title: Malacca

text: A 1.6-km line of Melaka Monorail was launched in October 2010, served the route along the Malacca River. Due to several technical glitches months into its operation, the system was left idle in 2013. However, in June 2015 the Malacca State Government decided to revive the project. On 4 December 2017, Melaka Monorail has re-operate with enhanced safety features such as lightning-prevention devices and the addition of a rescue vehicle to attract wagons in the event of a technical problem. The previous incident is believed will not recur as tests had been performed for two months before re-operation. The Melaka Monorail operating hours are 10.00 am to 10.00 pm on weekdays and continued until 12.00 midnight on Saturdays and Sundays.


title: Malacca

text: Daily ferries run from Malacca to the Indonesian cities of Bengkalis, Dumai and Pekanbaru departing from Harbour Master's Jetty. Regular boat services to Big Island depart from mainland Malacca in Umbai. Several jetties around the state, such as in Merlimau, are used by fishermen.


title: Malacca

text: Two existing container ports in Malacca are the Port of Kuala Sungai Linggi and Port of Tanjung Bruas.


title: Malacca

text: Travelling to Malacca by bus is favored by most people. This is because Malacca is well connected to the PLUS highway via three major exits. The Ayer Keroh exit at the North–South Expressway is the main entry to Malacca, connected by Ayer Keroh highway to Malacca City. There are two additional exits along the North–South Expressway, namely the Simpang Ampat and Jasin exits. The Syed Abdullah Aziz Road or Malacca Coastal Highway roughly connects the western and eastern sides of Malacca separated by the Malacca River through the Malacca Coastal Bridge. It is also easy to access Malacca by bus because Malacca has three main bus hubs such as Melaka Sentral, Alor Gajah Sentral and Jasin Sentral. The location of the bus stations are based on their districts, Melaka Tengah, Alor Gajah and Jasin. The Melaka Sentral bus station, combined with taxi terminal, serves cities around Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. The Panorama Melaka bus is the public bus serving Malacca City and major landmarks.


title: Malacca

text: Efforts are also being undertaken to promote pedestrianisation and the use of bicycles as an environmentally friendly mode of transportation. Dedicated bicycle lanes are being built on several main roads in this historic city.


title: Malacca

text: Many of the heavily decorated cycle rickshaws (Malay: "beca") equipped with sound system can be seen on the streets in Malacca. Most of them are used to bring tourist around the town for sightseeing. The average size can accommodate two average adult with probably a child.


title: Malacca

text: Malacca is a popular filming location for domestic and international film production companies with the presence of various tourist attractions and historical remains. Iconic Bollywood artist, Shah Rukh Khan described Malacca as beautiful and said he would return for acting and holiday in the state. The films and the music videos published in Malacca include:


title: Malacca

text: The available FM radio stations in Malacca, both government (including Malacca-based Melaka FM) and commercial, are as listed below.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is an automobile racing circuit located in Speedway, Indiana (an enclave suburb of Indianapolis) in the United States. It is the home of the Indianapolis 500 and the Verizon 200, and formerly the home of the United States Grand Prix. It is located on the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road, approximately west of Downtown Indianapolis.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Constructed in 1909, it is the second purpose-built, banked oval racing circuit after Brooklands and the first to be called a 'speedway'. It is the third-oldest permanent automobile race track in the world, behind Brooklands and the Milwaukee Mile. With a permanent seating capacity of 257,325, it is the highest-capacity sports venue in the world.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Considered relatively flat by American standards, the track is a rectangular oval with dimensions that have remained essentially unchanged since its construction. It has two straightaways, four geometrically identical turns, connected by two short straightaways, termed "short chutes", between turns 1 and 2, and between turns 3 and 4.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: A modern, FIA Grade One infield road course was completed in 2000, incorporating part of the oval, including the main stretch and the southeast turn, measuring . In 2008, and again in 2014, the road course layout was modified to accommodate motorcycle racing, as well as to improve competition. Altogether, the current grounds have expanded from an original on which the speedway was first built to cover an area of over . Placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, it is the only such site to be affiliated with automotive racing history.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In addition to the Indianapolis 500, the speedway also hosts NASCAR's Verizon 200 and Pennzoil 150. From 2000 to 2007, the speedway hosted the Formula One United States Grand Prix, and from 2008 to 2015 the Moto GP.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On the grounds of the speedway is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum, which opened in 1956, and houses the Hall of Fame. The museum moved into its current building located in the infield in 1976. Also on the grounds is the Brickyard Crossing Golf Resort, which originally opened as the Speedway Golf Course in 1929. The golf course has 14 holes outside the track, along the backstretch, and four holes in the infield. The site is among the most visited attractions in the Indianapolis metropolitan area, with 1 million guests annually. The speedway has served as the venue for the opening ceremonies for the 1987 Pan American Games. The track is nicknamed "The Brickyard" (see below), and the garage area is known as Gasoline Alley.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On November 4, 2019, Hulman & Company announced the sale of its company, including the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the IndyCar Series and associated enterprises to Penske Corporation, owned by Roger Penske.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Indianapolis businessman Carl G. Fisher first envisioned building the speedway in 1905 after assisting friends racing in France and seeing that Europe held the upper hand in automobile design and craftsmanship. Fisher began thinking of a better means of testing cars before delivering them to consumers. At the time, racing was just getting started on horse tracks and public roads. Fisher noticed how dangerous and ill-suited the makeshift courses were for racing and testing. He also argued that spectators did not get their money's worth, as they were able to get only a brief glimpse of cars speeding down a linear road.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Fisher proposed building a circular track long with smooth surfaces. Such a track would give manufacturers a chance to test cars at sustained speeds and give drivers a chance to learn their limits. Fisher predicted speeds could reach up to on a course. He visited the Brooklands circuit outside London in 1907, and after viewing the banked layout, it solidified his determination to build the speedway. With dozens of car makers and suppliers in Indiana, Fisher proclaimed, "Indianapolis is going to be the world's greatest center of horseless carriage manufacturer, what could be more logical than building the world's greatest racetrack right here?"


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Fisher began looking around the Indianapolis area for a site to build his track; he rejected two potential sites before finding level farmland, Pressley Farm, totaling about outside Indianapolis. In December 1908, he convinced James A. Allison, Arthur Newby, and Frank W. Wheeler to join him in purchasing the property for $72,000. The group incorporated the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Company on March 20, 1909, with a capitalization of $250,000, with Fisher and James Allison in for $75,000 apiece and Frank Wheeler and Arthur Newby on board for $50,000 each.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Construction of the track started in March 1909. Fisher had to quickly downsize his planned oval with a road course to a oval to leave room for the grandstands. Reshaping of the land for the speedway took 500 laborers, 300 mules and a fleet of steam-powered machinery. The track surface consisted of graded and packed soil covered by of gravel, of limestone covered with taroid (a solution of tar and oil), of crushed stone chips that were also drenched with taroid, and a final topping of crushed stone. Workers also constructed dozens of buildings, several bridges, grandstands with 12,000 seats, and an perimeter fence. A white-with-green-trim paint scheme was used throughout the property.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The first event ever held at the speedway was a helium gas-filled balloon competition on Saturday, June 5, 1909, more than two months before the oval was completed. The event drew a reported 40,000 people. Nine balloons lifted off "racing" for trophies; a balloon by the name of "Universal City" won the race, landing away in Alabama after spending more than a day aloft. The first motorsport event at the track consisted of seven motorcycle races, sanctioned by the Federation of American Motorcyclists (FAM), on August 14, 1909. This was originally planned as a two-day, 15-race program, but ended before the first day was completed due to concerns over suitability of the track surface for motorcycle use. These early events were largely planned by one of the top names in early auto racing promotion, Ernest Moross, who earned fame for his bold and sometimes outlandish barnstorming events at fairgrounds tracks with racing star Barney Oldfield.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On August 19, 1909, fifteen carmakers' teams arrived at the track for practice. The track surface again became a concern with drivers being covered in dirt, oil, and tar and with ruts and chuckholes beginning to form in the turns. Speedway workers oiled and rolled the track prior to the gates opening to the public. Fifteen to twenty thousand spectators showed up, paying at the most $1 for a ticket. Halfway through the first event, race leader Louis Chevrolet was temporarily blinded when a stone smashed his goggles. Wilfred Bourque, driving in a Knox, suffered a suspected rear-axle failure resulting in his car flipping end over end on the front stretch before crashing into a fence post. Both he and his mechanic, Harry Halcomb, died at the scene.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The first day of car racing resulted in four finishes and two land speed records, but concerns over safety led AAA officials to consider canceling the remaining events. Fisher promised the track would be repaired by the next day and convinced officials that the show should go on. The second day saw 20,000 spectators, no major incidents, and additional speed records broken.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On the third day of racing, 35,000 spectators showed up to watch the grand finale race. At into the race, the right front tire blew on Charlie Merz's car. His car mowed down five fence posts and toppled dozens of spectators. Two spectators and his mechanic, Claude Kellum, were killed in the crash. Ten laps later, driver Bruce Keen struck a pothole and crashed into a bridge support. The race was then halted and the remaining drivers were given engraved certificates instead of trophies. The race resulted in the AAA boycotting any future events at the speedway until significant improvements were made.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Fisher and his partners began looking into the idea of paving the track with bricks or concrete. Paving in 1909 was still relatively new with only a few miles of public roads paved, leaving little knowledge of what would work best. Traction tests were conducted on bricks, proving they could hold up. Less than a month after the first car races, the repaving project began. Five Indiana manufacturers supplied 3.2 million bricks to the track. Each was hand laid over a cushion of sand, then leveled and the gaps filled with mortar. At the same time, a concrete wall tall was constructed in front of the main grandstand and around all four corners to protect spectators. The final brick added to the track was made of gold and laid in a special ceremony by Governor Thomas R. Marshall. Before the work was completed, locals nicknamed the track The Brickyard. Today, , or one yard, of original bricks remain exposed at the start-finish line.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In December 1909, eleven drivers and a few motorcyclists returned for speed trials. Drivers soon reached speeds of up to on the new surface. Racing returned in 1910, with a total of 66 automobile races held during three holiday weekends (Memorial Day, Independence Day and Labor Day). Each weekend featured two or three races of , with several shorter contests. Each race stood on its own and earned its own trophy. All races were sanctioned by the AAA (as were the Indianapolis 500 races through 1955). 1910 also saw the speedway host the National Aviation Meet, featuring Wilbur and Orville Wright and highlighted by Walter Brookins setting a world record by taking a plane up to .


