title: Lumen Technologies

text: CenturyLink Small Business provides products and services around Internet, Phone, TV, and Cloud Applications. Like CenturyLink Residential, CenturyLink Small Business offers DirecTV, but the residential and business packages are designed for the different settings.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: CenturyLink Residential provides Internet (either DSL or Gigabit Fiber, depending on the package), voice, and TV, via partnership with DirecTV. The company also offers bundling with Verizon Wireless.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: "Quantum Fiber" is a fiber to the premises service in the United States, providing broadband Internet to a small and very slowly growing number of locations. The service was first introduced to Omaha, Nebraska, and next rolled out to Las Vegas, Nevada, with plans for expansion to several other markets. Unlike the company's existing high speed Internet deployments, which utilize fiber-to the node/neighborhood to increase the speed of ADSL2+ speeds up to 20/2 Mbit/s, Vectored VDSL2+ speeds up to 140/10Mbit/s, in these markets CenturyLink now installs their fiber optic cable all the way to the home or business with speeds up to 1,000 Mbit/s download and 1,000 Mbit/s upload using Calix Optical Network Terminals. On February 2, 2014, CenturyLink announced the availability of Gigabit fiber service to multi-tenant businesses in Salt Lake City and surrounding communities. On August 5, 2014, CenturyLink announced the expansion of its gigabit fiber service to 16 additional markets. On September 15, 2015, CenturyLink announced the expansion of its gigabit fiber service to residential and business customers in six additional states, increasing the company's service coverage to select areas of 17 states.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: Lumen maintains and operates dark fiber within the United States for the Department of Defense, contracting announcements indicate. This is a continuation of CenturyLink's work.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: On May 2, 2017, CenturyLink, Inc. completed the previously announced sale of its data centers and colocation business to funds advised by BC Partners, in a consortium including Medina Capital Advisors and Longview Asset Management. The deal was worth approximately $1.86 billion, with CenturyLink retaining an approximately 10% equity stake in the consortium's newly formed global secure infrastructure company, Cyxtera Technologies.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: As of 2018, CenturyLink is the second largest U.S. communications provider to global enterprise customers, second to Comcast. CenturyLink has customers in more than 60 countries and has been named one of America's best customer service companies (alongside Frontier and Spectrum).


title: Lumen Technologies

text: The Federal Communications Commission ordered CenturyLink to pay a record $16 million for failing to alert authorities of a preventable programming error that left nearly 11 million people in seven states without access to emergency services for six hours in 2014.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: In December 2018, CenturyLink faced criticism for requiring residential customers in Utah to, via DNS hijacking, view and acknowledge a notice advertising its security and parental control software, before they could connect to the internet again. The provider claimed that this was required by a recently enacted state law, which requires all ISPs to inform users that they provide "the ability to block material harmful to minors". Bill sponsor and Utah State Senate member Todd Weiler stated that the law did not require that service be disrupted until the notice is acknowledged; the law only requires that this notice be delivered in a "conspicuous" manner (such as an advertisement within a bill or invoice) and does not require disruption of service.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: On December 27, 2018, a “nationwide outage” caused 9-1-1 service to be disrupted across the country. The Federal Communications Commission says it will investigate. In some areas the outage lasted nearly twelve hours and was the third shutdown of the year following outages in April and November 2018. ATM and point of sale credit card machines were also widely affected.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: On January 8, 2020, CenturyLink was required to pay $8.9 million to customers in Minnesota in a settlement regarding over-billing. In addition to the payment, CenturyLink is required to reform billing practices and submit audits to the Minnesota Attorney General's office. According to reports, CenturyLink disagreed with the charges, but settled to avoid litigation costs.


title: Lumen Technologies

text: On August 30, 2020, CenturyLink suffered a major technical outage due to misconfiguration in one of the company's data centers. The outage impacted tech giants such as Cloudflare, Amazon, Twitter, Xbox Live and many more. Reports indicate that all services were restored by 11:12 am ET.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Thomas Robert Malthus (; 13/14 February 1766 – 29 December 1834) was an English cleric, scholar and influential economist in the fields of political economy and demography.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In his 1798 book "An Essay on the Principle of Population", Malthus observed that an increase in a nation's food production improved the well-being of the population, but the improvement was temporary because it led to population growth, which in turn restored the original per capita production level. In other words, humans had a propensity to utilize abundance for population growth rather than for maintaining a high standard of living, a view that has become known as the "Malthusian trap" or the "Malthusian spectre". Populations had a tendency to grow until the lower class suffered hardship, want and greater susceptibility to war famine and disease, a pessimistic view that is sometimes referred to as a Malthusian catastrophe. Malthus wrote in opposition to the popular view in 18th-century Europe that saw society as improving and in principle as perfectible.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus saw population growth as inevitable whenever conditions improved, thereby precluding real progress towards a utopian society: "The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man." As an Anglican cleric, he saw this situation as divinely imposed to teach virtuous behavior. Malthus wrote that "the increase of population is necessarily limited by subsistence," "population does invariably increase when the means of subsistence increase," and "the superior power of population repress by moral restraint, vice, and misery."


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus criticized the Poor Laws for leading to inflation rather than improving the well-being of the poor. He supported taxes on grain imports (the Corn Laws). His views became influential and controversial across economic, political, social and scientific thought. Pioneers of evolutionary biology read him, notably Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Malthus's failure to predict the Industrial Revolution was a frequent criticism of his theories.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus laid the "...theoretical foundation of the conventional wisdom that has dominated the debate, both scientifically and ideologically, on global hunger and famines for almost two centuries." He remains a much-debated writer.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Thomas Robert Malthus was the sixth of seven children of Daniel Malthus and Henrietta Catherine, daughter of Daniel Graham, apothecary to kings George II and George III, and granddaughter of Thomas Graham, apothecary to kings George I and George II. Henrietta was depicted alongside her siblings in William Hogarth's painting, "The Graham Children" (1742). Malthus was born at The Rookery, a "small elegant mansion" at Westcott, near Dorking in Surrey, which his father had bought- at that time called Chert-gate farm- and converted into "a gentleman's seat"; the family sold it in 1768 and moved to "a less extensive establishment at Albury, not far from Guildford". Malthus had a cleft lip and palate which affected his speech; such birth defects had occurred in previous generations of his family. His friend, the social theorist Harriet Martineau, who was hard of hearing, nevertheless stated that due to his sonorous voice he was the only person she could hear well without her ear trumpet. William Petersen and John Maynard Keynes describe Daniel Malthus as "a gentleman of good family and independent means [...] [and] a friend of David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau". Daniel Malthus was son of Sydenham Malthus, who was a clerk of Chancery and director of the South Sea Company; he was also "proprietor of several landed properties in the Home Counties and Cambridgeshire". Sydenham Malthus's father, Daniel, had been apothecary to King William and later to Queen Anne; Daniel's father, Rev. Robert Malthus, was appointed vicar of Northolt, Middlesex (now West London) under the regicide Cromwell, but "evicted at the Restoration"; he was described as "an ancient divine, a man of strong reason, and mighty in the Scriptures, of great eloquence and fervour, though defective in elocution", due to "a very great impediment in his utterance" which has been concluded to be likely to have been a cleft palate. The young Malthus received his education at the Warrington Academy from 1782, where he was taught by Gilbert Wakefield. Warrington was a dissenting academy, which closed in 1783. Malthus continued for a period to be tutored by Wakefield at the latter's home in Bramcote, Nottinghamshire.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus entered Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1784. While there, he took prizes in English declamation, Latin and Greek, and graduated with honours, Ninth Wrangler in mathematics. His tutor was William Frend. He took the MA degree in 1791, and was elected a Fellow of Jesus College two years later. In 1789, he took orders in the Church of England, and became a curate at Oakwood Chapel (also Okewood) in the parish of Wotton, Surrey.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus came to prominence for his 1798 publication, "An Essay on the Principle of Population". He wrote the original text in reaction to the optimism of his father and his father's associates (notably Jean-Jacques Rousseau) regarding the future improvement of society. He also constructed his case as a specific response to writings of William Godwin (1756–1836) and of the Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794). His assertions evoked questions and criticism, and between 1798 and 1826 he published six more versions of "An Essay on the Principle of Population", updating each edition to incorporate new material, to address criticism, and to convey changes in his own perspectives on the subject.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: The Malthusian controversy to which the "Essay" gave rise in the decades following its publication tended to focus attention on the birth rate and marriage rates. The neo-Malthusian controversy, comprising related debates of many years later, has seen a similar central role assigned to the numbers of children born.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: The goal of Malthusian theory is to explain how population and food production expand, with the latter experiencing arithmetic growth and the former experiencing exponential growth.[1] The key focus here, however, is the relevance of Malthusian theory in the present world. This hypothesis is inapplicable in a number of ways. First, the hypothesis is rendered irrelevant.[2] due to a disregard for technological advancement. This is because food production has increased as a result of technological advancements such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs)[3] Second, the mathematical model employed to formulate the hypothesis is incorrect since it was constrained to England's specific situation.[4]. Other findings, such as food production exceeding population increase, may be borne out if the modeling could employ wide locations like Australia[5]. The Malthusian hypothesis is also limited by social change about family size[6], as individuals will always prefer a manageable family owing to economic restrictions.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Food production can also outpace population expansion, thanks to the industrial revolution[7]. Another limitation of this theory is the belief that overall income is a key factor of population health[8], implying that wealthy countries will have various solutions for their rapidly rising populations[9]. The Malthusian theory is also irrelevant because an expanding population can be seen as an increase in available human capacity for boosting food production[10]. The static aspect of the Malthusian hypothesis, which is based on the rule of decreasing returns[11]. limits its applicability. Finally, Malthusian Theory's failure to determine whether birth rates match death rates hampered its application[12]because it was possible that the population was not rising as fast as food production due to the presence of deaths.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In 1799, Malthus made a European tour with William Otter, a close college friend, travelling part of the way with Edward Daniel Clarke and John Marten Cripps, visiting Germany, Scandinavia and Russia. Malthus used the trip to gather population data. Otter later wrote a "Memoir" of Malthus for the second (1836) edition of his "Principles of Political Economy". During the Peace of Amiens of 1802 he travelled to France and Switzerland, in a party that included his relation and future wife Harriet.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In 1805, Malthus became Professor of History and Political Economy at the East India Company College in Hertfordshire. His students affectionately referred to him as "Pop", "Population", or "web-toe" Malthus.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Near the end of 1817, the proposed appointment of Graves Champney Haughton to the college was made a pretext by Randle Jackson and Joseph Hume to launch an attempt to close it down. Malthus wrote a pamphlet defending the college, which was reprieved by the East India Company within the same year, 1817.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: During the 1820s, there took place a setpiece intellectual discussion among the exponents of political economy, often called the Malthus–Ricardo debate after its leading figures, Malthus and theorist of free trade David Ricardo, both of whom had written books with the title "Principles of Political Economy". Under examination were the nature and methods of political economy itself, while it was simultaneously under attack from others. The roots of the debate were in the previous decade. In "The Nature of Rent" (1815), Malthus had dealt with economic rent, a major concept in classical economics. Ricardo defined a theory of rent in his "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817): he regarded rent as value in excess of real production—something caused by ownership rather than by free trade. Rent therefore represented a kind of negative money that landlords could pull out of the production of the land, by means of its scarcity. Contrary to this concept, Malthus proposed rent to be a kind of economic surplus.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: The debate developed over the economic concept of a general glut, and the possibility of failure of Say's Law. Malthus laid importance on economic development and the persistence of disequilibrium. The context was the post-war depression; Malthus had a supporter in William Blake, in denying that capital accumulation (saving) was always good in such circumstances, and John Stuart Mill attacked Blake on the fringes of the debate.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Ricardo corresponded with Malthus from 1817 about his "Principles". He was drawn into considering political economy in a less restricted sense, which might be adapted to legislation and its multiple objectives, by the thought of Malthus. In "Principles of Political Economy" (1820) and elsewhere, Malthus addressed the tension, amounting to conflict he saw between a narrow view of political economy and the broader moral and political plane. Leslie Stephen wrote:


