title: Supercapacitor

text: Capacitance values for commercial capacitors are specified as "rated capacitance C". This is the value for which the capacitor has been designed. The value for an actual component must be within the limits given by the specified tolerance. Typical values are in the range of farads (F), three to six orders of magnitude larger than those of electrolytic capacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The capacitance value results from the energy formula_3 (expressed in Joule) of a loaded capacitor loaded via a DC voltage V.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Conventional capacitors are normally measured with a small AC voltage (0.5 V) and a frequency of 100 Hz or 1 kHz depending on the capacitor type. The AC capacitance measurement offers fast results, important for industrial production lines. The capacitance value of a supercapacitor depends strongly on the measurement frequency, which is related to the porous electrode structure and the limited electrolyte's ion mobility. Even at a low frequency of 10 Hz, the measured capacitance value drops from 100 to 20 percent of the DC capacitance value.


title: Supercapacitor

text: This extraordinary strong frequency dependence can be explained by the different distances the ions have to move in the electrode's pores. The area at the beginning of the pores can easily be accessed by the ions. The short distance is accompanied by low electrical resistance. The greater the distance the ions have to cover, the higher the resistance. This phenomenon can be described with a series circuit of cascaded RC (resistor/capacitor) elements with serial RC time constants. These result in delayed current flow, reducing the total electrode surface area that can be covered with ions if polarity changes – capacitance decreases with increasing AC frequency. Thus, the total capacitance is only achieved after longer measuring times.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Out of the reason of the very strong frequency dependence of the capacitance this electrical parameter has to be measured with a special constant current charge and discharge measurement, defined in IEC standards 62391-1 and -2.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Measurement starts with charging the capacitor. The voltage has to be applied and after the constant current/constant voltage power supply has achieved the rated voltage, the capacitor has to be charged for 30 minutes. Next, the capacitor has to be discharged with a constant discharge current I. Then the time t and t, for the voltage to drop from 80% (V) to 40% (V) of the rated voltage is measured. The capacitance value is calculated as:


title: Supercapacitor

text: The value of the discharge current is determined by the application. The IEC standard defines four classes:


title: Supercapacitor

text: The measurement methods employed by individual manufacturers are mainly comparable to the standardized methods.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The standardized measuring method is too time consuming for manufacturers to use during production for each individual component. For industrial produced capacitors the capacitance value is instead measured with a faster low frequency AC voltage and a correlation factor is used to compute the rated capacitance.


title: Supercapacitor

text: This frequency dependence affects capacitor operation. Rapid charge and discharge cycles mean that neither the rated capacitance value nor specific energy are available. In this case the rated capacitance value is recalculated for each application condition.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors are low voltage components. Safe operation requires that the voltage remain within specified limits. The rated voltage U is the maximum DC voltage or peak pulse voltage that may be applied continuously and remain within the specified temperature range. Capacitors should never be subjected to voltages continuously in excess of the rated voltage.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The rated voltage includes a safety margin against the electrolyte's breakdown voltage at which the electrolyte decomposes. The breakdown voltage decomposes the separating solvent molecules in the Helmholtz double-layer, e.g. water splits into hydrogen and oxygen. The solvent molecules then cannot separate the electrical charges from each other. Higher voltages than rated voltage cause hydrogen gas formation or a short circuit.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Standard supercapacitors with aqueous electrolyte normally are specified with a rated voltage of 2.1 to 2.3 V and capacitors with organic solvents with 2.5 to 2.7 V. Lithium-ion capacitors with doped electrodes may reach a rated voltage of 3.8 to 4 V, but have a low voltage limit of about 2.2 V. Supercapacitors with ionic electrolytes can exceed an operating voltage of 3.5 V.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Operating supercapacitors below the rated voltage improves the long-time behavior of the electrical parameters. Capacitance values and internal resistance during cycling are more stable and lifetime and charge/discharge cycles may be extended.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Higher application voltages require connecting cells in series. Since each component has a slight difference in capacitance value and ESR, it is necessary to actively or passively balance them to stabilize the applied voltage. Passive balancing employs resistors in parallel with the supercapacitors. Active balancing may include electronic voltage management above a threshold that varies the current.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Charging/discharging a supercapacitor is connected to the movement of charge carriers (ions) in the electrolyte across the separator to the electrodes and into their porous structure. Losses occur during this movement that can be measured as the internal DC resistance.


title: Supercapacitor

text: With the electrical model of cascaded, series-connected RC (resistor/capacitor) elements in the electrode pores, the internal resistance increases with the increasing penetration depth of the charge carriers into the pores. The internal DC resistance is time dependent and increases during charge/discharge. In applications often only the switch-on and switch-off range is interesting. The internal resistance R can be calculated from the voltage drop ΔV at the time of discharge, starting with a constant discharge current I. It is obtained from the intersection of the auxiliary line extended from the straight part and the time base at the time of discharge start (see picture right). Resistance can be calculated by:


title: Supercapacitor

text: The discharge current I for the measurement of internal resistance can be taken from the classification according to IEC 62391-1.


title: Supercapacitor

text: This internal DC resistance R should not be confused with the internal AC resistance called equivalent series resistance (ESR) normally specified for capacitors. It is measured at 1 kHz. ESR is much smaller than DC resistance. ESR is not relevant for calculating supercapacitor inrush currents or other peak currents.


title: Supercapacitor

text: R determines several supercapacitor properties. It limits the charge and discharge peak currents as well as charge/discharge times. R and the capacitance C results in the time constant formula_7


title: Supercapacitor

text: This time constant determines the charge/discharge time. A 100 F capacitor with an internal resistance of 30 mΩ for example, has a time constant of 0.03 • 100 = 3 s. After 3 seconds charging with a current limited only by internal resistance, the capacitor has 63.2% of full charge (or is discharged to 36.8% of full charge).


title: Supercapacitor

text: Standard capacitors with constant internal resistance fully charge during about 5 τ. Since internal resistance increases with charge/discharge, actual times cannot be calculated with this formula. Thus, charge/discharge time depends on specific individual construction details.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Because supercapacitors operate without forming chemical bonds, current loads, including charge, discharge and peak currents are not limited by reaction constraints. Current load and cycle stability can be much higher than for rechargeable batteries. Current loads are limited only by internal resistance, which may be substantially lower than for batteries.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Internal resistance "R" and charge/discharge currents or peak currents "I" generate internal heat losses "P" according to:


title: Supercapacitor

text: This heat must be released and distributed to the ambient environment to maintain operating temperatures below the specified maximum temperature.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Heat generally defines capacitor lifetime due to electrolyte diffusion. The heat generation coming from current loads should be smaller than 5 to 10 K at maximum ambient temperature (which has only minor influence on expected lifetime). For that reason the specified charge and discharge currents for frequent cycling are determined by internal resistance.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The specified cycle parameters under maximal conditions include charge and discharge current, pulse duration and frequency. They are specified for a defined temperature range and over the full voltage range for a defined lifetime. They can differ enormously depending on the combination of electrode porosity, pore size and electrolyte. Generally a lower current load increases capacitor life and increases the number of cycles. This can be achieved either by a lower voltage range or slower charging and discharging.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors (except those with polymer electrodes) can potentially support more than one million charge/discharge cycles without substantial capacity drops or internal resistance increases. Beneath the higher current load is this the second great advantage of supercapacitors over batteries. The stability results from the dual electrostatic and electrochemical storage principles.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The specified charge and discharge currents can be significantly exceeded by lowering the frequency or by single pulses. Heat generated by a single pulse may be spread over the time until the next pulse occurs to ensure a relatively small average heat increase. Such a "peak power current" for power applications for supercapacitors of more than 1000 F can provide a maximum peak current of about 1000 A. Such high currents generate high thermal stress and high electromagnetic forces that can damage the electrode-collector connection requiring robust design and construction of the capacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Device parameters such as capacitance initial resistance and steady state resistance are not constant, but are variable and dependent on the device's operating voltage. Device capacitance will have a measurable increase as the operating voltage increases. For example: a 100F device can be seen to vary 26% from its maximum capacitance over its entire operational voltage range. Similar dependence on operating voltage is seen in steady state resistance (R) and initial resistance (R).


title: Supercapacitor

text: Device properties can also be seen to be dependent on device temperature. As the temperature of the device changes either through operation of varying ambient temperature, the internal properties such as capacitance and resistance will vary as well. Device capacitance is seen to increase as the operating temperature increases.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors occupy the gap between high power/low energy electrolytic capacitors and low power/high energy rechargeable batteries. The energy W (expressed in Joule) that can be stored in a capacitor is given by the formula


title: Supercapacitor

text: This formula describes the amount of energy stored and is often used to describe new research successes. However, only part of the stored energy is available to applications, because the voltage drop and the time constant over the internal resistance mean that some of the stored charge is inaccessible. The effective realized amount of energy W is reduced by the used voltage difference between V and V and can be represented as:


title: Supercapacitor

text: This formula also represents the energy asymmetric voltage components such as lithium ion capacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The amount of energy that can be stored in a capacitor "per mass" of that capacitor is called its specific energy. Specific energy is measured gravimetrically (per unit of mass) in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg).


title: Supercapacitor

text: The amount of energy can be stored in a capacitor "per volume" of that capacitor is called its energy density (also called volumetric specific energy in some literature). Energy density is measured volumetrically (per unit of volume) in watt-hours per litre (Wh/L). Units of liters and dm can be used interchangeably.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Although the specific energy of supercapacitors is defavorably compared with batteries, capacitors have the important advantage of the specific power. Specific power describes the speed at which energy can be delivered to the load (or, in charging the device, absorbed from the generator). The maximum power P specifies the power of a theoretical rectangular single maximum current peak of a given voltage. In real circuits the current peak is not rectangular and the voltage is smaller, caused by the voltage drop, so IEC 62391–2 established a more realistic effective power P for supercapacitors for power applications, which is half the maximum and given by the following formulas :


title: Supercapacitor

text: Just like specific energy, specific power is measured either gravimetrically in kilowatts per kilogram (kW/kg, specific power) or volumetrically in kilowatts per litre (kW/L, power density).