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: A change in marketing focus led to only one race per year beginning in 1911. An estimated 80,000 spectators attended the first race on Memorial Day, May 30, 1911. Forty cars competed with Ray Harroun winning at an average speed of . While all the other drivers in the race had a riding mechanic in their car, Harroun decided to save weight and go faster by driving solo. So, to be able to see what was happening behind his No. 32 Marmon "Wasp", he installed a rear-view mirror. It was the first time such a device was used in an automobile.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: A classic race followed in 1912, when Ralph DePalma lost a five-lap lead with five laps to go after his car broke down. As DePalma pushed his car around the circuit, Joe Dawson made up the deficit to win. Three of the next four winners were European, with DePalma being the exception as an American national, though originally Italian born. These races gave Indy a worldwide reputation and international drivers began to enter. The 1916 race was shortened to 120 laps, for a number of reasons including a lack of entries from Europe (there were so few entries that the speedway itself entered several cars), a lack of oil, and out of respect for the war in Europe.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On September 9, 1916, the speedway hosted a day of short racing events termed the "Harvest Classic", composed of three races held at 20-, 50-, and 100-mile (32, 80 and 160 km) distances. In the end, Johnny Aitken, in a Peugeot, would win all three events, his final victories at the facility. The Harvest Classic contests were the last races other than the Indianapolis 500 to be held on the grounds for seventy-eight years.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Racing was interrupted in 1917–1918 by World War I when the facility served as a military aviation repair and refueling depot, designated the Speedway Aviation Repair Depot, commanded by Captain Patrick Frissell. When racing resumed, speeds quickly increased.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: At the 1925 event, Pete DePaolo became the first to average 100 mph (160 km/h) for the race, with a speed of .


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 1926, Fisher and Allison were offered "a fortune" for the speedway site by a local real estate developer. They refused, selling instead to former racing driver (and World War One fighter ace) Edward V. Rickenbacker in 1927. How much he paid was not revealed. Rickenbacker built a golf course in the infield. The next year, Allison died from pneumonia.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: With the Great Depression hitting the nation, the purse dropped from a winners share of $50,000 and a total of $98,250 in 1930 to $18,000 and $54,450, respectively. There is a common misconception the rules were "dumbed down" to what was called the "junkyard formula" to allow more entries during the depression. The rules were indeed changed, but it was due to an effort by the speedway to get more car manufacturers involved in the race by discouraging the entry of specialized racing machines that dominated the 500 during the mid- to late-1920s. The rule changes, in fact, were already being laid out before the market crash.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 1931, Dave Evans performed a remarkable feat when his Cummins Diesel Special completed the entire 500 miles without a pit stop. It was also the first diesel entrant.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 1933, a record 42 cars started the 500. For 1934, a maximum fuel consumption limit was imposed, . It became in 1935 and in 1936. When the limits resulted in several top competitors running out of fuel in the closing stages, the limits were abandoned, though the use of pump gasoline was still mandatory.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: By the early 1930s, rising race speeds began to make the track increasingly dangerous, and in the period 1931–1935, there were 15 fatalities. This forced another repavement, with tarmac replacing the bricks in parts of the track. In addition, during the 1935–36 seasons the inside wall was removed in the corners, the outside wall was realigned (to change the angle compared to the track, reducing the potential for cars to vault over it), hard crash helmets became mandatory, and the first yellow light system was installed around the track. The continuing track dangers during this period, however, did not stop Louis Meyer or Wilbur Shaw from becoming the first two three-time winners, with Shaw also being the first back-to-back winner in 1939 and 1940.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: At the beginning of the 1940s, the track required further improvements. In 1941, about a third of the "Gasoline Alley" garage area burned down before the race. With U.S. involvement in World War II, the 1942 500-mile race was canceled in December 1941. Owner Eddie Rickenbacker said the race would be suspended for the duration of the war. In 1942, AAA Contest Board suspended all auto racing, and the U.S. government moved to ban all auto racing, primarily on account of rationing. The race would not be held for four years (1942–1945). The track was more or less abandoned during the war and fell into a state of disrepair.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Many of the locals conceded that the speedway would be sold after the war and become a housing development. With the end of the war in sight, on November 29, 1944, three-time 500 winner Wilbur Shaw came back to do a tire test approved by the government for Firestone. Shaw was shocked at the dilapidated state of the speedway and contacted owner Eddie Rickenbacker, only to discover that it was for sale. Shaw then sent out letters to the automobile industry to try to find a buyer. All the responses indicated that the speedway would be turned into a private facility for the buyer. Shaw then looked around for someone to buy the speedway, who would reopen the racetrack as a public venue. He found Terre Haute businessman Tony Hulman. Meetings were set up and the speedway was purchased on November 14, 1945. Though not officially acknowledged, the purchase price for the speedway was reported by the "Indianapolis Star" and "News" to be $750,000. Major renovations and repairs were made at a quick pace to the frail speedway, in time for the 1946 race. Since the record 42 cars that started the 1933 edition of the 500, the field size has been set at 33 drivers, with only three exceptions to this rule, the first being 1947, when only 30 cars started due to a strike by certain teams affiliated with the ASPAR drivers, owners and sponsors association.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Since then the speedway has continued to grow. Stands have been built and remodeled many times over, suites and museums were added, and many other additions helped bring back Indy's reputation as a great track.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In the 1950s, cars were topping out at , helping to draw more and more fans. The low-slung, sleek cars were known as roadsters, and the Kurtis, Kuzma, and Watson chassis dominated the field. Nearly all were powered by the Offenhauser, or "Offy", engines. The crowd favorite Novi, with its unique sound and look, was the most powerful car of the decade that dominated time trials. However, they would never make the full in first place, often breaking down before the end or having to make too many pit stops because of the massive engine's thirst for fuel and the weight that went with the extra fuel.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The track's reputation improved so much that the 500-mile race became part of the Formula One World Championship for 10 years (1950–1960), even though none of the Indy drivers raced in Formula One and only Ferrari's Alberto Ascari of the F1 drivers at the time raced in the 500 in 1952. Five-time world champion Juan Fangio practiced at the speedway in 1958 but ultimately decided against racing there. The 1950s were also the most dangerous era of American racing. Of the 33 drivers to qualify for the 1953 race, nearly half, 16, were to eventually die in racing accidents.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In October 1961, the final remaining brick sections of the track were paved over with asphalt, with the exception of a distinct three-foot-wide line of bricks at the start-finish line. The "Brickyard" thus became known for its "Yard of Bricks". After being widely ignored by Formula One drivers when it was an F1 World Championship event, a wave of F1 drivers went to the speedway in the 1960s, and the rear-engine revolution that was started by the Cooper F1 team changed the face of the 500 as well, with and world drivers' champion Jack Brabham of Australia qualifying his Cooper in 13th for the 1961 race. The Cooper used a smaller (2.7-liter) and less powerful Coventry Climax engine compared to the 4.4-liter Offy engines used by the other 32 cars and was slower on the straights, but many took note of the British car's superior handling through the turns. Brabham qualified 17th and after running as high as third, would ultimately finish ninth after completing all 200 laps. Despite this, many doubters claimed the rear-engine cars were for drivers who liked to be pushed around, though as Brabham said "It started the rear-engined revolution at Indy".