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: If Malthus and Ricardo differed, it was a difference of men who accepted the same first principles. They both professed to interpret Adam Smith as the true prophet, and represented different shades of opinion rather than diverging sects.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: It is now considered that the different purposes seen by Malthus and Ricardo for political economy affected their technical discussion, and contributed to the lack of compatible definitions. For example, Jean-Baptiste Say used a definition of production based on goods and services and so queried the restriction of Malthus to "goods" alone.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In terms of public policy, Malthus was a supporter of the protectionist Corn Laws from the end of the Napoleonic Wars. He emerged as the only economist of note to support duties on imported grain. By encouraging domestic production, Malthus argued, the Corn Laws would guarantee British self-sufficiency in food.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus was a founding member in 1821 of the Political Economy Club, where John Cazenove tended to be his ally against Ricardo and Mill. He was elected in the beginning of 1824 as one of the ten royal associates of the Royal Society of Literature. He was also one of the first fellows of the Statistical Society, founded in March 1834. In 1827 he gave evidence to a committee of the House of Commons on emigration.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In 1827, he published "Definitions in Political Economy" The first chapter put forth "Rules for the Definition and Application of Terms in Political Economy". In chapter 10, the penultimate chapter, he presented 60 numbered paragraphs putting forth terms and their definitions that he proposed should be used in discussing political economy following those rules. This collection of terms and definitions is remarkable for two reasons: first, Malthus was the first economist to explicitly organize, define, and publish his terms as a coherent glossary of defined terms; and second, his definitions were for the most part well-formed definitional statements. Between these chapters, he criticized several contemporary economists—Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, James Mill, John Ramsay McCulloch, and Samuel Bailey—for sloppiness in choosing, attaching meaning to, and using their technical terms.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: McCulloch was the editor of "The Scotsman" of Edinburgh and replied cuttingly in a review printed on the front page of his newspaper in March 1827. He implied that Malthus wanted to dictate terms and theories to other economists. McCulloch clearly felt his ox gored, and his review of "Definitions" is largely a bitter defence of his own "Principles of Political Economy", and his counter-attack "does little credit to his reputation", being largely "personal derogation" of Malthus. The purpose of Malthus's "Definitions" was terminological clarity, and Malthus discussed appropriate terms, their definitions, and their use by himself and his contemporaries. This motivation of Malthus's work was disregarded by McCulloch, who responded that there was nothing to be gained "by carping at definitions, and quibbling about the meaning to be attached to" words. Given that statement, it is not surprising that McCulloch's review failed to address the rules of chapter 1 and did not discuss the definitions of chapter 10; he also barely mentioned Malthus's critiques of other writers.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In spite of this and in the wake of McCulloch's scathing review, the reputation of Malthus as economist dropped away for the rest of his life. On the other hand, Malthus did have supporters, including Thomas Chalmers, some of the Oriel Noetics, Richard Jones and William Whewell from Cambridge.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus died suddenly of heart disease on 23 December 1834 at his father-in-law's house. He was buried in Bath Abbey. His portrait, and descriptions by contemporaries, present him as tall and good-looking, but with a cleft lip and palate.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: On 13 March 1804, Malthus married Harriet, daughter of John Eckersall of Claverton House, near Bath. They had a son and two daughters. His first born Henry became vicar of Effingham, Surrey in 1835 and of Donnington, Sussex in 1837; he married Sofia Otter (1807–1889), daughter of Bishop William Otter and died in August 1882, aged 76. His middle child Emily died in 1885, outliving her parents and siblings. The youngest Lucille died unmarried and childless in 1825, months before her 18th birthday.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus argued in his "Essay" (1798) that population growth generally expanded in times and in regions of plenty until the size of the population relative to the primary resources caused distress:


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus argued that two types of checks hold population within resource limits: "positive" checks, which raise the death rate; and "preventive" ones, which lower the birth rate. The positive checks include hunger, disease and war; the preventive checks: birth control, postponement of marriage and celibacy.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted population patterns; it also appears to describe socio-demographic dynamics of complex pre-industrial societies. These findings are the basis for neo-Malthusian modern mathematical models of "long-term historical dynamics".


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus wrote that in a period of resource abundance, a population could double in 25 years. However, the margin of abundance could not be sustained as population grew, leading to checks on population growth:


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In later editions of his essay, Malthus clarified his view that if society relied on human misery to limit population growth, then sources of misery ("e.g.", hunger, disease, and war) would inevitably afflict society, as would volatile economic cycles. On the other hand, "preventive checks" to population that limited birthrates, such as later marriages, could ensure a higher standard of living for all, while also increasing economic stability. Regarding possibilities for freeing man from these limits, Malthus argued against a variety of imaginable solutions, such as the notion that agricultural improvements could expand without limit.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Of the relationship between population and economics, Malthus wrote that when the population of laborers grows faster than the production of food, real wages fall because the growing population causes the cost of living ("i.e.", the cost of food) to go up. Difficulties of raising a family eventually reduce the rate of population growth, until the falling population again leads to higher real wages.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In the second and subsequent editions Malthus put more emphasis on "moral restraint" as the best means of easing the poverty of the lower classes."


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In this work, his first published pamphlet, Malthus argues against the notion prevailing in his locale that the greed of intermediaries caused the high price of provisions. Instead, Malthus says that the high price stems from the Poor Laws, which "increase the parish allowances in proportion to the price of corn." Thus, given a limited supply, the Poor Laws force up the price of daily necessities. However, he concludes by saying that in time of scarcity such Poor Laws, by raising the price of corn more evenly, actually produce a "beneficial" effect.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Although government in Britain had regulated the prices of grain, the Corn Laws originated in 1815. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars that year, Parliament passed legislation banning the importation of foreign corn into Britain until domestic corn cost 80 shillings per quarter. The high price caused the cost of food to increase and caused distress among the working classes in the towns. It led to serious rioting in London and to the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester in 1819.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: In this pamphlet, printed during the parliamentary discussion, Malthus tentatively supported the free-traders. He argued that given the increasing cost of growing British corn, advantages accrued from supplementing it from cheaper foreign sources.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: (A second edition was posthumously published in 1836.) Malthus intended this work to rival Ricardo's "Principles" (1817). It, and his 1827 "Definitions in political economy", defended Sismondi's views on "general glut" rather than Say's Law, which in effect states "there can be no general glut".


