title: Falsifiability

text: Popper was interested in the overall learning process in science, to quasi-induction, which he also called the "path of science". However, Popper did not show much interest in these reasoning patterns, which he globally referred to as psychologism. He did not deny the possibility of some kind of psychological explanation for the learning process, especially when psychology is seen as an extension of biology, but he felt that these biological explanations were not within the scope of epistemology. Popper proposed an evolutionary mechanism to explain the success of science, which is much in line with Johnson-Laird's view that "induction is just something that animals, including human beings, do to make life possible", but Popper did not consider it a part of his epistemology. He wrote that his interest was mainly in the "logic" of science and that epistemology should be concerned with logical aspects only. Instead of asking why science succeeds he considered the pragmatic problem of induction. This problem is not how to justify a theory or what is the global mechanism for the success of science but only what methodology do we use to pick one theory among theories that are already conjectured. His methodological answer to the latter question is that we pick the theory that is the most tested with the available technology: "the one, which in the light of our "critical discussion", appears to be the best so far". By his own account, because only a negative approach was supported by logic, Popper adopted a negative methodology. The purpose of his methodology is to prevent "the policy of immunizing our theories against refutation". It also supports some "dogmatic attitude" in defending theories against criticism, because this allows the process to be more complete. This negative view of science was much criticized and not only by Johnson-Laird.


title: Falsifiability

text: In practice, some steps based on observations can be justified under assumptions, which can be very natural. For example, Bayesian inductive logic is justified by theorems that make explicit assumptions. These theorems are obtained with deductive logic, not inductive logic. They are sometimes presented as steps of induction, because they refer to laws of probability, even though they do not go beyond deductive logic. This is yet a third notion of induction, which overlap with deductive logic in the following sense that it is supported by it. These deductive steps are not really inductive, but the overall process that includes the creation of assumptions is inductive in the usual sense. In a fallibilism perspective, a perspective that is widely accepted by philosophers, including Popper, every learning step only creates or reinforces an assumption—that is all what science does.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper distinguished between the logic of science and its applied "methodology". For example, Newton's law of gravitation is falsifiable—it is falsified by "The brick fell upwards when released". An explanation for this imaginary state of affairs such as some hidden force other than gravity acting on the brick would make it more intuitive, but is not needed for falsifiability, because it is a logical criterion. The empirical requirement on the potential falsifier, also called the "material requirement", is only that it is observable inter-subjectively with existing technologies. The logical part consists of theories, statements and their purely logical relationship together with this material requirement, which is needed for a connection with the methodological part.


title: Falsifiability

text: The methodological part consists, in Popper's view, of informal rules, which are used to guess theories, accept observation statements as factual, etc. These include statistical tests: Popper is aware that observation statements are accepted with the help of statistical methods and that these involve methodological decisions. When this distinction is applied to the term "falsifiability", it corresponds to a distinction between two completely different meanings of the term. The same is true for the term "falsifiable". Popper said that he only uses "falsifiability" or "falsifiable" in reference to the logical side and that, when he refers to the methodological side, he speaks instead of "falsification" and its problems.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper said that methodological problems require proposing methodological rules. For example, one such rule is that, if one refuses to go along with falsifications, then one has retired oneself from the game of science. The logical side does not have such methodological problems, in particular with regard to the falsifiability of a theory, because basic statements are not required to be possible. Methodological rules are only needed in the context of actual falsifications.


title: Falsifiability

text: So observations have two purposes in Popper's view. On the methodological side, observations can be used to show that a law is false, which Popper calls falsification. On the logical side, observations, which are purely logical constructions, do not show a law to be false, but contradict a law to show its falsifiability. Unlike falsifications and "free from the problems of falsification", these contradictions establish the value of the law, which may eventually be corroborated. He wrote that an entire literature exists because this distinction was not observed.


title: Falsifiability

text: In Popper's view of science, statements of observation can be analyzed within a logical structure independently of any factual observations. The set of all purely logical observations that are considered constitutes the empirical basis. Popper calls them the "basic statements" or "test statements". They are the statements that can be used to show the falsifiability of a theory. Popper says that basic statements do not have to be possible in practice. It is sufficient that they are accepted by convention as belonging to the empirical language, a language that allows intersubjective verifiability: "they must be testable by intersubjective observation (the material requirement)". See the examples in section .


title: Falsifiability

text: In more than twelve pages of "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", Popper discusses informally which statements among those that are considered in the logical structure are basic statements. A logical structure uses universal classes to define laws. For example, in the law "all swans are white" the concept of swans is a universal class. It corresponds to a set of properties that every swan must have. It is not restricted to the swans that exist, existed or will exist. Informally, a basic statement is simply a statement that concerns only a finite number of specific instances in universal classes. In particular, an existential statement such as "there exists a black swan" is not a basic statement, because it is not specific about the instance. On the other hand, "this swan here is black" is a basic statement. Popper says that it is a singular existential statement or simply a singular statement. So, basic statements are singular (existential) statements.


title: Falsifiability

text: Thornton says that basic statements are statements that correspond to particular "observation-reports". He then gives Popper's definition of falsifiability:


title: Falsifiability

text: As in the case of actual falsifiers, decisions must be taken by scientists to accept a logical structure and its associated empirical basis, but these are usually part of a background knowledge that scientists have in common and, often, no discussion is even necessary. The first decision described by Lakatos is implicit in this agreement, but the other decisions are not needed. This agreement, if one can speak of agreement when there is not even a discussion, exists only in principle. This is where the distinction between the logical and methodological sides of science becomes important. When an actual falsifier is proposed, the technology used is considered in detail and, as described in section , an actual agreement is needed. This may require using a deeper empirical basis, hidden within the current empirical basis, to make sure that the properties or values used in the falsifier were obtained correctly ( gives some examples).


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper says that despite the fact that the empirical basis can be shaky, more comparable to a swamp than to solid ground, the definition that is given above is simply the formalization of a natural requirement on scientific theories, without which the whole logical process of science would not be possible.


title: Falsifiability

text: In his analysis of the scientific nature of universal laws, Popper arrived at the conclusion that laws must "allow us to deduce, roughly speaking, more "empirical" singular statements than we can deduce from the initial conditions alone." A singular statement that has one part only can not contradict a universal law. A falsifier of a law has always two parts: the initial condition and the singular statement that contradicts the prediction.


title: Falsifiability

text: However, there is no need to require that falsifiers have two parts in the definition itself. This removes the requirement that a falsifiable statement must make prediction. In this way, the definition is more general and allows the basic statements themselves to be falsifiable. Criteria that require that "a law" must be predictive, just as is required by falsifiability (when applied to laws), Popper wrote, "have been put forward as criteria of the meaningfulness of sentences (rather than as criteria of demarcation applicable to theoretical systems) again and again after the publication of my book, even by critics who pooh-poohed my criterion of falsifiability."


title: Falsifiability

text: Scientists such as the Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon have studied the semantic aspects of the logical side of falsifiability. These studies were done in the perspective that a logic is a relation between formal sentences in languages and a collection of mathematical structures. The relation, usually denoted formula_13, says the formal sentence formula_14 is true when interpreted in the structure formula_15—it provides the semantic of the languages. According to Rynasiewicz, in this semantic perspective, falsifiability as defined by Popper means that in some observation structure (in the collection) there exists a set of observations which refutes the theory. An even stronger notion of falsifiability was considered, which requires, not only that there exists one structure with a contradicting set of observations, but also that all structures in the collection that cannot be expanded to a structure that satisfies formula_14 contain such a contradicting set of observations.


title: Falsifiability

text: In response to Lakatos who suggested that Newton's theory was as hard to show falsifiable as Freud's psychoanalytic theory, Popper gave the example of an apple that moves from the ground up to a branch and then starts to dance from one branch to another. It is clearly impossible, yet a basic statement that is a valid potential falsifier for Newton's theory, because the position of the apple at different times can be measured.


title: Falsifiability

text: Another example of a basic statement is "The inert mass of this object is ten times larger than its gravitational mass." This is a basic statement because the inert mass and the gravitational mass can both be measured separately, even though it never happens that they are different. It is, as described by Popper, a valid falsifier for Einstein's equivalence principle.


