text: Gilliard wrote that Tatiana was reserved and "well balanced" but less open and spontaneous than Olga. She was less naturally intelligent than Olga, but she was more hard-working and dedicated. Colonel Eugene Kobylinsky, the family's guard at Tsarskoye Selo and Tobolsk, claimed that Tatiana "had no liking for art" and that "it would have been better for her had she been a man."


title: Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia

text: Tatiana was interested in fashion. According to Sophie Buxhoeveden, "Tatiana Nicolaevna loved dress. Any frock, no matter how old, looked well on her. She knew how to put on her clothes, was admired and liked admiration." Her mother's friend Anna Vyrubova wrote that Tatiana was talented in embroidery and crocheting and that she could dress her mother's hair as well as a professional hair stylist. Sophie Buxhoeveden remembered that Tatiana once dressed her hair when her hairdresser was unavailable.


text: Tatiana was the most sociable of the four sisters. According to Sophie Buxhoeveden, "friends would have been welcome, but no young girls were ever asked to the Palace." Vyrubova noted that Tatiana was the most famous of the sisters in their lifetimes because of her vivacious personality and sense of duty. Vyrubova and Lili Dehn claimed that Tatiana longed for friends of her own age but that her high rank and her mother's distaste for society restricted her social life.


text: Like her mother, Tatiana was deeply religious. She read her Bible frequently, studied theology, and struggled with the meaning of "good and evil, sorrow and forgiveness, and man's destiny on earth". She decided that "one has to struggle much because the return for good is evil, and evil reigns." A.A. Mosolov claimed that Tatiana's reserved nature gave her a "difficult" character with more spiritual depth than that of her sister, Olga. Her English tutor, Sydney Gibbes, claimed that Tatiana viewed religion as a duty rather than a passion.


text: Only her closest friends and family were aware of her introspective side. "With her, as with her mother, shyness and reserve were accounted as pride, but, once you knew her and had gained her affection, this reserve disappeared and the real Tatiana became apparent," Dehn recalled. "She was a poetical creature, always yearning for the ideal, and dreaming of great friendships which might be hers." Chebotareva loved the "sweet" Tatiana as if she were her daughter, and she claimed that Tatiana would hold her hand when she was nervous. "I am so terribly embarrassed and frightened – I do not know whom I greeted and whom not," Tatiana told Chebotareva.


text: Like her sisters, Tatiana was unworldly and naive. When she was young, she was shocked to learn that her governess Margaretta Eagar was paid for taking care of her. When Eagar told her that "you have seen me get my money every month," Tatiana replied that "I always thought it was a present to you." When her lady-in-waiting sent a carriage without an attendant, Tatiana and Olga decided to go shopping for the first time. They ordered the carriage to stop near a group of shops and went into one of the stores. The shopkeepers did not recognize them because they wore nurses' uniforms. They left the shop without buying anything, because they didn't carry money with them and had no idea how to use it. The next day, they asked Chebotareva how to use money.


text: Tatiana was closer to her mother than any of her sisters, and many considered her to be Alexandra's favorite daughter. "It was not that her sisters loved their mother any less," recalled her French tutor Pierre Gilliard, "but Tatiana knew how to surround her with unwearying attentions and never gave way to her own capricious impulses." On 13 March 1916, Alexandra wrote to Nicholas that Tatiana was the only one of their four daughters who "grasped it" when she explained her way of looking at things. Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden wrote that Tatiana "was closest in sympathy to her mother" and "the definite favorite of both her parents."


text: Tatiana was close to her father. Lili Dehn wrote that "the Emperor loved her devotedly [and] they had much in common." She recalled that "the sisters used to laugh, and say that, if a favour were required, "Tatiana must ask Papa to grant it."”


text: Tatiana was born on 10 June 1897. She was the second child and daughter of Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra. She weighed 3.9 kg at birth, and Dr. Ott used forceps in her birth. When she regained consciousness from the chloroform used during the delivery, Alexandra saw the "anxious and troubled faces" around her and wept: "My God, it is again a daughter. What will the nation say, what will the nation say?" Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich wrote that "everyone was very disappointed as they had been hoping for a son." Grand Duke George Alexandrovich, Nicholas' younger brother, told Nicholas "I was already preparing to go into retirement, but it was not to be." Under the Pauline Laws, the Imperial throne of Russia could not pass to a woman unless all legitimate male lines died out. As such, Nicholas' heir was his brother George unless he had a son. Grand Duchess Tatiana's siblings were Grand Duchesses Olga, Maria, Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei of Russia. All of the children were close to one another and to their parents up until the end of their lives.


text: On 29 May 1897, Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia recorded in his diary that Nicholas II had named Tatiana as an homage to the heroine in Alexander Pushkin's novel in verse "Eugene Onegin". According to him, he wanted to name his daughter after Olga and Tatiana, the sisters in the famous poem.


text: Tatiana's title was "Grand Princess", but it was translated from Russian into English as "Grand Duchess". As an "imperial highness", she outranked the other European princesses, who were merely "royal highnesses".


text: Like the other Romanov children, Tatiana was raised with austerity. She and her sisters slept on camp beds without pillows, took cold baths in the morning, and embroidered and knitted projects to be given as gifts or sold at charity bazaars.


text: In their household, Tatiana and Olga were known as "The Big Pair". They shared a bedroom and were very close to each another from early childhood. In the spring of 1901, Olga had typhoid fever and was confined to the nursery for several weeks. When she began to recover, Tatiana was permitted to see her older sister for five minutes but didn't recognize her. When her governess, Margaretta Eagar, told her that the sickly child was Olga, four-year-old Tatiana cried bitterly and protested that the pale, thin child couldn't be her beloved older sister. Eagar had difficulty persuading Tatiana that Olga would recover.


text: Tatiana doted on her younger brother, Tsarevich Alexei. However, the long-awaited heir suffered from frequent, severe attacks of hemophilia. Tatiana, her mother, and her three sisters were all potential carriers of the hemophilia gene; the Tsarina was a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, who had passed down the hemophilia gene to her descendants. Tatiana's paternal aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia reported that Maria, Tatiana's younger sister, hemorrhaged during an operation to remove her tonsils in December 1914. The operating doctor was so alarmed that the Tsarina needed to urge him to continue. Olga Alexandrovna claimed that all four of her nieces bled more than was normal and that they were carriers of the hemophilia gene. Symptomatic carriers of the gene are not hemophiliacs, but they can have symptoms of hemophilia, including an abnormally low blood clotting factor that can lead to heavy bleeding.


text: The Tsarina relied on the counsel of Grigori Rasputin, a Russian peasant and wandering "starets" or "holy man", and she credited his prayers with saving the ailing Tsarevich. Tatiana and her siblings viewed Rasputin as "Our Friend" and confided in him. In the autumn of 1907, Tatiana's father escorted his sister, Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia, to the nursery so that she could too meet Rasputin. Tatiana and her siblings all wore their long white nightgowns, and they were comfortable in Rasputin's presence. In February 1909, Rasputin sent the Imperial children a telegram, advising them to "Love the whole of God's nature, the whole of His creation in particular this earth. The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework." In one letter, 11-year-old Tatiana asked Rasputin to visit her and lamented that she found it difficult to see her mother ill. "But you know because you know everything," she wrote.


text: Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva, one of the sisters' governesses, was horrified that Rasputin was permitted access to the nursery when they were in their nightgowns and requested that he be banned from the household. She told Grand Duchess Xenia that he visited Olga and Tatiana before them, spoke to them, and "caressed" them. The sisters hid Rasputin's presence from Tyutcheva, and they were afraid to talk to their governess about him. Tatiana was aware of the tension and feared her mother's reaction to Tyutcheva's actions. On 8 March 1910, the 12-year-old Tatiana wrote to her mother, "I am so afr(aid) that S.I. can speak ... about our friend something bad. I hope our nurse will be nice to our friend now." Alexandra dismissed Tyutcheva.


text: All accounts agree that Rasputin had an innocent relationship with the children, but Nicholas did ask Rasputin to avoid going to the nurseries in the future. Grand Duchess Xenia was horrified by Tyutcheva's story. On 15 March 1910, she wrote in her diary that she could not understand why her brother and his family regarded Rasputin, whom she saw as only a "khlyst", as "almost a saint".


text: Maria Ivanovna Vishnyakova, another nurse for the royal children, initially thought well of Rasputin, but she became disillusioned with him. In the spring of 1910, she claimed that Rasputin raped her, but the Tsarina refused to believe her because she saw Rasputin as holy. The Tsarina insisted to Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna that she had investigated Vishnyakova's claim but that "they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard." In 1913, the Tsarina dismissed Vishnyakova.


text: There were malicious rumors that Rasputin had seduced the Tsarina and the four grand duchesses. Rasputin had released the letters that the Tsarina and the grand duchesses had sent to him; although they were innocent in nature, they fueled the rumors about his alleged affairs. Pornographic cartoons depicted Rasputin having sexual relations with the Tsarina and her four daughters as Anna Vyrubova stood nude in the background. Much to the Tsarina's displeasure, Nicholas ordered Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg, and Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The Imperial family's association with Rasputin continued until his murder in 1916. On 6 December 1916, the Tsarina wrote to Nicholas that "Our Friend is so contented with our girlies, says they have gone through heavy 'courses' for their age and their souls have much developed."


text: Allegedly, Tatiana was present at the site of Rasputin's murder, "disguised as a lieutenant of the Chevaliers-Gardes, so that she could revenge herself on Rasputin who had tried to violate her". Maurice Paléologue, the French ambassador to Russia, wrote that Tatiana had witnessed Rasputin's castration, but he doubted the credibility of the rumor.


text: In his memoirs, A.A. Mordvinov reported that all four grand duchesses were "cold and visibly terribly upset" by Rasputin's death. According to him, they sat "huddled up closely together" on a sofa when they received the news. He wrote that they seemed to sense the political upheaval that was about to be unleashed. On 21 December 1916, Tatiana attended Rasputin's funeral. Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on its reverse side by Tatiana, her mother and her sisters.