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Malthus developed the theory of demand-supply mismatches that he called gluts. Discounted at the time, this theory foreshadowed later work by an admirer, John Maynard Keynes.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: The vast bulk of continuing commentary on Malthus, however, extends and expands on the "Malthusian controversy" of the early 19th century. In Ireland where (writing to Ricardo in 1817) Malthus proposed that "to give full effect to the natural resources of the country a great part of the population should be swept from the soil", a comparatively early contribution was "Observations on the population and resources of Ireland" (1821) by the polymath and physician Whitely Stokes. Finding fault in Malthus's calculations and juxtapositions--"the possible increase of man in America" measured against "the probable increase in [food] production in Great Britain"—and insisting upon the advantages mankind derives from "improved industry, improved conveyance, improvements in morals, government and religion", Stokes argued that Ireland's difficulty lay not in her "numbers", but in indifferent government.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Sacred to the memory of the Rev THOMAS ROBERT MALTHUS, long known to the lettered world by his admirable writings on the social branches of political economy, particularly by his essay on population.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: One of the best men and truest philosophers of any age or country, raised by native dignity of mind above the misrepresentations of the ignorant and the neglect of the great, he lived a serene and happy life devoted to the pursuit and communication of truth, supported by a calm but firm conviction of the usefulness of his labors, content with the approbation of the wise and good.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: The spotless integrity of his principles, the equity and candour of his nature, his sweetness of temper, urbanity of manners and tenderness of heart, his benevolence and his piety are the still dearer recollections of his family and friends.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [1] Walter, R. (2020). Malthus's principle of population in Britain: restatement and antiquation. In Malthus Across Nations. Edward Elgar Publishing.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [2] Brooks, J. (2021). Settler Colonialism, Primitive Accumulation, and Biopolitics in Xinjiang, China. Primitive Accumulation, and Biopolitics in Xinjiang, China (September 4, 2021).


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [3] Mokyr, J. (2018). The past and the future of innovation: Some lessons from economic history. Explorations in Economic History, 69, 13-26.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [6] Malthus, T. R., Winch, D., & James, P. (1992). Malthus: 'An Essay on the Principle of Population'. Cambridge University Press.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [7] Kallis, G. (2019). Limits: Why Malthus was wrong and why environmentalists should care. Stanford University Press.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [8] Cremaschi, S. (2014). Utilitarianism and Malthus's Virtue Ethics: Respectable, virtuous and happy. Routledge.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [9] Chiarini, B., Malanima, P., & Piga, G. (Eds.). (2012). From Malthus' stagnation to sustained growth: social, demographic and economic factors. Palgrave Macmillan.


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [10] The Economist. (2008). Malthus, the false prophet. Retrieved 10 April 2022, from https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2008/05/15/malthus-the-false-prophet


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [11] Patel, R. (2015). 'The End of Plenty,' by Joel K. Bourne Jr. (Published 2015). Retrieved 10 April 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/books/review/the-end-of-plenty-by-joel-k-bourne-jr.html


title: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: [12] Shermer, M. (2016). Why Malthus Is Still Wrong. Why Malthus makes for bad science policy. Retrieved 10 April 2022, from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-malthus-is-still-wrong/


title: Miami University

text: Miami University (informally Miami of Ohio or simply Miami) is a public research university in Oxford, Ohio. The university was founded in 1809, making it the second-oldest university in Ohio (behind Ohio University, founded in 1804) and the 10th oldest public university (32nd overall) in the United States. The school's system comprises the main campus in Oxford, as well as regional campuses in nearby Hamilton, Middletown, and West Chester. Miami also maintains an international boarding campus, the Dolibois European Center in Differdange, Luxembourg. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".


title: Miami University

text: Miami University provides a liberal arts education; it offers more than 120 undergraduate degree programs and over 60 graduate degree programs within its 8 schools and colleges in architecture, business, engineering, humanities and the sciences. In its 2021 edition, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked the university 103rd among universities in the United States, as well as 46th nationally among public universities. Miami University is also ranked as having the 25th-best undergraduate teaching nationally. Miami was one of the original eight Public Ivy schools, a group of publicly funded universities considered as providing a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League.


title: Miami University

text: Miami University has a long tradition of Greek life; five social Greek-letter organizations were founded at the university earning Miami the nickname "Mother of Fraternities". Today, Miami University hosts over 50 fraternity and sorority chapters, and approximately one-third of the undergraduate student population are members of the Greek community. "Forbes" ranked the city of Oxford first on its 2016 list of the best college towns in the United States.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's athletic teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and are collectively known as the Miami RedHawks. They compete in the Mid-American Conference in all varsity sports except ice hockey, which competes in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference.


title: Miami University

text: The foundations for Miami University were first laid by signed by President George Washington, stating an academy should be Northwest of the Ohio River in the Miami Valley. The land was within the Symmes Purchase; Judge John Cleves Symmes, the land's owner, purchased it from the government with the stipulation that he set aside land for an academy. Congress granted one township to be in the District of Cincinnati to the Ohio General Assembly for the purposes of building a college, two days after Ohio was granted statehood in 1803; if no suitable location could be provided in the Symmes Purchase, Congress pledged to give federal lands to the legislature after a five-year period. The Ohio Legislature appointed three surveyors in August of the same year to search for a suitable township, and they selected a township off of Four Mile Creek. The Legislature passed "An Act to Establish the Miami University" on February 2, 1809, and the state created a board of trustees; this is cited as the founding of Miami University. The township originally granted to the university was known as the "College Township," and was renamed Oxford, Ohio, in 1810.


title: Miami University

text: The university temporarily halted construction due to the War of 1812. Cincinnati tried—and failed—to move Miami to the city in 1822 and to divert its income to a Cincinnati college. Miami created a grammar school in 1818 to teach frontier youth, but it was disbanded after five years. Robert Hamilton Bishop, a Presbyterian minister and professor of history, was appointed to be the first President of Miami University in 1824. The first day of classes at Miami was on November 1, 1824. At its opening, there were 20 students and two faculty members in addition to Bishop. The curriculum included Greek, Latin, Algebra, Geography, and Roman history; the university offered only a Bachelor of Arts. An "English Scientific Department" was started in 1825, which studied modern languages, applied mathematics, and political economy as training for more practical professions. It offered a certificate upon completion of coursework, not a diploma.


title: Miami University

text: Miami students purchased a printing press, and in 1827 published their first periodical, "The Literary Focus". It promptly failed, but it laid the foundation for the weekly "Literary Register". The "Miami Student", founded in 1867, traces its foundation back to the "Literary Register" and claims to be the oldest college newspaper in the United States. A theological department and a farmer's college were formed in 1829; the farmer's college was not an agricultural school, but a three-year education program for farm boys. William Holmes McGuffey joined the faculty in 1826, and began his work on the "McGuffey Readers" while in Oxford. By 1834 the faculty had grown to seven professors and enrollment was at 234 students. Eleven students were expelled in 1835, including one for firing a pistol at another student. McGuffey resigned and became the President of the Cincinnati College, where he urged parents not to send their children to Miami.


title: Miami University

text: Alpha Delta Phi opened its chapter at Miami in 1833, making it the first fraternity chapter West of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1839, Beta Theta Pi was created; it was the first fraternity formed at Miami.


title: Miami University

text: In 1839 Old Miami reached its enrollment peak, with 250 students from 13 states; only Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth were larger. President Bishop resigned in 1840 due to escalating problems in the university, although he remained as a professor through 1844. He was replaced as president by George Junkin, former President of Lafayette College; Junkin resigned in 1844, having proved to be unpopular with students. By 1847, enrollment had fallen to 137 students.


title: Miami University

text: Students in 1848 participated in the "Snowball Rebellion". Defying the faculty's stance against fraternities, students packed Old Main, one of Miami's main classrooms and administrative buildings, with snow and reinforced the snow with chairs, benches and desks from the classroom. Those who had participated in the rebellion were expelled from the school and Miami's student population was more than halved. By 1873, enrollment fell further to 87 students. The board of trustees closed the school in 1873, and leased the campus for a grammar school. The period before its closing is referred to as "Old Miami."


title: Miami University

text: The university reopened in 1885, having paid all of its debts and repaired many of its buildings; there were 40 students in its first year. Enrollment remained under 100 students throughout the 1800s. Miami focused on aspects outside of the classics, including botany, physics, and geology departments. In 1888, Miami began inter-collegiate football play in a game against the University of Cincinnati. By the early 1900s, the state of Ohio pledged regular financial support for Miami University. Enrollment reached 207 students in 1902. The Ohio General Assembly passed the Sesse Bill in 1902, which mandated coeducation for all Ohio public schools. Miami lacked the rooms to fit all of the students expected the next year, and Miami made an arrangement with Oxford College, a women's college in the town, to rent rooms.


title: Miami University

text: In 1902, the Ohio legislature also authorized the establishment of the Ohio State Normal School "to provide proper theoretical and practical training for all students desiring to prepare themselves for the work of teaching." The normal school was Miami's first professional college and would evolve into the College of Education, Health, and Society. Miami's first African-American student, Nelly Craig, graduated from the Ohio State Normal School in 1905. Hepburn Hall, built in 1905, was the first women's dorm at the college. By 1907, the enrollment at the university passed 700 students and women made up about a third of the student body. Andrew Carnegie pledged $40,000 to help build a new library for the university. The McGuffey Laboratory School opened in 1910 and was soon housed with the teacher preparation students in the new McGuffey Hall, completed in 1917. McGuffey Hall was named to honor William Holmes McGuffey, author of the McGuffey Readers textbook series.


title: Miami University

text: Enrollment in 1923 was at 1,500 students. In 1928, Miami founded the School of Business Administration and acquired the Oxford College for Women. The next year, the School of Fine Arts was established. By the early 1930s, enrollment had reached 2,200 students. The conservative environment found on campus called for little change during the problems of the Great Depression, and only about 10 percent of students in the 1930s were on government subsidies. During World War II, Miami changed its curriculum to include "war emergency courses" and a Navy Training School took up residence on campus. During wartime in 1943, the population of the university became majority women. Due to the G.I. Bill, tuition for veterans decreased; the enrollment at Miami jumped from 2,200 to 4,100 students. Temporary lodges were constructed to accommodate the number of students. By 1952, the student body had grown to 5,000.