title: Falsifiability

text: In a discussion of the theory of evolution, Popper mentioned industrial melanism as an example of a falsifiable law. A corresponding basic statement that acts as a potential falsifier is "In this industrial area, the relative fitness of the white-bodied peppered moth is high." Here "fitness" means "reproductive success over the next generation". It is a basic statement, because it is possible to separately determine the kind of environment, industrial vs natural, and the relative fitness of the white-bodied form (relative to the black-bodied form) in an area, even though it never happens that the white-bodied form has a high relative fitness in an industrial area.


title: Falsifiability

text: A famous example of a basic statement from J. B. S. Haldane is "[These are] fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era." This is a basic statement because it is possible to find a fossil rabbit and to determine that the date of a fossil is in the Precambrian era, even though it never happens that the date of a rabbit fossil is in the Precambrian era. Despite opinions to the contrary, some times wrongly attributed to Popper, this shows the scientific character of paleontology or the history of the evolution of life on Earth, because it contradicts the hypothesis in paleontology that all mammals existed in a much more recent era. Richard Dawkins adds that any other modern animal, such as a hippo, would suffice.


title: Falsifiability

text: A simple example of a non-basic statement is "this angel does not have large wings". It is not a basic statement, because though the absence of large wings can be observed, no technology (independent of the presence of wings) exists to identify angels. Even if it is accepted that angels exist, the sentence "All angels have large wings" is not falsifiable.


title: Falsifiability

text: Another example from Popper of a non-basic statement is "This human action is altruistic." It is not a basic statement, because no accepted technology allows us to determine whether or not an action is motivated by self-interest. Because no basic statement falsifies it, the statement that "All human actions are egotistic, motivated by self-interest" is thus not falsifiable.


title: Falsifiability

text: Some adherents of young-Earth creationism make an argument (called the Omphalos hypothesis after the Greek word for navel) that the world was created with the appearance of age; e.g., the sudden appearance of a mature chicken capable of laying eggs. This ad hoc hypothesis introduced into young-Earth creationism is unfalsifiable because it says that the time of creation (of a species) measured by the accepted technology is illusory and no accepted technology is proposed to measure the claimed "actual" time of creation. Moreover, if the ad hoc hypothesis says that the world was created as we observe it today without stating further laws, by definition it cannot be contradicted by observations and thus is not falsifiable. This is discussed by Dienes in the case of a variation on the Omphalos hypothesis, which, in addition, specifies that God made the creation in this way to test our faith.


title: Falsifiability

text: discussed statements such as "All men are mortal". This is not falsifiable, because it does not matter how old a man is, maybe he will die next year. Maxwell said that this statement is nevertheless useful, because it is often corroborated. He coined the term "corroboration without demarcation". Popper's view is that it is indeed useful, because Popper considers that metaphysical statements can be useful, but also because it is indirectly corroborated by the corroboration of the falsifiable law "All men die before the age of 150." For Popper, if no such a falsifiable law exists, then the metaphysical law is less useful, because it is not indirectly corroborated. This kind of non-falsifiable statements in science was noticed by Carnap as early as 1937.


title: Falsifiability

text: Maxwell also used the example "All solids have a melting point." This is not falsifiable, because maybe the melting point will be reached at a higher temperature. The law is falsifiable and more useful if we specify an upper bound on melting points or a way to calculate this upper bound.


title: Falsifiability

text: Another example from Maxwell is "All beta decays are accompanied with a neutrino emission from the same nucleus." This is also not falsifiable, because maybe the neutrino can be detected in a different manner. The law is falsifiable and much more useful from a scientific point of view, if the method to detect the neutrino is specified.


title: Falsifiability

text: Maxwell said that most scientific laws are metaphysical statements of this kind, which, Popper said, need to be made more precise before they can be indirectly corroborated. In other words, specific technologies must be provided to make the statements inter-subjectively-verifiable, i.e., so that scientists know what the falsification or its failure actually means.


title: Falsifiability

text: In his critique of the falsifiability criterion, Maxwell considered the requirement for decisions in the falsification of, both, the emission of neutrinos (see ) and the existence of the melting point.


title: Falsifiability

text: For example, he pointed out that had no neutrino been detected, it could have been because some conservation law is false. Popper did not argue against the problems of falsification per se. He always acknowledged these problems. Popper's response was at the logical level. For example, he pointed out that, if a specific way is given to trap the neutrino, then, at the level of the language, the statement is falsifiable, because "no neutrino was detected after using this specific way" formally contradicts it (and it is inter-subjectively-verifiable—people can repeat the experiment).


title: Falsifiability

text: In the 5th and 6th editions of "On the Origin of Species", following a suggestion of Alfred Russel Wallace, Darwin used "Survival of the fittest", an expression first coined by Herbert Spencer, as a synonym for "Natural Selection". Popper and others said that, if one uses the most widely accepted definition of "fitness" in modern biology (see subsection ), namely reproductive success itself, the expression "survival of the fittest" is a tautology.


title: Falsifiability

text: Great Darwinist Ronald Fisher worked out mathematical theorems to help answer questions regarding natural selection. But, for Popper and others, there is no (falsifiable) law of Natural Selection in this, because these tools only apply to some rare traits. Instead, for Popper, the work of Fisher and others on Natural Selection is part of an important and successful metaphysical research program.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper said that not all unfalsifiable statements are useless in science. Mathematical statements are good examples. Like all formal sciences, mathematics is not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the empirical world, but rather, mathematics is occupied with the theoretical, abstract study of such topics as quantity, structure, space and change. Methods of the mathematical sciences are, however, applied in constructing and testing scientific models dealing with observable reality. Albert Einstein wrote, "One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts."


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper made a clear distinction between the original theory of Marx and what came to be known as Marxism later on. For Popper, the original theory of Marx contained genuine scientific laws. Though they could not make preordained predictions, these laws constrained how changes can occur in society. One of them was that changes in society cannot "be achieved by the use of legal or political means". In Popper's view, this was both testable and subsequently falsified. "Yet instead of accepting the refutations", Popper wrote, "the followers of Marx re-interpreted both the theory and the evidence in order to make them agree. ... They thus gave a 'conventionalist twist' to the theory; and by this stratagem they destroyed its much advertised claim to scientific status." Popper's attacks were not directed toward Marxism, or Marx's theories, which were falsifiable, but toward Marxists who he considered to have ignored the falsifications which had happened. Popper more fundamentally criticized 'historicism' in the sense of any preordained prediction of history, given what he saw as our right, ability and responsibility to control our own destiny.


title: Falsifiability

text: Falsifiability has been used in the "McLean v. Arkansas" case (in 1982), the "Daubert" case (in 1993) and other cases. A survey of 303 federal judges conducted in 1998 found that "[P]roblems with the nonfalsifiable nature of an expert's underlying theory and difficulties with an unknown or too-large error rate were cited in less than 2% of cases."


title: Falsifiability

text: In the ruling of the "McLean v. Arkansas" case, Judge William Overton used falsifiability as one of the criteria to determine that "creation science" was not scientific and should not be taught in Arkansas public schools as such (it can be taught as religion). In his testimony, philosopher Michael Ruse defined the characteristics which constitute science as (see and ):


title: Falsifiability

text: In several cases of the United States Supreme Court, the court described scientific methodology using the five Daubert factors, which include falsifiability. The Daubert result cited Popper and other philosophers of science:


title: Falsifiability

text: David H. Kaye said that references to the Daubert majority opinion confused falsifiability and falsification and that "inquiring into the existence of meaningful attempts at falsification is an appropriate and crucial consideration in admissibility determinations."


title: Falsifiability

text: Considering the specific detection procedure that was used in the neutrino experiment, without mentioning its probabilistic aspect, Popper wrote "it provided a test of the much more significant "falsifiable" theory that such emitted neutrinos could be trapped in a certain way". In this manner, in his discussion of the neutrino experiment, Popper did not raise at all the probabilistic aspect of the experiment. Together with Maxwell, who raised the problems of falsification in the experiment, he was aware that some convention must be adopted to fix what it means to detect or not a neutrino in this probabilistic context. This is the third kind of decisions mentioned by Lakatos. For Popper and most philosophers, observations are theory impregnated. In this example, the theory that impregnates observations (and justifies that we conventionally accept the potential falsifier "no neutrino was detected") is statistical. In statistical language, the potential falsifier that can be statistically accepted (not rejected to say it more correctly) is typically the null hypothesis, as understood even in popular accounts on falsifiability.