text: Tatiana kept a notebook in which she recorded Rasputin's sayings: "Love is Light and it has no end. Love is great suffering. It cannot eat, it cannot sleep. It is mixed with sin in equal parts. And yet it is better to love. In love one can be mistaken, and through suffering he expiates for his mistakes. If love is strong—the lovers happy. Nature herself and the Lord give them happiness. One must ask the Lord that he teach to love the luminous, bright, so that love be not torment, but joy. Love pure, Love luminous is the Sun. The Sun makes us warm, and Love caresses. All is in Love, and even a bullet cannot strike Love down."


text: As a young teenager, Tatiana was given the rank of honorary colonel and assigned a regiment of soldiers, the Vosnesensky (Ascension) Lancers. She and Olga inspected the soldiers regularly.


text: Tatiana enjoyed the company of soldiers, but she was often shocked by their behavior. On 11 July 1911, a group of officers aboard the Imperial yacht gave Olga a portrait of Michelangelo's nude David, cut out from a newspaper. Indignant, the 14-year-old Tatiana wrote to her aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia, "Olga laughed at it long and hard. And not one of the officers wishes to confess that he has done it. Such swine, aren't they?"


text: On 14 July 1911, Tatiana laughed at her distant cousin Prince Ioann Konstantinovich of Russia's engagement to Helen of Serbia. On 14 July 1911, she wrote to Olga, "How funny if they might have children, can (she) be kissing him? What foul, fie!"


text: In 1911, Tatiana and Olga witnessed the assassination of the government minister Pyotr Stolypin during a performance at the Kiev Opera House. On 10 September 1911, Nicholas later wrote to his mother, Dowager Empress Maria, that the event had upset both girls. Tatiana sobbed and both of them had trouble sleeping that night.


text: When World War I broke out, Tatiana became a Red Cross nurse with her mother and Olga. They cared for wounded soldiers in a private hospital on the grounds of Tsarskoye Selo. According to Vyrubova, "Tatiana was almost as skillful and devoted as her mother, and complained only that on account of her youth she was spared some of the more trying cases." Valentina Ivanovna Chebotareva, who worked with her at the hospital, described in her journal how she planned to boil silk while Tatiana was otherwise occupied, fearing that Tatiana would be too tired to help her. But Tatiana guessed what Chebotareva was doing. "Why can you breathe carbolic acid and I can't?" she asked Chebotareva and insisted on helping her with the work. In September 1914, she was named patron of a war aid committee called the Tatiana Committee. Tatiana was fiercely patriotic. On 29 October 1914, she apologized to her mother for disparaging the German in her presence; she explained that she thought of her mother as only Russian and that she had forgotten that the Tsarina was born in Germany. The Tsarina responded that she was offended by the Russian people's gossip about her German connections because she considered herself as completely Russian.


text: On 15 August 1915, Tatiana wrote to her mother that she wished she could do more to support Russia during the war: "I simply can't tell you how awfully sorry I am for you, my beloved ones. I am so sorry I can in no way help you or be useful. In such moments I am sorry I'm not a man." As Tatiana grew into adulthood, she undertook more public appearances than her sisters and headed committees.


text: When she was 13, an ill Tatiana begged her mother to permit her to leave her bed so that she could watch a soldier, with whom she was infatuated. On 20 April 1911, she wrote to the Tsarina, "I would like so much to go the review of the second division as I am also the second daughter and Olga was at the first so now it is my turn...Yes, Mama, and at the second division I will see whom I "must" see ... you know whom ...".


text: In the December 2004 edition of the magazine "Royalty Digest: A Journal of Record", Peter de Malama wrote that his cousin, Dmitri Yakovlevich Malama, an officer in the Imperial Russian Cavalry, met Tatiana when he was wounded in 1914. De Malama claimed that Dmitri was appointed an equerry to the court of the Tsar at Tsarskoye Selo, where he developed a romantic relationship with Tatiana. In September 1914, Dmitri gave Tatiana a French bulldog, which she named "Ortipo". On 30 September 1914, she wrote to her mother, "Forgive me about the little dog. To say the truth, when he asked should I like to have it if he gave it to me, I at once said yes. You remember, I always wanted to have one, and only afterwards when we came home I thought that suddenly you might not like me having one. But I really was so pleased at the idea that I forgot about everything." When Ortipo died, Dmitri gave her another puppy. Tatiana took it with her to Yekaterinburg, where it died with the rest of the family. Eighteen months after he gave Ortipo to Tatiana, Dmitri paid the Imperial family a visit. On 17 March 1916, the Tsarina wrote to Nicholas that "my little Malama came for an hour yesterday evening...Looks flourishing more of a man now, an adorable boy still. I must say a perfect son in law he w(ou)ld have been – why are foreign P(rin)ces not as nice!" aIn August 1919, Malama was killed while commanding a unit of the White Russians fighting the civil war against the Bolsheviks in Ukraine, according to Peter de Malama.


text: According to the diary of Valentina Ivanovna Chebotareva, Tatiana was fond of an officer named Vladimir Kiknadze, whom she cared for when he was wounded in 1915 and 1916. She claimed that Tatiana sat beside "Volodia" at the piano as he played a tune with one finger and talked to her in a low voice. She claimed that Tatiana and Olga made excuses to come to the hospital to see Volodia. She feared that the grand duchesses' flirtations with the wounded officers would damage their reputations.


text: Allegedly, the Serbian king Peter I wanted Tatiana as a bride for his younger son, Prince Alexander. In January 1914, the Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić delivered a letter to Tsar Nicholas in which King Peter expressed a desire for his son to marry one of the Grand Duchesses.


text: The family was arrested during the Russian Revolution of 1917 and imprisoned first at Tsarskoye Selo and later at private residences in Tobolsk and Yekaterinburg, Siberia. The drastic change in circumstances and the uncertainty of captivity took its toll on Tatiana as well as on the rest of her family. "She pines without work," wrote her fellow nurse Valentina Chebotareva after receiving a letter from Tatiana on 16 April 1917. "It is strange to sit in the morning at home, to be in good health and not to go to the change of bandages!" Tatiana wrote Chebotareva. Tatiana, apparently trying to advocate for her mother, asked her friend Margarita Khitrovo in a letter on 8 May 1917 why their fellow nurses did not write to Tsarina Alexandra directly. Chebotareva wrote in her journal that, while she pitied the family, she could not write directly to the Tsarina because she blamed her for the Revolution. "If anyone wishes to write us, let them write directly," Tatiana wrote to "my dear dove" Chebotareva on 9 December 1917, after expressing concern for fellow nurses and a patient they had once treated together. Chebotareva's son, Gregory P. Tschebotarioff, noted the grand duchess's "firm, energetic handwriting" and how the letter "reflected the nature which endeared her so much to my mother."


text: Tatiana's English tutor, Sydney Gibbes, recalled that Tatiana had grown razor thin in captivity and seemed "haughtier" and more inscrutable to him than ever. In April 1918 the Bolsheviks moved Nicholas, Alexandra and Maria to Yekaterinburg. The remaining children remained behind in Tobolsk because Alexei, who had suffered another attack of haemophilia, could not be moved. It was Tatiana who persuaded her mother to "stop tormenting herself" and make a decision to go with her father and leave Alexei behind. Alexandra decided that level-headed Tatiana must be left behind to manage the household and look after Alexei.


text: During the month of separation from their parents and sister, Tatiana, Olga, Anastasia, and ladies in waiting busied themselves sewing precious stones and jewelry into their clothing, hoping to hide them from their captors, since Alexandra had written she, Nicholas and Maria had been heavily searched upon arrival in Yekaterinburg, and items confiscated. A letter from Anna Demidova to Alexandra Tegleva gave the instructions on how to deal with the 'medicines', a predetermined code name for the jewels. The concealments were successful, as the Bolsheviks were never aware of the jewels in the clothes until after the executions.


text: Pierre Gilliard later recalled his last sight of the imperial children at Yekaterinburg. "The sailor Nagorny, who attended to Alexei Nikolaevitch, passed my window carrying the sick boy in his arms, behind him came the Grand Duchesses loaded with valises and small personal belongings. I tried to get out, but was roughly pushed back into the carriage by the sentry. I came back to the window. Tatiana Nikolayevna came last carrying her little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise. It was raining and I saw her feet sink into the mud at every step. Nagorny tried to come to her assistance; he was roughly pushed back by one of the commisars ..."


text: At Yekaterinburg, Tatiana occasionally joined her younger sisters in chatting with some of the guards over tea, asking them questions about their families and talking about her hopes for a new life in England when they were released. On one occasion one of the guards forgot himself and told the grand duchesses an off-color joke. The shocked Tatiana ran from the room, "pale as death", and her younger sister Maria scolded the guards for their bad language. She "would be pleasant to the guards if she thought they were behaving in an acceptable and decorous manner," recalled another of the guards in his memoirs. Later, when a new commander was placed in charge of the Ipatiev House, the family was forbidden from fraternizing with the guards and the rules of their confinement became more strict. Tatiana, still the family leader, was often sent by her parents to question the guards about rules or what would happen next to the family. She also spent a great deal of time sitting with her mother and ill brother, reading to her mother or playing games to occupy the time. At the Ipatiev House, Tatiana and her sisters were required to do their own laundry and make bread. Her nursing skills were called upon at the end of June 1918 when she gave an injection of morphine to Dr. Eugene Botkin to ease his kidney pain.


text: On 14 July 1918, local priests at Yekaterinburg conducted a private church service for the family and reported that Tatiana and her family, contrary to custom, fell on their knees during the prayer for the dead. The final entry in Tatiana's final notebook at Yekaterinburg was a saying she had copied from the words of a well-known Russian Orthodox holy man, Father Ioann of Kronstadt: "Your grief is indescribable, the Savior's grief in the Gardens of Gethsemane for the world's sins is immeasurable, join your grief to his, in it you will find consolation." The following day, on 15 July, Tatiana and her sisters appeared in good spirits as they joked with one another and moved the beds in their room so visiting cleaning women could scrub the floor. They got down on their hands and knees to help the women and whispered to them when the guards weren't looking. All four young women wore long black skirts and white silk blouses, the same clothing they had worn the previous day. Their short hair was "tumbled and disorderly". They told the women how much they enjoyed physical exertion and wished there was more of it for them to do in the Ipatiev House. On the afternoon of 16 July 1918, the last full day of her life, Tatiana sat with her mother and read from the Biblical Books of Amos and Obadiah, Alexandra noted in her diary. Later, mother and daughter sat and just talked. As the family was having dinner that night, Yakov Yurovsky, the head of the detachment, came in and announced that the family's kitchen boy and Alexei's playmate, 14-year-old Leonid Sednev, must gather his things and go to a family member. The boy had actually been sent to a hotel across the street because the guards did not want to kill him along with the rest of the Romanov party. The family, unaware of the plan to kill them, was upset and unsettled by Sednev's absence. Tatiana went that evening to Yurovsky's office, for what was to be the last time, to ask for the return of the kitchen boy who kept Alexei amused during the long hours of captivity. Yurovsky placated her by telling her the boy would return soon, but the family was unconvinced.