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitor specific power is typically 10 to 100 times greater than for batteries and can reach values up to 15 kW/kg.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Ragone charts relate energy to power and are a valuable tool for characterizing and visualizing energy storage components. With such a diagram, the position of specific power and specific energy of different storage technologies is easily to compare, see diagram.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Since supercapacitors do not rely on chemical changes in the electrodes (except for those with polymer electrodes), lifetimes depend mostly on the rate of evaporation of the liquid electrolyte. This evaporation is generally a function of temperature, current load, current cycle frequency and voltage. Current load and cycle frequency generate internal heat, so that the evaporation-determining temperature is the sum of ambient and internal heat. This temperature is measurable as core temperature in the center of a capacitor body. The higher the core temperature the faster the evaporation and the shorter the lifetime.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Evaporation generally results in decreasing capacitance and increasing internal resistance. According to IEC/EN 62391-2 capacitance reductions of over 30% or internal resistance exceeding four times its data sheet specifications are considered "wear-out failures", implying that the component has reached end-of-life. The capacitors are operable, but with reduced capabilities. Whether the aberration of the parameters have any influence on the proper functionality or not depends on the application of the capacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Such large changes of electrical parameters specified in IEC/EN 62391-2 are usually unacceptable for high current load applications. Components that support high current loads use much smaller limits, "e.g.", 20% loss of capacitance or double the internal resistance. The narrower definition is important for such applications, since heat increases linearly with increasing internal resistance and the maximum temperature should not be exceeded. Temperatures higher than specified can destroy the capacitor.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The real application lifetime of supercapacitors, also called "service life", "life expectancy" or "load life", can reach 10 to 15 years or more at room temperature. Such long periods cannot be tested by manufacturers. Hence, they specify the expected capacitor lifetime at the maximum temperature and voltage conditions. The results are specified in datasheets using the notation "tested time (hours)/max. temperature (°C)", such as "5000 h/65 °C". With this value and expressions derived from historical data, lifetimes can be estimated for lower temperature conditions.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Datasheet lifetime specification is tested by the manufactures using an accelerated aging test called "endurance test" with maximum temperature and voltage over a specified time. For a "zero defect" product policy during this test no wear out or total failure may occur.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The lifetime specification from datasheets can be used to estimate the expected lifetime for a given design. The "10-degrees-rule" used for electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte is used in those estimations and can be used for supercapacitors. This rule employs the Arrhenius equation, a simple formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. For every 10 °C reduction in operating temperature, the estimated life doubles.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Calculated with this formula, capacitors specified with 5000 h at 65 °C, have an estimated lifetime of 20,000 h at 45 °C.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Lifetimes are also dependent on the operating voltage, because the development of gas in the liquid electrolyte depends on the voltage. The lower the voltage the smaller the gas development and the longer the lifetime. No general formula relates voltage to lifetime. The voltage dependent curves shown from the picture are an empirical result from one manufacturer.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Life expectancy for power applications may be also limited by current load or number of cycles. This limitation has to be specified by the relevant manufacturer and is strongly type dependent.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Storing electrical energy in the double-layer separates the charge carriers within the pores by distances in the range of molecules. Over this short distance irregularities can occur, leading to a small exchange of charge carriers and gradual discharge. This self-discharge is called leakage current. Leakage depends on capacitance, voltage, temperature and the chemical stability of the electrode/electrolyte combination. At room temperature leakage is so low that it is specified as time to self-discharge. Supercapacitor self-discharge time is specified in hours, days or weeks. As an example, a 5.5 V/F Panasonic "Goldcapacitor" specifies a voltage drop at 20 °C from 5.5 V to 3 V in 600 hours (25 days or 3.6 weeks) for a double cell capacitor.


title: Supercapacitor

text: It has been noticed that after the EDLC experiences a charge or discharge, the voltage will drift over time, relaxing toward its previous voltage level. The observed relaxation can occur over several hours and is likely due to long diffusion time constants of the porous electrodes within the EDLC.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Since the positive and negative electrodes (or simply positrode and negatrode, respectively) of symmetric supercapacitors consist of the same material, theoretically supercapacitors have no true polarity and catastrophic failure does not normally occur. However reverse-charging a supercapacitor lowers its capacity, so it is recommended practice to maintain the polarity resulting from the formation of the electrodes during production. Asymmetric supercapacitors are inherently polar.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Pseudocapacitor and hybrid supercapacitors which have electrochemical charge properties may not be operated with reverse polarity, precluding their use in AC operation. However, this limitation does not apply to EDLC supercapacitors


title: Supercapacitor

text: In some literature, the terms "anode" and "cathode" are used in place of negative electrode and positive electrode. Using anode and cathode to describe the electrodes in supercapacitors (and also rechargeable batteries including lithium ion batteries) can lead to confusion, because the polarity changes depending on whether a component is considered as a generator or as a consumer of current. In electrochemistry, cathode and anode are related to reduction and oxidation reactions, respectively. However, in supercapacitors based on electric double layer capacitance, there is no oxidation nor reduction reactions on any of the two electrodes. Therefore, the concepts of cathode and anode do not apply.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The range of electrodes and electrolytes available yields a variety of components suitable for diverse applications. The development of low-ohmic electrolyte systems, in combination with electrodes with high pseudocapacitance, enable many more technical solutions.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The following table shows differences among capacitors of various manufacturers in capacitance range, cell voltage, internal resistance (ESR, DC or AC value) and volumetric and gravimetric specific energy.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In the table, ESR refers to the component with the largest capacitance value of the respective manufacturer. Roughly, they divide supercapacitors into two groups. The first group offers greater ESR values of about 20 milliohms and relatively small capacitance of 0.1 to 470 F. These are "double-layer capacitors" for memory back-up or similar applications. The second group offers 100 to 10,000 F with a significantly lower ESR value under 1 milliohm. These components are suitable for power applications. A correlation of some supercapacitor series of different manufacturers to the various construction features is provided in Pandolfo and Hollenkamp.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In commercial double-layer capacitors, or, more specifically, EDLCs in which energy storage is predominantly achieved by double-layer capacitance, energy is stored by forming an electrical double layer of electrolyte ions on the surface of conductive electrodes. Since EDLCs are not limited by the electrochemical charge transfer kinetics of batteries, they can charge and discharge at a much higher rate, with lifetimes of more than 1 million cycles. The EDLC energy density is determined by operating voltage and the specific capacitance (farad/gram or farad/cm) of the electrode/electrolyte system. The specific capacitance is related to the Specific Surface Area (SSA) accessible by the electrolyte, its interfacial double-layer capacitance, and the electrode material density.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Commercial EDLCs are based on two symmetric electrodes impregnated with electrolytes comprising tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate salts in organic solvents. Current EDLCs containing organic electrolytes operate at 2.7 V and reach energy densities around 5-8 Wh/kg and 7 to 10 Wh/L. The specific capacitance is related to the specific surface area (SSA) accessible by the electrolyte, its interfacial double-layer capacitance, and the electrode material density. Graphene-based platelets with mesoporous spacer material is a promising structure for increasing the SSA of the electrolyte.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors vary sufficiently that they are rarely interchangeable, especially those with higher specific energy. Applications range from low to high peak currents, requiring standardized test protocols.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors have advantages in applications where a large amount of power is needed for a relatively short time, where a very high number of charge/discharge cycles or a longer lifetime is required. Typical applications range from milliamp currents or milliwatts of power for up to a few minutes to several amps current or several hundred kilowatts power for much shorter periods.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In applications with fluctuating loads, such as laptop computers, PDAs, GPS, portable media players, hand-held devices, and photovoltaic systems, supercapacitors can stabilize the power supply.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors deliver power for photographic flashes in digital cameras and for LED flashlights that can be charged in much shorter periods of time, "e.g.", 90 seconds.