title: Falsifiability

text: Different ways are used by statisticians to draw conclusions about hypotheses on the basis of available evidence. Fisher, Neyman and Pearson proposed approaches that require no prior probabilities on the hypotheses that are being studied. In contrast, Bayesian inference emphasizes the importance of prior probabilities. But, as far as falsification as a yes/no procedure in Popper's methodology is concerned, any approach that provides a way to accept or not a potential falsifier can be used, including approaches that use Bayes' theorem and estimations of prior probabilities that are made using critical discussions and reasonable assumptions taken from the background knowledge. There is no general rule that considers has falsified an hypothesis with small Bayesian revised probability, because as pointed out by Mayo and argued before by Popper, the individual outcomes described in detail will easily have very small probabilities under available evidence without being genuine anomalies. Nevertheless, Mayo adds, "they can indirectly falsify hypotheses by adding a methodological falsification rule". In general, Bayesian statistic can play a role in critical rationalism in the context of inductive logic, which is said to be inductive because implications are generalized to conditional probabilities. According to Popper and other philosophers such as Colin Howson, Hume's argument precludes inductive logic, but only when the logic makes no use "of additional assumptions: in particular, about what is to be assigned positive prior probability". Inductive logic itself is not precluded, especially not when it is a deductively valid application of Bayes' theorem that is used to evaluate the probabilities of the hypotheses using the observed data and what is assumed about the priors. Gelman and Shalizi mentioned that Bayes' statisticians do not have to disagree with the non-inductivists.


title: Falsifiability

text: Because statisticians often associate statistical inference with induction, Popper's philosophy is often said to have a hidden form of induction. For example, Mayo wrote "The falsifying hypotheses ... necessitate an evidence-transcending (inductive) statistical inference. This is hugely problematic for Popper". Yet, also according to Mayo, Popper [as a non-inductivist] acknowledged the useful role of statistical inference in the falsification problems: she mentioned that Popper wrote her (in the context of falsification based on evidence) "I regret not studying statistics" and that her thought was then "not as much as I do".


title: Falsifiability

text: Imre Lakatos divided the problems of falsification in two categories. The first category corresponds to decisions that must be agreed upon by scientists before they can falsify a theory. The other category emerges when one tries to use falsifications and corroborations to explain progress in science. Lakatos described four kind of falsificationisms in view of how they address these problems. Dogmatic falsificationism ignores both types of problems. Methodological falsificationism addresses the first type of problems by accepting that decisions must be taken by scientists. Naive methodological falsificationism or naive falsificationism does not do anything to address the second type of problems. Lakatos used dogmatic and naive falsificationism to explain how Popper's philosophy changed over time and viewed sophisticated falsificationism as his own improvement on Popper's philosophy, but also said that Popper some times appears as a sophisticated falsificationist. Popper responded that Lakatos misrepresented his intellectual history with these terminological distinctions.


title: Falsifiability

text: A dogmatic falsificationist ignores that every observation is theory-impregnated. Being theory-impregnated means that it goes beyond direct experience. For example, the statement "Here is a glass of water" goes beyond experience, because the concepts of glass and water "denote physical bodies which exhibit a certain law-like behaviour" (Popper). This leads to the critique that it is unclear which theory is falsified. Is it the one that is being studied or the one behind the observation? This is sometimes called the 'Duhem–Quine problem'. An example is Galileo's refutation of the theory that celestial bodies are faultless crystal balls. Many considered that it was the optical theory of the telescope that was false, not the theory of celestial bodies. Another example is the theory that neutrinos are emitted in beta decays. Had they not been observed in the Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment, many would have considered that the strength of the beta-inverse reaction used to detect the neutrinos was not sufficiently high. At the time, wrote, the possibility that this strength was sufficiently high was a "pious hope".


title: Falsifiability

text: A dogmatic falsificationist ignores the role of auxiliary hypotheses. The assumptions or auxiliary hypotheses of a particular test are all the hypotheses that are assumed to be accurate in order for the test to work as planned. The predicted observation that is contradicted depends on the theory and these auxiliary hypotheses. Again, this leads to the critique that it cannot be told if it is the theory or one of the required auxiliary hypotheses that is false. Lakatos gives the example of the path of a planet. If the path contradicts Newton's law, we will not know if it is Newton's law that is false or the assumption that no other body influenced the path.


title: Falsifiability

text: Lakatos says that Popper's solution to these criticisms requires that one relaxes the assumption that an observation can show a theory to be false:


title: Falsifiability

text: Methodological falsificationism replaces the contradicting observation in a falsification with a "contradicting observation" accepted by convention among scientists, a convention that implies four kinds of decisions that have these respective goals: the selection of all "basic statements" (statements that correspond to logically possible observations), selection of the "accepted basic statements" among the basic statements, making statistical laws falsifiable and applying the refutation to the specific theory (instead of an auxiliary hypothesis). The experimental falsifiers and falsifications thus depend on decisions made by scientists in view of the currently accepted technology and its associated theory.


title: Falsifiability

text: According to Lakatos, naive falsificationism is the claim that methodological falsifications can by themselves explain how scientific knowledge progresses. Very often a theory is still useful and used even after it is found in contradiction with some observations. Also, when scientists deal with two or more competing theories which are both corroborated, considering only falsifications, it is not clear why one theory is chosen above the other, even when one is corroborated more often than the other. In fact, a stronger version of the Quine-Duhem thesis says that it is not always possible to rationally pick one theory over the other using falsifications. Considering only falsifications, it is not clear why often a corroborating experiment is seen as a sign of progress. Popper's critical rationalism uses both falsifications and corroborations to explain progress in science. How corroborations and falsifications can explain progress in science was a subject of disagreement between many philosophers, especially between Lakatos and Popper.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper distinguished between the creative and informal process from which theories and accepted basic statements emerge and the logical and formal process where theories are falsified or corroborated. The main issue is whether the decision to select a theory among competing theories in the light of falsifications and corroborations could be justified using some kind of formal logic. It is a delicate question, because this logic would be inductive: it justifies a universal law in view of instances. Also, falsifications, because they are based on methodological decisions, are useless in a strict justification perspective. The answer of Lakatos and many others to that question is that it should. In contradistinction, for Popper, the creative and informal part is guided by methodological rules, which naturally say to favour theories that are corroborated over those that are falsified, but this methodology can hardly be made rigorous.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper's way to analyze progress in science was through the concept of verisimilitude, a way to define how close a theory is to the truth, which he did not consider very significant, except (as an attempt) to describe a concept already clear in practice. Later, it was shown that the specific definition proposed by Popper cannot distinguish between two theories that are false, which is the case for all theories in the history of science. Today, there is still on going research on the general concept of verisimilitude.


title: Falsifiability

text: Hume explained induction with a theory of the mind that was in part inspired by Newton's theory of gravitation. Popper rejected Hume's explanation of induction and proposed his own mechanism: science progresses by trial and error within an evolutionary epistemology. Hume believed that his psychological induction process follows laws of nature, but, for him, this does not imply the existence of a method of justification based on logical rules. In fact, he argued that any induction mechanism, including the mechanism described by his theory, could not be justified logically. Similarly, Popper adopted an evolutionary epistemology, which implies that some laws explain progress in science, but yet insists that the process of trial and error is hardly rigorous and that there is always an element of irrationality in the creative process of science. The absence of a method of justification is a built-in aspect of Popper's trial and error explanation.


title: Falsifiability

text: As rational as they can be, these explanations that refer to laws, but cannot be turned into methods of justification (and thus do not contradict Hume's argument or its premises), were not sufficient for some philosophers. In particular, Russell once expressed the view that if Hume's problem cannot be solved, “there is no intellectual difference between sanity and insanity” and actually proposed a method of justification. He rejected Hume's premise that there is a need to justify any principle that is itself used to justify induction. It might seem that this premise is hard to reject, but to avoid circular reasoning we do reject it in the case of deductive logic. It makes sense to also reject this premise in the case of principles to justify induction. Lakatos' proposal of sophisticated falsificationism was very natural in that context.