text: Late that night, on the night of 16 July, the family was awakened and told to come down to the lower level of the house because there was unrest in the town at large and they would have to be moved for their own safety. The family emerged from their rooms carrying pillows, bags, and other items to make Alexandra and Alexei comfortable. The family paused and crossed themselves when they saw the stuffed mother bear and cubs that stood on the landing, perhaps as a sign of respect for the dead. Nicholas told the servants and family "Well, we're going to get out of this place." They asked questions of the guards but did not appear to suspect they were going to be killed. Yurovsky, who had been a professional photographer, directed the family to take different positions as a photographer might. Alexandra, who had requested chairs for herself and Alexei, sat to her son's left. The Tsar stood behind Alexei, Dr. Botkin stood to the Tsar's right, Tatiana and her sisters stood behind Alexandra along with the servants. They were left for approximately half an hour while further preparations were made. The group said little during this time, but Alexandra whispered to the girls in English, violating the guard's rules that they must speak in Russian. Yurovsky came in, ordered them to stand, and read the sentence of execution. Tatiana and her family had time only to utter a few incoherent sounds of shock or protest before the death squad under Yurovsky's command began shooting. It was the early hours of 17 July 1918.


text: The initial round of gunfire killed only the Emperor, the Empress and two male servants, and wounded Grand Duchess Maria, Dr Botkin and the Empress' maidservant, Demidova. At that point the gunmen had to leave the room because of smoke and toxic fumes from their guns and plaster dust their bullets had released from the walls. After allowing the haze to clear for several minutes, the gunmen returned. Dr Botkin was killed, and a gunman named Ermakov repeatedly tried to shoot Tsarevich Alexei, but failed because jewels sewn into the boy's clothes shielded him. Ermakov tried to stab Alexei with a bayonet but failed again, and finally Yurovsky fired two shots into the boy's head. Yurovsky and Ermakov approached Olga and Tatiana, who were crouched against the room's rear wall, clinging to each other and screaming for their mother. Ermakov stabbed both young women with his 8-inch bayonet, but had difficulty penetrating their torsos because of the jewels that had been sewn into their chemises. The sisters tried to stand, but Tatiana was killed instantly when Yurovsky shot her in the back of her head. A moment later, Olga too died when Ermakov shot her in the head.


text: For decades, conspiracy theorists suggested that one or more of the family somehow survived the slaughter. The theories were reduced in scale, but still persisted, when the bodies of most of the family were found and identified from a mass grave discovered in the forest outside Yekaterinburg and exhumed in 1991. The remaining conspiracies hinged on the fact that two bodies were missing, Tsarevich Alexei and one of the four grand duchesses, generally thought by Russians to be Grand Duchess Maria and by Americans to be Grand Duchess Anastasia. For example, author Michael Occleshaw made the claim in his 1995 book "The Romanov Conspiracies: The Romanovs and the House of Windsor" that Tatiana might have been rescued and transported to England, where she married a British officer and lived under the name Larissa Tudor. Occleshaw based this claim on studying the diaries of the British agent Richard Meinertzhagen, who hinted at the successful liberation of a Grand Duchess, allegedly Tatiana. However, historians discounted this claim and continued to say that all of the Romanovs, including Tatiana, were assassinated at Yekaterinburg.


text: On 23 August 2007, a Russian archaeologist announced the discovery of two burned, partial skeletons at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg that appeared to match the site described in Yurovsky's memoirs. The archaeologists said the bones are from a boy who was roughly between the ages of twelve and fifteen years at the time of his death and of a young woman who was roughly between the ages of fifteen and nineteen years old. Anastasia was seventeen years, one month old at the time of the assassination, while her sister Maria was nineteen years, one month old and their brother Alexei was two weeks shy of his fourteenth birthday. Olga and Tatiana were twenty-two and twenty-one years old at the time of the assassinations. Along with the remains of the two bodies, archaeologists found "shards of a container of sulfuric acid, nails, metal strips from a wooden box, and bullets of various caliber." The bones were found using metal detectors and metal rods as probes.


text: Preliminary testing indicated a "high degree of probability" that the remains belonged to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters, Russian forensic scientists announced on 22 January 2008. The Yekaterinburg region's chief forensic expert Nikolai Nevolin indicated the results would be compared against those obtained by foreign experts. On 30 April 2008, Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing proved that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters. With this result, all of the Tsar's family are accounted for.


text: In 1981 Tatiana and her family were canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad as holy martyrs. In 2000, Tatiana and her family were canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a passion bearer.


text: The bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, and three of their daughters were finally interred at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 17 July 1998, eighty years to the day after they were murdered.


title: Stirling's approximation

text: In mathematics, Stirling's approximation (or Stirling's formula) is an approximation for factorials. It is a good approximation, leading to accurate results even for small values of formula_1. It is named after James Stirling, though a related but less precise result was first stated by Abraham de Moivre.


title: Stirling's approximation

text: where the big O notation means that, for all sufficiently large values of formula_1, the difference between formula_4 and formula_5 will be at most proportional to the logarithm. In computer science applications such as the worst-case lower bound for comparison sorting, it is convenient to use instead the binary logarithm, giving the equivalent form


title: Stirling's approximation

text: formula_6 The error term in either base can be expressed more precisely as formula_7, corresponding to an approximate formula for the factorial itself,


title: Stirling's approximation

text: Here the sign formula_9 means that the two quantities are asymptotic, that is, that their ratio tends to 1 as formula_1 tends to infinity. The following version of the bound holds for all formula_11, rather than only asymptotically:


title: Stirling's approximation

text: Roughly speaking, the simplest version of Stirling's formula can be quickly obtained by approximating the sum


title: Stirling's approximation

text: The full formula, together with precise estimates of its error, can be derived as follows. Instead of approximating formula_15, one considers its natural logarithm, as this is a slowly varying function:


title: Stirling's approximation

text: where formula_20 is a Bernoulli number, and is the remainder term in the Euler–Maclaurin formula. Take limits to find that


title: Stirling's approximation

text: where big-O notation is used, combining the equations above yields the approximation formula in its logarithmic form:


title: Stirling's approximation

text: Taking the exponential of both sides and choosing any positive integer formula_25, one obtains a formula involving an unknown quantity formula_26. For , the formula is


title: Stirling's approximation

text: The quantity formula_26 can be found by taking the limit on both sides as formula_1 tends to infinity and using Wallis' product, which shows that formula_30. Therefore, one obtains Stirling's formula:


title: Stirling's approximation

text: In fact, further corrections can also be obtained using Laplace's method. For example, computing two-order expansion using Laplace's method yields (using little-o notation)


title: Stirling's approximation

text: A complex-analysis version of this method is to consider formula_39 as a Taylor coefficient of the exponential function formula_40, computed by Cauchy's integral formula as


title: Stirling's approximation

text: where denotes the Stirling numbers of the first kind. From this one obtains a version of Stirling's series


title: Stirling's approximation

text: can be obtained by rearranging Stirling's extended formula and observing a coincidence between the resultant power series and the Taylor series expansion of the hyperbolic sine function. This approximation is good to more than 8 decimal digits for with a real part greater than 8. Robert H. Windschitl suggested it in 2002 for computing the gamma function with fair accuracy on calculators with limited program or register memory.


title: Stirling's approximation

text: Gergő Nemes proposed in 2007 an approximation which gives the same number of exact digits as the Windschitl approximation but is much simpler:


title: Stirling's approximation

text: An alternative approximation for the gamma function stated by Srinivasa Ramanujan (Ramanujan 1988) is


title: Stirling's approximation

text: The approximation may be made precise by giving paired upper and lower bounds; one such inequality is


title: Stirling's approximation

text: De Moivre gave an approximate rational-number expression for the natural logarithm of the constant. Stirling's contribution consisted of showing that the constant is precisely formula_51.


title: LAV-25

text: The LAV-25 is a member of the LAV II family. It is an eight-wheeled amphibious armored reconnaissance vehicle built by General Dynamics Land Systems and used by the United States Marine Corps and the United States Army.


title: LAV-25

text: During the 1980s, the U.S. Marine Corps began looking for a light armored vehicle to give their divisions greater mobility.


title: LAV-25

text: The Marine Corps evaluated the three LAV submissions. In September 1982, the General Motors submission was selected. GM was awarded initial production contract for 969 LAVs. The Army type classified the 25 mm gun variant as the M1047. The Army sought 2,350 of the 12.7 mm (.50) caliber-armed light squad carrier variant, and at one point was expected to be the LAV's biggest buyer. Congress canceled funds for the LAV-25, causing the Army to drop out of the program. The Marine Corps managed to secure enough funding to buy 758 LAVs in six variants.


title: LAV-25

text: The LAV entered service with the Marines in 1983. The Army borrowed at least a dozen LAV-25s for use by the 82nd Airborne Division, 3-73rd Armor for a scout platoon during the Gulf War. These LAV-25s were returned to the Marine Corps after the conflict. The USMC ordered 758 vehicles of all variants. LAVs first saw combat during the Invasion of Panama in 1989 and continued service in the Gulf War, Iraq War, and the War in Afghanistan.


title: LAV-25

text: The table of organization and equipment for a USMC light-armored reconnaissance battalion includes 56 LAV-25s, 16 LAV-ATs, 12 LAV-Ls, 8 LAV-Ms, 4 LAV-Rs, 4 LAV-C2s, and an unknown number of LAV-MEWSS vehicles.