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: A. J. Foyt, who had won his first 500 in 1961, won the 1964 Indianapolis 500, which was the last ever win for a front-engine car, and since Jim Clark's win driving the rear-engine Lotus 38 in 1965, every winner has driven a rear-engine car. Graham Hill won the following year in his first attempt, eventually becoming the only driver to date to achieve auto racing's "Triple Crown of Motorsport" of winning the Monaco Grand Prix, Indianapolis 500, and Le Mans 24 Hours. There were enough Americans to compete with them, with A. J. Foyt, Mario Andretti, and the Unser brothers Bobby and Al leading the charge in the 1960s and 1970s, of whom Foyt and Al Unser would eventually become, respectively, the first two of four drivers, to date, to win four times each, while Bobby Unser won the race three times, with Andretti only ever winning the race once, in 1969. Andretti would go on to race in F1 and win the world championship in with Team Lotus, who had been the first rear-engine winners at Indy, with Clark, in 1965.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: From 1970 to 1981, Indianapolis had a twin in the city of Ontario, California, by the name of the Ontario Motor Speedway. This track was known as the "Indianapolis of the West" and the home of the California 500, but was a financial failure due to poor management and not holding enough races on the racetrack.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In the 1977 Indy 500, Janet Guthrie made history when she became the first female driver to qualify for the race. Guthrie started the race from 18th position but retired with timing gear failure after 27 laps. She was eventually classified 29th. 1977 also saw A. J. Foyt make history when he became the first driver to win the race four times.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: 1979 saw the second exception to the 1934 33-driver field rule. By the late 1970s there arose some resistance from certain car owners and drivers as to the direction being taken by USAC, the auto racing sanctioning body that among other things, governed the Indianapolis 500 event. Some of the dissident teams formed their own racing body, Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART). USAC responded by barring six of the most famous teams in the sport from qualification (including Roger Penske and Dan Gurney), for "undermining the well-being of USAC". The ruling would sideline former Indy winners Bobby Unser, Al Unser Sr., Gordon Johncock, and Johnny Rutherford. After a court injunction in favor of CART, and a controversy where exhaust pipe rules were clarified after qualifications began and certain teams with an altered exhaust pipe were "locked into" the field, USAC held an additional qualification round on the day before the race, announcing that any driver who could post a faster speed than the slowest qualifier (Roger McCluskey) would be allowed to start the race. Bill Vukovich and George Snider were added to the lineup, bringing the field to 35. A crisis was averted for the moment, but USAC's handling of both issues was seen as bungling by some people, and as outright manipulation by others, and that year spelled the beginning of the end for USAC's governance of the Indy Car series.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The 1980s brought a new generation of speedsters, led by four-time race winner Rick Mears who also broke the speed mark in qualifying (1989) and won six pole positions. Other stars of the decade included Danny Sullivan, Bobby Rahal, and F1 veteran Emerson Fittipaldi. The 1989 race came down to a final ten-lap, a thrilling duel between Fittipaldi and Al Unser Jr., culminating in Unser crashing in the third turn of the 199th lap after making contact with Fittpaldi's right front tire.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The early 1990s witnessed Arie Luyendyk winning in what was then the fastest 500 to date, with an average speed of . That record was not eclipsed for almost a quarter of a century until Tony Kanaan won the 2013 race with an average speed of over . Rick Mears became the third four-time winner after a late-race duel with Michael Andretti in 1991, and in 1992, Al Unser Jr. eked out a hard-fought victory by defeating last-place-starting driver Scott Goodyear by 0.043 of a second, a margin that is still the closest finish in race history. The 500 got a new look in 1996 when it became an Indy Racing League event, formed as a rival to CART.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: There was another qualifying controversy in 1996 and 1997, arising over the IRL's "25/8 rule" which locked the previous year's top-25 overall points finishers into the Indianapolis race, regardless of their qualifying speed, leaving only eight spots open for entries to qualify on speed alone. The rule effectively locked out the CART series regulars from competing for qualifying spots in the Indy 500. CART responded by holding their own event, the U.S. 500, on the same day as the 1996 Indianapolis 500. While the new qualifying format was not a factor in 1996, it would backfire in 1997 when two drivers who posted qualifying speeds fast enough to make the race were bumped to make room for slower locked-in cars with more 1996-97 championship points. Hemelgarn Racing, who owned the two cars victimized in the scenario, protested to the IRL that the field would not include the 33 fastest cars. After Bump Day was completed, the series elected to add the two bumped cars, driven by Johnny Unser and Lyn St. James, back into the field, bringing the number of starters to 35. This marked the last time the 500's starting field has been larger than 33 drivers.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The early 2000s saw drivers from the rival CART series begin to cross over to compete at the Indianapolis 500. In the 2000 Indianapolis 500, multiple CART champion team Chip Ganassi Racing brought their drivers Juan Pablo Montoya and Jimmy Vasser to Indianapolis. Montoya qualified second, led 167 laps, and won the race convincingly, becoming the seventh Indy 500 rookie to win the race. The next year, Team Penske made its return to the Indianapolis 500 after a five-year absence and was joined by Ganassi, Walker Racing and Michael Andretti, driving for Team Kool Green in a separate effort headed by Kim Green, known as "Team Motorola". For the second straight year, an Indy rookie won the race as Hélio Castroneves took the checkered flag. Roger Penske then elected to move his entire operation over to the IRL beginning in 2002, taking Castroneves and teammate Gil de Ferran with him. After fielding one car in 2002, Ganassi Racing followed Penske to the IRL full-time for the 2003 season. Michael Andretti, who had left his long-time ride at Newman-Haas Racing because he wanted to run the Indianapolis 500 again (something they were not willing to do), bought a majority interest in CART's Team Green, which returned to Indianapolis in 2002 with Dario Franchitti, Paul Tracy and Michael Andretti, and moved it to the IRL that same year as Andretti Green Racing, and in 2004 former CART champion Bobby Rahal's operation moved to the IRL as Rahal Letterman Racing. Castroneves repeated his Indianapolis 500 win in 2002 despite controversial circumstances involving a late-race caution and a pass made by Tracy, and his teammate de Ferran won in 2003.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2003, the Indy Lights Series, a minor league series to the IndyCar Series, made history with the first May race at the track since 1910, other than the 500. The Freedom 100, first held during the final qualifying weekend, has been moved to "carburetion day" on the Friday before the 500. From 2005 to 2007, the Indy Lights became the first racing series since 1916 to run at the racecourse twice in one year. The first event being the Freedom 100, held on the oval track as part of the Indianapolis 500 weekend, and the second event, the Liberty Challenge, during the United States Grand Prix weekend, competing on the Grand Prix road course.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Buddy Rice became the first American driver since 1998 to win the race in the rain-shortened 2004 Indianapolis 500. At the time, Rice drove for the team co-owned by 1986 Indianapolis 500 winner Bobby Rahal and the Indiana native television talk show host and comedian David Letterman. In 2005, Danica Patrick became the first female driver to lead the race at Indianapolis, after acquiring it for a lap near the mark while cycling through pit stops. Dan Wheldon would go on to win the 2005 Indianapolis 500.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Sam Hornish Jr. became the first driver to ever overtake for the lead on the race's final lap, ultimately winning the 2006 Indianapolis 500 in the last by a 0.0635-second margin over rookie Marco Andretti. Dario Franchitti became the first native of Scotland since Jim Clark's victory in 1965 to win, in the rain-shortened 2007 Indianapolis 500.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In mid-February 2008, Champ Car filed for bankruptcy. In late February, an agreement was reached for Champ Car to be merged with the IRL, and the first IRL IndyCar Series season since the unification took place in 2008. Scott Dixon, driving for Chip Ganassi Racing, became the first native of New Zealand to win, in the 2008 Indianapolis 500.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In the 100th anniversary year of the construction of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Hélio Castroneves became the sixth three-time winner of the 500 in the 2009 Indianapolis 500. Danica Patrick also had her best finish ever (third place) in the race, also the best finish ever by a woman in the history of the Indianapolis 500.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The 2010, 2011 and 2012 runnings of the race saw three consecutive British victories, namely for previous winners Franchitti (2010 and 2012) and the late Wheldon winning in 2011 just a few months before his fatal crash at Las Vegas. Brazilian Tony Kanaan won the 2013 running, before American Ryan Hunter-Reay ended an eight-year streak of foreign winners in 2014.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Previous winner Montoya had returned to IndyCar competition and secured a 2015 win to make himself a two-time winner with a fifteen-year gap between triumphs. The event saw Canadian James Hinchcliffe survive a life-threatening impact in practice. The 2016 race saw another American race winner when rookie Alexander Rossi stretched his fuel mileage to record an upset win in a race where he had been off the leaders' pace.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The 2017 race saw former Formula One World Champion Fernando Alonso take off from the Monaco Grand Prix to take part in a one-off event, being highly competitive up front before his engine blew. The races' polesitter and 2008 winner Scott Dixon escaped a huge airborne crash largely unhurt. In spite of heavy crashes, the speedway had now gone more than 20 years without a fatality as the SAFER barriers and the enhanced IndyCars absorbed more of the violent impacts. The race was eventually won by Takuma Sato, who became the first Japanese and Asian winner of the event.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2018, Australian former series' champions Will Power won the race after a decade of participation as the first Australian to win the 500, whereas his Penske teammate Simon Pagenaud repeated that feat, becoming the first French winner of the race since 1920, in 2019 after a last-lap duel with 2016 winner Rossi.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2020, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, as with IndyCar Series and other related holdings, was sold to Penske Entertainment Corp., a subsidiary of the Penske Corporation, owned by Roger Penske.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2020, for the first time Indianapolis 500 was not held on or around Memorial Day in late May and instead was held in August. Japanese 2017 winner's Takuma Sato won the race for the second time after taking lead at lap 186.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2021, Brazilian three-time winner Hélio Castroneves won the race after a late-race duel with Álex Palou, he joined A. J. Foyt, Al Unser Sr. and Rick Mears as four-time winners, this race was also the first victory for Meyer Shank Racing.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In May 2022, IMS announced it had become a Caesars Sportsbook partner beginning with the NTT Indy car series’ GMR Grand Prix on May 14. As part of the deal, the gaming operator opened the Caesars Sportsbook Lounge at the track's Pagoda Plaza.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: From 1919 to 1993, the Indianapolis 500 was the only sanctioned race held at the Speedway. When Tony George (Hulman's grandson) inherited the track, he spearheaded an effort to bring more racing events to the track. In August 1994, the Brickyard 400 for the NASCAR Winston Cup Series made its debut, and at the time, featured the largest crowd and largest cash purse in NASCAR history. From 1998 to 2003, an IROC event was held as a support race.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Since 2012, the Cup race has been supported by the Pennzoil 150 of the NASCAR Xfinity Series; in 2020, the race was moved to the infield road course. The Cup race followed suit in 2021 and was renamed the Verizon 200.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Known for a time as Kroger Super Weekend, it also previously hosted the Brickyard Grand Prix for the TUDOR United Sports Car Championship on the infield road course.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 1998, Tony George arranged for Formula One to return to the United States for the first time since 1991. A two-year renovation and construction project added an infield road course, new pit garages and a new Pagoda building containing race control and the media center. The road course had been designed internally by IMS in 1992, with the Brickyard golf course redesign taking the future road course into account.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The project culminated in the first United States Grand Prix at the facility in 2000. With over 200,000 spectators in attendance, it was one of the largest crowds in the history of Formula One and considered a huge success. The race was also pivotal to Michael Schumacher's winning of the 2000 World Championship, as he came out on top when Mika Häkkinen's engine blew, resulting in an eight-point lead of the championship that set Schumacher up to need only one win in the remaining two races, something he achieved at the next event.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The short history of the event, however, was littered with controversies. The 2002 United States Grand Prix was marred by a bizarre ending, in which Michael Schumacher, having already clinched the championship, seemingly tried to stage a dead heat with teammate Rubens Barrichello. The official timings showed Barrichello ahead by 0.011 seconds at the line, leading fans and media to dub the event a farce. The 2002 race was also the first-ever Formula One race to use SAFER barriers. In 2003 Schumacher once more set himself up for the title with an Indianapolis win in a dramatic wet-dry event. The 2005 race turned out to be one of the most controversial races in motorsport history. Michelin realized their tires were ill-equipped for the banking after two heavy crashes for Toyota both for Ralf Schumacher and stand-in Ricardo Zonta, and at the last second, the Michelin teams pulled into the pits at the end of the formation lap, leaving only the three Bridgestone teams (six cars) to contest the race. Fans and media were highly critical of the poor handling of the situation. Many fans walked out, and costly ticket refunds were issued. The 2005 event was not the first tire issue for Michelin as Ralf Schumacher also had heavily crashed, fracturing his back in the 2004 race, while Fernando Alonso also suffered a tire blowout at the end of the start-finish straight in that same event.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Despite the outrage of the 2005 event, the race returned for two additional years. The race did not enjoy the level of success of its earlier runnings, and attendance and interest fell dramatically. The race was left off the calendar for 2008, and efforts to revive the race for 2009 were not successful. In 2012, the U.S. Grand Prix relocated to the Circuit of the Americas.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: From 2008 to 2015, the speedway hosted a round of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. The race marked the first motorcycle racing event at the facility since 1909.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Modifications approved by the FIA and FIM were made to the combined road course, bringing the new layout to a total of 16 turns. The motorcycle course was designed to run counter-clockwise, the same direction as the oval events. The banking of oval turn one was bypassed by a new infield section, dubbed the "Snake Pit Complex". In addition, the double-hairpin after the Hulman Straight was replaced with traditional esses.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On September 12, 2019, the Speedway announced motorcycle racing will return on the FIM-approved circuit with the MotoAmerica Championship of Indianapolis, which will be part of the Motorcycles on Meridian motorcycle festival. The Indianapolis festival will join Sturgis Motorcycle Rally (American Flat Track) and Daytona Beach Bike Week (Daytona 200 American Sportbike Racing Association championship) as hosts of major motorcycle racing events that run with motorcycle festivals. It will mark MotoAmerica's first race at the Speedway since 2015, and the first as a stand-alone race with the five major championships participating.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Beginning in 2014, the IndyCar Series began holding a race on the combined road course in early May, serving as a lead-in to the Indianapolis 500. The infield road course was modified once again, to make the circuit more competitive, better for fans, and more suited for Indy cars.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational, held in mid-June, is a racing meet for vintage racing, held on the road course. The event is sanctioned by the Sportscar Vintage Racing Association. In addition to multiple classes of racing on the road course, oval track exhibitions featuring historical Indy cars have also been part of the event. The feature event of the weekend is the annual Indy Legends Charity Pro–Am race.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In October 2021 the IMS was the location for the first race with full autonomous race cars as a successor of the DARPA Grand Challenge. University teams from all over the world competed in developing software for high speed autonomous driving on the IMS oval. All teams were using a Dallara Indy Lights vehicle equipped with sensors (lidar, radar, camera) and computation hardware. The teams development a full autonomous driving software stack that enables perception, planning and control on the racetrack. The competition was won by the team "TUM Autonomous Motorsport" from the Technical University of Munich which was awarded prize money of $1 million.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: From 1960 to 1968, the Speedway Golf Course hosted a PGA Tour event, the 500 Festival Open Invitation; its earlier editions were held during the days surrounding the Indy 500 race week. In 1968, it also held an LPGA tournament, the 500 Ladies Classic in mid-June, won by Mickey Wright. A reconstruction project was completed in 1993, converting the 27-hole layout (18 holes outside, nine in the infield) to an 18-hole championship course designed by legendary golf architect Pete Dye. Renamed "Brickyard Crossing," it features 14 holes outside, and four holes in the infield, with an infield lake. At par 72, it measures from the back tees with a course rating of 75.1 and a slope of 149.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: A senior tour event, the Brickyard Crossing Championship, was played there from 1994 through 2000, and it has also hosted college tournaments. An LPGA event, Indy Women in Tech Championship, debuted in 2017.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The opening of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 1909 dates back close to the birth of the sport of American Championship car racing. Since its inception, the Speedway has been metonymous within the sport. Many Indy car teams, suppliers, and constructors have been and are based in the greater Indianapolis area, some within blocks of the track. When USAC was formed in 1956, the sanctioning body's headquarters were constructed nearly across the street. The current sanctioning body, IndyCar, is headquartered in buildings directly across the street.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The track, and occasionally the headquarters, is sometimes referred to as "16th & Georgetown", owing to the track's address at the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road, and particularly the administration building's physical location at the corner of that intersection (which is now a roundabout).