title: Falsifiability

text: Therefore, Lakatos urged Popper to find an inductive principle behind the trial and error learning process and sophisticated falsificationism was his own approach to address this challenge. Kuhn, Feyerabend, Musgrave and others mentioned and Lakatos himself acknowledged that, as a method of justification, this attempt failed, because there was no normative methodology to justify—Lakatos' methodology was anarchy in disguise.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper's philosophy is sometimes said to fail to recognize the Quine-Duhem thesis, which would make it a form of dogmatic falsificationism. For example, Watkins wrote "apparently forgetting that he had once said 'Duhem is right [...]', Popper set out to devise potential falsifiers just for Newton's fundamental assumptions". But, Popper's philosophy is not always qualified of falsificationism in the pejorative manner associated with dogmatic or naive falsificationism. The problems of falsification are acknowledged by the falsificationists. For example, Chalmer points out that falsificationists freely admit that observation is theory impregnated. Thornton, referring to Popper's methodology, says that the predictions inferred from conjectures are not directly compared with the facts simply because all observation-statements are theory-laden. For the critical rationalists, the problems of falsification are not an issue, because they do not try to make experimental falsifications logical or to logically justify them, nor to use them to logically explain progress in science. Instead, their faith rests on critical discussions around these experimental falsifications. Lakatos made a distinction between a "falsification" (with quotation marks) in Popper's philosophy and a falsification (without quotation marks) that can be used in a systematic methodology where rejections are justified. He knew that Popper's philosophy is not and has never been about this kind of justifications, but he felt that it should have been. Sometimes, Popper and other falsificationists say that when a theory is falsified it is rejected, which appears as dogmatic falsificationism, but the general context is always critical rationalism in which all decisions are open to critical discussions and can be revised.


title: Falsifiability

text: As described in section , Lakatos and Popper agreed that universal laws cannot be logically deduced (except from laws that say even more). But unlike Popper, Lakatos felt that if the explanation for new laws can not be deductive, it must be inductive. He urged Popper explicitly to adopt some inductive principle and sets himself the task to find an inductive methodology. However, the methodology that he found did not offer any exact inductive rules. In a response to Kuhn, Feyerabend and Musgrave, Lakatos acknowledged that the methodology depends on the good judgment of the scientists. Feyerabend wrote in "Against Method" that Lakatos' methodology of scientific research programmes is epistemological anarchism in disguise and Musgrave made a similar comment. In more recent work, Feyerabend says that Lakatos uses rules, but whether or not to follow any of these rules is left to the judgment of the scientists. This is also discussed elsewhere.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper also offered a methodology with rules, but these rules are also not inductive rules, because they are not by themselves used to accept laws or establish their validity. They do that through the creativity or "good judgment" of the scientists only. For Popper, the required non deductive component of science never had to be an inductive methodology. He always viewed this component as a creative process beyond the explanatory reach of any rational methodology, but yet used to decide which theories should be studied and applied, find good problems and guess useful conjectures. Quoting Einstein to support his view, Popper said that this renders obsolete the need for an inductive methodology or logical path to the laws. For Popper, no inductive methodology was ever proposed to satisfactorily explain science.


title: Falsifiability

text: Section says that both Lakatos' and Popper's methodology are not inductive. Yet Lakatos' methodology extended importantly Popper's methodology: it added a historiographical component to it. This allowed Lakatos to find corroborations for his methodology in the history of science. The basic units in his methodology, which can be abandoned or pursued, are research programmes. Research programmes can be degenerative or progressive and only degenerative research programmes must be abandoned at some point. For Lakatos, this is mostly corroborated by facts in history.


title: Falsifiability

text: In contradistinction, Popper did not propose his methodology as a tool to reconstruct the history of science. Yet, some times, he did refer to history to corroborate his methodology. For example, he remarked that theories that were considered great successes were also the most likely to be falsified. Zahar's view was that, with regard to corroborations found in the history of science, there was only a difference of emphasis between Popper and Lakatos.


title: Falsifiability

text: As an anecdotal example, in one of his articles Lakatos challenged Popper to show that his theory was falsifiable: he asked "Under what conditions would you give up your demarcation criterion?". Popper replied "I shall give up my theory if Professor Lakatos succeeds in showing that Newton's theory is no more falsifiable by 'observable states of affairs' than is Freud's."


title: Falsifiability

text: Thomas Kuhn analyzed what he calls periods of normal science as well as revolutions from one period of normal science to another, whereas Popper's view is that only revolutions are relevant. For Popper, the role of science, mathematics and metaphysics, actually the role of any knowledge, is to solve puzzles. In the same line of thought, Kuhn observes that in periods of normal science the scientific theories, which represent some paradigm, are used to routinely solve puzzles and the validity of the paradigm is hardly in question. It is only when important new puzzles emerge that cannot be solved by accepted theories that a revolution might occur. This can be seen as a viewpoint on the distinction made by Popper between the informal and formal process in science (see section ). In the big picture presented by Kuhn, the routinely solved puzzles are corroborations. Falsifications or otherwise unexplained observations are unsolved puzzles. All of these are used in the informal process that generates a new kind of theory. Kuhn says that Popper emphasizes formal or logical falsifications and fails to explain how the social and informal process works.


title: Falsifiability

text: Popper often uses astrology as an example of a pseudo-science. He says that it is not falsifiable because both the theory itself and its predictions are too imprecise. Kuhn, as an historian of science, remarked that many predictions made by astrologers in the past were quite precise and they were very often falsified. He also said that astrologers themselves acknowledged these falsifications.


title: Falsifiability

text: Paul Feyerabend rejected any prescriptive methodology at all. He rejected Lakatos' argument for "ad hoc" hypothesis, arguing that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories. He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method. He said that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, epistemological anarchism or "anything goes" would be the only candidate. For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have, derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method.


title: Falsifiability

text: In their book "Fashionable Nonsense" (from 1997, published in the UK as "Intellectual Impostures") the physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont criticised falsifiability. They include this critique in the "Intermezzo" chapter, where they expose their own views on truth in contrast to the extreme epistemological relativism of postmodernism. Even though Popper is clearly not a relativist, Sokal and Bricmont discuss falsifiability because they see postmodernist epistemological relativism as a reaction to Popper's description of falsifiability, and more generally, to his theory of science.


title: Danny Pino

text: Daniel Gonzalo Pino (born April 15, 1974) is an American actor who starred as Detective Scotty Valens on the CBS series "Cold Case" from 2003 to 2010, and as NYPD Detective Nick Amaro in the long-running NBC legal drama "" from 2011 to 2015. In 2002, he appeared in London's West End in "Up for Grabs" with Madonna. In May 2003, Pino played Desi Arnaz in a CBS special on the life of Lucille Ball, "Lucy". He played drug cartel leader Miguel Galindo on "Mayans M.C." which airs on FX, and FBI agent John Bishop in procedural crime drama "Gone".


title: Danny Pino

text: Named after his grandfather, Pedro Gonzalo de Armas, Pino was born in Miami, Florida, to Cuban parents. He attended Rockway Middle School and graduated from Miami Coral Park High School in 1992, and from Florida International University in 1996, He also attended New York University's Graduate Acting Program at the Tisch School of the Arts, graduating in 2000.


title: Danny Pino

text: Pino is known for his performance as the Mexican drug lord Armadillo Quintero on FX's "The Shield". He has also appeared in the films "The Lost City" (2005) and "Flicka" (2006), which featured Tim McGraw, and starred in the hit CBS series "Cold Case" as Detective Scotty Valens. In 2011, Pino joined the cast of "" for its 13th season, along with "Chase" actress Kelli Giddish, coinciding with Christopher Meloni's departure. On "SVU", Pino portrayed NYPD Detective Nick Amaro, a detective transferring from the narcotics squad to the Special Victims Unit.


title: Danny Pino

text: Pino wrote two episodes of "Cold Case": "Stealing Home" and "Metamorphosis". Starting in 2005, he has been in six "CBS Cares" public service announcements, with other stars of CBS original programs. He has made single appearances on "The Sharon Osbourne Show" in 2004, "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson" in 2005, "The Drop" in 2005, "Entertainment Tonight" in 2008, and "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" in 2011. In 2016, he played Alex Vargas in "Scandal" and Democratic Senator Luke Healy in "BrainDead".


title: Danny Pino

text: In 2017, he joined the cast of the procedural crime drama series "Gone", as FBI agent John Bishop, alongside Chris Noth and Leven Rambin. He currently co-stars in FX's "Sons of Anarchy" spinoff series "Mayans M.C.", as cartel leader Miguel Galindo.


title: Danny Pino

text: In August 2020, he joined the cast of Stephen Chbosky's film adaptation of the broadway musical "Dear Evan Hansen" as Larry Murphy, a role that was re-conceived for the film from "father" to "stepfather," with the character renamed as Larry Mora.


title: Danny Pino

text: Pino is fluent in Spanish as evidenced by TV shows such as "Cold Case" and "Mayans MC", and interviews he has done.