title: Supercapacitor

text: A cordless electric screwdriver with supercapacitors for energy storage has about half the run time of a comparable battery model, but can be fully charged in 90 seconds. It retains 85% of its charge after three months left idle.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Numerous non-linear loads, such as EV chargers, HEVs, air conditioning systems, and advanced power conversion systems cause current fluctuations and harmonics. These current differences create unwanted voltage fluctuations and therefore power oscillations on the grid. Power oscillations not only reduce the efficiency of the grid, but can cause voltage drops in the common coupling bus, and considerable frequency fluctuations throughout the entire system. To overcome this problem, supercapacitors can be implemented as an interface between the load and the grid to act as a buffer between the grid and the high pulse power drawn from the charging station.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors provide backup or emergency shutdown power to low-power equipment such as RAM, SRAM, micro-controllers and PC Cards. They are the sole power source for low energy applications such as automated meter reading (AMR) equipment or for event notification in industrial electronics.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors buffer power to and from rechargeable batteries, mitigating the effects of short power interruptions and high current peaks. Batteries kick in only during extended interruptions, "e.g.", if the mains power or a fuel cell fails, which lengthens battery life.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) may be powered by supercapacitors, which can replace much larger banks of electrolytic capacitors. This combination reduces the cost per cycle, saves on replacement and maintenance costs, enables the battery to be downsized and extends battery life.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors provide backup power for actuators in wind turbine pitch systems, so that blade pitch can be adjusted even if the main supply fails.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors can stabilize voltage fluctuations for powerlines by acting as dampers. Wind and photovoltaic systems exhibit fluctuating supply evoked by gusting or clouds that supercapacitors can buffer within milliseconds.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Micro grids are usually powered by clean and renewable energy. Most of this energy generation, however, is not constant throughout the day and does not usually match demand. Supercapacitors can be used for micro grid storage to instantaneously inject power when the demand is high and the production dips momentarily, and to store energy in the reverse conditions. They are useful in this scenario, because micro grids are increasingly producing power in DC, and capacitors can be utilized in both DC and AC applications. Supercapacitors work best in conjunction with chemical batteries. They provide an immediate voltage buffer to compensate for quick changing power loads due to their high charge and discharge rate through an active control system. Once the voltage is buffered, it is put through an inverter to supply AC power to the grid. It is important to note that supercapacitors cannot provide frequency correction in this form directly in the AC grid.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors are suitable temporary energy storage devices for energy harvesting systems. In energy harvesting systems, the energy is collected from the ambient or renewable sources, "e.g.", mechanical movement, light or electromagnetic fields, and converted to electrical energy in an energy storage device. For example, it was demonstrated that energy collected from RF (radio frequency) fields (using an RF antenna as an appropriate rectifier circuit) can be stored to a printed supercapacitor. The harvested energy was then used to power an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) for over 10 hours.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The UltraBattery is a hybrid rechargeable lead-acid battery and a supercapacitor. Its cell construction contains a standard lead-acid battery positive electrode, standard sulphuric acid electrolyte and a specially prepared negative carbon-based electrode that store electrical energy with double-layer capacitance. The presence of the supercapacitor electrode alters the chemistry of the battery and affords it significant protection from sulfation in high rate partial state of charge use, which is the typical failure mode of valve regulated lead-acid cells used this way. The resulting cell performs with characteristics beyond either a lead-acid cell or a supercapacitor, with charge and discharge rates, cycle life, efficiency and performance all enhanced.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors are used in defibrillators where they can deliver 500 joules to shock the heart back into sinus rhythm.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2005, aerospace systems and controls company Diehl Luftfahrt Elektronik GmbH chose supercapacitors to power emergency actuators for doors and evacuation slides used in airliners, including the Airbus 380.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors' low internal resistance supports applications that require short-term high currents. Among the earliest uses were motor startup (cold engine starts, particularly with diesels) for large engines in tanks and submarines. Supercapacitors buffer the battery, handling short current peaks, reducing cycling and extending battery life.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Further military applications that require high specific power are phased array radar antennae, laser power supplies, military radio communications, avionics displays and instrumentation, backup power for airbag deployment and GPS-guided missiles and projectiles.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Toyota's Yaris Hybrid-R concept car uses a supercapacitor to provide bursts of power. PSA Peugeot Citroën has started using supercapacitors as part of its stop-start fuel-saving system, which permits faster initial acceleration. Mazda's i-ELOOP system stores energy in a supercapacitor during deceleration and uses it to power on-board electrical systems while the engine is stopped by the stop-start system.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Maxwell Technologies, an American supercapacitor-maker, claimed that more than 20,000 hybrid buses use the devices to increase acceleration, particularly in China. Guangzhou, In 2014 China began using trams powered with supercapacitors that are recharged in 30 seconds by a device positioned between the rails, storing power to run the tram for up to 4 km — more than enough to reach the next stop, where the cycle can be repeated. CAF also offers supercapacitors on their Urbos 3 trams in the form of their ACR system.


title: Supercapacitor

text: A primary challenge of all transport is reducing energy consumption and reducing emissions. Recovery of braking energy (recuperation or regenerative braking) helps with both. This requires components that can quickly store and release energy over long times with a high cycle rate. Supercapacitors fulfill these requirements and are therefore used in various applications in transportation.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors can be used to supplement batteries in starter systems in diesel railroad locomotives with diesel-electric transmission. The capacitors capture the braking energy of a full stop and deliver the peak current for starting the diesel engine and acceleration of the train and ensures the stabilization of line voltage. Depending on the driving mode up to 30% energy saving is possible by recovery of braking energy. Low maintenance and environmentally friendly materials encouraged the choice of supercapacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Mobile hybrid Diesel-electric rubber tyred gantry cranes move and stack containers within a terminal. Lifting the boxes requires large amounts of energy. Some of the energy could be recaptured while lowering the load, resulting in improved efficiency.


title: Supercapacitor

text: A triple hybrid forklift truck uses fuel cells and batteries as primary energy storage and supercapacitors to buffer power peaks by storing braking energy. They provide the fork lift with peak power over 30 kW. The triple-hybrid system offers over 50% energy savings compared with Diesel or fuel-cell systems.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitor-powered terminal tractors transport containers to warehouses. They provide an economical, quiet and pollution-free alternative to Diesel terminal tractors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors make it possible not only to reduce energy, but to replace overhead lines in historical city areas, so preserving the city's architectural heritage. This approach may allow many new light rail city lines to replace overhead wires that are too expensive to fully route.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2003 Mannheim adopted a prototype light-rail vehicle (LRV) using the MITRAC Energy Saver system from Bombardier Transportation to store mechanical braking energy with a roof-mounted supercapacitor unit. It contains several units each made of 192 capacitors with 2700 F / 2.7 V interconnected in three parallel lines. This circuit results in a 518 V system with an energy content of 1.5 kWh. For acceleration when starting this "on-board-system" can provide the LRV with 600 kW and can drive the vehicle up to 1 km without overhead line supply, thus better integrating the LRV into the urban environment. Compared to conventional LRVs or Metro vehicles that return energy into the grid, onboard energy storage saves up to 30% and reduces peak grid demand by up to 50%.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2009 supercapacitors enabled LRVs to operate in the historical city area of Heidelberg without overhead wires, thus preserving the city's architectural heritage. The SC equipment cost an additional €270,000 per vehicle, which was expected to be recovered over the first 15 years of operation. The supercapacitors are charged at stop-over stations when the vehicle is at a scheduled stop. In April 2011 German regional transport operator Rhein-Neckar, responsible for Heidelberg, ordered a further 11 units.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2009, Alstom and RATP equipped a Citadis tram with an experimental energy recovery system called "STEEM". The system is fitted with 48 roof-mounted supercapacitors to store braking energy, which provides tramways with a high level of energy autonomy by enabling them to run without overhead power lines on parts of its route, recharging while traveling on powered stop-over stations. During the tests, which took place between the Porte d’Italie and Porte de Choisy stops on line T3 of the tramway network in Paris, the tramset used an average of approximately 16% less energy.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2012 tram operator Geneva Public Transport began tests of an LRV equipped with a prototype roof-mounted supercapacitor unit to recover braking energy.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Siemens is delivering supercapacitor-enhanced light-rail transport systems that include mobile storage.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Hong Kong's South Island metro line is to be equipped with two 2 MW energy storage units that are expected to reduce energy consumption by 10%.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In August 2012 the CSR Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive corporation of China presented a prototype two-car light metro train equipped with a roof-mounted supercapacitor unit. The train can travel up 2 km without wires, recharging in 30 seconds at stations via a ground mounted pickup. The supplier claimed the trains could be used in 100 small and medium-sized Chinese cities. Seven trams (street cars) powered by supercapacitors were scheduled to go into operation in 2014 in Guangzhou, China. The supercapacitors are recharged in 30 seconds by a device positioned between the rails. That powers the tram for up to .


title: Supercapacitor

text: As of 2017, Zhuzhou's supercapacitor vehicles are also used on the new Nanjing streetcar system, and are undergoing trials in Wuhan.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2012, in Lyon (France), the (Lyon public transportation administration) started experiments of a "way side regeneration" system built by Adetel Group which has developed its own energy saver named ″NeoGreen″ for LRV, LRT and metros.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2015, Alstom announced SRS, an energy storage system that charges supercapacitors on board a tram by means of ground-level conductor rails located at tram stops. This allows trams to operate without overhead lines for short distances. The system has been touted as an alternative to the company's ground-level power supply (APS) system, or can be used in conjunction with it, as in the case of the VLT network in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which opened in 2016.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The first hybrid bus with supercapacitors in Europe came in 2001 in Nuremberg, Germany. It was MAN's so-called "Ultracapbus", and was tested in real operation in 2001/2002. The test vehicle was equipped with a diesel-electric drive in combination with supercapacitors. The system was supplied with 8 Ultracap modules of 80 V, each containing 36 components. The system worked with 640 V and could be charged/discharged at 400 A. Its energy content was 0.4 kWh with a weight of 400 kg.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The supercapacitors recaptured braking energy and delivered starting energy. Fuel consumption was reduced by 10 to 15% compared to conventional diesel vehicles. Other advantages included reduction of emissions, quiet and emissions-free engine starts, lower vibration and reduced maintenance costs.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In early 2005 Shanghai tested a new form of electric bus called capabus that runs without powerlines (catenary free operation) using large onboard supercapacitors that partially recharge whenever the bus is at a stop (under so-called electric umbrellas), and fully charge in the terminus. In 2006, two commercial bus routes began to use the capabuses; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai. It was estimated that the supercapacitor bus was cheaper than a lithium-ion battery bus, and one of its buses had one-tenth the energy cost of a diesel bus with lifetime fuel savings of $200,000.