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Speedway and the city of Indianapolis are closely tied to Indy car racing, analogous to the link NASCAR has to the greater Charlotte area. The term "Indy" and its variations synonymous with motorsports ("Indy 500", "Indy car," etc.) derive directly from the shorthand nickname ("Indy") of the city ("Indianapolis") itself.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2004, "The Indianapolis Star" journalist Curt Cavin counted 257,325 seats, a world record. The number of seats was reduced to an estimated 235,000 in 2013.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Indianapolis Motor Speedway has a transitional climate with influences of both subtropical and continental. The nearest official weather station is at the Indianapolis International Airport, located just a few miles from the speedway.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Due to the cold winters, including snow on the track, Indy 500 testing is often impossible during winter months. During the main event in late May, the local climate is transitioning from spring to summer. May is the rainiest month of the year, which makes rain delays a large risk during various parts of the event. Ambient temperatures on average for the month is in the lower 70s Fahrenheit/lower 20s Celsius, with temperatures in the 80s not being uncommon later in the month when the race takes place.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: For the Brickyard 400 in the summer, the track is much more prone to heatwaves, with the wet season carrying on into July as well.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The defunct Formula One and MotoGP roval infield road course events ran in June/September and August respectively. Since oval racing is not conducted in wet conditions, the inaugural Formula One Grand Prix became the track's first race under wet conditions, using the oval's Turn 1 in a reverse direction with rain tires. The IndyCar Grand Prix, which is usually run two weeks before the 500, is the main existing road course event and can be run in wet conditions, as can the NASCAR meeting Shell 150 and Verizon 200.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan Thoogudeepa (born 16 February 1977) known mononymously as Darshan is an Indian actor, producer, and distributor who works predominantly in Kannada films. One of the leading contemporary actors of Kannada cinema, Darshan established the production house Thoogudeepa Productions in 2006. Its first production was "Jothe Jotheyali", with Darshan in a special appearance.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: He began his acting career in soap operas and small films in the mid-1990s. His first film in a lead role was in the 2002 Kannada movie "Majestic".