title: Danny Pino

text: Pino and his wife, Lilly, married February 15, 2002. They have two sons, Luca Daniel, born February 15, 2006 and Julian Franco born June 5, 2007.


title: Danny Pino

text: Pino has won two awards so far and has been nominated for five, all from his work on "Cold Case" and "".


title: Chris Sununu

text: Christopher Thomas Sununu ( ; born November 5, 1974) is an American politician and engineer who has served as the 82nd governor of New Hampshire since 2017. A member of the Republican Party, Sununu was a member of the New Hampshire Executive Council from 2011 to 2017.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu earned a bachelor's degree in civil and environmental engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has served as chief executive officer of the Waterville Valley Resort in New Hampshire. Sununu is a son of former New Hampshire governor and White House Chief of Staff John H. Sununu, and a younger brother of former U.S. representative and senator John E. Sununu.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu's 2021 budget proposal included phasing out New Hampshire's only state income tax—on dividends and interest income (which Sununu states unfairly targets senior citizens more likely to be living off those types of income); slightly reducing selected other taxes; and instituting targeted student loan relief for those entering the healthcare, biotechnology, and social work fields.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In January 2021, Sununu began his third term as governor of New Hampshire. In November 2021, amid speculation that he would run in the 2022 United States Senate election in New Hampshire, Sununu announced that he would instead seek a fourth term as governor in 2022.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu is the son of former Governor John H. Sununu and Nancy Sununu (née Hayes). He is one of eight siblings, including older brother John E. Sununu, a former U.S. Senator and U.S. Representative. He was born and raised in Salem, New Hampshire.


title: Chris Sununu

text: His father's paternal ancestors came to the United States from the Middle East around the start of the 20th century, while his paternal grandmother was an immigrant from El Salvador, born to a prominent Salvadoran family of Lebanese, Hispanic and Greek descent who were Greek Orthodox Christians. His father's paternal ancestry is Lebanese and Greek, both from the Greek Orthodox communities in Jerusalem. Despite the family's emigration from Jerusalem, some members of the family were from Beirut. His father's maternal ancestry was Greek and Hispanic. His father, John, was born in Havana, Cuba. His paternal grandfather, also named John, was born in the United States, and most of the last two generations of Sununus were also born in the U.S. His mother, Nancy (née Hayes), is descended from emigrants from Ireland, Scotland and England. When he took office as governor, Sununu was sworn in with a Greek Orthodox New Testament Bible belonging to his family.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, in Fairfax County, Virginia, in 1993. He graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a B.S. in civil / environmental engineering in 1998.


title: Chris Sununu

text: For ten years, Sununu worked as an environmental engineer designing systems and solutions for cleaning up waste sites under the supervision of licensed engineers. He specialized in soil and groundwater remediation, wastewater treatment plants, and landfill designs. In 2002, he became an "engineer in training" in California.


title: Chris Sununu

text: From 2006 to 2010, Sununu was an owner and director of Sununu Enterprises, a family business and strategic consulting group in Exeter, New Hampshire. It focuses on local, national and international real estate development, venture technologies and business acquisitions.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2010, Sununu led a group of investors in the buyout of Waterville Valley Resort, where he worked as Chief Executive Officer, employing over 700 people in the White Mountains region. Sununu led an aggressive expansion effort of the ski resort in cooperation with the United States Forest Service. The resort offers skiing, golf, tennis, mountain biking, and an ice arena.


title: Chris Sununu

text: On December 16, 2015, the Governor's Advisory Commission on the Intermodal Transportation (GACIT) presented the 10-Year Plan for 2017–2026 to the governor of New Hampshire. Sununu, as a voting member of GACIT, helped develop the blueprint, which "aggressively addressed financial constraint, assuming federal funding of about $160 million per year."


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2010, Sununu joined the other four Executive Council members in voting unanimously to release Ward Bird from his mandatory three- to six-year prison sentence for threatening another person with a gun. The council voted to grant Bird a full pardon. Bird was convicted of brandishing a gun at a woman who trespassed on his posted property in 2008. But Lynch, who had never granted a pardon during his tenure, vetoed the measure, saying the judicial system had given Bird's case a thorough review and he would not undermine it. The council then immediately voted to commute Bird's sentence, and Lynch let that vote stand.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2011, Sununu led a series of public hearings to review proposals for Managed Medicaid, a program to help New Hampshire Medicaid recipients to coordinate their health care. It also helps Medicaid recipients with chronic diseases like diabetes, asthma, obesity, and mental illness. Through this program, Medicaid recipients have wellness and prevention programs as a part of their Medicaid benefit.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2014, a 300-page, $292 million amendment to the state's Medicaid program came before the Executive Council only two hours before the scheduled vote. Republicans Joseph Kenney and Sununu urged Governor Lynch and other Democrats present not to vote for the contract, but lost the vote 3–2, along party lines.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu was reelected, defeating Democratic nominee Molly Kelly, 52.8% to 45.7%. He was endorsed by the New Hampshire Troopers Association, New Hampshire Police Association, Professional Fire Fighters of New Hampshire, National Federation of Independent Businesses, and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 104. He was also endorsed by numerous New Hampshire news outlets, including "The Portsmouth Herald", "The Union Leader", "The Eagle-Tribune", "Nashua Telegraph", "Foster's Daily Democrat", "Exeter News-Letter", "Seacoast Online", and the "Hampton Union".


title: Chris Sununu

text: On May 14, 2019, Sununu announced that he would seek a third term as governor, rather than challenging incumbent Democratic Senator Jeanne Shaheen in the 2020 election.


title: Chris Sununu

text: After securing the Republican nomination, Sununu received 516,609 votes (65.1%) against Democratic nominee Dan Feltes in November 2020, the highest number of votes for an elected official in a statewide race, and outpaced President Donald Trump (365,654; 45.4%) by about 151,000 votes of approximately 793,000 cast, as Trump lost New Hampshire's electoral votes.


title: Chris Sununu

text: On November 9, 2021, Sununu announced his intention to run for a fourth term as governor instead of challenging incumbent U.S. senator Maggie Hassan. He received 78.66% in the Republican primary, defeating Karen Testerman, Thaddeus Riley, and others.


title: Chris Sununu

text: New Hampshire's gubernatorial ballots are still being counted, but , with approximately 95% of ballots counted, Sununu is projected to win with 57.3% of votes counted over Democratic candidate Tom Sherman as well as Libertarian candidates Karlyn Borysenko and Kelly Halldorson. Assuming this result holds, it will be the fourth straight split-ticket election in the state when all members elected to Congress were members of the Democratic Party while the elected governor was a member of the Republican Party.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu was sworn in as governor on January 5, 2017. He was sworn in for his second term on January 3, 2019, and his third term on January 7, 2021.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2018, Sununu announced the nationwide launch of his Recovery Friendly Workplace Initiative to engage employers and empower workplaces to provide support for people recovering from substance use disorder. More than 40,000 employees in New Hampshire work for a designated Recovery Friendly Workplace. In October 2018, Sununu introduced the state's new "hub and spoke model" for addiction recovery. The model includes nine regional hubs (in Berlin, Concord, Dover, Hanover, Keene, Laconia, Littleton, Manchester, and Nashua), which coordinate with local "spokes" to provide addiction recovery services. Hubs receive $9 million a year, stemming from $45.8 million in federal aid to combat the state's opioid epidemic. In March 2019, Sununu announced that an additional $12 million had been allocated to New Hampshire to fight the opioid epidemic.


title: Chris Sununu

text: On May 3, 2019, Sununu vetoed a bill that would have repealed the death penalty. He signed the veto at a community center named after Michael Briggs; as drafted, the bill would not have applied to Michael Addison (who killed Briggs in 2006). The veto was overridden.


title: Chris Sununu

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Sununu has criticized members of Congress and members of the Biden administration for the lack of relief packages. He has also criticized members of Congress for getting early access to COVID-19 vaccines. In November 2020, Sununu instituted a statewide mask mandate, which sparked protests outside his house. He opposed what he characterized as federal overreach on mandates, saying, "I am as pro-vaccine as it gets, but I do not support this mandate from Washington, as it is not the answer."


