012, and the publishers of the magazine were ordered not to publish the photographs in France and not to sell the images. The publishers were also ordered to hand over the original material of the published pictures under threat of a €10,000 fine for every day of delay in doing so.


title: Paparazzi

text: In the United Kingdom, Sienna Miller, Amy Winehouse, and Lily Allen have won injunctions that prevent the paparazzi from following them and gathering outside their houses. Miller was awarded £53,000.


title: Paparazzi

text: In 2013, rapper Kanye West faced assault charges after attacking a photojournalist. He stated that he would fight to get the law changed, so celebrities can profit from paparazzis' work.


title: Paparazzi

text: In addition to legal action, celebrities have taken other measures to avoid paparazzi. When Daniel Radcliffe was performing in the play "Equus" in London, he wore the same hat and jacket every day for six months, to make the photos look old and therefore "unpublishable".


title: Dallas Stars

text: The Dallas Stars are a professional ice hockey team based in Dallas. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Central Division in the Western Conference, and were founded during the 1967 NHL expansion as the Minnesota North Stars, based in Bloomington, Minnesota. Before the 1978–79 NHL season, the team merged with the Cleveland Barons after the league granted them permission due to each team's respective financial struggles. Ultimately, the franchise relocated to Dallas for the 1993–94 NHL season. The Stars played out of Reunion Arena from their relocation until 2001, when the team moved less than into the American Airlines Center.


title: Dallas Stars

text: The Stars have won eight division titles in Dallas, two Presidents' Trophies as the top regular-season team in the league, the Western Conference championship three times, and the Stanley Cup in 1998–99. Joe Nieuwendyk won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs that year.


title: Dallas Stars

text: In 2000, Neal Broten was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame. In 2009, Brett Hull became the first Dallas Stars player inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame, followed by Ed Belfour and Joe Nieuwendyk in 2011 and Mike Modano in 2014; Modano is the highest-scoring player in franchise history. In 2010, brothers Derian and Kevin Hatcher were inducted to the United States Hockey Hall of Fame. The franchise has appeared in the Stanley Cup finals five times (1981, 1991, 1999, 2000, and 2020) and has won one championship (1999).


title: Dallas Stars

text: The Minnesota North Stars began play in 1967 as part of the league's six-team expansion. Home games were played at the newly constructed Metropolitan Sports Center ("Met Center") in Bloomington, Minnesota. Initially successful both on the ice and at the gate, the North Stars fell victim to financial problems after several poor seasons in the mid-1970s.


title: Dallas Stars

text: In 1978, the North Stars merged with the Cleveland Barons (formerly the California Golden Seals), owned by George III and Gordon Gund. With both teams on the verge of folding, the league permitted the two failing franchises to merge. The merged team continued as the Minnesota North Stars, while the Seals/Barons franchise records were retired. However, the Gunds were the merged team's principal owners, and the North Stars assumed the Barons' place in the Adams Division in order to balance out the divisions. The merger brought with it a number of talented players, and the North Stars were revived—they reached the Stanley Cup Finals in 1981, where they lost in five games to the New York Islanders. However, by the early 1990s, declining attendance and the inability to secure a new downtown revenue-generating arena led ownership to request permission to move the team to the San Francisco Bay Area in 1990. The league rejected the request and instead agreed to award an expansion franchise, the San Jose Sharks, to the Gund brothers. The North Stars were sold to a group of investors that were originally looking to place a team in San Jose, although one of the group's members, former Calgary Flames part-owner Norman Green, would eventually gain control of the team. In the following season, the North Stars made it to the Stanley Cup Finals, only to lose to the Pittsburgh Penguins.