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan starred in commercially successful films such as "Kariya" (2003), "Namma Preethiya Ramu" (2003), "Kalasipalya" (2005), "Gaja" (2008), "Navagraha" (2008),"Saarathi" (2011), "Bulbul" (2013) "Yajamana" (2019) and "Roberrt" (2021), . His performances in "Anatharu" (2007) and "Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna" (2012) won him praise from critics; his performance in the latter as the 19th-century warrior Sangolli Rayanna won him the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan was born to actor Thoogudeepa Srinivas and Meena on 16 February 1977 in Ponnampet, Kodagu district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. He was given the name Hemanth Kumar at birth. "Thoogudeepa" is a 1966 Kannada film in which Srinivas acted and gained fame, following which the sobriquet stuck to his name. A popular actor during his time, he was reluctant towards Darshan following his path of film acting. Against his wishes, Darshan got himself enrolled in Ninasam, a theatre training institute, in Shimoga, prior to his father's death in 1995.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan has a sister, Divya, and a younger brother, Dinakar, a filmmaker, running the production house, Thoogudeepa Productions. As a child, Darshan studied his primary and secondary education at Mysuru.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: After graduating from Ninasam, Darshan worked as a projectionist before becoming an assistant cameraman to veteran cinematographer B. C. Gowrishankar. His first acting role came in S. Narayan's television soap. Narayan then offered him a supporting role in his 1997 film "Mahabharatha". Darshan subsequently featured in films such as "Devara Maga" (2000), "Ellara Mane Dosenoo" (2000), "Bhoothayyana Makkalu" (2000) and "Mr. Harishchandra" (2001), mostly in insignificant and supporting, often bit roles. This period also saw him play minor roles in other television soaps.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan's major break in films came with "Majestic", directed by P. N. Satya and released in 2001, in which he played the role of Daasa, an innocent youth-turned-underworld don. He then appeared in films such as "Kitti", "Ninagoskara", "Neenandre Ishta" and "Daasa", produced by Ramesh Yadav. He starred in Prem's directorial debut, the 2003 action film "Kariya". He played a budding musician in "Laali Haadu", a journalist in "Lankesh Patrike" and a blind poor man in "Namma Preethiya Ramu".


title: Darshan (actor)

text: In 2004, he starred in "Kalasipalya", directed by Om Prakash Rao and in P. N. Satya's "Daasa". In 2005, he acted in three more films "Annavru", "Shashtri" and "Ayya".


title: Darshan (actor)

text: He starred again in Anaji Nagaraj's "Swamy" (2005), "Suntaragaali" (2006), "Dattha" (2006), "Bhoopathi" (2007), "Snehana Preethina" (2007) and "Anatharu" (2008), where he starred with Upendra.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: In 2008, "Gaja" helped him to establish a niche as a well built, rustic yet "posh" young man. Further movies include "Indra" (2008), "Arjun" (2008), "Navagraha" (2008), "Yodha" (2009), "Abhay" (2009).


title: Darshan (actor)

text: In 2010, he acted as cop disguised as a rogue in "Porki", which was a remake of the 2009 Telugu film "Pokiri". His next movie was "Shourya" (2010). Then came "Boss" (2011) and "Prince" (2011).


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan's next releases were "Boss" (2011) and "Prince" (2011). Next came the action drama "Saarathi". His 2012 release was "Chingari". Next, he played a role in the historical movie "Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna" and got his maiden Karnataka State Film Awards and Filmfare Award for best actor. In 2013, he had two releases, "Bulbul" and "Brindavana".


title: Darshan (actor)

text: His 2014 film "Ambareesha" received mixed responses, though it was commercially successful. In "Mr. Airavata", he played the role of a police officer. "The Hindu" wrote: "He sizzles on the screen in his tailor-made avatar as Mr. Airavata". In "Viraat", his first release of 2016, he played a businessman wanting to provide a solution to the issue of irregular power supply by taking up a thermal power project. "The Indian Express", in its review, wrote that despite the loopholes, Darshan "cements them". The reviewer added: "He is seen in his signature style of action, dialogue delivery and mannerism. This time the actor breezes through some dance steps". Darshan's next film "Jaggu Dada" saw him play a gangster, and received largely negative reviews from critics. Darshan's next film was Chakravarthy in 2017 based on Bangalore Underworld's true story, which gave a mixed response from the audience, but got recognition for the new look. In later 2017, his next movie Tarak was released. On 1 March 2019, his 51st movie Yajamana was released, becoming Darshan's biggest box office opener. Following the success of "Yajamana", the big-budget Indian mythological movie "Kurukshetra" was released on 9 August 2019. "Kurukshetra" was well received by critics. In the same year, on 12 December 2019, Darshan released another film, "Odeya". In June 2019, filming began on another Darshan film, "Roberrt", which is directed by Tharun Kishore Sudhir and released on 2021.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan married his relative Vijayalakshmi, who was then a student in Chemical engineering, in 2003 at Dharmasthala Temple. They have a son, Vineesh. Darshan runs his own mini zoo in the far east of Mysuru, near Malavalli. Darshan's other passions are cars and bikes.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: Darshan was involved in a controversy in September 2011, when his wife complained to police, accusing him of domestic violence. He was subsequently arrested and spent 14 days in judicial custody at Parappana Agrahara. However, the marital discord was later settled out of court. He issued a public apology to his fans for the controversy. Though this was expected to dent his image, his immediate release "Saarathi" (2011) performed well at the box office. In 2016, his wife approached Bengaluru police to complain for Darshan's 'objectionable behaviour'. In 2021, Darshan was accused of assaulting a waiter at a Mysuru hotel. It was further alleged that the had police covered up the incident and the waiter was given Rs 50,000 as settlement. Bharat, a Kannada film producer lodged a police complaint against Darshan in 2022 for threatening him with dire consequences.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: In 2006, after much success in his career, he ventured into film production also. He established his own production house "Thoogudeepa productions" and its first film was "Jothe Jotheyali", starring Prem, Ramya and had Darshan in a special appearance. The film was a commercial hit running 150 days in theatres.


title: Darshan (actor)

text: In 2013, his family established a distribution company called Thoogudeepa Distributors. "Bulbul" (2013), produced under the home banner became the first movie to be distributed. Its other notable projects include distribution of "Brindavana" (2013), Prakash Raj's "Oggarane" (2014), the Sharan starrer "Jai Lalitha" (2014), the Sriimurali starrer "Ugramm" and the V. Ravichandran starrer "Paramashiva" (2014).


title: Machine code

text: In computer programming, machine code is any low-level programming language, consisting of machine language instructions, which are used to control a computer's central processing unit (CPU). Each instruction causes the CPU to perform a very specific task, such as a load, a store, a jump, or an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) operation on one or more units of data in the CPU's registers or memory.


title: Machine code

text: Early CPUs had specific machine code that might break backwards compatibility with each new CPU released. The notion of an instruction set architecture (ISA) defines and specifies the behavior and encoding in memory of the instruction set of the system, without specifying its exact implementation. This acts as an abstraction layer, enabling compatibility within the same family of CPUs, so that machine code written or generated according to the ISA for the family will run on all CPUs in the family, including future CPUs.


title: Machine code

text: In general, each architecture family (e.g. x86, ARM) has its own ISA, and hence its own specific machine code language. There are exceptions, e.g. the IA-64 can emulate x86.