title: Chris Sununu

text: WMUR considers Sununu a moderate Republican. According to the "National Review", he is a "fiscally conservative" and "socially moderate" politician in a similar vein to Rockefeller Republicans.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Unlike other Northeast Republican governors, like Charlie Baker, Larry Hogan, or Phil Scott, all of whom chose not to support President Trump for reelection, Sununu did, and voted for him. He revealed in May 2019 that former Massachusetts Governor Bill Weld approached him to discuss a potential primary challenge to Trump in 2020, but Sununu described himself as a "Trump guy through and through." Sununu accepted Joe Biden's victory in the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu opposes New Hampshire's 5% tax on dividends and interest income. After his 2020 reelection, he called for newly elected Republican majorities in the New Hampshire House and Senate to pass a law phasing out this tax by 2026, saying that it unfairly targets senior citizens living off of these types of income and their retirement accounts. He also sought to slightly reduce other taxes, and to institute student loan relief for those going into health care and social work.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu has supported tax cuts for businesses and a reduction in property taxes. After the 2018 midterm elections, which gave Democrats control of the New Hampshire legislature, Sununu vowed to veto their proposal to create a broader state income tax, as well as several other new taxes and fees. Sununu signed a bill making it easier for medical facilities to be licensed to treat veterans. He also opposed the Senate's Republican health care plan in 2017, citing that the proposal would negatively affect Medicaid and addiction recovery services in the state.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu supports legislation to provide state-funded "school choice vouchers to disadvantaged and low-income students"; such vouchers could be used at religious and private schools. After the 2018 midterm elections, in which Democrats regained control of the New Hampshire legislature, Sununu vetoed a bill to establish a paid family leave policy that would have instituted a statewide payroll tax.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu nominated 27 New Hampshire "opportunity zones" to receive federal tax breaks for low-income areas. These included Waterville Valley, a low-income town that is the locale of the Sununu family's Waterville Valley Resorts. The family and resort did not take advantage of the tax breaks but later expanded their investment in the resort, allowing them to, if they later pursued the tax advantages, "defer paying taxes on those gains for seven years and get a 15% discount on the tax liability. In addition, they could avoid paying taxes on any future capital gains from the resort if they hold on to it for a decade".


title: Chris Sununu

text: In late June 2018 and again on June 4, 2019, Sununu vetoed New Hampshire Senate Bill 446, which would have increased the limit for renewable energy projects participating in net metering from 1 megawatt (MW) to 5 MW. A veto override vote held in 2018 by the New Hampshire House of Representatives failed to achieve a two-thirds majority.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In a statement about his veto of Senate Bill 446 (and a separate bill, Senate Bill 365), Sununu said the bills would collectively cost New Hampshire electric ratepayers (consumers) around $100 million over three years. "While I agree that expanding net metering could be a benefit to our state, Senate Bill 446 would cost ratepayers at least $5 to $10 million annually and is a handout to large-scale energy developers", Sununu said. "These immense projects should use incentives already available and compete on their own merits."


title: Chris Sununu

text: In his 2020 budget address, Sununu proposed the creation of the New Hampshire Department of Energy, which he said will "streamline government" and "eliminate redundancies." According to Sununu, "The Department will combine many of the current functions of the Public Utilities Commission with the Office of Strategic Initiatives and ensures that a unified approach to energy policy, while keeping core regulatory functions separate from the programmatic and policy elements." One focus of the Department will be the development of offshore wind along New Hampshire's shoreline in the Gulf of Maine, a longstanding priority of Sununu's.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu has said that he does not oppose abortion rights, but does not support taxpayer funding for abortions and supports a ban on partial-birth abortion. In 2015, as a member of the New Hampshire Executive Council, he voted to defund Planned Parenthood. He later reversed his position and voted to restore the funding. In 2018, he said "I'm pro-choice. I support "Roe v. Wade"." Sununu had supported other contracts with Planned Parenthood. In 2022, in response to reports that the Supreme Court may overturn "Roe v. Wade", he said, "I'm a pro-choice governor" and that he supports abortion rights in New Hampshire.


title: Chris Sununu

text: During a 2016 gubernatorial debate, he said he opposed the settling of 10,000 Syrian refugees in the United States.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2018, Sununu said he would refuse to send the National Guard to the border to enforce Trump's "zero-tolerance" policy in regard to undocumented immigrants.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu is seen as supportive of LGBT rights; he said that he does not get involved with the state's GOP platform issues and spoke at an event for the Log Cabin Republicans, a political action committee that supports same-sex marriage and other gay rights. In 2018, Sununu signed into law two bills intended to protect LGBT rights, one prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity and one banning conversion therapy from being used on minors. In 2019, he allowed a bill to become a law without his signature that created a non-binary gender option for driver's licenses.


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu opposes legalizing recreational marijuana. In December 2018, he said he would "absolutely" veto legislation "regardless of what the language looks like." In 2022, Sununu reversed his opinion on the legalization of recreational marijuana during a conversation with the New England Council.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2020, Sununu joined Democrats in supporting permanent funding for conservation efforts in the U.S., and particularly in New Hampshire.


title: Chris Sununu

text: After the murder of George Floyd, Sununu established the New Hampshire Commission on Law Enforcement Accountability, Community, and Transparency (LEACT). LEACT was created to examine police training and procedures and to report and investigate police misconduct and the relationship between law enforcement and New Hampshire communities. It comprises people from civil rights organizations, mental health organizations, the president of the Manchester NAACP, law enforcement representatives, the executive director of the New Hampshire Commission for Human Rights, the director of the New Hampshire Police Standards and Training council, and the New Hampshire Attorney General.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In September 2020, LEACT submitted 50 recommendations to Sununu, ranging from the creation of an independent oversight commission to review allegations of police misconduct to the recommendation that all police officers in the state wear body cameras. Sununu endorsed all the recommendations, and said he would direct the New Hampshire State Police to comply with the recommendation to use body cameras.


title: Chris Sununu

text: After the release of LEACT's initial recommendations, Sununu said, "As I have long said, New Hampshire has some of the best law enforcement in the country, but there is always room to improve, grow, and adapt."


title: Chris Sununu

text: In December 2021, Sununu asked President Joe Biden and FEMA for emergency response teams to deal with a surge in COVID-19 cases in New Hampshire


title: Chris Sununu

text: Sununu is an active skier and rugby player and, in 1998, completed a five-month through-hike of the Appalachian Trail from Maine to Georgia. He met his wife, Valerie, in college; they married in 2001. The couple and their three children, Calvin, Edith and Leonardo, live in Newfields, New Hampshire.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2010, Sununu defeated incumbent Executive Councilor Beverly Hollingworth by 53,053 votes to 41,875, or 55.9% to 44.1%.


title: Chris Sununu

text: In 2012, Sununu defeated Bill Duncan, 75,856 votes to 55,432, or 55.2% to 40.3%, with 4.5% going to Libertarian candidate Michael Baldassarre.


title: 2021–22 Süper Lig

text: The 2021–22 Süper Lig, officially called the Spor Toto Süper Lig Ahmet Çalık season, was the 64th season of the Süper Lig, the highest tier football league of Turkey.