title: Supercapacitor

text: A hybrid electric bus called tribrid was unveiled in 2008 by the University of Glamorgan, Wales, for use as student transport. It is powered by hydrogen fuel or solar cells, batteries and ultracapacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The FIA, a governing body for motor racing events, proposed in the "Power-Train Regulation Framework for Formula 1" version 1.3 of 23 May 2007 that a new set of power train regulations be issued that includes a hybrid drive of up to 200 kW input and output power using "superbatteries" made with batteries and supercapacitors connected in parallel (KERS). About 20% tank-to-wheel efficiency could be reached using the KERS system.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The Toyota TS030 Hybrid LMP1 car, a racing car developed under Le Mans Prototype rules, uses a hybrid drivetrain with supercapacitors. In the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans race a TS030 qualified with a fastest lap only 1.055 seconds slower (3:24.842 versus 3:23.787) than the fastest car, an Audi R18 e-tron quattro with flywheel energy storage. The supercapacitor and flywheel components, whose rapid charge-discharge capabilities help in both braking and acceleration, made the Audi and Toyota hybrids the fastest cars in the race. In the 2012 Le Mans race the two competing TS030s, one of which was in the lead for part of the race, both retired for reasons unrelated to the supercapacitors. The TS030 won three of the 8 races in the 2012 FIA World Endurance Championship season. In 2014 the Toyota TS040 Hybrid used a supercapacitor to add 480 horsepower from two electric motors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitor/battery combinations in electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are well investigated. A 20 to 60% fuel reduction has been claimed by recovering brake energy in EVs or HEVs. The ability of supercapacitors to charge much faster than batteries, their stable electrical properties, broader temperature range and longer lifetime are suitable, but weight, volume and especially cost mitigate those advantages.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitors' lower specific energy makes them unsuitable for use as a stand-alone energy source for long distance driving. The fuel economy improvement between a capacitor and a battery solution is about 20% and is available only for shorter trips. For long distance driving the advantage decreases to 6%. Vehicles combining capacitors and batteries run only in experimental vehicles.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Russian Yo-cars Ё-mobile series was a concept and crossover hybrid vehicle working with a gasoline driven rotary vane type and an electric generator for driving the traction motors. A supercapacitor with relatively low capacitance recovers brake energy to power the electric motor when accelerating from a stop.


title: Supercapacitor

text: PSA Peugeot Citroën fit supercapacitors to some of its cars as part of its stop-start fuel-saving system, as this permits faster start-ups when the traffic lights turn green.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In Zell am See, Austria, an aerial lift connects the city with Schmittenhöhe mountain. The gondolas sometimes run 24 hours per day, using electricity for lights, door opening and communication. The only available time for recharging batteries at the stations is during the brief intervals of guest loading and unloading, which is too short to recharge batteries. Supercapacitors offer a fast charge, higher number of cycles and longer life time than batteries.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Emirates Air Line (cable car), also known as the Thames cable car, is a 1-kilometre (0.62 mi) gondola line in London, UK, that crosses the Thames from the Greenwich Peninsula to the Royal Docks. The cabins are equipped with a modern infotainment system, which is powered by supercapacitors.


title: Supercapacitor

text: commercially available lithium-ion supercapacitors offered the highest gravimetric specific energy to date, reaching 15 Wh/kg (). Research focuses on improving specific energy, reducing internal resistance, expanding temperature range, increasing lifetimes and reducing costs.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Projects include tailored-pore-size electrodes, pseudocapacitive coating or doping materials and improved electrolytes.


title: Supercapacitor

text: The market for batteries (estimated by Frost & Sullivan) grew from US$47.5 billion, (76.4% or US$36.3 billion of which was rechargeable batteries) to US$95 billion. The market for supercapacitors is still a small niche market that is not keeping pace with its larger rival.


title: Supercapacitor

text: In 2016, IDTechEx forecast sales to grow from $240 million to $2 billion by 2026, an annual increase of about 24%.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Supercapacitor costs in 2006 were US$0.01 per farad or US$2.85 per kilojoule, moving in 2008 below US$0.01 per farad, and were expected to drop further in the medium term.


title: Supercapacitor

text: Exceptional for electronic components like capacitors are the manifold different trade or series names used for supercapacitors, like "APowerCap, BestCap, BoostCap, CAP-XX, C-SECH, DLCAP, EneCapTen, EVerCAP, DynaCap, Faradcap, GreenCap, Goldcap, HY-CAP, Kapton capacitor, Super capacitor, SuperCap, PAS Capacitor, PowerStor, PseudoCap, Ultracapacitor" making it difficult for users to classify these capacitors. (Compare with #Comparison of technical parameters)


title: Charithra Chandran

text: Charithra Surya Chandran (; born 17 January 1997) is a British actress. She is known for her roles in the Amazon spy thriller series "Alex Rider" (2021) and the Netflix period drama "Bridgerton" (2022).


title: Charithra Chandran

text: Chandran was born in Perth, Scotland, the daughter of medical professionals. She was born into a Tamil Indian family. Her parents separated when she was two, and she left for India with her father where she stayed with her grandparents in Tamil Nadu, India. Upon returning to the UK when she was four, she went to school in Liverpool. She then boarded at Moreton Hall Preparatory School in Suffolk from six to eleven before settling down with her mother in Oxford for her teenage years whilst her father lived in Wales.


title: Charithra Chandran

text: Chandran completed sixth form at Oxford High School. She then went on to graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy, politics and economics from New College, Oxford in 2019. She participated in a number of productions during university and joined the National Youth Theatre. She worked part-time for the New Policy Institute after taking a gap year, during which she did drama as a hobby before deciding to make it her career, turning down a job offer from BCG.


title: Charithra Chandran

text: In 2021, Chandran joined the main cast of the spy thriller series "Alex Rider" as Sabina Pleasance for its second series on IMDb TV. Having auditioned before the first series aired, Chandran starred as Edwina in the second series, based on the novel "The Viscount Who Loved Me""," of the Shondaland-produced Netflix period drama "Bridgerton" alongside Jonathan Bailey and Simone Ashley in 2022.


title: Charithra Chandran

text: In June 2022, Chandran voiced the courtesan Camille for BBC Radio 3 in an audio adaptation of Pam Gems' stage play based on the novel "La Dame aux Camélias" by Alexandre Dumas fils. Chandran has an upcoming role in the young adult romantic comedy "How to Date Billy Walsh" for Prime Video. It was announced that Chandran will lead and associate produce "Song of the Sun God", a six-part drama series based on the novel of the same name by Shankari Chandran.