title: LAV-25

text: The LAV platform is planned to remain in service with the Marine Corps until 2035. The Marines aim to have prototypes for the LAV's replacement, dubbed the Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle (ARV), by 2023. The ARV was initially planned to be a networked family of wheeled vehicles capable of performing various mission sets, with 500 to be procured. However, in April 2021 the Marines revealed they had shifted focus to new capabilities for performing reconnaissance rather than specific types of platforms, and that the LAV-25 replacement may not be a new armored vehicle. Nevertheless, proposals for Advanced Reconnaissance Vehicle prototypes were due in May 2021; requirements were for a vehicle with a tethered unmanned aircraft system (UAS) and an open architecture approach allowing for integration of capabilities including battle management systems and communications suites, weighing less than 18.5 tons and being small enough to fit four on a Ship-to-Shore Connector. Vendors that submitted proposals include General Dynamics Land Systems, Textron, and BAE Systems. The Marine Corps plans to make up to three awards for ARV prototypes for testing and evaluation, then choose up to two to continue into a competitive engineering and manufacturing development phase in 2024, after which a decision will be made as to whether production will be pursued. Textron and GDLS were awarded Other Transaction Authority (OTA) contracts in July 2021 for prototypes to be built and evaluated over the next two years. BAE Systems will also participate in a separate technical study to see if a variant of its Amphibious Combat Vehicle can meet ARV requirements. There are planned to be six ARV variants: command, control, communications and computers-unmanned aerial system (C4/UAS); organic precision fire-mounted; counter-UAS; 30 mm autocannon and ATGM; logistics; and recovery.


title: LAV-25

text: Developed from the AVGP family built by General Dynamics Land Systems, the LAV-25 is powered by a 6V53T Detroit Diesel turbo-charged engine, they are four-wheel drive (rear wheels) transferable to Eight-wheel drive. These vehicles are also amphibious, meaning they have the ability to "swim" but are limited to non-surf bodies of water (no oceans). While engaged in amphibious operations, the maximum speed is approximately using equipped propellers. The current Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) modifications will hinder or eliminate amphibious operations.


title: LAV-25

text: Typical land speeds are approximately 100 km/h (62.5 mph) in either 4- or 8-wheel drive; however, fuel economy decreases in 8-wheel drive. The vehicles operate on diesel fuel. They are equipped with a M242 Bushmaster 25 mm autocannon, two M240 7.62 mm machine guns, and two 4-barrel smoke grenade launchers located on the forward left and right sides of the turret. The crew is three; vehicle commander, gunner, and driver; and four passengers (scouts) with combat gear.


title: LAV-25

text: The LAV-25 is a lightly armored vehicle. The base model is protected by light gauge high hardness steel armor (MIL-A-46100), varying in nominal thickness from 4.71 mm to 9.71 mm. This level of high-hardness steel armor is intended only to offer protection against small arms rounds such as the common 7.62x39mm M1943 ball used by the AKM, to achieve the lowest possible weight and cost.


title: LAV-25

text: The standard LAV is fitted with a turret with 360° traverse, armed with an M242 25 mm chain gun with 420 rounds of 25 mm ammunition, both M791 APDS-T (Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot-Tracer) and M792 HEI-T (High Explosive Incendiary-Tracer), of which half is ready for use. 150 rounds are ready for use from one stowage bin, 60 from another stowage bin, the other 210 rounds are stowed elsewhere in the vehicle. A coaxial M240C machine gun is mounted alongside the M242, and a pintle-mounted M240B/G machine gun, with 1,320 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition, is mounted on the turret roof. The Canadian Army uses an upgraded version of this chassis for its Coyote Armoured Reconnaissance Vehicle.


title: LAV-25

text: The vehicle has been through many changes through the late 1990s. The new modification or SLEP has changed the LAV-25 to the "LAV-25A1" standard and has been completely fielded.


title: LAV-25

text: Funding has been approved for continued upgrades to the LAV family to bring them up to the LAV-A2 standard. Phase I improvements include increased external and internal ballistic armor upgrades, improved fire suppression equipment, and upgrading the vehicle's suspension to the Generation II standard. Phase II upgrades include replacing the turret hydraulics with an electric drive system and replacing the thermal sight with an improved model incorporating a laser range finder for aircraft.


title: LAV-25

text: To reflect the improved significant survivability and capability enhancements occurring today, the LAV is being renamed as the LAV-A2. The LAV-A2 project involved developing and installing an internal and external ballistic protection upgrade package, developed by Armatec Survivability, for the Light Armored Vehicles, an automatic fire suppression system for the interior of the vehicle and a Generation II suspension upgrade to support the added weight of the new armor. The suspension upgrade includes new struts/steering knuckles, torsion bars, shocks and mounts and driveshaft. The three-kit armor system provides the LAV with additional survivability against improvised explosive devices (IED) and direct-fire kinetic energy weapons.


title: LAV-25

text: The LAV-25A2 includes the Improved Thermal Sight System (ITSS) developed by Raytheon. The ITSS provides the gunner and commander with thermal images, an eye-safe laser range finder, a fire-control solution and far-target location target grid information.


title: LAV-25

text: The new armor will provide protection from 14.5 mm armor-piercing rounds, and include an anti-spall lining on the inside to further protect crew members. It will be similar to the protection found on the U.S. Army's LAV III "Stryker" variant.


title: LAV-25

text: Tests by the U.S. Army's Operational Test Command (OTC), Airborne and Special Operations Test Directorate at Fort Bragg demonstrated that the LAV-25A2 could be airdropped from transport aircraft, a capability of interest to Army airborne units. In October 2018, Alpha Company, 4th Battalion, 68th Armor Regiment, 1st Brigade Combat Team of the 82nd Airborne Division was activated and equipped with ex-USMC LAV-25A2s for test and evaluation; the unit was deactivated in September 2020 differing to wait for the creation of the U.S. Army's Mobile Protected Firepower units planned for 2025/2026.


title: LAV-25

text: In January 2019, General Dynamics was awarded a $37.2 million contract to upgrade the Marine Corps' LAV fleet. Designated the LAV A3, upgrades include improvements to the powerpack to improve reliability, cooling capacity, diagnostics, and fuel economy, a new drivetrain for improved towing capability, a steering dampener to improve road feel and usability, and a digitized drivers' instrument panel. The initial contract was for 60 hardware kits which are planned for installation by 2021.


title: LAV-25

text: Five variants of the LAV-25 were originally envisioned. Only six were initially production ready. Other than the LAV-25, these were:


title: Marcia Strassman

text: Marcia Ann Strassman (April 28, 1948 – October 24, 2014) was an American actress and singer. She played Nurse Margie Cutler on "M*A*S*H", Julie Kotter on "Welcome Back, Kotter", and Diane Szalinski in the film "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids" (1989).


title: Marcia Strassman

text: Strassman was born in New York City and raised in Passaic, New Jersey. Among her earliest acting credits was an appearance in an episode of "The Patty Duke Show". In 1963, at age 15, she succeeded Liza Minnelli in the role of Ethel Hofflinger in the Off-Broadway musical "Best Foot Forward".


title: Marcia Strassman

text: In 1967, she became a recording artist for Uni Records. Her debut single, "The Flower Children", was a top-40 hit in many West Coast U.S. markets, hitting #4 in San Diego and #2 in San Francisco; the track also hit #3 in Vancouver, British Columbia (both at CKLG 730 AM and CFUN 1410 AM in July 1967). However, the single failed to break out nationally in either country; the record stalled at #105 in the United States, and just sneaked into RPM's Top 100 for Canada, peaking at #95. The song also reached #95 on "Cashbox" Top 100 Singles chart


title: Marcia Strassman

text: Her follow-up release, "The Groovy World of Jack and Jill", charted in Denver, Colorado, but virtually nowhere else. A third single, "Star Gazer" (1968) (produced by Kim Fowley), failed to chart anywhere and brought Strassman's brief recording career to a close. Returning to acting after a gap of a few years, she landed the recurring role of Nurse Margie Cutler in six early episodes of "M*A*S*H".


title: Marcia Strassman

text: She landed the role of Julie Kotter, the wife of title character high school teacher Gabe Kotter (Gabe Kaplan) on the ABC comedy series "Welcome Back, Kotter" in 1975. The series lasted four years. Strassman was told that Kaplan wanted her off the series, and stated in an interview that working on the series made her "miserable". Kaplan read the interview and realized series producer James Komack was separately telling the two actors they didn't like each other, and Kaplan informed Strassman that he actually wanted more balance between Kotter's work and home environments, which would afford her the chance to do more on the series. Kaplan, a guest host on "The Tonight Show" that week, had Strassman on to tell the story as an interview guest; she recalled the incident decades later on a Biography Channel special about the history of "Kotter".


title: Marcia Strassman

text: In the 1970s, Strassman did guest spots on "Time Express", "The Rockford Files", and "The Love Boat", among other shows. In 1980, she starred as Lenina Crowne in a television production of Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World". She co-starred in the short-lived sitcom "Good Time Harry" that year. She guest-starred on the "Magnum, P.I." episode "Heal Thyself", where she played Dr. Karen Harmon, a former nurse with whom the title character served in Vietnam. In 1982, she played Maria Giannin in the romantic comedy "Soup for One".


title: Marcia Strassman

text: In 1989–90, she had a co-starring role on the "21 Jump Street" spin-off, "Booker", starring Richard Grieco in the title role. She guest starred on "Murder, She Wrote" in 1996. Strassman had movie roles as Rick Moranis's wife in "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids" (1989) and "Honey, I Blew Up the Kid" (1992). In 1994, she reprised her role from those movies in the 3-D film spin-off "Honey, I Shrunk the Audience!" She later went on to play Nancy Sterngood on the television series "Tremors" (2003).


title: Marcia Strassman

text: In March 2007, Strassman was diagnosed with advanced breast cancer that had spread to her bones. Her memoir, in which she discussed her life, career and illness, was published in 2008. Strassman died of the disease at her home in Sherman Oaks, California, on October 24, 2014. She was 66 years old. She had a daughter, Elizabeth Collector (from her 1984 to 1989 marriage to Robert Collector).


title: 2012 in film

text: 2012 in film is an overview of events, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies, critics' lists of the best films of 2012, festivals, a list of country-specific lists of films released, and notable deaths. Most notably, the two oldest surviving American film studios, Universal and Paramount both celebrated their centennial anniversaries, marking the first time that two major film studios celebrate 100 years, and the Dolby Atmos sound format was launched for the premiere of "Brave". The "James Bond" film series celebrated its 50th anniversary and released its 23rd film, "Skyfall". Six box-office blockbusters from previous years ("Beauty and the Beast", "", "Titanic", "Raiders of the Lost Ark", "Finding Nemo", and "Monsters, Inc.") were re-released in 3D and IMAX. Also, the year marked the debut for high frame rate technology. The first film using 48 F.P.S., a higher frame rate than the film industry standard 24 F.P.S., was "".