title: 2021–22 Süper Lig

text: A total of 20 teams contested the league, including 17 sides from the 2020–21 season and 2020–21 TFF First League champions Adana Demirspor, runner-ups Giresunspor and play-off winners Altay. Adana Demirspor returned top level after 26 years, Giresunspor returned after 44 years and Altay after 18 years. For the first time in 40 years, there was no team from the capital city, Ankara.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: The AEW TNT Championship is a men’s professional wrestling television championship created and promoted by the American promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW). Established on March 30, 2020, it is named after the TNT television network, which currently airs AEW's secondary core program, "Rampage", as well as the promotion's "Battle of the Belts" quarterly television specials. The inaugural champion was Cody Rhodes. The current champion is Samoa Joe, who is in his first reign.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: In September 2019, a month before All Elite Wrestling (AEW) launched their first weekly television program, "Dynamite", AEW Executive Vice President and wrestler Cody teased that the promotion would eventually debut a television championship, but their focus at that time was on their other recently established titles. In February 2020, wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer directly asked Cody on the possibility of the promotion adding a secondary championship. Although he did not confirm or deny it, Cody did not rule out the possibility of a secondary or "mid-card" title debuting that year. The following month on March 30 on AEW's YouTube series "Road to Dynamite", a secondary championship was officially announced. AEW play-by-play commentator and senior producer Tony Schiavone revealed that there would be an eight-man, single-elimination tournament to crown the first-ever AEW TNT Champion. The tournament began on the April 8 episode of "Dynamite" with the final scheduled for Double or Nothing on May 23. On the April 29 episode, Cody and Lance Archer won their respective semifinals matches, setting up the inaugural championship match.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: At Double or Nothing, Cody defeated Archer to become the inaugural champion. Former professional boxer Mike Tyson presented the championship to Cody. His first reign with the title included an 'open challenge' where he would defend the title on a near weekly televised basis, even to independent wrestlers outside the promotion. These performances notably led to the signings of Ricky Starks and Eddie Kingston. In November during Cody's second reign as TNT Champion, his ring name was lengthened to Cody Rhodes following a legal battle with WWE over the trademark for the name.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: During the Brodie Lee Celebration of Life, which was the December 30, 2020 episode of "Dynamite", AEW announced that they had retired the red strap version of the title belt that had been used up to that point to honor Huber, whose ring name was Mr. Brodie Lee, the second TNT Champion. Lee unexpectedly died on December 26 and his final match was on the October 7 episode of "Dynamite" where he unsuccessfully defended the TNT Championship against Cody Rhodes in a Dog Collar match. The retired TNT Championship belt was given to Huber's son, Brodie Lee Jr. (real name Brodie Huber), who was honored as being "TNT Champion for life" by AEW President and Chief Executive Officer Tony Khan. AEW commentator Tony Schiavone clarified that only the belt design was retired, not the championship itself; a new black strap version of the belt was debuted by champion Darby Allin during Night 1 of the special New Year's Smash episode of "Dynamite" on January 6, 2021.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: During the special Holiday Bash episode of "Rampage" on December 25, 2021, Cody Rhodes defeated Sammy Guevara to become a record three-time TNT Champion. The two were scheduled to have a rematch for the championship at Battle of the Belts I on January 8, 2022; however, Cody was pulled from the event as he had been in contact with family who had tested positive for COVID-19, thus requiring him to quarantine. Guevara instead faced Cody's brother Dustin Rhodes to determine an interim champion. Guevara defeated Dustin and served as the interim champion until the January 26 episode of "Dynamite". That episode, which was a special episode titled Beach Break, Guevara faced and defeated Cody in a ladder match to determine the undisputed TNT Champion.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: Although viewed as a secondary title to the AEW World Championship by fans and media of the professional wrestling industry, Tony Khan stated that he takes exception to calling it a secondary or mid-card title. He said that he does not book the championship as a mid-card title, saying that "I'm looking at it as a top championship that stars hold".


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: The championship is named after the TNT television network, which originally aired both of AEW's primary programs, "Dynamite" and "Rampage", the latter of which premiered in August 2021. TNT's parent company WarnerMedia requested AEW to create the title and have it named as the TNT Championship. In the press release about the title, Tony Khan stated "it's only fitting that the champion and the title belt will carry the logo of the globally-respected TNT brand, and that they'll represent not only AEW but also the great quality programming, massive reach, and storied history in the wrestling business that are all associated with TNT."


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: In January 2022, "Dynamite" moved to TNT's sister channel TBS, which is also owned by WarnerMedia, while "Rampage" remained on TNT. In addition to "Rampage" remaining on the channel, AEW agreed to produce four quarterly television specials on TNT in 2022 ("Battle of the Belts"), with the championship defended on these specials. While it had been speculated that the title would be renamed to the TBS Championship, Cody Rhodes confirmed that it would not be renamed, and instead, a separate AEW TBS Championship was established for the women's division.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: The first half of the TNT Championship Tournament bracket was announced on the March 31, 2020 episode of "Dark", with the second half revealed on the following night's "Dynamite". The tournament began on the April 8 episode of "Dynamite" and concluded at Double or Nothing on May 23.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: The TNT Championship belt has six plates, which were originally on a red leather strap. The center plate prominently features the TNT network logo at the center. Above the TNT logo is AEW's logo, while below the TNT logo is a red banner that says "CHAMPION". The two inner side plates feature "Tara on Techwood", 1050 Techwood Drive in Atlanta, the building that was the original home of TNT. The two outer side plates feature AEW's logo, while a third smaller side plate on the far right side also features the promotion's logo. When the belt was initially unveiled at Double or Nothing on May 23, it was on a red leather strap but had no plating as production of the belt had been delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic; it was also revealed that the final version would have gold plating and be unveiled at a later date. The belt was produced by Ron Edwardsen of Red Leather, who also made the AEW World Tag Team Championship belts. He further said that there would also be nickel plating in addition to gold on the final version of the TNT Championship as well as a relief TNT logo. The completed version of the belt was shown on AEW's Twitter just a few hours before the August 12 episode of "Dynamite" where the finished design was debuted for Cody's match against Scorpio Sky, where Cody retained.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: Following the unexpected death of Mr. Brodie Lee, the championship's second title holder, in December 2020, AEW retired the red strap version of the championship belt that had been used up to that point to honor Lee (similar to how sports teams retire a number). During night one of the special New Year's Smash episode of "Dynamite" on January 6, 2021, a new belt was unveiled by Darby Allin, featuring the same design as the previous belt but on a black leather strap as opposed to red.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: After Sammy Guevara defeated Miro to win the title on the September 29, 2021, episode of "Dynamite", Guevara was presented with an updated design of the standard championship belt to replace Miro's custom belt. This new belt returned to the design of the standard black strap version introduced by Darby Allin, but with rhinestones added in the circular area behind the relief TNT logo. The TNT Championship's original designer, Ron Edwardsen, also designed the updated belt, which has a total of 1,577 rhinestones, which Edwardsen himself nicknamed the "TNT Bling" belt.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: During night one of Fyter Fest on July 14, 2021, reigning champion Miro introduced his own custom version of the championship belt that represented his hometown of Plovdiv, Bulgaria, as well as his persona change as "The Redeemer." The plates were on a white leather strap and the center plate was the same; however, the red banner was changed to green. Additionally, the two inner side plates were changed to feature the Coat of Arms for Plovdiv. The text below the Coat of Arms said "Древен и Вечен" (Bulgarian: "Dreven i Vechen"), which means "Ancient and Eternal". Miro's custom belt was made by Belts By Dan.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: On the May 20, 2022, episode of "Rampage", Sammy Guevara, Tay Conti, and Frankie Kazarian destroyed the standard belt that they stole from reigning champion Scorpio Sky. The following week on the May 27 episode, Dan Lambert and Ethan Page presented Sky with a custom version of the championship belt in the colors of Sky's hometown and favorite National Basketball Association team, the Los Angeles Lakers. The "Laker belt" had a gold strap, and the word "Champion" on a purple banner. Emblazoned on the end of the strap between the snap buttons was "8-24", referring to the numbers worn by late Lakers star Kobe Bryant. The title's original designer, Ron Edwardsen, also designed the "Laker belt".


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been 13 reigns between 8 champions. Cody Rhodes, then known simply as Cody, was the inaugural champion. He is also tied with Sammy Guevara for the most reigns at three. Darby Allin's sole reign is the longest at 186 days, while Guevara's third reign is the shortest at 12 days (11 days as recognized by AEW due to tape delay). Allin is also the youngest champion at the age of 27, while Samoa Joe was the oldest, winning the title at 43.


title: AEW TNT Championship

text: Samoa Joe is the current champion in his first reign. He defeated previous champion Wardlow and Powerhouse Hobbs, who he submitted, in a three-way match at Full Gear in Newark, NJ.


title: Essential oil

text: An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An essential oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term "essential" used here does "not" mean indispensable or usable by the human body, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid, which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a living organism.