title: Miami University

text: In 1954, Miami created a common curriculum for all students to complete to have a base for their other subjects. By 1964, enrollment reached nearly 15,000. To accommodate the growing number of students, Miami University opened its first regional campuses at Middletown, Ohio, in 1966 and Hamilton, Ohio, in 1968. Miami founded the Dolibois European Center in Luxembourg in 1968, which would move to Differdange Castle in 1997; it is home to a study abroad program where students live with Luxembourgish host families and study under Miami professors. Miami experimented with a trimester plan in 1965, but it ultimately failed and the university reverted to a quarter system. On April 15, 1970, a student sit-in at Rowan Hall, home of Miami's Naval ROTC program, in opposition to the Vietnam War resulted in 176 students being arrested. Edgar W. King Library was completed in 1972. In 1974, the Western College for Women in Oxford was sold to Miami, and President Phillip Shriver oversaw the creation of an interdisciplinary studies college known as the Western College Program. The program was merged into the College of Arts & Science in 2007.


title: Miami University

text: Responding to the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma, trustees changed the athletic teams nickname from the "Redskins" to the "RedHawks" in 1997. The School of Engineering and Applied Science (later College of Engineering and Computing) was created from the former School of Applied Science in 2003. The Farmer School of Business building was completed on the East Quad in 2009. The newest regional campus, the Miami University Voice of America Learning Center also opened in 2009 in West Chester. In 2014, the Armstrong Student Center was completed to replace the Shriver Center, which was repurposed. All campuses were closed in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, reopening partially that fall. Also in 2020, Miami began revitalizing its research programs and academic offerings as part of the MiamiRISE plan. This included the establishment of the Honors College in 2021.


title: Miami University

text: Miami University's main campus is in Oxford, Ohio; the city is in the Miami Valley in southwestern Ohio, about 30 miles (48 km) from Cincinnati and 34 miles (55 km) from Dayton. Development of the campus began in 1818 with a multipurpose building called Franklin Hall; Elliott Hall, built in 1825, is Miami's oldest standing building and residence hall. Miami is renowned for its campus beauty, having been called "The most beautiful campus that ever there was" by Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Robert Frost, a friend of then Miami artist-in-residence Percy MacKaye, a poet. Miami has added campus buildings, such as the Farmer School of Business building, in the style characteristic of Georgian Revival architecture, with all buildings built three stories or less, or "to human scale". Today, the area of Miami's Oxford campus consists of 2,138 acres (8 km).


title: Miami University

text: Oxford, Ohio is a college town, with over 70.0% of the residents attending college or graduate school. "Forbes" ranked the city of Oxford first on its 2016 list of the best college towns in the United States. All first and second year students are required to live on campus and all dorms are three stories with basement levels. Miami University's dining options includes about 30 dining destinations on campus, including the Bell Tower Commons, Garden Commons, MapleStreet Station, Martin Commons and Western Commons dining halls, each with multiple dining options. Miami's dining services have won 52 awards since 2004. Miami University also has a Recreational Sports Center. The center has three basketball courts, an Olympic-sized pool and diving well, outdoor pursuit center, rock-climbing center, fitness room, large exercise classrooms and a weight room.


title: Miami University

text: There are four museums on campus, including the Miami University Art Museum, William Holmes McGuffey Museum, and the Karl Limper Geology Museum. The Hefner Museum of Natural History, in Upham Hall, features displays of many hoofed animals and other animal mounts, shells, corals and sponges, skeletons and fossils.


title: Miami University

text: The original portion of campus starts at the intersection of South Campus Avenue and East High Street, where the Phi Delta Theta Gates lead into the slant walk path. In this area are the oldest academic buildings, including Hall Auditorium (Philosophy) and McGuffey Hall (Education, Family Science, Social Work), built in 1909, and Alumni Hall (Architecture), built in 1910. King Library and Harrison Hall (Political Science) are also in this area. Going eastward along East Spring Street are Irvin Hall (Classics, World Languages) and Kreger Hall (Physics) before the Armstrong Student Center, the largest building on campus. Surrounding Bishop Woods are Shideler Hall (Geography, Geology), Upham Hall (Anthropology, Comparative Religion, History, Sociology and Gerontology, Statistics), Laws Hall (Emerging Technology in Business + Design), and Hughes Laboratories (Chemistry and Biochemistry).


title: Miami University

text: Buildings north of East High Street begin at the McVey Data Science Building site on Tallawanda Road. Going eastward is the campus of the College of Engineering and Computing, which includes Benton Hall (Computer Science, Software Engineering), Garland Hall, and the Engineering Building. Around North Patterson Avenue are Pearson Hall (Biology, Microbiology), the Psychology Building, and the Farmer School of Business building (Accountancy, Economics, Finance, Information Systems and Analytics, Management, Marketing).


title: Miami University

text: There are four streets south of East Spring Street with academic buildings. On South Campus Avenue is the Clinical Health Sciences and Wellness facility. On Oak Street are Williams Hall (Media, Journalism, and Film) and Phillips Hall (Kinesiology and Health), in between Spring and Maple Street is McMillan Hall (Global & Intercultural Studies), and between Maple and South Patterson Avenue are the Shriver Center, Hiestand Hall (Art) and the Art Building, and the Center for Performing Arts (Music, Theatre). Also along Patterson Avenue is Bachelor Hall (English, Mathematics) before the entrance to Western Campus. Western Campus includes Boyd Hall, Hoyt Hall (IT Services), Peabody Hall (Honors College), and Presser Hall (Music).


title: Miami University

text: Edgar W. King Library was originally known as the King Undergraduate Library when the south section was completed in 1966. When the north section was completed in 1972, the word "undergraduate" was dropped from its name. Before King Library was built, Alumni Library was the main university library. When King Library was completed in 1972, Alumni Library was changed to Alumni Hall. King Library is home to Miami University Libraries’ humanities, government, law, and social sciences collections as well as the Walter Havighurst Special Collections and university archives. It additionally houses King Café, the Center for Information Management, the Center for Digital Scholarship, a makerspace, and the Howe Writing Center.


title: Miami University

text: In addition to King Library, the university's library system also includes the Amos Music Library in the Center for Performing Arts and the Wertz Art & Architecture Library in Alumni Hall on the Oxford campus, as well as the Rentschler Library at Miami University Hamilton and the Gardner-Harvey Library at Miami University Middletown.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's regional campuses are non-residential and offer a handful of bachelor's degrees, associate degrees, one certificate program, as well as beginning course work for most four-year degrees, and the MBA and MEd programs at Oxford. Combined, Miami's regional campuses enroll 4,664 students. Middletown and Hamilton compete in independent sports as members of the Ohio Regional Campus Conference, competing under the monikers "Middletown ThunderHawks" and "Hamilton Harriers".


title: Miami University

text: The Dolibois European Center in Differdange, Luxembourg is included as a study abroad option for students, and only houses about 125 students per semester. It offers continuing classes pertaining to students' studies in Oxford, typically in architecture, business, French, German, history, and political science. Students live in homestays with Luxembourgish host families, and are encouraged to travel throughout Europe over weekends as well as through university-led study programs. The campus was originally based in Luxembourg City from its founding in 1968 until 1997, when it moved to Differdange Castle in the southwestern part of the country.


title: Miami University

text: Miami University extends offers of admission to applicants after holistic review that includes examination of academic rigor and performance, admissions test scores, personal essays, and recommendations. The 2022 annual ranking of "U.S. News & World Report" categorizes Miami University-Oxford as "more selective." The Princeton Review gives Miami University an "Admissions Selectivity Rating" of 84.


title: Miami University

text: For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), Miami University received 29,990 applications and accepted 26,571 (88.6%). Of those accepted, 4,519 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 17.0%. Miami University's freshman retention rate is 89.2%, with 83% going on to graduate within six years.


title: Miami University

text: The enrolled first-year class of 2025 had the following standardized test scores: the middle 50% range (25th percentile-75th percentile) of SAT scores was 1180-1350, while the middle 50% range of ACT scores was 24-30.


title: Miami University

text: Miami University is a college-sponsor of the National Merit Scholarship Program and sponsored 21 Merit Scholarship awards in 2020. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 28 freshman students were National Merit Scholars.


title: Miami University

text: "U.S. News & World Report", in its 2021 rankings, ranked the university's undergraduate program 103rd among all national universities, and 46th among public national universities. "U.S. News" also ranks Miami University 3rd for "Best Undergraduate Teaching" and places Miami as the 3rd best research university in Ohio, after Case Western Reserve University and Ohio State University.


title: Miami University

text: Kiplinger's Personal Finance magazine listed Miami as one of the "100 Best Values in Public Colleges" for 2015, ranking Miami 55th nationally. Miami University has appeared on the list since it was first published in 1998. "Forbes" ranked Miami 155th in the United States among all colleges and universities and listed it as one of "America's Best College Buys".


title: Miami University

text: In March 2014, BusinessWeek ranked the undergraduate business program for the Farmer School of Business at 23rd among all U.S. undergraduate business schools and was ranked 8th among public schools. "Entrepreneur" ranked Miami's Institute for Entrepreneurship in its top ten undergraduate programs in the nation. "The Wall Street Journal" ranked Miami 22nd among state schools for bringing students directly from undergraduate studies into top graduate programs. The "Journal" also ranked Miami's accelerated MBA program ninth globally. Miami's accountancy program received high marks from the Public Accounting Report's rankings of accountancy programs; its undergraduate and graduate programs ranked 17th and 20th respectively.


title: Miami University

text: In 1985, Richard Moll wrote a book about America's premier public universities where he describes Miami as one of America's original eight "Public Ivies", along with the University of California, University of Michigan, University of Virginia, College of William and Mary, University of Texas, University of Vermont, and the University of North Carolina.