title: Machine code

text: Machine code is a strictly numerical language, and is the lowest-level interface to the CPU intended for a programmer. There is, on some CPUs, a lower level interface in the form of (modifiable) microcode that implement the machine code. However, microcode is not intended to be changed by the end user on normal commercial CPUs. Assembly language provides a direct mapping between the numerical machine code and a human readable version where numerical opcodes and operands are replaced by readable strings (e.g. 0x90 is the NOP instruction on x86). While it is possible to write programs directly in machine code, managing individual bits and calculating numerical addresses and constants manually is tedious and error-prone. For this reason, programs are very rarely written directly in machine code in modern contexts, but may be done for low level debugging, program patching (especially when assembler source is not available) and assembly language disassembly.


title: Machine code

text: The majority of practical programs today are written in higher-level languages or assembly language. The source code is then translated to executable machine code by utilities such as compilers, assemblers, and linkers, with the important exception of interpreted programs, which are not translated into machine code. However, the "interpreter" itself, which may be seen as an executor or processor performing the instructions of the source code, typically consists of directly executable machine code (generated from assembly or high-level language source code).


title: Machine code

text: Machine code is by definition the lowest level of programming detail visible to the programmer, but internally many processors use microcode or optimise and transform machine code instructions into sequences of micro-ops. This is not generally considered to be a machine code.


title: Machine code

text: Every processor or processor family has its own instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits, digits, or characters that correspond to machine commands. Thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using (mostly) the same architecture. Successor or derivative processor designs often include instructions of a predecessor and may add new additional instructions. Occasionally, a successor design will discontinue or alter the meaning of some instruction code (typically because it is needed for new purposes), affecting code compatibility to some extent; even compatible processors may show slightly different behavior for some instructions, but this is rarely a problem. Systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the same type of processor is used.


title: Machine code

text: A processor's instruction set may have fixed-length or variable-length instructions. How the patterns are organized varies with the particular architecture and type of instruction. Most instructions have one or more opcode fields that specify the basic instruction type (such as arithmetic, logical, jump, etc.), the operation (such as add or compare), and other fields that may give the type of the operand(s), the addressing mode(s), the addressing offset(s) or index, or the operand value itself (such constant operands contained in an instruction are called "immediate").


title: Machine code

text: Not all machines or individual instructions have explicit operands. On a machine with a single accumulator, the accumulator is implicitly both the left operand and result of most arithmetic instructions. Some other architectures, such as the x86 architecture, have accumulator versions of common instructions, with the accumulator regarded as one of the general registers by longer instructions. A stack machine has most or all of its operands on an implicit stack. Special purpose instructions also often lack explicit operands; for example, CPUID in the x86 architecture writes values into four implicit destination registers. This distinction between explicit and implicit operands is important in code generators, especially in the register allocation and live range tracking parts. A good code optimizer can track implicit as well as explicit operands which may allow more frequent constant propagation, constant folding of registers (a register assigned the result of a constant expression freed up by replacing it by that constant) and other code enhancements.


title: Machine code

text: A computer program is a list of instructions that can be executed by a central processing unit (CPU). A program's execution is done in order for the CPU that is executing it to solve a problem and thus accomplish a result. While simple processors are able to execute instructions one after another, superscalar processors are able under certain circumstances (when the pipeline is full) of executing two or more instructions simultaneously. As an example, the original Intel Pentium from 1993 can execute at most two instructions per clock cycle when its pipeline is full.


title: Machine code

text: Program flow may be influenced by special 'jump' instructions that transfer execution to an address (and hence instruction) other than the next numerically sequential address. Whether these conditional jumps occur is dependent upon a condition such as a value being greater than, less than, or equal to another value.


title: Machine code

text: A much more human friendly rendition of machine language, called assembly language, uses mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than using the instructions' numeric values directly, and uses symbolic names to refer to storage locations and sometimes registers. For example, on the Zilog Z80 processor, the machine code codice_1, which causes the CPU to decrement the codice_2 processor register, would be represented in assembly language as codice_3.


title: Machine code

text: The MIPS architecture provides a specific example for a machine code whose instructions are always 32 bits long. The general type of instruction is given by the "op" (operation) field, the highest 6 bits. J-type (jump) and I-type (immediate) instructions are fully specified by "op". R-type (register) instructions include an additional field "funct" to determine the exact operation. The fields used in these types are:


title: Machine code

text: "rs", "rt", and "rd" indicate register operands; "shamt" gives a shift amount; and the "address" or "immediate" fields contain an operand directly.


title: Machine code

text: Load a value into register 8, taken from the memory cell 68 cells after the location listed in register 3:


title: Machine code

text: On processor architectures with variable-length instruction sets (such as Intel's x86 processor family) it is, within the limits of the control-flow resynchronizing phenomenon known as the Kruskal Count, sometimes possible through opcode-level programming to deliberately arrange the resulting code so that two code paths share a common fragment of opcode sequences. These are called "overlapping instructions", "overlapping opcodes", "overlapping code", "overlapped code", "instruction scission", or "jump into the middle of an instruction", and represent a form of superposition.


title: Machine code

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, overlapping instructions were sometimes used to preserve memory space. One example were in the implementation of error tables in Microsoft's Altair BASIC, where "interleaved instructions" mutually shared their instruction bytes. The technique is rarely used today, but might still be necessary to resort to in areas where extreme optimization for size is necessary on byte-level such as in the implementation of boot loaders which have to fit into boot sectors.


title: Machine code

text: It is also sometimes used as a code obfuscation technique as a measure against disassembly and tampering.


title: Machine code

text: The principle is also utilized in shared code sequences of fat binaries which must run on multiple instruction-set-incompatible processor platforms.


title: Machine code

text: This property is also used to find unintended instructions called gadgets in existing code repositories and is utilized in return-oriented programming as alternative to code injection for exploits such as return-to-libc attacks.


title: Machine code

text: In some computers, the machine code of the architecture is implemented by an even more fundamental underlying layer called microcode, providing a common machine language interface across a line or family of different models of computer with widely different underlying dataflows. This is done to facilitate porting of machine language programs between different models. An example of this use is the IBM System/360 family of computers and their successors. With dataflow path widths of 8 bits to 64 bits and beyond, they nevertheless present a common architecture at the machine language level across the entire line.


title: Machine code

text: Using microcode to implement an emulator enables the computer to present the architecture of an entirely different computer. The System/360 line used this to allow porting programs from earlier IBM machines to the new family of computers, e.g. an IBM 1401/1440/1460 emulator on the IBM S/360 model 40.


title: Machine code

text: Machine code is generally different from bytecode (also known as p-code), which is either executed by an interpreter or itself compiled into machine code for faster (direct) execution. An exception is when a processor is designed to use a particular bytecode directly as its machine code, such as is the case with Java processors.


title: Machine code

text: Machine code and assembly code are sometimes called "native code" when referring to platform-dependent parts of language features or libraries.


title: Machine code

text: From the point of view of the CPU, machine code is stored in RAM, but is typically also kept in a set of caches for performance reasons. There may be different caches for instructions and data, depending on the architecture.


title: Machine code

text: The CPU knows what machine code to execute, based on its internal program counter. The program counter points to a memory address and is changed based on special instructions which may cause programmatic branches. The program counter is typically set to a hard coded value when the CPU is first powered on, and will hence execute whatever machine code happens to be at this address.


title: Machine code

text: Similarly, the program counter can be set to execute whatever machine code is at some arbitrary address, even if this isn't valid machine code. This will typically trigger an architecture specific protection fault.


title: Machine code

text: The CPU is oftentimes told, by page permissions in a paging based system, if the current page actually holds machine code by an execute bit — pages have multiple such permission bits (readable, writable, etc.) for various housekeeping functionality. E.g. on Unix-like systems memory pages can be toggled to be executable with the system call, and on Windows, can be used to achieve a similar result. If an attempt is made to execute machine code on a non-executable page, an architecture specific fault will typically occur. Treating data as machine code, or finding new ways to use existing machine code, by various techniques, is the basis of some security vulnerabilities.


title: Machine code

text: From the point of view of a process, the "code space" is the part of its address space where the code in execution is stored. In multitasking systems this comprises the program's code segment and usually shared libraries. In multi-threading environment, different threads of one process share code space along with data space, which reduces the overhead of context switching considerably as compared to process switching.


title: Machine code

text: Pamela Samuelson wrote that machine code is so unreadable that the United States Copyright Office cannot identify whether a particular encoded program is an original work of authorship; however, the US Copyright Office "does" allow for copyright registration of computer programs and a program's machine code can sometimes be decompiled in order to make its functioning more easily understandable to humans. However, the output of a decompiler or disassembler will be missing the comments and symbolic references, so while the output may be easier to read than the object code, it will still be more difficult than the original source code. This problem does not exist for object-code formats like SQUOZE, where the source code is included in the file.


title: Machine code

text: Cognitive science professor Douglas Hofstadter has compared machine code to genetic code, saying that "Looking at a program written in machine language is vaguely comparable to looking at a DNA molecule atom by atom."