title: Charithra Chandran

text: In September 2022, Chandran voiced the lead, Mia, in Meet Cute's series, "A Mid-Semester Night's Dream". The series is a playful retelling of Shakespeare’s "A Midsummer Night’s Dream." In this series, a group of graduate students discover a magical print of the play which makes them fall in love with whoever reads from it.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal is an imperative and procedural programming language, designed by Niklaus Wirth as a small, efficient language intended to encourage good programming practices using structured programming and data structuring. It is named in honour of the French mathematician, philosopher and physicist Blaise Pascal.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal was developed on the pattern of the ALGOL 60 language. Wirth was involved in the process to improve the language as part of the ALGOL X efforts and proposed a version named ALGOL W. This was not accepted, and the ALGOL X process bogged down. In 1968, Wirth decided to abandon the ALGOL X process and further improve ALGOL W, releasing this as Pascal in 1970.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: On top of ALGOL's scalars and arrays, Pascal enables defining complex datatypes and building dynamic and recursive data structures such as lists, trees and graphs. Pascal has strong typing on all objects, which means that one type of data cannot be converted to or interpreted as another without explicit conversions. Unlike C (and most languages in the C-family), Pascal allows nested procedure definitions to any level of depth, and also allows most kinds of definitions and declarations inside subroutines (procedures and functions). A program is thus syntactically similar to a single procedure or function. This is similar to the block structure of ALGOL 60, but restricted from arbitrary block statements to just procedures and functions.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal became very successful in the 1970s, notably on the burgeoning minicomputer market. Compilers were also available for many microcomputers as the field emerged in the late 1970s. It was widely used as a teaching language in university-level programming courses in the 1980s, and also used in production settings for writing commercial software during the same period. It was displaced by the C programming language during the late 1980s and early 1990s as UNIX-based systems became popular, and especially with the release of C++.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: A derivative named Object Pascal designed for object-oriented programming was developed in 1985. This was used by Apple Computer (for the Lisa and MacIntosh machines) and Borland in the late 1980s and later developed into Delphi on the Microsoft Windows platform. Extensions to the Pascal concepts led to the languages Modula-2 and Oberon.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Much of the history of computer language design during the 1960s can be traced to the ALGOL 60 language. ALGOL was developed during the 1950s with the explicit goal of being able to clearly describe algorithms. It included a number of features for structured programming that remain common in languages to this day.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Shortly after its introduction, in 1962 Wirth began working on his dissertation with Helmut Weber on the Euler programming language. Euler was based on ALGOL's syntax and many concepts but was not a derivative. Its primary goal was to add dynamic lists and types, allowing it to be used in roles similar to Lisp. The language was published in 1965.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: By this time, a number of problems in ALGOL had been identified, notably the lack of a standardized string system. The group tasked with maintaining the language had begun the ALGOL X process to identify improvements, calling for submissions. Wirth and Tony Hoare submitted a conservative set of modifications to add strings and clean up some of the syntax. These were considered too minor to be worth using as the new standard ALGOL, so Wirth wrote a compiler for the language, which became named ALGOL W.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The ALGOL X efforts would go on to choose a much more complex language, ALGOL 68. The complexity of this language led to considerable difficulty producing high-performance compilers, and it was not widely used in the industry. This left an opening for newer languages.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal was influenced by the ALGOL W efforts, with the explicit goals of teaching programming in a structured fashion and for the development of system software.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: One of the early successes for the language was the introduction of UCSD Pascal, a version that ran on a custom operating system that could be ported to different platforms. A key platform was the Apple II, where it saw widespread use as Apple Pascal. This led to Pascal becoming the primary high-level language used for development in the Apple Lisa, and later, the Macintosh. Parts of the original Macintosh operating system were hand-translated into Motorola 68000 assembly language from the Pascal source code.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The typesetting system TeX by Donald E. Knuth was written in WEB, the original literate programming system, based on DEC PDP-10 Pascal. Successful commercial applications like Adobe Photoshop were written in Macintosh Programmer's Workshop Pascal, while applications like Total Commander, Skype and Macromedia Captivate were written in Delphi (Object Pascal). Apollo Computer used Pascal as the systems programming language for its operating systems beginning in 1980.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Variants of Pascal have also been used for everything from research projects to PC games and embedded systems. Newer Pascal compilers exist which are widely used.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: During work on the Lisa, Larry Tesler began corresponding with Wirth on the idea of adding object-oriented extensions to the language. This led initially to Clascal, introduced in 1983. As the Lisa program faded and was replaced by the Macintosh, a further version was created and named Object Pascal. This was introduced on the Mac in 1985 as part of the MacApp application framework, and became Apple's main development language into the early 1990s.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The Object Pascal extensions were added to Turbo Pascal with the release of version 5.5 in 1989. Over the years, Object Pascal became the basis of the Delphi system for Microsoft Windows, which is still used for developing Windows applications, and can cross-compile code to other systems. Free Pascal is an open source, cross-platform alternative with its own graphical IDE called Lazarus.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The first Pascal compiler was designed in Zürich for the CDC 6000 series mainframe computer family. Niklaus Wirth reports that a first attempt to implement it in FORTRAN 66 in 1969 was unsuccessful due to FORTRAN 66's inadequacy to express complex data structures. The second attempt was implemented in a C-like language (Scallop by Max Engeli) and then translated by hand (by R. Schild) to Pascal itself for boot-strapping. It was operational by mid-1970. Many Pascal compilers since have been similarly self-hosting, that is, the compiler is itself written in Pascal, and the compiler is usually capable of recompiling itself when new features are added to the language, or when the compiler is to be ported to a new environment. The GNU Pascal compiler is one notable exception, being written in C.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The first successful port of the CDC Pascal compiler to another mainframe was completed by Welsh and Quinn at the Queen's University of Belfast (QUB) in 1972. The target was the International Computers Limited (ICL) 1900 series. This compiler, in turn, was the parent of the Pascal compiler for the Information Computer Systems (ICS) Multum minicomputer. The Multum port was developed – with a view to using Pascal as a systems programming language – by Findlay, Cupples, Cavouras and Davis, working at the Department of Computing Science in Glasgow University. It is thought that Multum Pascal, which was completed in the summer of 1973, may have been the first 16-bit implementation.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: A completely new compiler was completed by Welsh et al. at QUB in 1977. It offered a source-language diagnostic feature (incorporating profiling, tracing and type-aware formatted postmortem dumps) that was implemented by Findlay and Watt at Glasgow University. This implementation was ported in 1980 to the ICL 2900 series by a team based at Southampton University and Glasgow University. The Standard Pascal Model Implementation was also based on this compiler, having been adapted, by Welsh and Hay at Manchester University in 1984, to check rigorously for conformity to the BSI 6192/ISO 7185 Standard and to generate code for a portable abstract machine.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The first Pascal compiler written in North America was constructed at the University of Illinois under Donald B. Gillies for the PDP-11 and generated native machine code.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: To propagate the language rapidly, a compiler "porting kit" was created in Zürich that included a compiler that generated so called p-code for a "virtual" stack machine, i.e., code that lends itself to reasonably efficient interpretation, along with an interpreter for that code – the "Pascal-P" system. The P-system compilers were named Pascal-P1, Pascal-P2, Pascal-P3, and Pascal-P4. Pascal-P1 was the first version, and Pascal-P4 was the last to come from Zürich. The version termed Pascal-P1 was coined after the fact for the many different sources for Pascal-P that existed. The compiler was redesigned to enhance portability, and issued as Pascal-P2. This code was later enhanced to become Pascal-P3, with an intermediate code backward compatible with Pascal-P2, and Pascal-P4, which was not backward compatible.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The Pascal-P4 compiler–interpreter can still be run and compiled on systems compatible with original Pascal. However, it only accepts a subset of the Pascal language.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal-P5, created outside the Zürich group, accepts the full Pascal language and includes ISO 7185 compatibility.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: UCSD Pascal branched off Pascal-P2, where Kenneth Bowles used it to create the interpretive UCSD p-System. It was one of three operating systems available at the launch of the original IBM Personal Computer. UCSD Pascal used an intermediate code based on byte values, and thus was one of the earliest "bytecode compilers". Apple Pascal was released in 1979 for the Apple 2 and Apple 3 computer systems. It was an implementation of, or largely based on, UCSD Pascal. Pascal-P1 through Pascal-P4 was not, but rather based on the CDC 6600 60-bit word length.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: A compiler based on the Pascal-P5 compiler, which created native binary object files, was released for the IBM System/370 mainframe computer by the Australian Atomic Energy Commission; it was named the "AAEC Pascal 8000 Compiler" after the abbreviation of the name of the commission.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Apple Computer created its own Lisa Pascal for the Lisa Workshop in 1982, and ported the compiler to the Apple Macintosh and MPW in 1985. In 1985 Larry Tesler, in consultation with Niklaus Wirth, defined Object Pascal and these extensions were incorporated in both the Lisa Pascal and Mac Pascal compilers.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: In the 1980s, Anders Hejlsberg wrote the Blue Label Pascal compiler for the Nascom-2. A reimplementation of this compiler for the IBM PC was marketed under the names Compas Pascal and PolyPascal before it was acquired by Borland and renamed "Turbo Pascal".


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Turbo Pascal became hugely popular, thanks to an aggressive pricing strategy, having one of the first full-screen IDEs, and very fast turnaround time (just seconds to compile, link, and run). It was written and highly optimized entirely in assembly language, making it smaller and faster than much of the competition.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: In 1986, Anders ported Turbo Pascal to the Macintosh and incorporated Apple's Object Pascal extensions into Turbo Pascal. These extensions were then added back into the PC version of Turbo Pascal for version 5.5. At the same time Microsoft also implemented the Object Pascal compiler. Turbo Pascal 5.5 had a large influence on the Pascal community, which began concentrating mainly on the IBM PC in the late 1980s. Many PC hobbyists in search of a structured replacement for BASIC used this product. It also began to be adopted by professional developers. Around the same time a number of concepts were imported from C to let Pascal programmers use the C-based application programming interface (API) of Microsoft Windows directly. These extensions included null-terminated strings, pointer arithmetic, function pointers, an address-of operator, and unsafe typecasts.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Turbo Pascal and other derivatives with "unit" or "module" structures are modular programming languages. However, it does not provide a nested module concept or qualified import and export of specific symbols.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Super Pascal is a variant that added non-numeric labels, a return statement and expressions as names of types.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: TMT Pascal was the first Borland-compatible compiler for 32-bit DOS protected mode, OS/2, and Win32 operating systems. The TMT Pascal language was the first one to allow function and operator overloading.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The universities of Wisconsin-Madison, Zürich, Karlsruhe, and Wuppertal developed the "Pascal-SC" and "Pascal-XSC" ("Extensions for Scientific Computation") compilers, aimed at programming numerical computations. Development for Pascal-SC started in 1978 supporting ISO 7185 Pascal level 0, but level 2 support was added at a later stage. Pascal-SC originally targeted the Z80 processor, but was later rewritten for DOS (x86) and 68000. Pascal-XSC has at various times been ported to Unix (Linux, SunOS, HP-UX, AIX) and Microsoft/IBM (DOS with EMX, OS/2, Windows) operating systems. It operates by generating intermediate C source code which is then compiled to a native executable. Some of the Pascal-SC language extensions have been adopted by GNU Pascal.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal Sol was designed around 1983 by a French team to implement a Unix-like system named Sol. It was standard Pascal level-1 (with parameterized array bounds) but the definition allowed alternative keywords and predefined identifiers in French and the language included a few extensions to ease system programming (e.g. an equivalent to lseek). The Sol team later on moved to the ChorusOS project to design a distributed operating system.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: IP Pascal was an implementation of the Pascal programming language using Micropolis DOS, but was moved rapidly to CP/M-80 running on the Z80. It was moved to the 80386 machine types in 1994, and exists today as Windows/XP and Linux implementations. In 2008, the system was brought up to a new level and the resulting language termed "Pascaline" (after Pascal's calculator). It includes objects, namespace controls, dynamic arrays, and many other extensions, and generally features the same functionality and type protection as C#. It is the only such implementation that is also compatible with the original Pascal implementation, which is standardized as ISO 7185.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal, in its original form, is a purely procedural language and includes the traditional array of ALGOL-like control structures with reserved words such as codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, and codice_6, ranging on a single statement or a codice_7-codice_8 statements block. Pascal also has data structuring constructs not included in the original ALGOL 60 types, like records, variants, pointers, enumerations, and sets and procedure pointers. Such constructs were in part inherited or inspired from Simula 67, ALGOL 68, Niklaus Wirth's own ALGOL W and suggestions by C. A. R. Hoare.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal programs start with the codice_9 keyword with a list of external file descriptors as parameters<ref name="iso/iec 7185:1990 6.10">Pascal ISO 7185:1990 6.10</ref> (not required in Turbo Pascal etc.); then follows the main block bracketed by the codice_7 and codice_8 keywords. Semicolons separate statements, and the full stop (i.e., a period) ends the whole program (or "unit"). Letter case is ignored in Pascal source.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: A Type Declaration in Pascal is used to define a range of values which a variable of that type is capable of storing. It also defines a set of operations that are permissible to be performed on variables of that type. The predefined types are:


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The range of values allowed for the basic types (except boolean) is implementation defined. Functions are provided for some data conversions. For conversion of codice_12 to codice_13, the following functions are available: codice_14 (which rounds to integer using banker's rounding) and codice_15 (rounds towards zero).


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The programmer has the freedom to define other commonly used data types (e.g. byte, string, etc.) in terms of the predefined types using Pascal's type declaration facility, for example


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Normally the system will use a word to store the data. For instance, the type may be stored in a machine integer - 32 bits perhaps - rather than an 8-bit value. Pascal does not contain language elements that allow the basic storage types to be defined more granularly. This capability was included in a number of Pascal extensions and follow-on languages, while others, like Modula-2, expanded the built-in set to cover most machine data types like 16-bit integers.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The keyword tells the compiler to use the most efficient method of storage for the structured data types: sets, arrays and records, rather than using one word for each element. Packing may slow access on machines that do not offer easy access to parts of a word.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: A set is a fundamental concept for modern mathematics, and they may be used in many algorithms. Such a feature is useful and may be faster than an equivalent construct in a language that does not support sets. For example, for many Pascal compilers:


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Sets of non-contiguous values can be particularly useful, in terms of both performance and readability:


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: For these examples, which involve sets over small domains, the improved performance is usually achieved by the compiler representing set variables as bit vectors. The set operators can then be implemented efficiently as bitwise machine code operations.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: As shown in the example above, Pascal files are sequences of components. Every file has a buffer variable which is denoted by "f^". The procedures "get" (for reading) and "put" (for writing) move the buffer variable to the next element. Read is introduced such that "read(f, x)" is the same as "x := f^; get(f);". Write is introduced such that "write(f, x)" is the same as "f^ := x; put(f);" The type is predefined as file of char. While the buffer variable could be used for inspecting the next character to be used (check for a digit before reading an integer), this leads to serious problems with interactive programs in early implementations, but was solved later with the "lazy I/O" concept.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: In Jensen & Wirth Pascal, strings are represented as packed arrays of chars; they therefore have fixed length and are usually space-padded.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Here the variable "NodePtr" is a pointer to the data type "Node", a record. Pointers can be used before they are declared. This is a forward declaration, an exception to the rule that things must be declared before they are used.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: To create a new record and assign the value "10" and character "A" to the fields "a" and "b" in the record, and to initialise the pointer "c" to the null pointer ("NIL" in Pascal), the statements would be:


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Inside of the scope of the "with" statement, a and b refer to the subfields of the record pointer "NodePtr" and not to the record Node or the pointer type pNode.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Unlike many languages that feature pointers, Pascal only allows pointers to reference dynamically created variables that are anonymous, and does not allow them to reference standard static or local variables. Pointers also must have an associated type, and a pointer to one type is not compatible with a pointer to another type (e.g. a pointer to a char is not compatible with a pointer to an integer). This helps eliminate the type security issues inherent with other pointer implementations, particularly those used for PL/I or C. It also removes some risks caused by dangling pointers, but the ability to dynamically deallocate referenced space by using the "dispose" function (which has the same effect as the "free" library function found in C) means that the risk of dangling pointers has not been eliminated as it has in languages such as Java and C#, which provide automatic garbage collection (but which do not eliminate the related problem of memory leaks).


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal is a structured programming language, meaning that the flow of control is structured into standard statements, usually without 'goto' commands.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal structures programs into procedures and functions. Generally, a procedure is used for its side effects, whereas a function is used for its return value.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Procedures and functions can be nested to any depth, and the 'program' construct is the logical outermost block.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: By default, parameters are passed by value. If 'var' precedes a parameter's name, it is passed by reference.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Each procedure or function can have its own declarations of goto labels, constants, types, variables, and other procedures and functions, which must all be in that order.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: This ordering requirement was originally intended to allow efficient single-pass compilation. However, in some dialects (such as Delphi) the strict ordering requirement of declaration sections has been relaxed.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal adopted many language syntax features from the ALGOL language, including the use of a semicolon as a statement separator. This is in contrast to other languages, such as PL/I and C, which use the semicolon as a statement terminator. No semicolon is needed before the codice_8 keyword of a record type declaration, a block, or a "case" statement; before the codice_18 keyword of a repeat statement; and before the codice_3 keyword of an "if" statement.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The presence of an extra semicolon was not permitted in early versions of Pascal. However, the addition of ALGOL-like empty statements in the 1973 "Revised Report" and later changes to the language in ISO 7185:1983 now allow for optional semicolons in most of these cases. A semicolon is still not permitted immediately before the codice_3 keyword in an "if" statement, because the codice_3 follows a single statement, not a statement sequence. In the case of nested ifs, a semicolon cannot be used to avoid the dangling else problem (where the inner if does not have an else, but the outer if does) by putatively terminating the nested if with a semicolon – this instead terminates both if clauses. Instead, an explicit codice_7...codice_8 block must be used.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: In 1983, the language was standardized in the international standard IEC/ISO 7185 and several local country-specific standards, including the American ANSI/IEEE770X3.97-1983, and ISO 7185:1983. These two standards differed only in that the ISO standard included a "level 1" extension for conformant arrays (an array where the boundaries of the array are not known until run time), where ANSI did not allow for this extension to the original (Wirth version) language. In 1989, ISO 7185 was revised (ISO 7185:1990) to correct various errors and ambiguities found in the original document.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The ISO 7185 was stated to be a clarification of Wirth's 1974 language as detailed by the User Manual and Report [Jensen and Wirth], but was also notable for adding "Conformant Array Parameters" as a level 1 to the standard, level 0 being Pascal without conformant arrays. This addition was made at the request of C. A. R. Hoare, and with the approval of Niklaus Wirth. The precipitating cause was that Hoare wanted to create a Pascal version of the (NAG) Numerical Algorithms Library, which had originally been written in FORTRAN, and found that it was not possible to do so without an extension that would allow array parameters of varying size. Similar considerations motivated the inclusion in ISO 7185 of the facility to specify the parameter types of procedural and functional parameters.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Niklaus Wirth himself referred to the 1974 language as "the Standard", for example, to differentiate it from the machine specific features of the CDC 6000 compiler. This language was documented in "The Pascal Report", the second part of the "Pascal users manual and report".


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: On the large machines (mainframes and minicomputers) Pascal originated on, the standards were generally followed. On the IBM PC, they were not. On IBM PCs, the Borland standards Turbo Pascal and Delphi have the greatest number of users. Thus, it is typically important to understand whether a particular implementation corresponds to the original Pascal language, or a Borland dialect of it.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The IBM PC versions of the language began to differ with the advent of UCSD Pascal, an interpreted implementation that featured several extensions to the language, along with several omissions and changes. Many UCSD language features survive today, including in Borland's dialect.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: In 1990, an extended Pascal standard was created as ISO/IEC 10206, which is identical in technical content<ref name="ISO/ANSI identical"></ref> to IEEE/ANSI 770X3.160-1989


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Niklaus Wirth's Zürich version of Pascal was issued outside ETH in two basic forms: the CDC 6000 compiler source, and a porting kit called Pascal-P system. The Pascal-P compiler left out several features of the full language that were not required to bootstrap the compiler. For example, procedures and functions used as parameters, undiscriminated variant records, packing, dispose, interprocedural gotos and other features of the full compiler were omitted.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: UCSD Pascal, under Professor Kenneth Bowles, was based on the Pascal-P2 kit, and consequently shared several of the Pascal-P language restrictions. UCSD Pascal was later adopted as Apple Pascal, and continued through several versions there. Although UCSD Pascal actually expanded the subset Pascal in the Pascal-P kit by adding back standard Pascal constructs, it was still not a complete standard installation of Pascal.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: In the early 1990s, Alan Burns and Geoff Davies developed Pascal-FC, an extension to Pl/0 (from the Niklaus' book "Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs"). Several constructs were added to use Pascal-FC as a teaching tool for Concurrent Programming (such as semaphores, monitors, channels, remote-invocation and resources). To be able to demonstrate concurrency, the compiler output (a kind of P-code) could then be executed on a virtual machine. This virtual machine not only simulated a normal – fair – environment, but could also simulate extreme conditions (unfair mode).