title: Dallas Stars

text: After the 1990–91 season, the North Stars suffered through declining profits coupled with distraction and uncertainty caused by relocation attempts. The team's fortunes were further impeded by the terms of the settlement with the Gund brothers, in which they were permitted to take a number of North Stars players to San Jose. In their final two seasons in Minnesota, the team adopted a new logo which omitted any reference to the word "North" from "North Stars", leading many fans to anticipate the team heading south. Green explored the possibility of moving the team to Anaheim to play at a new arena (which is now the Honda Center) under construction, and intended to call the team the Los Angeles Stars. However, in 1992 the league decided to award an expansion franchise to The Walt Disney Company to play in Anaheim's new arena.


title: Dallas Stars

text: In 1993, amid further attendance woes and bitter personal controversy, Green obtained permission from the league to move the team to Dallas, for the 1993–94 season, with the decision announced on March 10, 1993. Green was convinced by former Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach that Dallas would be a suitable market for an NHL team. With the team's move to the Southern United States, Green decided to drop the "North" adjective but otherwise retained the "Stars" nickname, which in its shortened form quickly proved popular as it matched Texas' official nickname as "The Lone Star State." The Stars would move into Reunion Arena, built in 1980, the downtown arena already occupied by the National Basketball Association's Dallas Mavericks.


title: Dallas Stars

text: To quell the ensuing controversy, the NHL promised that the Twin Cities would receive an expansion franchise in the future; that promise was fulfilled in 2000 in the form of the Minnesota Wild.


title: Dallas Stars

text: With the league changing the names of the conferences and divisions that season, the newly relocated Stars were placed in the Central Division of the Western Conference, and played their first game in Dallas on October 5, 1993, a 6–4 win against the Detroit Red Wings. In that game, Neal Broten scored the first Stars goal in Dallas. Dallas was an experiment for the league. At that time, the Stars would be one of the three southernmost teams in the league, along with the newly created Tampa Bay Lightning and Florida Panthers, as the league's first real ventures into southern non-traditional hockey markets. Though the Stars were relatively still unknown in the area, word of the team spread rapidly, and the immediate success of the team on the ice, as well as Mike Modano's career-best season (50 goals, 93 points) helped spur the team's popularity in Dallas. The Stars set franchise bests in wins (42) and points (97) in their first season in Texas, qualifying for the 1994 playoffs. The Stars further shocked the hockey world by sweeping the St. Louis Blues in the first round, but lost to the eventual Western Conference Champion Vancouver Canucks in the second round. The Stars' success in their first season, along with Modano's spectacular on-ice performances, would be an integral part of the Stars' eventual franchise success in the immediate years to come.


title: Dallas Stars

text: The almost immediate success of the Stars was also helped by the long legacy of minor-league hockey in the area. Both incarnations of the Central Hockey League had two teams in the area, the Fort Worth Texans and the Dallas Black Hawks for years before the Stars' arrival. These two teams were bitter rivals, and some of the traditions and famous rivalry incidents, including what is thought to be the first known use anywhere at an athletic event of "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Fort Worth and the famous "10 Cent Beer Night" near-riot in 1978 helped create awareness of hockey. Amateur and youth hockey were also extremely popular because of the long presence of the minor league teams.


title: Dallas Stars

text: Green, who had run into financial problems stemming from his business ventures outside of hockey, was forced to sell the team to businessman Tom Hicks in December 1995.


title: Dallas Stars

text: The 1994–95 season was shortened by an owners' lockout. The Stars traded captain Mark Tinordi along with Rick Mrozik to the Washington Capitals before the season began for Kevin Hatcher. Longtime North Stars hold-over Neal Broten was named his replacement, although he was traded too after only 17 games to the New Jersey Devils. Broten was replaced by Kevin's younger brother Derian Hatcher as team captain, a role he would serve in for the next decade. The Stars played only 48 games that season posting a record of 17–23–8. Despite the shortened season and the losing record, the Stars again made the playoffs, losing in five games to the Red Wings in the first round.