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: The Yasen class, Russian designations Project 885 Yasen and Project 885M Yasen-M (, NATO reporting name: Severodvinsk), also referred to as the Graney" class, are a series of nuclear-powered cruise missile submarines designed by the Malakhit Marine Engineering Bureau and built by Sevmash for the Russian Navy. Design work commenced in earnest in the 1980s with the first submarine built in the 1990s–early 2010s with commissioning in 2013. Two additional boats to a modified (and slightly shorter overall) Yasen-M" design were commissioned in 2021 and six more are under construction. Based on the and designs, the "Yasen" class is projected to replace the Russian Navy's current Soviet-era nuclear attack submarines.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: The "Yasen"-class submarines were designed by Malakhit, which was formed by the merger of the SKB-143 and TsKB-16 design bureaus. Work on the initial design was scheduled to start in 1977 and be completed in 1985. Malakhit is one of the three Soviet/Russian submarine design centers, along with Rubin Design Bureau and Lazurit Central Design Bureau.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: Construction on the first submarine started on 21 December 1993, with its launch slated for 1995 and its commissioning for 1998. However, the project was delayed due to financial problems and it appeared during 1996 that work on the submarine had stopped completely. Some reports suggested that as of 1999 the submarine was less than 10 percent complete. In 2003 the project received additional funding and the work of finishing the submarine restarted.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: In 2004 it was reported that the work on the submarine was moving forward, but, due to the priority given to the new "Borei"-class SSBNs, the lead unit of the class ("Severodvinsk") would not be ready before 2010. In July 2006 the deputy chairman of the Military-Industrial Commission, Vladislav Putilin, stated that two "Yasen"-class submarines were to join the Russian Navy before 2015.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: On 24 July 2009, work commenced on a second submarine, named "Kazan". On 26 July, the Russian navy command announced that starting in 2011, one multipurpose submarine would be laid down every year, although not necessarily of this class.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: An August 2009 report from the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence estimated the "Yasen"-class submarines to be the quietest, or least detectable, of contemporaneous Russian and Chinese nuclear submarines, but said they were still not as quiet as contemporary U.S. Navy submarines (i.e. "Seawolf" and "Virginia" classes).


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: In April 2010, it was reported that the 7 May launch of the first boat had been postponed due to "technical reasons". Then, the launch of the first submarine and the beginning of sea trials were scheduled for September 2011.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: On 30 December 2013, "Severodvinsk" was handed over to the Russian Navy. The flag-raising ceremony was held on 17 June 2014 marking its introduction into the Russian Navy.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: In October 2014, one of the U.S. Navy's top submarine officers, Rear Admiral Dave Johnson, the Naval Sea Systems Command's program executive officer (PEO) for submarines, said "We'll be facing tough potential opponents. One only has to look at the "Severodvinsk", Russia's version of a nuclear guided missile submarine (SSGN). I am so impressed with this ship that I had Carderock build a model from unclassified data".


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: According to "60 Minutes", unnamed Pentagon officials claimed that "Severodvinsk" on her maiden deployment "slipped into the Atlantic Ocean and for weeks evaded all of the attempts to find her" in the summer 2018.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: "Kazan" was rumoured to be active, along with five other nuclear submarines, in the northern Atlantic in Spring 2020. However, she may actually have been on sea trials since she was reported commissioned in May 2021.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: On 4 October 2021, "Severodvinsk" performed two test launches of Zircon missile, from surfaced and underwater position. The launches were performed from White to Barents Sea and were successful.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: The vessel's design is said to be state-of-the-art. The "Yasen"-class nuclear submarines are presumed to be armed with land-attack cruise missiles, anti-ship missiles, anti-submarine missiles including the P-800 Oniks SLCM, Kalibr family SLCM or 3M51 SLCM. Kalibr-PL has several variants including the 3M54K (terminal-supersonic) and 3M54K1 (subsonic) anti-ship, 91R1 anti-submarine, and the 3M14K land-attack variant. In the future, there will be also an option to install the hypersonic 3M22 Zircon cruise missiles on upgraded 855M boats. Each submarine can carry 32 Kalibr or 24 Oniks (other sources claim 40 Kalibr and 32 Oniks) cruise missiles which are stored in eight (ten for 855M) vertical launchers (additional missiles may be carried in the torpedo room at the expense of torpedoes). It will also have ten 533 mm tubes, as well as mines and anti-submarine missiles such as the RPK-7.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: It is the first Russian submarine class to be equipped with a spherical sonar, designated as MGK-600 Irtysh-Amfora. The device (allegedly the Irtysh/Amfora sonar system) was tested on a modified Yankee-class submarine. The sonar system consists of a spherical bow array, flank arrays and a towed array. Due to the large size of this spherical array, the torpedo tubes are slanted. In other words, the torpedo tube outer doors are not located in the immediate bow as in the previous Akula class but moved aft. The hull is constructed from low-magnetic steel. Unlike previous Russian submarines which have a double hull, "Yasen"-class submarines mostly have a single hull. The "Yasen" class has a crew of 85 on project 885 and 64 on project 885M, suggesting a high degree of automation in the submarine's different systems. The newest U.S. s, has a crew of 134 in comparison.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: "Yasen"-class submarines are the first to be equipped with a fourth-generation nuclear reactor. The reactor, built by Afrikantov OKBM, will allegedly have a 25-30-year core life and will not have to be refueled. Steam turbines are supplied by Kaluga Turbine Works. The inclusion of new generation "KTP-6" reactor on the Yasen-M boats is thought to significantly reduce their noise level: the reactor's primary cooling loop facilitates natural circulation of water and thus doesn't require continuous operation of the main circulation pumps, which are the key noise factor on a nuclear submarine.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: According to Admiral Foggo, the commander of the US Naval Forces Europe, the Yasen class submarines are "very quiet, which is the most important thing in submarine warfare". It's claimed that "Severodvinsk" is far quieter than previous Russian SSNs, capable of 20 knots while running quiet, which is equal to the Seawolf class and inferior only to the "Virginia" class (25 knots). Other sources claim that "Severodvinsk" is capable of even 28 knots in silent mode.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: Initial estimates regarding the cost of the first Yasen-class submarine ranged from US$1 billion to US$2 billion. In 2011, it was reported that the cost of first-of-class, "Severodvinsk", was 50 billion rubles (roughly US$1.6 billion) while the second unit, "Kazan", will cost an estimated 47 billion rubles (US$725 million, in 2019 RUB/USD exchange rate). In 2011, then Defense Minister Anatoliy Serdyukov criticized the ever increasing cost of the Borei and Yasen classes. The Minister described the massive increase in cost between the first and the second Yasen-class submarine as "incomprehensible". However, he insisted that the Russian Defence Ministry and Sevmash would resolve the issue. Officials from the United Shipbuilding Corporation replied that work done in Sevmash accounts for only 30% of the submarine's completion cost, the remaining 70% being linked to suppliers/contractors.


title: Yasen-class submarine

text: Due to the high cost of each Yasen class submarine, some sources believe that a next generation of SSNs would be of smaller dimensions with a reduced armament/payload could be built. The successor/supplement to the Yasen class was in early development by 2015 and dubbed "Husky class" by media. The final design of the submarine is yet to be completed and may feature a more conventional layout with bow-mounted torpedo tubes (as opposed to the midship torpedo tubes on Yasen class) and a smaller chin-mounted sonar, i.e. the sonar will be mounted below the torpedo tubes (as opposed to a large spherical sonar on Yasen class). The first submarine is expected to be delivered to the Russian Navy by 2027.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: The Dominion of Pakistan, officially Pakistan, was an independent federal dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations, existing between 14 August 1947 and 23 March 1956, created by the passing of the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British parliament, which also created an independent Dominion of India.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Before its independence, Pakistan consisted of those Presidencies and provinces of British India which were allocated to it in the Partition of India. Until 1947, they had been ruled by the United Kingdom as a part of the British Empire.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: During the year that followed its independence, the new country was joined by the Princely states of Pakistan ruled by princes who had previously been in subsidiary alliances with the British, which acceded to Pakistan, one by one, with their rulers signing Instruments of Accession. For many years, these states enjoyed a special status within the dominion and later the republic, but they were slowly incorporated into the provinces. The last remnants of their internal self-government had been lost by 1974.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Initially, the Dominion of Pakistan had two wings, one in the East, which is now Bangladesh, and another in the West, which is now Pakistan. After the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 came into effect, the Pakistani monarchy was abolished, when the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was proclaimed.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: The status as a federal dominion within the British Empire ended in 1956 with the completion of the Constitution of Pakistan, which established the country as a republic. The constitution also administratively split the nation into West Pakistan and East Pakistan, which were until then governed as a singular entity, despite being separate geographic exclaves. In 1971, East Pakistan seceded as the new nation of Bangladesh, whereas West Pakistan became Pakistan.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Section 1 of the Indian Independence Act 1947 provided that from "the fifteenth day of August, nineteen hundred and forty-seven, two independent dominions shall be set up in India, to be known respectively as "India" and "Pakistan"." The British monarch became the head of state of both the new dominions, with Pakistan sharing a king with the United Kingdom and the other dominions of the British Commonwealth, and the monarch's constitutional roles in Pakistan were delegated to the Governor-General of Pakistan.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Before August 1947, about half of the area of present-day Pakistan was part of British India, which was directly governed by the British in the name of the British Crown, while the remainder were princely states in subsidiary alliances with the British, enjoying semi-autonomous self-government. The British abandoned these alliances in August 1947, leaving the states entirely independent, and between 1947 and 1948 the states all acceded to Pakistan, while retaining internal self-government for several years.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: More than ten million people migrated across the new borders and between 200,000–2,000,000 people died in the spate of communal violence in the Punjab in what some scholars have described as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions. The Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and similarly the Indian government claimed that Muslims abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women. The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s. The dispute over Kashmir escalated into the first war between India and Pakistan. With the assistance of the United Nations (UN) the war was ended but it became the Kashmir dispute, unresolved .