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Borland's Turbo Pascal, written by Anders Hejlsberg, was written in assembly language independent of UCSD and the Zürich compilers. However, it adopted much of the same subset and extensions as the UCSD compiler. This is probably because the UCSD system was the most common Pascal system suitable for developing applications on the resource-limited microprocessor systems available at that time.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: The shrink-wrapped Turbo Pascal version 3 and later incarnations, including Borland's Object Pascal and Delphi and non-Borland near-compatibles became popular with programmers including shareware authors, and so the SWAG library of Pascal code features a large amount of code written with such versions as Delphi in mind.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Pascal generated a wide variety of responses in the computing community, both critical and complimentary.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: While very popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, implementations of Pascal that closely followed Wirth's initial definition of the language were widely criticized as being unsuitable for use outside teaching. Brian Kernighan, who popularized the C language, outlined his most notable criticisms of Pascal as early as 1981 in his article "Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language". The most serious problem Kernighan described was that array sizes and string lengths were part of the type, so it was not possible to write a function that would accept variable-length arrays or even strings as parameters. This made it unfeasible to write, for example, a sorting library. Kernighan also criticized the unpredictable order of evaluation of boolean expressions, poor library support, and lack of static variables, and raised a number of smaller issues. Also, he stated that the language did not provide any simple constructs to "escape" (knowingly and forcibly ignore) restrictions and limitations. More general complaints from other sources noted that the scope of declarations was not clearly defined in the original language definition, which sometimes had serious consequences when using forward declarations to define pointer types, or when record declarations led to mutual recursion, or when an identifier may or may not have been used in an enumeration list. Another difficulty was that, like ALGOL 60, the language did not allow procedures or functions passed as parameters to predefine the expected type of their parameters.


title: Pascal (programming language)

text: Despite initial criticisms, Pascal continued to evolve, and most of Kernighan's points do not apply to versions of the language which were enhanced to be suitable for commercial product development, such as Borland's Turbo Pascal. As Kernighan predicted in his article, most of the extensions to fix these issues were incompatible from compiler to compiler. Since the early 1990s, however, most of the varieties seem condensed into two categories: ISO and Borland-like. Extended Pascal addresses many of these early criticisms. It supports variable-length strings, variable initialization, separate compilation, short-circuit boolean operators, and default (codice_24) clauses for case statements.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Alice: Madness Returns is a 2011 action-adventure game developed by independent studio Spicy Horse and released by Electronic Arts for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. It is the sequel to "American McGee's Alice" (2000). American McGee, a video game designer who is most famous for working on the "Doom" series, was involved in the development. It has a strong goth aesthetic.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: "Alice: Madness Returns" follows Alice Liddell, a girl suffering from trauma caused by the death of her family in a fire. Alice was discharged from a psychiatric clinic and now lives in an orphanage for mentally traumatized orphans under the care of Dr. Angus Bumby. To get rid of the trauma and learn the truth about her past, she once again falls into Wonderland, where a new evil force has corrupted it.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: "Alice: Madness Returns" is played from a third-person perspective. The player controls Alice for the entirety of the game for running, jumping, dodging, attacking, and shrinking.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: In combat, Alice gains a small number of weapons that can be utilized in several ways. Her primary weapon is the Vorpal Blade, a decorated kitchen knife. The remainder of her arsenal is somewhat akin to the benign and mundane items that take on a deadly quality in Alice's tainted Wonderland in the first game. The Pepper Grinder becomes a crank operated Gatling gun, used to attack at a distance and pepper pig snouts. The Hobby Horse is used as a sledgehammer to inflict heavy damage and break barriers and defenses. The Teapot Cannon fires tea sieves that explode to cause heavy damage and, like the Hobby Horse, break barriers. By collecting teeth that are dropped by foes or found scattered about the levels, the player can upgrade these items to more powerful versions. Two other weapons cannot be upgraded, primarily because they are more defensive than directly offensive: the Umbrella acts as a shield that can be used to deflect and reflect most incoming projectiles; The Clockwork Bomb is a time-delayed/remote-controlled rabbit alarm clock that does a minimal amount of damage to enemies, but its usefulness is better illustrated as a decoy, as well as a weight to keep switches temporarily depressed.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Alice's health is tracked by a number of rose petals. Should Alice's health fall to zero during gameplay, the player is forced to start at the most recent checkpoint. They can also regenerate health by going into giant purple flowers. Falling off platforms into bottomless pits or dangerous liquids do not damage Alice but restart her at a nearby platform. The game also introduces "Hysteria", which can be used when Alice's health is very low, and it can only be used for a limited amount of time.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: While working on each level, the player can discover various secrets. A primary mechanic is to use Alice's shrinking potion to reduce in size, allowing her to walk through small spaces like keyholes, but also reveals invisible platforms and surfaces; after returning to normal size, these platforms slowly fade back to invisibility, requiring the player to remember their location. Pig's snouts, which make noise when the player is close, can be struck with the pepper grinder to reveal new paths. Radula rooms provide a short challenge to the player, which on completion grants a jar of paint; obtaining four jars earns the player another rose for Alice's health. Memories can be picked up that provide voiceovers revealing parts of the game's backstory.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Upon completion, the player can start a new game plus, letting them play through the game again but keeping all their weapons and upgrades from the previous attempt. From the menu, the player can also review the memories that they have found within the game.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Within events of the first game, Alice Liddell, believing herself responsible for a fire that consumed her home and her family, escapes into a twisted version of Wonderland. While held at Rutledge Asylum for treatment, Alice was able to conquer her doubts, and eventually was released from the ward. "Madness Returns" takes place in 1875, a year after Alice's release. Alice, now 19 years old, resides at an orphanage in Victorian London, under the care of Dr. Angus Bumby, a psychiatrist who uses hypnosis to help his child patients forget their memories. Though she believes that she is fine, Alice still suffers from hallucinations of Wonderland.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: During an errand, Alice is struck by a hallucination and believes herself to be in Wonderland again. Though initially idyllic, the peaceful land quickly becomes corrupted by an entity called the Infernal Train that rampages through it, leaving behind the Ruin, a force that attempts to stop Alice. Alice meets with the Cheshire Cat who affirms that it is some outside force, not Alice, that has caused this corruption, and urges her to seek out former friends and foes to discover the source of the Train. Throughout the rest of the game, Alice briefly returns to reality between episodes occurring within Wonderland. In the real world, Alice learns from the family lawyer, Wilton J. Radcliffe, that her older sister, Elizabeth (nicknamed "Lizzie"), was first to die in the fire, despite being the farthest from its source, and had been locked in her room.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Within the corrupted Wonderland, Alice attempts to learn more from Wonderland's various citizens, including the Duchess, the Mad Hatter, the March Hare and the Dormouse, the Mock Turtle, the Walrus and the Carpenter, the Caterpillar, and the White King. She is ultimately told that the Queen of Hearts still lives despite her defeat at Alice's hands before, though in a diminished capacity. At the Queen's castle, Alice discovers the Queen's true form, which resembles her younger self. The Queen reveals that an entity called the Dollmaker created the Infernal Train and is the one corrupting Wonderland.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Returning to London, Alice starts to recall her memories of the night of the fire and realizes that Dr. Bumby was there. He was responsible for the death of her sister and her whole family. She comes to the conclusion that Dr. Bumby is attempting to erase the memories of the fire from her mind and, as he has done with other children, trying to leave her (and the orphans) as "blank toys" to be taken by abusive masters and child molesters for a price. Furious, Alice confronts both Dr. Bumby in the real world at the Moorgate station and Dr. Bumby's Wonderland counterpart, the Dollmaker, in her fantasy on the Infernal Train. Dr. Bumby admits to his crimes, and even attests to setting Alice's home on fire after Lizzie refused his advances, removing any witnesses to having raped her that night. He points out that by wiping out her Wonderland, he will make her forget the events of that night, while he continues as a member of high society and secretly sells young children for prostitution. Alice defeats the Dollmaker in Wonderland, giving her the strength in the real world and in her mind to push Dr. Bumby into the path of an oncoming train, killing him.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: As Alice leaves the station, she finds herself in a hybrid vision of London mixed with Wonderland, Londerland. Alice wanders into the unknown terrain as the Cheshire Cat monologues that Alice has found the truth that was "worth the pain fighting for", and Wonderland, though damaged, is safe for the time being.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Rumors of a sequel to "Alice" first developed shortly after the original game was released to critical and commercial success, though at that time, the development team behind the original were working on the ultimately-canceled spin-off, "American McGee's Oz". As the development of the movie adaptation of "American McGee's Alice" took longer and the original game became more of a cult classic, in 2007 interest at Electronic Arts rose in a remake of the game and work was started on a sequel. However, when the movie adaptation fell through, plans for a sequel were shelved, and remained so for nearly a decade. At the February 2009 D.I.C.E. Summit, EA announced a sequel, which at the time had the working title "The Return of American McGee's Alice". Two pieces of concept art accompanied the announcement, along with the information that the original game's writer and executive producer would also return for the sequel. In November of that year, a fan-made trailer (with the title "The Return of Alice") was mistaken by gaming news outlets as an official teaser for the game, in which Alice is in therapy after a relapse nine months following the events of the first game, and appears to hallucinate an image of the Cheshire Cat in place of her doctor.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: At EA's Studio Showcase on July 20, 2010, more details about the game were shown, including its current title, "Alice: Madness Returns". In addition to further pieces of concept art and actual, in-game screenshots, the first official teaser was released. Despite (or perhaps because of) the fan video eight months prior, it also portrays Alice in therapy: after being hypnotized by her doctor in a bizarre office filled with prosthetic arms hanging from the ceiling, as she opens her mouth to speak, large amounts of blood and teeth pour out. As the game title appears, a whispering voice is heard saying, "What have you done?" During the 2010 Tokyo Game Show, new assets, including a second trailer, were released. Alice is seen strolling through a London street, and eventually approaches an area littered with toys and a toy store window, which contains a set depicting the Mad Hatter, the Dormouse and the March Hare taking tea. Suddenly, she sees an image of her deceased parents in the window's reflection but turns around to find no one there. The window begins to burn and the silhouette of the Queen of Hearts appears before it explodes in flames, and the Queen's tentacles drag Alice into the inferno. Like the previous trailer, it ends with a voice saying "What have you done?"