title: Miami University

text: Miami also receives high marks for its campus. Newsweek rated Miami at 19th in its 2012 list of Most Beautiful Schools and poet Robert Frost described it as "The most beautiful campus that ever there was."


title: Miami University

text: The College of Arts and Science (or CAS) is the oldest and largest college at Miami, with almost half of the undergraduate student body enrollment. The CAS offers 70 majors covering a broad range of areas of study, including biological sciences, cultural studies, history, philosophy, religion, law and public policy, literature and writing, mathematics, physical sciences, media and communications, health sciences, social sciences, and world languages. The curriculum emphasizes creativity, research, and global perspectives. 10 of the 12 doctoral degrees offered by Miami are provided through the College of Arts & Science.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's Farmer School of Business is a nationally recognized school of business that offers 9 majors. The school also offers graduate MBA, accountancy, and economics degrees. The Farmer School of Business (or FSB) is housed in a state-of-the-art, LEED-certified building. The FSB building, opened for classes in 2009, was designed by leading revivalist architect Robert A.M. Stern.


title: Miami University

text: The College of Education, Health & Society offers 20 undergraduate majors spanning six departments, which include Educational Leadership, Educational Psychology, Family Science & Social Work, Kinesiology and Health, Sports Leadership and Management, and Teacher Education. As of fall 2009, nearly 3,500 full-time and part-time undergraduates were enrolled in the school.


title: Miami University

text: The College of Engineering and Computing offers 10 accredited majors at the Oxford campus, and moved into a new $22 million engineering building in 2007. The college has five departments, including Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering; Computer Science and Software Engineering; Electrical and Computer Engineering; Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering; and Interdisciplinary programs. The school also offers four master's degrees in computer science, chemical engineering, computational electrical and computer engineering, and mechanical engineering.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's College of Creative Arts offers 14 majors through its five departments: Architecture and Interior Design, Art, Emerging Technology in Business & Design, Music, and Theatre. Each department has its own admission requirements, either a portfolio or audition, which are separate from the standard admissions requirements for the university. Art majors choose a concentration in areas such as ceramics, metals, photography, printmaking, sculpture, graphic design, and interior design. Music majors specify either music performance, music education, or music composition, and choose their focus, whether instrumental or vocal.


title: Miami University

text: Miami offers master's degrees in more than 50 areas of study and doctoral degrees in 12, the largest of which are doctoral degrees in psychology. To enroll in graduate courses, students must first be accepted into the Graduate School, and then into the department through which the degree is offered. Although tuition for the Graduate School is roughly the same as for an undergraduate degree, most of the graduate programs offer graduate assistantships as well as tuition waivers.


title: Miami University

text: The Miami University Honors College was established in 2021 as part of the MiamiRISE strategic plan, replacing the former honors program on campus. Around 400 students are admitted to the Honors College every year and are required to produce publishable research. The Honors College is Miami's only residential college and fosters one-on-one interaction with faculty-in-residence.


title: Miami University

text: An elected Board of Trustees oversees administration of the university and holds subcommittees on investment, finance and audit, and academic and student affairs. This includes oversight on programs offered by the university and financial expenditures.


title: Miami University

text: The Office of the President manages Miami University's fiscal and business operations, supporting the academic and research missions across all campuses. The office works with the board of trustees to set the vision, direction, and priorities of the university, in addition to serving as a university figurehead and liaison. The 22nd and current president is Dr. Gregory P. Crawford, who entered the role in 2016. Crawford previously served as vice president and Associate Provost at the University of Notre Dame, Dean of the College of Science at Notre Dame, and as Dean of Engineering at Brown University.


title: Miami University

text: Other administrative departments include that of the Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, which includes the deans of each of the eight academic colleges and the Dolibois European Center. The Senior Vice President for Finance and Business Services and Treasurer's department oversees university finances, procurement, and audits. The office of the Vice President for Student Life, Senior Vice President for University Advancement, Vice President for Information Technology, and Senior Vice President for Enrollment Management round out the university's administrative faculty.


title: Miami University

text: As of 2020, Miami University has a total enrollment of 22,971 admitted students. The Oxford campus encompasses 18,669 students, of which 16,522 are at the undergraduate and 2,147 at the graduates and professional. Within offers for admission in fall 2021, 44% of students were from Ohio, with offers for students from all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia and 122 countries abroad. Miami University encompasses 1,614 international students from 67 countries. Of the regularly enrolled international students, the most represented countries are typically China, Vietnam, India, Nepal, and South Korea. With a gender distribution of 49% male students and 51% female students, Miami University's gender disparity between men and women is far below the national average, making it one of the most equally balanced undergraduate institutions in the United States. Ethnic diversity at Miami University is low among public universities in the United States. The student body at Miami University remains predominantly white, despite efforts to recruit more minority students. Miami University ranked 95th out of 100 national universities for academics by diversity and as of Fall 2016, it had the lowest percentage of domestic students of color among all five major public universities in Ohio.


title: Miami University

text: For the 2017–18 academic year, Miami had over 600 registered student organizations. These clubs and organizations run the gamut from varsity sports clubs to professional fraternities, from political and religious groups to fashion, theatre and LGBTQ+ organizations. The university recognizes the Associated Student Government (ASG) that represents student interests to faculty, administrators, and the Ohio Legislature. It is the official student government of Miami University. It has an executive branch run by a student president and 14 members of the executive cabinet who work with administrators in all areas of student life as well as academics, a legislative branch made up of 50 senators who voice student concerns, write and vote on legislation on a weekly basis and the judicial branch, made up of 17 undergraduate students who compose the student court that hears cases involving violations of the student code, and ensures that students are aware of their legal rights.


title: Miami University

text: The Miami University Marching Band is the largest student organization on campus, typically fielding around 250 to 275 students. It represents the college at all home football games, as well as at various away games, bowl games, parades, and marching band festivals.


title: Miami University

text: In 2018, Miami's mock trial program won its second national American Mock Trial Association championship title, beating Yale University in the final round, leading them to be ranked first out of over 700 university teams across the country for the upcoming 2018–19 season.


title: Miami University

text: Miami has a variety of media outlets. The student-run newspaper, "The Miami Student", claims to have been founded in 1826, which would make it the oldest university newspaper in the United States. However, the first issue is dated May 1867, and the paper refers to itself as "the oldest college newspaper west of the Alleghenies." The Miami Student Magazine is a sister publication to the newspaper. The bi-annual publication includes feature writing and short stories. The undergraduate literature and art magazine, "Inklings", is available in print and online. RedHawk Radio (WMSR) is Miami's only student radio station. Miami University Television (MUTV) is available on cable in Oxford, Ohio. "UP Magazine" is Miami's student-run fashion magazine that publishes an issue each semester and also maintains a blog. "Hate & Dishonor" is a satirical publication at Miami, with the name parodying the Miami code of values known as Love and Honor.


title: Miami University

text: Aside from the university's student newspaper, the university's oldest and longest-running academic student organization is the Miami University Men's Glee Club. Founded in 1907 by professor Raymond H. Burke, composer of Miami's fight song and alma mater, the glee club is among the oldest and largest groups of its kind in the nation. It is composed of over 100 singers selected by audition from all academic disciplines. The group's repertoire ranges from Gregorian Chant and Renaissance motets to folksongs, popular music, and spirituals. The Glee Club performs three concerts, in fall, winter, and spring each year at Miami's Hall Auditorium, constructed in 1907–8. The fall semester concerts are paired with Miami's large mixed choir, Collegiate Chorale. In addition to these, the Glee Club will often perform at Miami University events, local churches, and high schools in the greater Ohio area.


title: Miami University

text: The Glee Club has also performed with major symphony orchestras at a regional and national level; most frequently with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. Throughout its history, the Glee Club has worked with renowned composers, conductors and singers such as Morten Lauridsen, Martina Arroyo, Max Rudolf, Thomas Schippers, Paul Salamunovich and more recently A.R. Rahman. In 2014, the Glee Club performed a Memorial Day service at the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial, as part of its biannual international tour, and later won the First European Prize with Great Distinction at the Concours Europeen de Chant Choral 2014 (European Choir Competition).


title: Miami University

text: The Glee Club also hosts one men's a cappella singing group, The Cheezies. This group consists of approximately 15 members auditioned from the Glee Club.


title: Miami University

text: Residential life is a primary characteristic of the undergraduate education at Miami University and is embedded in the university's Mission Statement. Miami University requires first and second year students to live on campus. Elliott and Stoddard Halls are two of the oldest remaining buildings on campus today. Built in 1828 and 1835 respectively, they continue to be used as dormitories and are considered two of the most prestigious dorms to live in. They are also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The campus has a total of 46 residence halls, the newest of which opened in 2018. The residence halls are organized into eight quads throughout campus:


title: Miami University

text: Within its existing residential life programs, Miami offers students the option of choosing from 35 theme-based living learning communities (LLCs). All first-year residential halls on campus participate in the LLC program to create bonds among students based on their field of study and shared interests. In an LLC, students are co-enrolled into one or more classes, which further support student's transition into the university's liberal arts education. Smaller groups of students may also create their second year LLC to further their learning together.


title: Miami University

text: Each residence hall has various resident assistants (RAs) who are full-time enrolled students that assist the Office of Residence Life to promote community engagement, enforce hall and university policies, submit residence hall reports, and promote academic success. Residence halls also have representatives that participate collectively in the Residence Hall Association and the student senate.