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, "sfumatura", absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, air fresheners and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy, a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions, inflammation and skin irritation. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use. Essential oils can be poisonous if ingested or absorbed through the skin.


title: Essential oil

text: Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea tree oil, patchouli, and eucalyptus are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.


title: Essential oil

text: Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is "ylang-ylang" ("Cananga odorata") which is purified through a fractional distillation.


title: Essential oil

text: The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, and orange blossom water.


title: Essential oil

text: Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry.


title: Essential oil

text: Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called "concretes", which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil-soluble) plant material.


title: Essential oil

text: Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the "absolute".


title: Essential oil

text: Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method can avoid petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue.


title: Essential oil

text: Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.


title: Essential oil

text: Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as local anesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive (cough suppressing) effect. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil, may cause contact dermatitis. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning.


title: Essential oil

text: In Australia essential oils have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014–2018 there were 4,412 poisoning incidents reported in New South Wales.


title: Essential oil

text: Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses. Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards. Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; there has been at least one case of death.


title: Essential oil

text: Research has shown that some essential oils have potential as a natural pesticide. In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods. These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth, decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these "green" pesticides without harmful effects to anything else other than pests. Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, basil, and eucalyptus.


title: Essential oil

text: Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control, and marketed insect repellents, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness to DEET, which is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency.


title: Essential oil

text: In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions. In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as the essential oil market diversifies and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers. some EOs are authorized, and in use, in the European Union: "Melaleuca" oil as a fungicide, citronella oil as a herbicide, "Syzygium aromaticum" oil as a fungicide and bactericide, "Mentha spicata" oil as a plant growth regulator; "Citrus sinensis" oil (only in France) for "Bemisia tabaci" on "Cucurbita pepo" and "Trialeurodes vaporariorum" on "Solanum lycopersicum"; and approvals for oils of "Thymus", "C. sinensis", and "Tagetes" as insecticides are pending.


title: Essential oil

text: In relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it was in the 20th century when EOs were considered as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).


title: Essential oil

text: The most commonly used essential oils with antimicrobial action are: β-caryophyllene, eugenol, eugenol acetate, carvacrol, linalool, thymol, geraniol, geranyl acetate, bicyclogermacrene, cinnamaldehyde, geranial, neral, 1,8-cineole, methyl chavicol, methyl cinnamate, methyl eugenol, camphor, α-thujone, viridiflorol, limonene, ("Z")-linalool oxide, α-pinene, "p"-cymene, ("E")-caryophyllene, γ-terpinene.


title: Essential oil

text: Some essential oils are effective antimicrobials and have been evaluated for food incorporation in vitro. However, actual deployment is rare because much higher concentrations are required in real foods. Some or all of this lower effectiveness is due to large differences between culture medium and foods in: chemistry (especially lipid content), viscosity, and duration of inoculation/storage.


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: ""oil-loving"") compounds that are immiscible (not miscible) with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol.


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.


title: Essential oil

text: Balsam of Peru, an essential oil derived from "Myroxylon" plants, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in animal care products. However, national and international surveys identified balsam of Peru among the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.


title: Essential oil

text: Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves of "Eucalyptus globulus". Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties. Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly.


title: Essential oil

text: Lavender oil has long been used in the production of perfume. However, studies have shown it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular. Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent.


title: Essential oil

text: Rose oil is produced from the petals of "Rosa damascena" and "Rosa centifolia". Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute".


title: Essential oil

text: The potential toxicity of essential oil is related to its level or grade of purity, and to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove toxic to the liver. If ingested or rubbed into the skin, essential oils can be highly poisonous, causing confusion, choking, loss of muscle coordination, difficulty in breathing, pneumonia, seizures, and possibly severe allergic reactions or coma.


title: Essential oil

text: Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing vulnerability of the skin to sunlight.


title: Essential oil

text: Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic-grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women.


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults.


title: Essential oil

text: The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as Class 3 Flammable Liquids, as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C.


title: Essential oil

text: Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by "in vitro" study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest that lavender oil may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys. The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed the claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil. In 2018, a BBC report on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level of estrogen and decreasing the level of testosterone. Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils". The study did not include animal or human testing.


title: Essential oil

text: Exposure to essential oils may cause contact dermatitis. Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall.


title: Essential oil

text: Some essential oils qualify as GRAS flavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict good manufacturing practice and flavorist standards. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular. The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 mL, and thus should not be used during pregnancy.


title: Essential oil

text: Concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically, means many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.


title: Essential oil

text: Some essential oils may contain impurities and additives that may be harmful to pregnant women. Certain essential oils are safe to use during pregnancy, but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand. Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache, vertigo, and nausea. Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste, and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea when ingested.


title: Essential oil

text: The following table lists the or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions.


title: Essential oil

text: In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized. The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60


title: Essential oil

text: The resins of aromatics and plant extracts were retained to produce traditional medicines and scented preparations, such as perfumes and incense, including frankincense, myrrh, cedarwood, juniper berry and cinnamon in ancient Egypt may have contained essential oils. In 1923, when archaeologists opened Pharaoh Tutankhamun’s tomb, they found 50 alabaster jars of essential oils.


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oils have been used in folk medicine over centuries. The Persian physician Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in Europe, was first to derive the fragrance of flowers from distillation, while the earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils may be Ibn al-Baitar (1188–1248), an Arab Al-Andalusian (Muslim Spain) physician, pharmacist and chemist.


title: Essential oil

text: Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed, such as referring to methyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen".


title: Essential oil

text: Essential oils are used in aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer or diffuser, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.


title: Vaathi

text: Vaathi () is an upcoming Indian period coming-of-age action drama film written and directed by Venky Atluri. It is shot simultaneously in Tamil and Telugu languages, the latter titled as Sir. Produced by Sithara Entertainments and Fortune Four Cinemas, the film stars Dhanush and Samyuktha Menon. The film is scheduled for a theatrical release on 17 February 2023.


title: Vaathi

text: Balamurugan (Tamil) / Bala Gangadhar Tilak (Telugu) is a third-grade junior lecturer at Thirupati Educational Institute (Tamil) /Tripathi Educational Institute (Telugu) (T.E.I) where he stands against the institutes, who provide education to children, in exchange for business profits.


title: Vaathi

text: The music of the film is composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar. The first single titled "Vaa Vaathi" was released on 10 November 2022.


title: Vaathi

text: The film was scheduled for a theatrical release on 2 December 2022 in Tamil and Telugu languages but was postponed. In November 2022, it was announced that the film will release on 17 February 2023.


title: KRISS Vector

text: The KRISS Vector is a series of weapons based upon the parent submachine gun design developed by the American company KRISS USA, formerly Transformational Defense Industries (TDI). They use an unconventional delayed blowback system combined with in-line design to reduce perceived recoil and muzzle climb.


title: KRISS Vector

text: In the spring of 2007, TDI announced their development of a new submachine gun. It was an experimental weapon under advanced stages of development at that time. The name "Kriss" comes from a Southeast Asian dagger with a flame-shaped blade.


title: KRISS Vector

text: The second generation prototype of the Vector, called the "K10", was announced at 2011 SHOT Show. It is a slightly more compact version of the Vector that is based on the same Super V system. The main difference is a redesign of the lower receiver intended for easy caliber interchangeability; utilizing just a single takedown pin, users can change between 9×19mm, .40 S&W and .45 ACP by mounting different lower receivers. This also brought a redesign of the charging handle, which now travels diagonally, almost vertically, and can be mounted on either side of the weapon. Other notable differences were a new telescoping stock instead of a folding one, and a four-sided accessory rail tube around the barrel. The K10 was not displayed after SHOT Show 2013 and its status is unknown and likely has been canceled.


title: KRISS Vector

text: Kriss announced "Gen II" versions of the original Vector models in 2015. These feature a redesigned pistol grip, trigger, safety selector, and compatibility with a new 9×19mm lower. These appear to have replaced the K10 prototypes, though no features from the K10 were carried over.


title: KRISS Vector

text: The Vector uses an articulated mechanism referred to as the "Kriss Super V", which allows the bolt and an inertia block to move downward into a recess behind the magazine well. The theory is that at the end of this travel, the energy is transmitted downward rather than rearward, thus reducing the felt recoil. When fired, the barrel axis is in line with the shoulder as in the M16 rifle, but also in line with the shooter's hand. This is intended to reduce muzzle climb when combined with the off-axis bolt travel, though it also greatly raises the sight line in comparison to the bore axis. The initial prototype model by TDI achieved a rate of fire of 1,500 rounds per minute, though this was brought down to around 1,200 rounds per minute on the production models. Civilian models are limited to semi-automatic only.


title: KRISS Vector

text: The Vector is split into two major assemblies in a similar manner to the AR-15 rifle, secured together with four push pins. Due to the weapon's unusual layout, the lower contains the action, charging handle, magazine well and barrel, while the upper contains the ejection port, rail system, pistol grip and fire control components, as well as the stock for configurations that have one. This modular design allows for toolless caliber conversions by swapping out only the lower. The Vector's safety is ambidextrous (as well as the fire mode selector on the auto trigger pack) while the ejection port, charging handle, bolt release catch and magazine release are not, and are only available in a right-handed configuration.


title: KRISS Vector

text: Calibers such as .22 LR, .40 S&W and 9×19mm Parabellum were mentioned when the gun was first released. The Gen II versions with multiple design changes including a new 9mm variant were confirmed at SHOT Show 2015, though the .22LR version had yet to materialize and was thought to have been canceled up until SHOT Show 2020, when they announced its release.