title: 2012 in film

text: Richard Brody of "The New Yorker" said, "2012 has been a good year for Hollywood and off-Hollywood. Note, once more, the remarkable Hollywood nexus of the Gotham and Independent Spirit nominees, as the path of independent financing becomes ever more significant for filmmakers whose work doesn’t fit into franchise formatting. And that’s a good thing, from the perspective of filmmaking—whether it means that directors and actors share producers’ risks in getting their work made, or that complicit producers give a director's vision free rein. But the latter notion makes some critics uneasy. There's an undercurrent of thought—one rooted in an antiquated and nostalgic vision of a halcyon classic Hollywood that supposedly both reached the masses and made modest and un-self-conscious art—that looks to producers to restrain the idiosyncrasies of directors and fit them into a readily marketable package of popular appeal. These critics yearn for the adversarial relationship of producer and director, seeing the producer as the supporter of democratic values and the director as a sort of egomaniacal élitist who, unrestrained, would spend someone else's money frivolously to make a movie that would please himself and his friends. Of course, that relationship becomes adversarial only if the producer doesn't see himself as a sort of benefactor, a patron of the arts whose very role is to finance and to foster individual expression—and, as ever, it all depends on who the individual is and what the nature of the vision is. It's fairly obvious that strong producers improve films made by mediocre directors but often constrain or dilute the distinctiveness and individuality of the work of good ones. There is a political agenda hidden within the critics’ aesthetic preference for the strong hand of the producer, as critics demagogically put themselves in the position of defenders of the people—defending them from radical outliers and finding popular tastes with which to align themselves. It's another case of left and right agreeing without common ground and leading to bad policy—and, in this case, bad art." In August 2012 BFI announced their 2012 Sight & Sound Greatest films of all Time survey which was topped for the first time by "Vertigo".


title: 2012 in film

text: "The Avengers" grossed over $1.5 billion and it became the third highest-grossing film of all time. "Skyfall", "The Dark Knight Rises", and "" have each grossed over $1 billion, making them among the highest-grossing films of all time.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: Patricia Apollonia Kotero (born August 2, 1959) is an American singer, actress, former model and talent manager. She is known for co-starring in Prince's 1984 film "Purple Rain" and for having been the lead singer of the girl group Apollonia 6.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: Kotero was born in San Pedro, California, the daughter of immigrants from Mexico, and the eldest of four children. Her father, Victor, was a restaurant manager, and her mother, Socorro, was a caregiver for the elderly. She dropped out of school at 16 to pursue a career as a model.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: Kotero worked as an actress, singer and a model. After winning the Miss San Pedro beauty competition, and following her stint as a cheerleader for the Los Angeles Rams in the early 1980s, Kotero began acting in film and television series such as "CHiPs", "Tales of the Gold Monkey", "Fantasy Island", "Matt Houston", and "Knight Rider". Between March and September 1982, she appeared in music videos for "The Other Woman" by Ray Parker Jr. and "Shakin'" by Eddie Money. In May 1984, she appeared in the ABC television film "The Mystic Warrior" as the Native American woman Wicahpi. While dating Van Halen singer David Lee Roth, on and off when they were both in Los Angeles, she auditioned for "Purple Rain". Roth had followed her modeling career and hired her for a Star of the Cars magazine cover.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: When then-leader of Vanity 6, Denise "Vanity" Matthews, resigned from its membership before Prince's 1984 film "Purple Rain" was filmed, Kotero landed the film's female lead role. Vanity 6, which was renamed Apollonia 6 for the film, also featured supporting singers Brenda Bennett and Prince's then-girlfriend Susan Moonsie. Apollonia 6 embarked on a worldwide tour to promote their hit single, "Sex Shooter".


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: Kotero had written half the lyrics and originally recorded a version of the song "Manic Monday" for the 1984 album "Apollonia 6". The album was written and composed by Prince, the song later became a worldwide hit single for The Bangles. Prince's song "Take Me with U" featured vocals by Kotero, and it reached #25 on the Billboard Top 40 chart in the United States.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: In 1985, Kotero left Prince's camp to appear on the CBS primetime soap opera "Falcon Crest", playing Apollonia, the girlfriend of the character played by Lorenzo Lamas, for ten consecutive weeks. She performed several solo songs, including "Red Light Romeo", written and composed by Jon Lind.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: In 1988, Warner Bros. Records released Kotero's eponymously titled first solo album, "Apollonia". Three singles were taken from the album: "Since I Fell for You", "The Same Dream" and "Mismatch".


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: She went on to appear in such films as "Ministry of Vengeance" (1989), "Back To Back" (1990), "Black Magic Woman" (1991), and two Italian productions: "La Donna di una Sera" (A Lady for a Night) (1991) and "Cattive Ragazze" (1992). She returned to television on such shows as "Sliders" and "Air America" (which co-starred Lorenzo Lamas, her former co-star in "Falcon Crest"), and also hosted The Jazz Channel's "Latin Beat" program. During this period an exercise video entitled "Go For It" was also released. Kotero could also be seen on E!'s "Celebrity Homes", "The Test", "Rendezview", and "MTV Cribs", with her friend Carmen Electra.


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: In 2005, Kotero formed a multimedia entertainment company, Kotero Entertainment, which enlisted a number of producers to produce a children's animated television series as well as feature films. Kotero Entertainment also began managing young talent such as television and film star Sascha Andres and young pop singer Nikki Barreras, also known as Nikki B..


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: In 2009, Kotero's vocals appeared on The Twilight Singers cover of Prince's "When Doves Cry" for "Spin" magazine's 25th anniversary tribute to the "Purple Rain" album, entitled "Purplish Rain".


title: Apollonia Kotero

text: Apollonia was married to Greg Patschull, an aspiring actor and martial artist, from 1980 to 1985. She dated singer David Lee Roth during the filming of "Purple Rain". Her second marriage was to actor Kevin Bernhardt from 1987 to 1997.


title: Felix Steiner

text: Felix Martin Julius Steiner (23 May 1896 – 12 May 1966) was a German SS commander during the Nazi era. During World War II, he served in the Waffen-SS, the combat branch of the SS, and commanded several SS divisions and corps. He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. Together with Paul Hausser, he contributed significantly to the development and transformation of the Waffen-SS into a combat force made up of volunteers and conscripts from both occupied and un-occupied lands.


title: Felix Steiner

text: Steiner was chosen by Heinrich Himmler to oversee the creation of and then command the SS Division Wiking. In 1943, he was promoted to the command of the III SS Panzer Corps. On 28 January 1945, Steiner was placed in command of the 11th SS Panzer Army, which formed part of a new Army Group Vistula, an ad-hoc formation to defend Berlin from the Soviet armies advancing from the Vistula River.


title: Felix Steiner

text: On 21 April 1945, during the Battle for Berlin, Steiner was placed in command of Army Detachment Steiner, with which Adolf Hitler ordered Steiner to envelop the 1st Belorussian Front through a pincer movement, advancing from the north of the city. However, as his unit was outnumbered by ten to one, Steiner made it clear that he did not have the capacity for a counter-attack on 22 April during the daily situation conference in the "Führerbunker".


title: Felix Steiner

text: After the capitulation of Germany, Steiner was imprisoned and investigated for war crimes. He faced charges at the Nuremberg Trials, but they were dropped and he was released in 1948. In 1953, Steiner was recruited by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency to found the "Gesellschaft für Wehrkunde" ("Society for Defense Studies"), composed of former German military officers, as a propaganda tool and a military think tank for the rearmament of West Germany.


title: Felix Steiner

text: Along with other former high-ranking Waffen-SS personnel, Steiner was a founding member of HIAG, a lobby group of negationistic apologists formed in 1951 to campaign for the legal, economic and historical rehabilitation of the Waffen-SS. He died in 1966.


title: Felix Steiner

text: Born in 1896, Felix Steiner joined the Royal Prussian Army as an infantry cadet. During World War I, he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd class. In 1919, Steiner joined the paramilitary "Freikorps" in the East Prussian city of Memel and was incorporated into the "Reichswehr" in 1921. In 1933, he left the army having attained the rank of major.


title: Felix Steiner

text: Steiner first joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) (membership number: 4,264,295) and the "Sturmabteilung" (SA). In 1935 he enlisted in the SS. He took command of a battalion of "SS-Verfügungstruppen" (SS-VT) troops, and within a year had been promoted to SS-"Standartenführer"; and later was put in command of the "SS-Deutschland" Regiment.


title: Felix Steiner

text: At the outbreak of World War II, he was SS-Oberführer (Senior leader) in charge of the Waffen-SS regiment "SS-Deutschland". He led this regiment through the Invasion of Poland and the Battle of France, for which he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 15 August 1940. Steiner was introduced to Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS, to oversee the creation of, and then command the new SS Division Wiking. At the time of its creation, it consisted mostly of non-German volunteers (Dutch, Flemish, Finns and Scandinavians), including the Danish regiment Frikorps Danmark.


title: Felix Steiner

text: In April 1943, he was placed in command of a newly formed III SS Panzer Corps. The unit participated in anti-partisan actions in Yugoslavia. In November/December 1943 his corps was transferred to the Eastern Front and positioned in the northern sector at Leningrad under Army Group North. Steiner's Panzer Corps played a leading role during the Battle of Narva and the Battle of Tannenberg Line. His unit then withdrew with the rest of Army Group North to the Courland Peninsula.


title: Felix Steiner

text: In January 1945, Steiner along with the III SS Panzer Corps was transferred by ship from the Courland Pocket to help with the defence of the German homeland. The corps was assigned to Army Group Vistula under the new Eleventh SS Panzer Army although the army really existed only on paper. Once the Soviet Army had reached the Oder River, the Eleventh SS Panzer Army became inactive, and the III SS Panzer Corps was reassigned to the German Third Panzer Army as a reserve during the Soviets' Berlin Offensive Operation. During the Battle of Seelow Heights, the first major battle of the offensive, General Gotthard Heinrici, the commander of Army Group Vistula, transferred most of the III SS Panzer Corps' divisions to General Theodor Busse's Ninth Army.