title: Miami University

text: Miami has 21 active sorority and 30 active fraternity chapters. Miami is nicknamed the Mother of Fraternities for the number of fraternities that started on its campus: Beta Theta Pi (1839), Phi Delta Theta (1848), Sigma Chi (1855), and Phi Kappa Tau (1906). However, Alpha Delta Phi (1832) was the first fraternity on campus. Delta Zeta, founded in 1902, is the only sorority alpha chapter on campus. The Miami Triad refers to the first three fraternities founded at Miami: Beta Theta Pi, Phi Delta Theta, and Sigma Chi. The Triad is sometimes celebrated with parties at other universities such as the University of Kansas.


title: Miami University

text: As of the fall of 2017, there were 2,556 sorority members and 1,544 fraternity members. Miami hosts about 50 different fraternities and sororities governed by three different student governing councils. Miami's fraternities and sororities hold many philanthropy events and community fundraisers. In the 2017 fall semester, the Greek community recorded 11,847 service hours and raised $96,839 for philanthropic causes.


title: Miami University

text: Miami University's office of Greek affairs was endowed with a $1 million gift from Cliff Alexander, a Miami University alumnus and a member of Sigma Nu; Miami believes this gift will support the Greek program well into the next century.


title: Miami University

text: A spate of sorority sanctions in the 2009–10 school year reached national news. Sorority members of Miami's Alpha Xi Delta chapter and their dates at a formal held at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center urinated throughout the venue, swore at staff, and attempted to steal drinks from the bar; one other incident involving the Pi Beta Phi chapter at Miami involved similar behavior. Former University President David Hodge called the behavior "deeply troubling" and "embarrassing", and vowed "we are determined to live up to our values" in response to the incidents.


title: Miami University

text: More recently, Miami's Greek system has come under fire for numerous hazing and alcohol violations. Multiple Greek organizations have been suspended in recent years, including Kappa Sigma, Phi Kappa Psi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Phi Kappa Tau (Alpha chapter), Pi Kappa Phi, Pi Beta Phi, Sigma Nu, and Zeta Beta Tau. In late 2015 three fraternities (Sigma Nu, Phi Kappa Psi and Kappa Sigma) were evicted from Miami University. Among the violations was encouraging pledges to drink 100 beers and pose for inappropriate social media pictures. In other instances, pledges were subjected to hours-long, early-morning workouts, and forbidden to shower or shave. In 2019, Miami's Delta Tau Delta chapter was suspended until 2034 due to hazing and violations of Miami's student conduct code, and its national charter was revoked.


title: Miami University

text: When two students meet at Miami, enter into a relationship, and then get married, they are called "Miami Mergers." Once graduated, the couple can register with the university's Alumni Association. According to the Josh Chapin, 14,406 Miami Merger couples received a Valentine’s Day card from the association in 2022; this annual tradition started over 40 years ago.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I sports teams are called the RedHawks; the program offers 18 varsity sports for men and women. They compete in the Mid-American Conference (MAC) in all varsity sports except ice hockey, which competes in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's athletic teams were called the Miami Boys, the Big Reds, the Reds, or the Red and Whites until 1928 when Miami Publicity Director R.J. McGinnis coined the nickname "Redskins". The athletic teams were known as the Redskins up through 1996 when the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma, which works with the university on Native American relations, withdrew its support for the nickname. The board of trustees voted to change the nickname to the RedHawks in 1997.


title: Miami University

text: Miami is nicknamed the "Cradle of Coaches" for the coaches that have trained through its football program, including Hall of Fame inductees Paul Brown, Carmen Cozza, Weeb Ewbank, Ara Parseghian, Earl Blaik, Woody Hayes, Bo Schembechler, and Jim Tressel, to name some from a selection of over 80. Ben Roethlisberger, a quarterback from Miami, has gone on to be a two-time Super Bowl winning quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers. Two former players, John Harbaugh (defensive back) and Sean McVay (wide receiver) coached their respective teams to victories in Super Bowl XLVII and Super Bowl LVI, with McVay becoming the youngest head coach to win the Super Bowl at age 36.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's football team plays in Yager Stadium, a 24,286-seat football stadium on campus; they formerly played in the now demolished Miami Field. The current head coach is Chuck Martin, who was named head coach December 3, 2013. The RedHawks compete each year against the Cincinnati Bearcats for the Victory Bell, a tradition that dates back to 1888. The Battle of the Bricks is also played annually against the Ohio Bobcats. The RedHawks are 707–473–44 overall and 8–5 in bowl games as of the 2021 season, and have secured 22 conference titles.


title: Miami University

text: The Miami men's basketball team has appeared in 17 NCAA basketball championship tournaments, reaching the Sweet Sixteen four times, most recently in 1999. Notable former student-athletes have included Randy Ayers, Ron Harper, Wally Szczerbiak, and Wayne Embry.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's men's varsity ice hockey team started in 1978 coached by Steve Cady. The RedHawks made the NCAA national title game in 2009, but lost in overtime to Boston University after leading much of the game. In 2019, head coach Enrico Blasi (Total record: 398-311-76) was fired after 20 seasons with the team. Despite his success with the program, the RedHawks did not have a winning record since 2015.


title: Miami University

text: Since the Mid-American Conference does not include Division I men's ice hockey, Miami competed in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) through the 2012–2013 season. It was one of three schools from the MAC in the CCHA along with Bowling Green State University and Western Michigan University. However, starting with the 2013–2014 season, Miami and Western Michigan began competing in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference.


title: Miami University

text: The men's ice hockey team plays at the Goggin Ice Center. The center has two rinks: a practice rink, and Steve Cady Arena, which is used by the hockey team. The arena has a seating capacity of 3,200, and replaced the Goggin Ice Arena in 2006.


title: Miami University

text: Miami's synchronized skating team began in August 1977 as a "Precision Skating Club" at Goggin Ice Center. The program achieved varsity status by 1996. The Miami University senior synchronized skating team are the 1999, 2006, and 2009 U.S. national champions. Miami won a silver medal at the 2007 World Championships, the first medal ever won by Team USA for synchronized skating. The collegiate-level team has won 18 national titles; Miami created a junior-varsity level team beneath the senior level. Vicki Korn, after serving as the coach of Miami's program for 25 years, announced her retirement in May 2009. The head coach is Carla DeGirolamo. A 2003 graduate of Miami, she skated with the program all four of her undergraduate years and then spent seven seasons as an assistant coach.


title: Miami University

text: At one time Miami had a very competitive wrestling program. They won eight Mid-American Conference titles (1961, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1984, 1991 and 1992) and produced 51 NCAA qualifiers who earned 81 qualifications to the NCAA Division I tournament. Seven of their wrestlers earned All American status with HWT Mike Holcomb placing twice (5th in 1982, 3rd in 1984).


title: Miami University

text: In 1999, Miami eliminated the wrestling program, along with men's golf and tennis, to better comply with Title IX regulations (female students made up 54% of campus but only 29% of athletes). Several members of the cut teams then sued the university president, athletic director and board of trustees, alleging that the removal of the teams violated their Fourteenth Amendment and Title IX protections. Enlisting the help of the Center for Individual Rights, the students took their case to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, where a district judge denied their claims. The students appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, where two judges affirmed the district court's ruling, stating, "We find that the plaintiffs wholly failed to state either an equal protection claim or a claim under Title IX, and that the district court's denial of the motion for class certification was within the court's sound discretion."


title: Miami University

text: Miami alumni are active through various organizations and events such as Alumni Weekend. The Alumni Association has active chapters in over 50 cities. A number of Miami alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government, law, science, academia, business, arts, journalism, and athletics, among others.


title: Miami University

text: Benjamin Harrison, the 23rd President of the United States, graduated from Miami in 1852. Four Governors of Ohio graduated from Miami, including Charles Anderson (27th), James E. Campbell (38th), Andrew L. Harris (44th), and Mike DeWine (70th), who also served as a U.S. Senator for Ohio. Chung Un-chan, the 36th Prime Minister of South Korea, received his master's degree from Miami in economics in 1972. Other politicians include U.S. Senator Maria Cantwell of Washington, U.S. House of Representatives Speaker Paul Ryan of Wisconsin, and U.S. Representative Susan Brooks of Indiana.


title: Miami University

text: Rita Dove, a Pulitzer Prize winner and the first African-American United States Poet Laureate, graduated summa cum laude from Miami. Political satirist and journalist P.J. O'Rourke graduated from Miami in 1969.


title: Miami University

text: Prominent alumni in business include Brian Niccol, CEO of Chipotle, Marne Levine, Chief Business Officer at Facebook, C. Michael Armstrong, former chairman/CEO of AT&T, former chairman/CEO of Hughes Aircraft Co., and former chairman of the President's Export Council, Arthur D. Collins, Jr., former chairman/CEO of Medtronic, Inc., and Richard T. Farmer, founder/CEO emeritus of Cintas.


title: Miami University

text: In sports, Chris Rose is a studio host with the MLB Network and NFL Network. John Harbaugh, head coach of the Baltimore Ravens, and Sean McVay, head coach of the Los Angeles Rams, both played football for Miami. Paul Brown, the partial founder of both the Cleveland Browns and the Cincinnati Bengals and a head coach for both teams graduated from the class of 1930.