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: On February 14, 2011, MSNBC's "In-Game" website unveiled the third teaser trailer as well as a brief interview with American McGee regarding the game. The third teaser depicts Alice wandering around an initially beautiful Wonderland, eventually coming across the Caterpillar, who transforms into a giant, menacing butterfly as the landscape is attacked by fiery phoenixes and turned into a nightmarish world reminiscent of the original game's landscapes. Alice finds herself sitting at a tea party with the Mad Hatter, March Hare and Dormouse. The Hatter sends a robotic teapot to kill Alice, who in turns stabs it to death in the eye with the Vorpal Blade. Then, a voice asks "What have you done?" A fourth trailer, showing gameplay footage for the first time was released on March 4, 2011. The trailer featured possible gameplay in Victorian London, new costumes and weapons for Alice, the reprised roles of some of the voice cast from the first game, and the appearance of old and new characters including a resurrected Jabberwock and the Dodo; after the trailer the Cheshire Cat says "Now it's time to put your blade to work". The player can also hear Alice's Vorpal Blade being equipped as the title card comes up.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: "GameSpot" released footage of a gameplay demo whilst interviewing an EA executive producer Joel Wade in April. In the video, numerous details about the game were revealed. Wade explained storywise after Alice left Rutledge Asylum, she is an orphan and now lives in an orphanage, and the home's director is helping her. Gameplay showed Alice can unlock and use several weapons, which can be upgraded by collecting teeth throughout the game. Weapons including the Vorpal Blade, the Pepper Grinder which acts as a projectile machine gun-like weapon, the Clockwork Bomb, the club-like Hobby Horse, and the explosive Teapot Cannon. Alice also collects "memories" that are part of her quest to recall forgotten memories from her past. Enemies are described as having "puzzle elements", namely their weak point which the player must figure out to defeat them. On May 20, 2011, a prequel to "Madness Returns", titled "Alice: Madness Returns Interactive Story", was released as an app exclusively for iOS. A port for Android phones was developed. The app plays like a book that requires you to interact with illustrations and at many times allows you to play mini-games. The story covers the events even before the original game all the way to the events directly before "Alice: Madness Returns". On June 3, 2011, a final launch trailer was released. This showed some bosses, Alice fighting enemies, the Cheshire Cat giving Alice hints, and more. At the time of release, "Madness Returns" had a final development budget of $9 million. In 2013, American McGee admitted that he wished he had had more time to polish the game by compressing the action, removing a lot of the "filler" content and fixing some of the annoying bugs.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 74% based on 15 reviews and 75/100 based on 29 reviews, the Xbox 360 version 73% based on 49 reviews and 70/100 based on 67 reviews, and the PlayStation 3 version 71% based on 35 reviews and 70/100 based on 52 reviews.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: "GamesRadar+" included it in their list of the 100 most overlooked games of its generation. Editor Jason Fanelli felt that it was a worthy sequel yet also felt that players would have to overlook problems to enjoy its qualities.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: American McGee has stated that he had envisioned the "Alice" series as a trilogy. In May 2011, McGee reported that a story had already been created for a potential third game, but stressed that it would only be produced if the audience desired it. In June 2012, McGee reiterated his intention to develop a third game, titled "Alice in Otherland". McGee revealed that the game would be released episodically, and stated that it "would allow Alice to go into the minds of all these characters she encounters, and it opens up the possibility where you could play as Alice and you can enter into a player's mind, change the landscape, and then basically psychologically adjust the character in doing so. Imagine an MMO where the missions aren't locations, but they're people." However, he said that the game was unlikely to be produced soon due to a lack of interest from Electronic Arts.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: On March 14, 2013, McGee posted on his Facebook page that he would have the opportunity to discuss a third "Alice" game with EA during the Game Developers Conference. He did not specify whether or not this would follow the desired plot of "Alice in Otherland", but claimed that the funding for the project would most possibly be done through Kickstarter. On July 15, 2013, McGee announced that a campaign for the production has begun on Kickstarter to help fund the project, titled "Alice: Otherlands", a series of animated film shorts. To help promote the campaign, McGee released a video on his personal YouTube and Vimeo accounts, explaining the concept of "Alice: Otherlands" and how the funds will affect the production of the film. The video can also be viewed on its Kickstarter website.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: "Alice: Otherlands" successfully reached its Kickstarter goal on August 4. On August 21, McGee confirmed that the campaign has achieved its "stretch goal" to secure Susie Brann's (Alice's voice actress) and Roger L. Jackson's (the Cheshire Cat's voice actor) involvement on the project with an extra $50,000. To award the backers who donated to the project, McGee gave special merchandises, such as autographed posters, digital copies of the DVD and art book to those who donated $500 or more. Additionally, all backers had their names added to the credits of the film. Due to legal constraints, DVDs and Blu-rays were available for backers only, while the short films were distributed digitally for the public for free on various digital formats. An art book titled "The Art of Alice: Otherlands" was developed by artist Alex "AlexCee" Crowley. Originally, "Alice: Otherlands" was set to be released sometime in December 2014, but has been pushed back due to production delays. On October 30, 2015, the digital assets for "Alice: Otherlands" were released on various streaming platforms, such as YouTube and Vimeo, and are available for download on the official site.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: According to McGee, Alice, now 20 years old, will enter the minds of two famous historical figures, Richard Wagner and Jules Verne, and discover the horrors of the human subconscious. Alice will learn of an "insidious evil lurking in every corner of Victorian London" with the intent of capturing its inhabitants in a nightmarish "prison of the mind". The two film shorts vary in length, have their own unique animation style, and a different soundtrack composed by Chris Vrenna and Walter Sickert and the Army of Broken Toys. In several interviews, McGee expressed his desire to make "Alice: Otherlands" into a video game as originally planned, but stated that will depend entirely on the overall success of the animated shorts. He also stated that EA has recently started to show more interest in making an "Alice" sequel again, but it all depends on the success of "Alice: Otherlands" and Spicy Horse games.


title: Alice: Madness Returns

text: On September 3, 2017, American McGee announced on his blog that he is working on a license proposal for the third installment of the "Alice" franchise, tentatively titled "Alice: Asylum". McGee explains that his license proposal will consist of "artwork, design outline, and financial/business model" which has been sent to EA in July 2018. He encourages fans to sign up for the mailing list for the project to show their support and lend financial support for the pre-production through his Patreon.


title: DiGeorge syndrome

text: DiGeorge syndrome, also known as 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, is a syndrome caused by a microdeletion on the long arm of chromosome 22. While the symptoms can vary, they often include congenital heart problems, specific facial features, frequent infections, developmental delay, learning problems and cleft palate. Associated conditions include kidney problems, schizophrenia, hearing loss and autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or Graves' disease.


title: DiGeorge syndrome

text: DiGeorge syndrome is typically due to the deletion of 30 to 40 genes in the middle of chromosome 22 at a location known as "22q11.2". About 90% of cases occur due to a new mutation during early development, while 10% are inherited from a person's parents. It is autosomal dominant, meaning that only one affected chromosome is needed for the condition to occur. Diagnosis is suspected based on the symptoms and confirmed by genetic testing.


title: DiGeorge syndrome

text: Although there is no cure, treatment can improve symptoms. This often includes a multidisciplinary approach with efforts to improve the function of the potentially many organ systems involved. Long-term outcomes depend on the symptoms present and the severity of the heart and immune system problems. With treatment, life expectancy may be normal.


title: DiGeorge syndrome

text: DiGeorge syndrome occurs in about 1 in 4,000 people. The syndrome was first described in 1968 by American physician Angelo DiGeorge. In late 1981, the underlying genetics were determined.