title: Felix Steiner

text: By 21 April, Soviet Marshal Georgi Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the German lines on the Seelow Heights. Hitler, ignoring the facts, started to call the ragtag units that came under Steiner's command, the Army Detachment Steiner ("Armeeabteilung Steiner").


title: Felix Steiner

text: Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the huge salient that had been created by the 1st Belorussian Front's breakout. Steiner's attack was supposed to coincide with General Theodor Busse's Ninth Army attacking from the south in a pincer attack. The Ninth Army had been pushed to south of the 1st Belorussian Front's salient. To facilitate the attack, Steiner was assigned the three divisions of the Ninth Army's CI Army Corps: the 4th SS Panzergrenadier Division "Polizei", the 5th Jäger Division and the 25th Panzergrenadier Division. All three divisions were north of the Finow Canal on the Northern flank of Zhukov's salient. General Helmuth Weidling's LVI Panzer Corps, which was still east of Berlin with its northern flank just below Werneuchen, was also ordered to participate in the attack. The three divisions from CI Army Corps planned to attack south from Eberswalde on the Finow Canal towards the LVI Panzer Corps. The three divisions from CI Army Corps were 24 kilometres (about 15 miles) east of Berlin, and the attack to the south would cut the 1st Belorussian Front's salient into two. Steiner called Heinrici and informed him that the plan could not be implemented because the 5th Jäger Division and the 25th Panzergrenadier Division were deployed defensively and could not be redeployed until the 2nd Naval Division arrived from the coast to relieve them. That left only two battalions of the 4th SS Panzergrenadier Division available, and they had no combat weapons.


title: Felix Steiner

text: Based on Steiner's assessment, Heinrici called General Hans Krebs, Chief of Staff of the German General Staff of the Army High Command ("Oberkommando des Heeres" or OKH), and told him that the plan could not be implemented. Heinrici asked to speak to Hitler but was told Hitler was too busy to take his call. On 22 April 1945, at his afternoon conference, Hitler, becoming aware that Steiner was not going to attack, fell into a tearful rage. Hitler finally declared that the war was lost, blamed the generals for the Reich's defeat and announced that he would remain in Berlin until the end and then kill himself. On the same day, General Rudolf Holste was given the few mobile forces that Steiner commanded so that he could participate in a new plan to relieve Berlin. Holste was to attack from the north while General Walther Wenck attacked from the west and General Theodor Busse attacked from the south. The attacks amounted to little, and on 25 April, the Soviet forces attacking to the north and the south of Berlin linked up to the west of the city.


title: Felix Steiner

text: After the surrender, Steiner was incarcerated until 1948. He faced charges at the Nuremberg Trials, but they were dropped for lack of solid evidence and he was released.


title: Felix Steiner

text: In 1953, Steiner was recruited by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency to found the "Gesellschaft für Wehrkunde" ("Society for Defense Studies"), composed of former German military officers, as a propaganda tool and a military think tank for West German rearmament. With Paul Hausser, Herbert Gille and Otto Kumm, Steiner became a founding member of HIAG, the lobby group founded by former high-ranking Waffen-SS officers in West Germany in 1951.


title: Felix Steiner

text: From his home in West Germany he published "Die Freiwilligen der Waffen-SS: Idee und Opfergang" ("The Volunteers of Waffen-SS: Idea and Sacrifice") in 1958. Steiner's books and memoirs have been characterised by historian Charles Sydnor as one of the "most important works of apologist literature," together with warfare analyses "Grenadiere" by Kurt Meyer and "Waffen-SS in Action" by Paul Hausser. These works demanded rehabilitation of the military branch of the NSDAP, with Steiner's works being important in stressing the theme of the purely military Waffen-SS.


title: Felix Steiner

text: A second book was published in 1963 under the title "Die Armee der Geächteten" (English: "The Army of the Outlaws") and was also tendentious.


title: Economic system

text: An economic system, or economic order, is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area. It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making processes, and patterns of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community.


title: Economic system

text: An economic system is a type of social system. The mode of production is a related concept. All economic systems must confront and solve the four fundamental economic problems:


title: Economic system

text: The study of economic systems includes how these various agencies and institutions are linked to one another, how information flows between them, and the social relations within the system (including property rights and the structure of management). The analysis of economic systems traditionally focused on the dichotomies and comparisons between market economies and planned economies and on the distinctions between capitalism and socialism. Subsequently, the categorization of economic systems expanded to include other topics and models that do not conform to the traditional dichotomy.


title: Economic system

text: Today the dominant form of economic organization at the world level is based on market-oriented mixed economies. An economic system can be considered a part of the social system and hierarchically equal to the law system, political system, cultural and so on. There is often a strong correlation between certain ideologies, political systems and certain economic systems (for example, consider the meanings of the term "communism"). Many economic systems overlap each other in various areas (for example, the term "mixed economy" can be argued to include elements from various systems). There are also various mutually exclusive hierarchical categorizations.


title: Economic system

text: Economic systems is the category in the "Journal of Economic Literature" classification codes that includes the study of such systems. One field that cuts across them is comparative economic systems, which includes the study of the following aspects of different systems:


title: Economic system

text: Capitalism generally features the private ownership of the means of production (capital) and a market economy for coordination. Corporate capitalism refers to a capitalist marketplace characterized by the dominance of hierarchical, bureaucratic corporations.


title: Economic system

text: Mercantilism was the dominant model in Western Europe from the 16th to 18th century. This encouraged imperialism and colonialism until economic and political changes resulted in global decolonization. Modern capitalism has favored free trade to take advantage of increased efficiency due to national comparative advantage and economies of scale in a larger, more universal market. Some critics have applied the term neo-colonialism to the power imbalance between multi-national corporations operating in a free market vs. seemingly impoverished people in developing countries.


title: Economic system

text: There is no precise definition of a "mixed economy". Theoretically, it may refer to an economic system that combines one of three characteristics: public and private ownership of industry, market-based allocation with economic planning, or free markets with state interventionism.


title: Economic system

text: In practice, "mixed economy" generally refers to market economies with substantial state interventionism and/or sizable public sector alongside a dominant private sector. Actually, mixed economies gravitate more heavily to one end of the spectrum. Notable economic models and theories that have been described as a "mixed economy" include the following:


title: Economic system

text: Socialist economic systems (all of which feature social ownership of the means of production) can be subdivided by their coordinating mechanism (planning and markets) into planned socialist and market socialist systems. Additionally, socialism can be divided based on their property structures between those that are based on public ownership, worker or consumer cooperatives and common ownership (i.e. non-ownership). Communism is a hypothetical stage of socialist development articulated by Karl Marx as "second stage socialism" in "Critique of the Gotha Program", whereby the economic output is distributed based on need and not simply on the basis of labor contribution.


title: Economic system

text: The original conception of socialism involved the substitution of money as a unit of calculation and monetary prices as a whole with calculation in kind (or a valuation based on natural units), with business and financial decisions replaced by engineering and technical criteria for managing the economy. Fundamentally, this meant that socialism would operate under different economic dynamics than those of capitalism and the price system. Later models of socialism developed by neoclassical economists (most notably Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner) were based on the use of notional prices derived from a trial-and-error approach to achieve market clearing prices on the part of a planning agency. These models of socialism were called "market socialism" because they included a role for markets, money, and prices.


title: Economic system

text: The primary emphasis of socialist planned economies is to coordinate production to produce economic output to directly satisfy economic demand as opposed to the indirect mechanism of the profit system where satisfying needs is subordinate to the pursuit of profit; and to advance the productive forces of the economy in a more efficient manner while being immune to the perceived systemic inefficiencies (cyclical processes) and crisis of overproduction so that production would be subject to the needs of society as opposed to being ordered around capital accumulation.


title: Economic system

text: In a pure socialist planned economy that involves different processes of resource allocation, production and means of quantifying value, the use of money would be replaced with a different measure of value and accounting tool that would embody more accurate information about an object or resource. In practice, the economic system of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc operated as a command economy, featuring a combination of state-owned enterprises and central planning using the material balances method. The extent to which these economic systems achieved socialism or represented a viable alternative to capitalism is subject to debate.


title: Economic system

text: In orthodox Marxism, the mode of production is tantamount to the subject of this article, determining with a superstructure of relations the entirety of a given culture or stage of human development.


title: Economic system

text: There are multiple components of an economic system. Decision-making structures of an economy determine the use of economic inputs (the factors of production), distribution of output, the level of centralization in decision-making and who makes these decisions. Decisions might be carried out by industrial councils, by a government agency, or by private owners.


title: Economic system

text: An economic system is a system of production, resource allocation, exchange and distribution of goods and services in a society or a given geographic area. In one view, every economic system represents an attempt to solve three fundamental and interdependent problems:


title: Economic system

text: Every economy is thus a system that allocates resources for exchange, production, distribution and consumption. The system is stabilized through a combination of threat and trust, which are the outcome of institutional arrangements.


title: Economic system

text: There are several basic questions that must be answered in order for an economy to run satisfactorily. The scarcity problem, for example, requires answers to basic questions, such as what to produce, how to produce it and who gets what is produced. An economic system is a way of answering these basic questions and different economic systems answer them differently. Many different objectives may be seen as desirable for an economy, like efficiency, growth, liberty and equality.


title: Economic system

text: Economic systems are commonly segmented by their property rights regime for the means of production and by their dominant resource allocation mechanism. Economies that combine private ownership with market allocation are called "market capitalism" and economies that combine private ownership with economic planning are labelled "command capitalism" or dirigisme. Likewise, systems that mix public or cooperative ownership of the means of production with economic planning are called "socialist planned economies" and systems that combine public or cooperative ownership with markets are called "market socialism". Some perspectives build upon this basic nomenclature to take other variables into account, such as class processes within an economy. This leads some economists to categorize, for example, the Soviet Union's economy as state capitalism based on the analysis that the working class was exploited by the party leadership. Instead of looking at nominal ownership, this perspective takes into account the organizational form within economic enterprises.


title: Economic system

text: In a capitalist economic system, production is carried out for private profit and decisions regarding investment and allocation of factor inputs are determined by business owners in factor markets. The means of production are primarily owned by private enterprises and decisions regarding production and investment are determined by private owners in capital markets. Capitalist systems range from "laissez-faire", with minimal government regulation and state enterprise, to regulated and social market systems, with the aims of ameliorating market failures (see economic intervention) or supplementing the private marketplace with social policies to promote equal opportunities (see welfare state), respectively.