title: Miami University

text: Miami alumni that play in professional sports leagues include Dan Boyle of the NHL, Andy Greene of the NHL, Ryan Jones of the NHL, Alec Martinez of the NHL, Reilly Smith of the NHL, Jeff Zatkoff of the NHL, Hayley Williams of the Russian Women's Hockey League, John Ely of the MLB, Adam Eaton of the MLB, golfer Brad Adamonis, Milt Stegall of the CFL, 2002 NBA All-Star Wally Szczerbiak, and NFL players Brandon Brooks, Quinten Rollins, Zac Dysert, and two-time Super Bowl-winning quarterback Ben Roethlisberger.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: Alessandro Michele (; born 25 November 1972) is an Italian fashion designer who most recently served as the creative director of Gucci, the Italian fashion luxury house where he had been working since 2002. Known for his maximalist designs, Alessandro Michele revived Gucci's popularity most notably with a "Geek-Chic" aesthetic. He had been responsible for all of Gucci's collections and global brand image from January 2015 until he stepped down from the role in November 2022.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: Alessandro Michele grew up in Rome. His father was an Alitalia technician, and his mother an assistant to a movie executive.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: In the early 1990s, Alessandro Michele completed his studies of fashion design at the "Accademia di Costume e di Moda" in Rome, where he learned to design both theatrical costumes and fashion wear.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: In 1994, Alessandro Michele left Rome to work in Les Copains, an Italian knitwear firm based in Bologna. Three years later, he joined Silvia Venturini Fendi and Karl Lagerfeld at luxury house Fendi. He worked with Frida Giannini and was appointed senior accessories designer, in charge of the brand’s leather goods.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: In 2002, Tom Ford, Gucci's creative director from 1994 to 2004, invited Alessandro Michele to work at the firm's London-based design office. He was originally in charge of the company’s handbag designs. In 2006, Alessandro Michele was named senior designer of Gucci leather goods, and in 2011, he was promoted associate creative director to Frida Giannini, creative director of Gucci since 2005. In 2014, the Italian designer also became creative director of Richard Ginori, the Florentine porcelain brand acquired by Gucci in June 2013.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: In January 2015, Marco Bizzarri asked Alessandro Michele to act as interim creative designer for the January menswear show, giving him a week to reshape Frida Giannini's original designs. Michele accepted the challenge and introduced a “new Gucci: nonconformist, romantic, intellectual”. Two days later, Kering appointed Alessandro Michele creative director of Gucci, with the goal to reinvent Gucci’s props amid deflating sales. A month later, Michele introduced a "sophisticated, intellectual and androgynous feel" for Gucci during his first women's collection show.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: While creating iconic products, such as the Dionysus handbag, Alessandro Michele also reintroduced Gucci classics including the double-G logo. He moved away from Tom Ford's "Sexy Gucci" props and feminized Gucci’s menswear ("you can be more masculine showing your femininity"). He reused the "My Body My Choice" slogan, the embroidered uterus design, and the "22.05.1978" date (the date on which abortion became protected by Italian courts), transforming the brand into a postgender proposition. He added a dramatic Renaissance component to Gucci’s spirit, replaced the modernist furniture of the Palazzo Alberini-Cicciaporci (Gucci’s design headquarters in Rome) with antiques, and chose buildings of historic significance for his theatrical shows.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: In 2016, for the Gucci Museum in Florence, Alessandro Michele curated two additional rooms dedicated to Tom Ford's collections. Since the 2018 opening of the Gucci Wooster Bookstore in New York, Michele seasonally contributes to the curation of the shop’s items. In October 2018, he co-curated with Maurizio Cattelan the 2-month Gucci art exhibition "The Artist is Present" in Shanghai.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: In 2019, Alessandro Michele revived Gucci's Beauty collection, and Gucci launched its first fine jewelry collection, which he designed.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: Alessandro Michele’s father was also an avid artist who often took his son out to the museums. His family encouraged his interest in fashion at an early age. As a teenager, he read British magazines and was a fan of London’s post-punk and New Romantic street style. His designs have been described as eclectic, flamboyant and maximalist, almost psychedelic, and drawn from several influences that span from cinema and theatrics to post-punk, crochet and glamour.


title: Alessandro Michele

text: Alessandro Michele refers to himself as an art archaeologist - historicist of garments - rather than a creative director, considering that clothes are meaningless without a historic context. In his fashion "Renaissance" process, he explores how adornment and embellishment was used over the centuries, bringing a kaleidoscopic mix of times and cultures that resonates with Gilles Deleuze's idea of "assemblage".


title: Alessandro Michele

text: Michele is openly gay. He lives in Rome with his longtime partner, professor of urban planning, Giovanni Attili.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: Oleg of Novgorod (Old East Slavic: Ѡлегъ "Olegŭ"; ; ; ) was a Rurikid prince who ruled all or part of the Rus' people during the late 9th and early 10th centuries.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: He is credited by Rus' Chronicles with moving from either Staraya Ladoga () or Novgorod, and seizing power in Kiev from Askold and Dir, and, by doing so, laying the foundation of the powerful state of Kievan Rus'. He also launched an attack on Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. According to East Slavic chronicles, Oleg was the supreme ruler of the Rus' from 882 to 912.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: This traditional dating has been challenged by some historians, who point out that it is inconsistent with such other sources as the Schechter Letter, which mentions the activities of a certain khagan HLGW ( usually transcribed "Helgu") of Rus' as late as the 940s, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Romanus I. The nature of Oleg's relationship with the Rurikid ruling family of the Rus', and specifically with his successor Igor of Kiev, is a matter of much controversy among historians.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: According to the "Primary Chronicle", Oleg was a relative (likely brother-in-law) of the first ruler, Rurik, and was entrusted by Rurik to take care of both his kingdom and his young son Igor. Oleg gradually took control of the Dnieper cities, seizing the power in Kiev by tricking and slaying Askold and Dir, and naming Kiev the capital of his newly created state Kievan Rus'. The new capital was a convenient place to launch a raid against Constantinople in 907.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: In 883, Prince Oleg of Novgorod made the Drevlians pay tribute to Kiev. In 907, the Drevlians took part in the Kievan military campaign against the Byzantine Empire.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: According to the chronicle, Oleg, assaulting the city, ordered to wait for favorable wind with sails spread at some other point. When wind arose, it drove the wheeled boats towards the city through the land. The citizens were forced to start a peace negotiation. Having fixed his shield to the gate of the imperial capital, Oleg won a favourable trade treaty, which eventually was of great benefit to both nations. Although Byzantine sources did not record these hostilities, the text of the treaty survives in the "Chronicle".


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: The "Primary Chronicle"'s brief account of Oleg's life contrasts with other early sources, specifically the Novgorod First Chronicle, which states that Oleg was not related to Rurik, and was rather a Scandinavian client-prince who served as Igor's army commander. The Novgorod First Chronicle does not give the date of the commencement of Oleg's reign, but dates his death to 922 rather than 912.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: Scholars have contrasted this dating scheme with the "epic" reigns of roughly thirty-three years for both Oleg and Igor in the Primary Chronicle. The Primary Chronicle and other Kievan sources place Oleg's grave in Kiev, while Novgorodian sources identify a funerary barrow in Ladoga as Oleg's final resting place.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: In the "Primary Chronicle", Oleg is known as the Prophet, an epithet alluding to the sacred meaning of his Norse name ("priest"). According to the legend, romanticised by Alexander Pushkin in his ballad "The Song of the Wise Oleg," it was prophesied by the pagan priests ("volkhvs") that Oleg would take death from his stallion.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: To defy the prophecies, Oleg sent the horse away. Many years later he asked where his horse was, and was told it had died. He asked to see the remains and was taken to the place where the bones lay. When he touched the horse's skull with his boot a snake slithered from the skull and bit him. Oleg died, thus fulfilling the prophecy.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: Oleg's death has been interpreted as a distorted variant of the threefold death theme in Indo-European myth and legend, with prophecy, the snake and the horse representing the three functions: the prophecy is associated with sovereignty, the horse with warriors, and the serpent with reproduction.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: According to the Primary Chronicle, Oleg died in 912 and his successor, Igor of Kiev, ruled from then until his assassination in 945. The Schechter Letter, a document written by a Jewish Khazar, a contemporary of Romanus I Lecapenus, describes the activities of a Rus' warlord named HLGW (), usually transcribed as "Helgu". For years many scholars disregarded or discounted the Schechter Letter account, which referred to Helgu (often interpreted as Oleg) as late as the 940s.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: Recently, however, scholars such as David Christian and Constantine Zuckerman have suggested that the Schechter Letter's account is corroborated by various other Russian chronicles, and suggests a struggle within the early Rus' polity between factions loyal to Oleg and to the Rurikid Igor, a struggle that Oleg ultimately lost. Zuckerman posited that the early chronology of the Rus' had to be re-determined in light of these sources. Among Zuckerman's beliefs and those of others who have analyzed these sources are that the Khazars did not lose Kiev until the early 10th century (rather than 882, the traditional date), that Igor was not Rurik's son but rather a more distant descendant, and that Oleg did not immediately follow Rurik, but rather that there is a lost generation between the legendary Varangian lord and his documented successors.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: Of particular interest is the fact that the Schechter Letter account of Oleg's death (namely, that he fled to and raided FRS, tentatively identified with Persia, and was slain there) bears remarkable parallels to the account of Arab historians such as Ibn Miskawayh, who described a similar Rus' attack on the Muslim state of Arran in the year 944/5.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: In contrast to Zuckerman's version, the "Primary Chronicle" and the later "Kiev Chronicle" place Oleg's grave in Kiev, where it could be seen at the time of the compilation of these documents. Furthermore, scholars have pointed out that if Oleg succeeded Rurik in 879 (as the East Slavic chronicles assert), he could hardly have been active almost 70 years later, unless he had a life-span otherwise unheard of in medieval annals. To solve these difficulties, it has been proposed that the pagan monarch-priests of Rus' used the hereditary title of "helgu", standing for "holy" in the Norse language, and that Igor and others held this title.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: It has also been suggested that Helgu-Oleg who waged war in the 940s was distinct from both of Rurik's successors. He could have been one of the "fair and great princes" recorded in the Russo-Byzantine treaties of 911 and 944 or one of the "archons of Rus" mentioned in "De administrando imperio". Regrettably, the "Primary Chronicle" does not specify the relations between minor Rurikid princes active during the period, although the names Rurik, Oleg and Igor were recorded among the late-10th-century and 11th-century Rurikids.