title: Dallas Stars

text: The 1995–96 season would be the first full season under new owner Tom Hicks. In the off-season, the Stars traded for former Montreal Canadiens' captain and three-time Frank J. Selke Trophy winner Guy Carbonneau, who was then with the St. Louis Blues. With the Stars struggling to begin the season, general manager and head coach Bob Gainey traded for center Joe Nieuwendyk from the Calgary Flames in exchange for Corey Millen and Jarome Iginla, then a Stars prospect. The Stars recorded only 11 wins in the first half of the season, and Bob Gainey relinquished his coaching duties in January to be the full-time general manager of the team. The Stars soon hired Michigan K-Wings head coach Ken Hitchcock to replace him; it would be his first NHL head coaching position. The Stars then traded for Benoit Hogue from the Toronto Maple Leafs late in the season, but ultimately finished in sixth place in the Central Division, missing the playoffs for the first time since moving to Texas.


title: Dallas Stars

text: In the 1996 off-season, the Stars continued to revamp their roster, adding defensemen Darryl Sydor from the Los Angeles Kings followed by Sergei Zubov from the Pittsburgh Penguins for Kevin Hatcher. Zubov would serve as the Stars' top defenseman and powerplay quarterback until leaving the league in 2009. On the ice, Ken Hitchcock's first season proved to be a good one. The Stars bested their 1994 totals, posting 48 wins and reaching the 100-point mark for the first time in franchise history. The Stars won the Central Division, their first division title since 1983–84 (when they were still the Minnesota North Stars) and were seeded second in the playoffs. Despite the regular-season success, the youthful Stars were upset in the first round by the Edmonton Oilers in seven games. Defenseman Grant Ledyard tripped in overtime of Game 7, allowing Todd Marchant to score the game- and series-winning goal on a breakaway against goaltender Andy Moog.


title: Dallas Stars

text: During the 1997 off-season, the Stars signed star goaltender Ed Belfour as a free agent after a well-publicized falling-out with the San Jose Sharks, which had traded a number of players to the Chicago Blackhawks to obtain him in January in the previous season. Andy Moog was allowed to leave via free agency, but later returned to the Stars as an assistant coach. The 1997–98 season was another banner year for the Stars. The Stars again set franchise records in wins (49) and points (109). Dallas acquired Mike Keane at the deadline from the New York Rangers. The Stars won the franchise's first Presidents' Trophy as the league's best regular-season team, as well as the Central Division title for the second season in a row. Belfour set franchise season records for goals against average (1.88), wins (37) and just missed out on the Jennings Trophy by one goal to Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils. The Stars were the first overall seed for the 1998 Stanley Cup playoffs and defeated the eighth-seeded San Jose Sharks in six games in the first round. Notorious enforcer Bryan Marchment injured Joe Nieuwendyk's right knee, forcing him to miss the rest of the playoffs with torn ligaments. In the second round, they again met the Edmonton Oilers, this time defeating them in five games. However, without Nieuwendyk, the Stars lacked the firepower to overcome the defending Stanley Cup champion Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Finals and lost in six games. The Red Wings went on to win their second consecutive Stanley Cup.


title: Dallas Stars

text: In the 1998 off-season, after falling just short in the Western Conference Finals, the Stars added what they believed was the final piece toward winning a championship: star goalscoring winger Brett Hull. Hull had already had a successful career with the St. Louis Blues, with three consecutive 70-goal seasons and a Hart Memorial Trophy, but a fallout with Blues management led Hull to leave St. Louis via free agency. Additionally, this was the first season for the Stars in the Pacific Division after the 1998 NHL division re-alignment.


title: Dallas Stars

text: In the 1998–99 season, the Stars won 51 games, surpassing the 50-win mark for the first time in franchise history. They also recorded 114 points, which still stands today as a franchise record. They won the Pacific Division by 24 points, their third consecutive division title; a second consecutive Presidents' Trophy; the Jennings Trophy as the league's top defensive team; and were awarded home-ice advantage throughout the 1999 playoffs. Winger Jere Lehtinen was also awarded the Frank J. Selke Trophy.