title: Economic system

text: In socialist economic systems (socialism), production for use is carried out; decisions regarding the use of the means of production are adjusted to satisfy economic demand; and investment is determined through economic planning procedures. There is a wide range of proposed planning procedures and ownership structures for socialist systems, with the common feature among them being the social ownership of the means of production. This might take the form of public ownership by all of the society, or ownership cooperatively by their employees. A socialist economic system that features social ownership, but that it is based on the process of capital accumulation and utilization of capital markets for the allocation of capital goods between socially owned enterprises falls under the subcategory of market socialism.


title: Economic system

text: The basic and general "modern" economic systems segmented by the criterium of resource allocation mechanism are:


title: Economic system

text: Various strains of anarchism and libertarianism advocate different economic systems, all of which have very small or no government involvement. These include:


title: Economic system

text: Corporatism refers to economic tripartite involving negotiations between business, labor and state interest groups to establish economic policy, or more generally to assigning people to political groups based on their occupational affiliation.


title: Economic system

text: Certain subsets of an economy, or the particular goods, services, techniques of production, or moral rules can also be described as an "economy". For example, some terms emphasize specific sectors or externalizes:


title: Economic system

text: Karl Marx's theory of economic development was based on the premise of evolving economic systems. Specifically, in his view over the course of history superior economic systems would replace inferior ones. Inferior systems were beset by internal contradictions and inefficiencies that would make it impossible for them to survive long-term. In Marx's scheme, feudalism was replaced by capitalism, which would eventually be superseded by socialism. Joseph Schumpeter had an evolutionary conception of economic development, but unlike Marx he de-emphasized the role of class struggle in contributing to qualitative change in the economic mode of production. In subsequent world history, many communist states run according to Marxist–Leninist ideologies arose during the 20th century, but by the 1990s they had either ceased to exist or gradually reformed their centrally planned economies toward market-based economies, for example with perestroika and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Chinese economic reform and Đổi Mới in Vietnam.


title: Economic system

text: Mainstream evolutionary economics continues to study economic change in modern times. There has also been renewed interest in understanding economic systems as evolutionary systems in the emerging field of complexity economics.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: The fifth-generation Honda Civic is an automobile produced by Honda from 1991 until 1995. It debuted in Japan on September 9, 1991. At its introduction, it won the Car of the Year Japan award for the second time. Fifth generation cars were larger than their predecessors, had more aerodynamic bodies, and the wheelbase was increased to 257 cm (101.3 inches)—for the three-door hatchback—and to 262 cm (103.2 inches)—for the four-door sedan. The Civic Shuttle station wagon was not part of the fifth generation and was dropped for overseas markets, while the previous generation wagon continued in Japan and Europe.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: This generation of Civic used lightweight materials to create a fuel-efficient economy car. Compared to the previous generation, the cowl was raised, which allowed for more suspension travel. Along with that change, the ride became softer than that of the previous generation, which provided a more compliant ride at expense of crisper handling.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In addition, vehicles with the larger 1.6 L SOHC VTEC engines such as the Si hatchback and EX coupe models found in the United States, provoked popularity of the (relatively) high-performance 1.6 L inline-four segment. In South Africa, a unique model with the B18B3 engine from the Acura Integra RS was specially built to fill the gap left by the absence of the 1.6-liter DOHC VTEC B16A engine in the range.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: Trims available in the two-door coupé body style, introduced for the 1993 model year, were the DX (EJ2), EX, and EX-S (EJ1), for the United States Domestic Market (USDM), and the DX, DX "Special Edition" (EJ2), and Si (EJ1) for the Canadian Domestic Market (CDM). The coupé, built in both Canada and the United States, was also exported to European and Japanese markets. A left-hand drive version of the Civic Coupé was released as a limited edition in Japan, imported from the United States, to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the "Honda Primo" dealer network in 1994.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: Introduced in late 1991, trims available in the hatchback body style in the U.S. and Canada were the CX, VX, DX (EH2 models) and Si (EH3), however the VX and Si models were discontinued in Canada after model year 1993, while the DX was discontinued after 1994 (leaving only the base CX model). With a total interior room (passenger and luggage) of 90 cu.ft., the hatchback was classified by the EPA of the U.S. as a subcompact car.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: CX: The economical CX was the base model equipped with all-manual features, and power brakes. In the U.S., it came with the 8-valve 1.5L D15B8 engine and a 5-speed manual transmission. With 42/48 miles per gallon (mpg) (city/hwy) ["revised to 2008 EPA rating: 35/43 mpg city/hwy"] or 40/47 mpg (city/hwy) ["revised to 2008 EPA rating: 33/42 mpg city/hwy"], the CX was the second most fuel-efficient Civic model of the fifth generation, after the VX. CX models in Canada came with the same 16-valve 102 hp 1.5L D15B7 engine as in the DX -model, but could also be ordered with a 4-speed automatic transmission which also came with power steering. The 1995 CDM CX models (sometimes colloquially referred to as the "CX-Plus") added the rear wiper/washer as a standard feature, and could be ordered with side mouldings and manual passenger-side mirror.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: VX: During the late 1980s and the early 1990s, as a result of high gasoline prices and the consumer demand for relief, automobile companies, particularly Toyota and Honda competed to see who could field the most fuel efficient production automobile. The Civic VX was Honda's entry for 1992.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: Fitted with the same manual transmission as the USDM CX, the VX was identical to the base model CX except that it gained improved fuel efficiency from various weight reduction methods such as reduced trim and molding, VX model-specific lightweight 13-inch aluminum alloy wheels, 165/70/R13 tires, and through a 1.5 L (D15Z1) VTEC-E engine. These features on the VX yielded 48/55 mpg (city/hwy) ["revised to 2008 EPA rating: 39/49 mpg city/hwy"] or 44/51 mpg (city/hwy) ["revised to 2008 EPA rating: 36/46 mpg city/hwy"]


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: The D15Z1 engines efficiency was enhanced by placing cam followers at every cam lobe and the use of only two piston rings per cylinder, and the ability to burn an ultra lean air fuel mixture at and below 2,500 RPM at low load. This was achieved by only opening one valve during the intake stroke, rather than both, placing the multiport fuel injectors very near the intake valves, and by using an ultra sensitive oxygen sensor. The sensor has two O2 measurement electrochemical cells, rather than the single cell that at the time was universal. This same model sensor has been adopted by racing teams to monitor the combustion in each cylinder of racing engines during the tuning process, one per cylinder, because of its sensitivity.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: The opening of only one intake valve below 2,500 RPM results in much more of the pressure drop between atmospheric pressure, and the inside of the cylinder to be across the valve than would otherwise be the case. This results in an exceptionally turbulent flow, very good mixing of the charge, very high speed flame propagation at ignition, high resistance to predetonation (knock), and very low amounts of unburned hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide, and increased engine torque, and power in both lean burn mode, and at more normal fuel-air mixtures, below 2,500 rpm. As a result of, the increased torque, and power at low rpm, the engine's torque, and power curves are between those of normally aspirated gasoline, and diesel engines. Since the VX has what was for the time an ultra low coefficient of aerodynamic drag of 0.30 cd, the car could operate at highway speeds in lean burn mode.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: The D15Z1 engine was considered revolutionary for its day. To this day, the VX remains a favorite of Hypermilers.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: One of the few rocks Honda left unturned in search of better fuel economy was increasing the final drive ratio of the VX, usually expressed as the number of engine revolutions per mile in the transmission's top gear. Since the ratio of the VX is identical to the CX, despite the engine's greater power, low end torque, and the car's lower coefficient of drag the use of a higher final drive ratio would have resulted in a drivable car, with even higher fuel economy. The lower than necessary final drive ratio results in a vehicle that is remarkably quick off the line, for one that can get 50 MPG on the highway. A higher ratio could have been accomplished by transmission modifications, such as an overdrive top gear, a dual range transmission, or simply by using larger diameter wheels, in conjunction with a wide ratio transmission, so there would be sufficient torque on the driving wheels in first gear.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In Canada, the VX was rated by Transport Canada fuel consumption estimate: 4.7L/100 km city and 4.3L/100 km hwy. Other added features were an 8,000 rpm tachometer with redline at 6,000 rpm, lightweight aluminum alloy wheels, as well as additional front & rear under-body trim additions to improve aerodynamic flow. The VX was also equipped with an aluminum alternator bracket, an aluminum front driver's side engine mount, and a lightweight crank pulley. In addition, the instrument cluster of the CX and VX featured a shift indicator light that would notify the driver when to shift upward in order to achieve optimum fuel economy. To this day, the CX & VX models are lauded as one of the only gasoline-powered cars that rival the fuel economy of today's hybrids and diesels. In the March 2010 issue of "Car & Driver", it mentions its long-term test car, a 2009 VW TDI Jetta with 6-speed dual-clutch auto transmission, got worse fuel mileage (38 mpg) than their 1992 Honda Civic VX test car (which got 41 mpg) and 2000 Honda Insight hybrid (48 mpg).


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: DX: The standard model was the more powerful DX, with a 1.5 L D15B7 engine, manual passenger side mirror (after 1992), tilt steering, intermittent wipers, side mouldings, rear wiper/washer, and rear cargo shelf as standard equipment. Despite the higher horsepower powerplant, the DX returns real-world mileage of 38 city / 45 hwy.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: Si: The Si model replaced rear drum brakes with discs, added a power moonroof with tilt, cruise control, a dashboard clock, a 9,000 rpm tachometer with a 7,200 rpm redline, plastic wheel covers on 14-inch wheels, power side mirrors (body coloured, beginning in 1993), body-coloured door handles, and a 1.6 L 16-valve single-overhead cam D16Z6 VTEC 4-cylinder engine with a 5-speed manual transmission. It enabled the car to hit 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in 7.5 seconds and a quarter-mile time of 16.3 seconds at . VTEC activated on the intake side and not the exhaust side, which was the result of the spark plug blocking the area where the cam follower would be. In 1994, rear speakers and optional ABS were added.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In other markets (Australia, Japan, Latin America) the Si received the 1.6 D16A8/9 DOHC non-VTEC engine, with . At this time, however, the Si was not the most powerful variant of the Civic sold elsewhere: In Europe, Honda also offered the Civic VTi, which featured a 160 PS (118 kW; 160 hp) B16A2 engine, and the JDM SiR, SiR-II, and SiR-S carried an even more powerful B16A engine, which made . Japan also received a VTi model with a 1.5 litre engine similar to the D16Z6, with .