title: Oleg of Novgorod

text: Georgy Vernadsky even identified the Oleg of the Schechter Letter with Igor's otherwise anonymous eldest son, whose widow Predslava is mentioned in the Russo-Byzantine treaty of 944. Alternatively, V. Ya. Petrukhin speculated that Helgu-Oleg of the 940s was one of the vernacular princes of Chernigov, whose ruling dynasty maintained especially close contacts with Khazaria, as the findings at the Black Grave, a large royal kurgan excavated near Chernigov, seem to testify.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: The Cenobites are fictional extra-dimensional, seemingly demonic beings who appear in the works of Clive Barker. Introduced in Barker's 1986 novella "The Hellbound Heart", they also appear in its sequel novel "The Scarlet Gospels", the "Hellraiser" films, and in "Hellraiser" comic books published (intermittently) between 1987 and 2017. In the novel "Weaveworld", they are mentioned in passing as "The Surgeons". The Cenobites appear in prose stories authorized but not written by Clive Barker, such as the anthology "Hellbound Hearts" edited by Paul Kane and Marie O'Regan, the novella "Hellraiser: The Toll" (plotted by Barker and written by Mark Alan Miller), and the novel "Sherlock Holmes and the Servants of Hell" written by Paul Kane.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: The most popular of the Cenobites was nameless in the original novella but was then nicknamed "Pinhead" by the production crew and fans of the first "Hellraiser" movie. In "The Scarlet Gospels", he was given the official name of "The Hell Priest" by Barker.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: Etymologically the definition of the term "cenobite" represents the member of a religious order, who lives in a monastic community. Cenobite in the "Hellraiser" franchise represents a member of a masochistic religious community, priest of Leviathan.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: "The Hellbound Heart" says the Cenobites are also known as "The Order of the Gash". Cenobites were once human, having transformed to their current state in their pursuit of gratification. Cenobites are so removed from their former humanity and so dedicated to exploring physical experience that they no longer distinguish between sensations of pleasure and pain. Humans who summon the Cenobites, either by accident or in hopes of experiencing pleasures unknown on Earth, are often taken to their home dimension and become "experiments" in discovering the limits of physical experience, resulting in torture for eternity.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: The Cenobites vary in number, appearance, and motivations depending on the medium (film, comic book, etc.) in which they appear. The involvement of multiple parties in the production of "Hellraiser" films and comics (many eschewing the creative supervision of Clive Barker) has led to varying levels of consistency with respect to their philosophies and abilities; for instance, their powers were much reduced in the 1992 film "" compared with the first two films. The original novella and first two films indicate they are morally ambiguous ("demons to some, angels to others") but later films and comics depict them as often malicious and taking delight in causing harm. The only constants are that they take the form of ritually mutilated people with varying degrees of human characteristics, and that they can only reach Earth's reality when summoned through a schism in time and space, which is opened and closed using a puzzle box known as the Lament Configuration or, as described in the original story, the Lemarchand Configuration.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: After being disappointed with the way his material had been treated by producers in "Underworld", Barker wrote "The Hellbound Heart" as his first step in directing a film by himself. The book describes a group of sadomasochistic entities who live in an extra-dimensional realm, where they perform "experiments" on humans in extreme sexual experiences. Although antagonist Frank Cotton believes they will take the form of beautiful women, they appear instead as monsters:


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: Author David McWilliam notes that the Cenobites are described in more explicitly sexual terms in the book compared with their depictions in the film adaptations. The four Cenobites described in the book each present unique mutilations and modifications: one Cenobite has stitches through its eyelids and a system of chains with bells hooked into various parts of its body; another has a grid tattooed to its head with jeweled pins driven into its skull at the intersections; the eyes of yet another are swollen shut and its mouth heavily disfigured; finally, a female Cenobite has undergone elaborate scarification to her pubis. The fifth, lead Cenobite, referred to as "The Engineer", appears briefly in the book's climax as an average human being whose body glows with intense light when he travels between realms.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: After securing funding for a motion picture adaptation in early 1986, Barker and his producer Chris Figg assembled a team to design the cenobites. Among the team was Bob Keen and Geoff Portass at Image Animation and Jane Wildgoose, a costume designer who was requested to make a series of costumes for four or five "super-butchers" while refining the scarification designs with Image Animation.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: Barker drew inspiration for the Cenobite designs from punk fashion, Catholicism, and by the visits he took to BDSM clubs in New York City and Amsterdam. Each of the four primary Cenobites from "The Hellbound Heart" were featured in the film, with appearances based upon their descriptions in the book. The first Cenobite became Butterball, the second Pinhead, the third Chatterer, and the fourth The Female. The Engineer was drastically altered for the film, taking the form of a giant creature with characteristics of different predatory animals.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: In the second film "", written by Clive Barker, the home of the Cenobites is revealed as a labyrinth-like dimension (possibly a part of the Christian Hell or a different place that inspired some myths of Hell) ruled over by a demonic entity called Leviathan, the creator of Cenobites. The film has Kirsty Cotton remind Pinhead and his group of Cenobites of their human origins. This spiritually weakens them and they are then seemingly destroyed. Barker wanted the villain Julia, played by Claire Higgins in both the first and second film, to carry the series as its main antagonist, reducing the Cenobites to a background role. However, Higgins declined to return to the series and fans rallied around Pinhead, portrayed by Doug Bradley, as the breakout character and main villain/anti-hero of the series. Pinhead's nature and past are explored in "", where it is revealed he was not killed but simply had his human self freed, resulting in the Cenobite now existing without morality or restraint. The film ends with the human Elliott Spencer merging with Pinhead once more in order to stop the chaos and reintroduce restraint and a respect for rules into the Cenobite.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: As the films continued, the stories were largely stand alone but Pinhead was a constant presence, though sometimes only briefly appearing. In "The Ashgate Encyclopedia of Literary and Cinematic Monsters", David McWilliam writes that the Cenobites "provide continuity across the series, as the stories become increasingly stand-alone in nature".


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: Following the success of the movies "Hellraiser" and "Hellbound: Hellraiser II", Epic Comics published a "Hellraiser" spin-off comic series last twenty issues from 1989 to 1992. The comics featured several short stories written by new writers and artists, with Clive Barker acting as a creative consultant.


title: Cenobite (Hellraiser)

text: In 2011, Boom! Studios began a new comic book series following the canon of the first three "Hellraiser" films. The initial premise is that Pinhead is now bored with his existence as a Cenobite and plots a way to return to mortality. The series also involves Kirsty Cotton and Barker's occult detective Harry D'Amour.


title: Billy Squier

text: William Haislip Squier (, born May 12, 1950) is an American rock musician and singer who had a string of arena rock and crossover hits in the early 1980s. His best-known songs include "The Stroke", "Lonely Is the Night", "My Kinda Lover", "In the Dark", "Rock Me Tonite", "Everybody Wants You", "Emotions in Motion", "Love Is the Hero", "Don't Say You Love Me" and "The Big Beat". Squier's best-selling album, 1981's "Don't Say No", is considered a landmark release within the arena rock genre, bridging the gap between power pop and hard rock.


title: Billy Squier

text: Described as a personification of early 1980s rock music, Squier's most successful period ranges from 1981 to 1984, during which he had five Top 10 Mainstream Rock hits (two of which were number ones), two Top 20 singles, and three consecutive platinum-selling albums, along with cyclic MTV rotation and radio airplay. Even after falling out from mainstream favor and chart success, which some say is because of the 1984 video for "Rock Me Tonite", Squier has maintained his presence on rock radio and his music used in many films and video games. Squier stepped out of the music business after the 1993 release of "Tell the Truth", but he has occasionally continued performing smaller tours and one-off performances.


title: Billy Squier

text: His 1980 song "The Big Beat" contains one of the most-sampled drum breaks, used by artists such as Run-DMC, Alicia Keys, Jay-Z, UTFO, and Dizzee Rascal. "The Stroke" has also had a fair amount of sampling, most notably in Eminem's 2013 hit "Berzerk".


title: Billy Squier

text: Squier was born in Wellesley, Massachusetts. He is a 1968 graduate of Wellesley High School. While growing up, he began playing piano and guitar, but did not become serious with music until discovering John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers (with Eric Clapton). When Squier was nine, his grandfather taught him piano for two years. He became interested in guitar after getting one from his older brother (or, as another story goes, he bought a guitar from his neighbor for 90 dollars). Squier formed his first band, the Reltneys, when he was 14.


title: Billy Squier

text: Squier's first public performances were in 1968 at a Boston nightclub in Kenmore Square named the Psychedelic Supermarket, which is where he saw Eric Clapton and the band Cream. This encouraged him to take music more seriously, and he formed the band Magic Terry & the Universe with a school friend. In the early 1970s, Squier tried out with various short-lived bands, beginning with the Kicks alongside future New York Dolls drummer Jerry Nolan. Squier also briefly attended Berklee College of Music in 1971. Squier wanted to become a teacher, but instead went back to New York to play with the pop band the Sidewinders.


title: Billy Squier

text: In the mid-1970s, Squier encountered his first real experience with the music industry after striking a record deal with his new band Piper, which went on to release two studio records, "Piper" and "Can't Wait." The band was praised by critics: reviewing the self-titled album, "Circus" magazine touted it as "the greatest debut album ever produced by a US rock band". Piper was managed by the same management company as Kiss and opened for them during their 1977 tour, including two nights of a sold-out run at New York's Madison Square Garden. Squier served as both main songwriter and frontman of the group.