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In European markets the trims available were the DX (EG3/1.3 L; 75 PS Engine code:D13B2), LSi (EG4/1.5 L 90 PS Engine code:D15B2), VEi (EG4/1.5 L SOHC VTEC-E 92 PS Engine code:D15Z1), ESi (EG5/1.6 L SOHC VTEC 125 PS Engine code:D16Z6), and VTi (EG6/1.6 L DOHC VTEC 160 PS Engine code:B16A2)


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: Trims available in the USDM sedan body style were the DX, LX (EG8) and EX (EH9), while the CDM models were branded slightly differently as the LX, LX "Special Edition" (1994–95), EX (EG8) and the EX-V (1992–93) (EH9). In Japan, the standard four-door Civic sedan was called Civic Ferio and sold at "Honda Primo" dealerships, while a more upscale version was called the Honda Domani and sold at "Honda Clio" dealers. In Japan, the Ferio name was used from 1992 until 2006 on all sedans, regardless of trim packages installed.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: The five-door wagon was not updated for this generation platform, and continued to use the previous generation internationally until February 21, 1996, when it was replaced by the Honda Orthia and Honda Partner which were only available in Japan.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: All DX and LX models used the "D15B7", a 1.5-liter 16-valve SOHC 4-cylinder engine rated at and of torque. The USDM CX models had the "D15B8" which is a 1.5-liter 8-valve 4-cylinder engine rated at while the CDM models came with the D15B7. The VX had the 1.5-liter "D15Z1" ("VTEC-E 4-cylinder engine") rated at . The USDM EX / CDM EX-V, and the Si had the 1.6-liter 16-valve "D16Z6" SOHC VTEC 4-cylinder engine (125 hp (93 kW)).


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In Europe, the model trims included the DX with a D13B2 (hatchback EG3), the LSi with a D15B2 (hatchback EG4, sedan EG8) or D15B7 (coupé EJ2), the VEi with a D15Z1 VTEC-E (hatchback EG4 and sedan EG8), the ESi with a 1.6-litre 16-valve SOHC VTEC D16Z6 4-cylinder engine (coupé EJ1, hatchback EG5, sedan EH9), the RTSi with a D16Z9 VTEC (sedan EH1), and the VTi with a 1.6-litre 16-valve DOHC VTEC B16A2 4-cylinder engine (hatchback EG6, sedan EG9).


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In Japan, the model trims included the ML with a D15B single carb (hatchback EG3, sedan EG7), MX with a D15B dual carb, ETi with a fuel-injected D15B VTEC-E, VTi with a fuel-injected D15B VTEC (130 PS SOHC VTEC) (hatchback EG4s, sedan EG8s), RTi with a ZC SOHC dual carb, RTSi with a fuel-injected ZC DOHC (sedan EH1s with 4WD), Coupe (coupe EJ1) and EXi (AT-only sedan EJ3) with a fuel-injected D16B VTEC, and SiR with a fuel-injected B16A DOHC VTEC (170 PS) (hatchback EG6, sedan EG9). The D16B VTEC in the Coupe and EXi had the same power rating as the D15B VTEC in the VTi (128hp-130ps), but the torque is a bit higher. The D15B shared the same head as the D16Z6 found in other markets but featured a unique block, crank, and rods. The engine shared the 1.5 L displacement of the other D15 blocks, but the rods were the same length as the D16's (137mm) and had a better rod to stroke ratio (1.63) than the normal D15's ratio of 1.59. Despite this, the crank and bearing sizes were not the same. The sedan/saloon in Japan was called the Civic "Ferio".


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In the Middle East, the EX had the D16Z9 (sedan EH5) and the VTi (hatchback & coupé, EJ2) had the B16A2/3 engine.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In Indonesia, the fifth-generation Civic had two body styles, sedan (nicknamed "Genio") and 3-door hatchback ("Estilo"). Both had the same D16 SOHC 4-cylinder engine that produced 120-130 HP and were available with a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmissions.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In the Philippines, the fifth-generation Civic was launched in 1992 with 2 body types: a 3-door hatchback and a 4-door sedan. The hatchback was powered by a 1.2-liter carbureted engine (PH12) while the sedan was offered in three trims: the base model DX, the mid model LX and the top-of-the-line ESi, introduced in 1993. Both DX and LX were carbureted while the ESi came with Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI). The DX was powered by a 1.2-liter SOHC engine just like the hatchback, the LX with a 1.5-liter SOHC engine (PH15) and power steering, and the ESi with a 1.6-liter EFI SOHC engine (PH16) and all power amenities. None of the engines were equipped with VTEC.


title: Honda Civic (fifth generation)

text: In Pakistan, the fifth-generation Civic was launched and manufactured beginning in May 1994 and was only produced as a sedan. It was equipped with a 1.5-liter 16-valve carbureted engine with a 5-speed manual transmission. The fifth-generation Civic was the first to be manufactured in Pakistan and was produced until December 1995. The total number of fifth-generation Civics manufactured in Pakistan was 6,480. The first example to come off the production line is on display at the Honda Heritage Center in Lahore.


title: Permittivity

text: In electromagnetism, the absolute permittivity, often simply called permittivity and denoted by the Greek letter "ε" (epsilon), is a measure of the electric polarizability of a dielectric. A material with high permittivity polarizes more in response to an applied electric field than a material with low permittivity, thereby storing more energy in the material. In electrostatics, the permittivity plays an important role in determining the capacitance of a capacitor.


title: Permittivity

text: In the simplest case, the electric displacement field D resulting from an applied electric field E is


title: Permittivity

text: More generally, the permittivity is a thermodynamic function of state. It can depend on the frequency, magnitude, and direction of the applied field. The SI unit for permittivity is farad per meter (F/m).


title: Permittivity

text: The permittivity is often represented by the relative permittivity "ε" which is the ratio of the absolute permittivity "ε" and the vacuum permittivity "ε"


title: Permittivity

text: This dimensionless quantity is also often and ambiguously referred to as the "permittivity". Another common term encountered for both absolute and relative permittivity is the "dielectric constant" which has been deprecated in physics and engineering as well as in chemistry.


title: Permittivity

text: By definition, a perfect vacuum has a relative permittivity of exactly 1 whereas at standard temperature and pressure, air has a relative permittivity of "κ" ≈ 1.0006.


title: Permittivity

text: The term "permittivity" was introduced in the 1880s by Oliver Heaviside to complement Thomson's (1872) "permeability". Formerly written as "p", the designation with "ε" has been in common use since the 1950s.


title: Permittivity

text: In electromagnetism, the electric displacement field represents the distribution of electric charges in a given medium resulting from the presence of an electric field . This distribution includes charge migration and electric dipole reorientation. Its relation to permittivity in the very simple case of "linear, homogeneous, isotropic" materials with ""instantaneous" response" to changes in electric field is:


title: Permittivity

text: where the permittivity is a scalar. If the medium is anisotropic, the permittivity is a second rank tensor.


title: Permittivity

text: In general, permittivity is not a constant, as it can vary with the position in the medium, the frequency of the field applied, humidity, temperature, and other parameters. In a nonlinear medium, the permittivity can depend on the strength of the electric field. Permittivity as a function of frequency can take on real or complex values.


title: Permittivity

text: In SI units, permittivity is measured in farads per meter (F/m or A·s·kg·m). The displacement field is measured in units of coulombs per square meter (C/m), while the electric field is measured in volts per meter (V/m). and describe the interaction between charged objects. is related to the "charge densities" associated with this interaction, while is related to the "forces" and "potential differences".


title: Permittivity

text: The vacuum permittivity (also called permittivity of free space or the electric constant) is the ratio in free space. It also appears in the Coulomb force constant,


title: Permittivity

text: The constants and were both defined in SI units to have exact numerical values until the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units. Therefore, until that date, could be also stated exactly as a fraction, formula_9


title: Permittivity

text: even if the result was irrational (because the fraction contained ). In contrast, the ampere was a measured quantity before 2019, but since then the ampere is now exactly defined and it is that is an experimentally measured quantity (with consequent uncertainty) and therefore so is the new 2019 definition of ( remains exactly defined before and since 2019).


title: Permittivity

text: The linear permittivity of a homogeneous material is usually given relative to that of free space, as a relative permittivity (also called dielectric constant, although this term is deprecated and sometimes only refers to the static, zero-frequency relative permittivity). In an anisotropic material, the relative permittivity may be a tensor, causing birefringence. The actual permittivity is then calculated by multiplying the relative permittivity by :


title: Permittivity

text: The susceptibility is defined as the constant of proportionality (which may be a tensor) relating an electric field to the induced dielectric polarization density such that


title: Permittivity

text: The susceptibility is also related to the polarizability of individual particles in the medium by the Clausius-Mossotti relation.


title: Permittivity

text: The permittivity and permeability of a medium together determine the phase velocity of electromagnetic radiation through that medium:


title: Permittivity

text: The capacitance of a capacitor is based on its design and architecture, meaning it will not change with charging and discharging. The formula for capacitance in a parallel plate capacitor is written as


title: Permittivity

text: where formula_17 is the area of one plate, formula_18 is the distance between the plates, and formula_19 is the permittivity of the medium between the two plates. For a capacitor with relative permittivity formula_20, it can be said that


title: Permittivity

text: Permittivity is connected to electric flux (and by extension electric field) through Gauss's law. Gauss's law states that for a closed Gaussian surface,


title: Permittivity

text: where formula_23 is the net electric flux passing through the surface, formula_24 is the charge enclosed in the Gaussian surface, formula_25 is the electric field vector at a given point on the surface, and formula_26 is a differential area vector on the Gaussian surface.


title: Permittivity

text: If the Gaussian surface uniformly encloses an insulated, symmetrical charge arrangement, the formula can be simplified to


title: Permittivity

text: where formula_28 represents the angle between the electric field lines and the normal (perpendicular) to .


title: Permittivity

text: If all of the electric field lines cross the surface at 90°, the formula can be further simplified to