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: In 1947, the of Pakistan agreed to appoint Liaquat Ali Khan as the country's first prime minister, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as both first governor-general and speaker of the State Parliament. Mountbatten had offered to serve as Governor-general of both India and Pakistan but Jinnah refused this offer.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: The first formal step to transform Pakistan into an ideological Islamic state was taken in March 1949 when Liaquat Ali Khan introduced the Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly. The Objectives Resolution declared that sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Allah Almighty. Support for the Objectives Resolution and the transformation of Pakistan into an Islamic state was led by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected "Deobandi alim" (scholar) who occupied the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i Islami.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Indian Muslims from the United Provinces, Bombay Province, Central Provinces and other areas of India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950 and 1960s and settled mainly in urban Sindh, particularly in the new country's first capital, Karachi. Prime Minister Ali Khan established a strong government and had to face challenges soon after gaining the office. His Finance Secretary Victor Turner announced the country's first monetary policy by establishing the State Bank, the Federal Bureau of Statistics and the Federal Board of Revenue to improve statistical knowledge, finance, taxation, and revenue collection in the country. There were also problems because India cut off water supply to Pakistan from two canal headworks in its side of Punjab on 1 April 1948 and also withheld delivering Pakistan its share of the assets and funds of United India, which the Indian government released after Gandhi's pressurisation.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: In a 1948 speech, Jinnah declared that "Urdu alone would be the state language and the lingua franca of the Pakistan state", although at the same time he called for the Bengali language to be the official language of the Bengal province. Nonetheless, tensions began to grow in East Bengal. Jinnah's health further deteriorated and he died in 1948. Bengali leader, Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin succeeded as the governor general of Pakistan.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: During a massive political rally in 1951, Prime Minister Ali Khan was assassinated, and Nazimuddin became the second prime minister. Tensions in East Pakistan reached a climax in 1952, when the East Pakistani police opened fire on students protesting for the Bengali language to receive equal status with Urdu. The situation was controlled by Nazimuddin who issued a waiver granting the Bengali language equal status, a right codified in the 1956 constitution. In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti-Ahmadiyya riots erupted, which led to many Ahmadi deaths. The riots were investigated by a two-member court of inquiry in 1954, which was criticised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of inciting the riots. This event led to the first instance of martial law in the country and began the history of military intervention into the politics and civilian affairs of the country. In 1954 the controversial One Unit Program was imposed by the last Pakistan Muslim League (PML) Prime minister Ali Bogra dividing Pakistan on the German geopolitical model. The same year the first legislative elections were held in Pakistan, which saw the communists gaining control of East Pakistan. The 1954 election results clarified the differences in ideology between West and East Pakistan, with East Pakistan under the influence of the Communist Party allying with the Shramik Krishak Samajbadi Dal (Workers Party) and the Awami League. The pro-American Republican Party gained a majority in West Pakistan, ousting the PML government. After a vote of confidence in Parliament and the promulgation of the 1956 constitution, which confirmed Pakistan as an Islamic republic, two notable figures became prime minister and president, as the first Bengali leaders of the country. Huseyn Suhrawardy became the prime minister leading a communist-socialist alliance, and Iskander Mirza became the first president of Pakistan.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: The dominion began as a federation of five provinces: East Bengal (later to become Bangladesh), West Punjab, Balochistan, Sindh, and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). Each province had its own governor, who was appointed by the Governor-General of Pakistan. In addition, over the following year the princely states of Pakistan, which covered a significant area of West Pakistan, acceded to Pakistan. They included Bahawalpur, Khairpur, Swat, Dir, Chitral, and the Khanate of Kalat.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: The controversial Radcliffe Award, not published until 17 August 1947 specified the Radcliffe Line which demarcated the border between the parts of British India allocated to the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Radcliffe Boundary Commission sought to separate the Muslim-majority regions in the east and northwest from the areas with a Hindu majority. This entailed the partition of two British provinces which did not have a uniform majority — Bengal and Punjab. The western part of Punjab became the Pakistani province of Punjab and the eastern part became the Indian state of Punjab. Bengal was similarly divided into East Bengal (in Pakistan) and West Bengal (in India).


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Under the Indian Independence Act 1947, British India was to be divided into the independent sovereign states of India and Pakistan. From 1947 to 1952, George VI was the sovereign of Pakistan, which shared the same person as its sovereign with the United Kingdom and the other Dominions in the British Commonwealth of Nations.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Following George VI's death on 6 February 1952, his elder daughter Princess Elizabeth, who was in Kenya at that time, became the new monarch of Pakistan. During the Queen's coronation in 1953, Elizabeth II was crowned as Queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries, including Pakistan. In her Coronation Oath, the new Queen promised "to govern the Peoples of ... Pakistan ... according to their respective laws and customs". The Standard of Pakistan at the Coronation was borne by Mirza Abol Hassan Ispahani.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Pakistan abolished the monarchy on the adoption of a republican constitution on 23 March 1956. However, Pakistan became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. The Queen sent a message to President Mirza which said, "I have followed with close interest the progress of your country since its establishment ... It is a source of great satisfaction to me to know that your country intends to remain within the Commonwealth. I am confident that Pakistan and other countries of the Commonwealth will continue to thrive and to benefit from their mutual association".


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: Territorial problems arose with neighbouring Afghanistan over the Pakistan–Afghanistan border in 1949, and with India over the Line of Control in Kashmir. Diplomatic recognition became a problem when the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin did not welcome the partition which established Pakistan and India. The Imperial State of Iran was the first country to recognise Pakistan in 1947. In 1948, Ben-Gurion of Israel sent a secret courier to Jinnah to establish the diplomatic relations, but Jinnah did not give any response to Ben-Gurion.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: After gaining Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries and made a wholehearted bid for leadership of the Muslim world, or at least for leadership in achieving its unity. The Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, in large part due to its large population and military strength. A top ranking Muslim League leader, Khaliquzzaman, declared that Pakistan would bring together all Muslim countries into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. The USA, which did not approve of Pakistan's creation, was against this idea and British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced international opinion at the time by stating that he wished that India and Pakistan would re-unite, as opposed to the hoped-for unity of Muslim World. Since most of the Arab world was undergoing a nationalist awakening at the time, there was little attraction in Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations. Some of the Arab countries saw the 'Islamistan' project as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states. Pakistan vigorously championed the right of self-determination for Muslims around the world. Pakistan's efforts for the independence movements of Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Eritrea were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan.


title: Dominion of Pakistan

text: From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a constitutional monarchy. The Pakistani monarch was the same person as the sovereign of the nations in the British Commonwealth of Nations.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: On July 17, 2014, Eric Garner was killed in the New York City borough of Staten Island after Daniel Pantaleo, a New York City Police Department (NYPD) officer, put him in a prohibited chokehold while arresting him. Video footage of the incident generated widespread national attention and raised questions about the use of force by law enforcement.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: NYPD officers approached Garner on July 17 on suspicion of selling single cigarettes from packs without tax stamps. After Garner told the police that he was tired of being harassed and that he was not selling cigarettes, the officers attempted to arrest Garner. When Pantaleo placed his hands on Garner, Garner pulled his arms away. Pantaleo then placed his arm around Garner's neck and wrestled him to the ground. With multiple officers pinning him down, Garner repeated the words "I can't breathe" 11 times while lying face down on the sidewalk. After Garner lost consciousness, he remained lying on the sidewalk for seven minutes while the officers waited for an ambulance to arrive. Garner was pronounced dead at an area hospital approximately one hour later.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: The medical examiner ruled Eric Garner's death a homicide. According to the medical examiner's definition, a homicide is a death caused by the intentional actions of another person or persons. Specifically, an autopsy indicated that Garner's death resulted from "[compression] of neck, compression of chest and prone positioning during physical restraint by police". Asthma, heart disease, and obesity were cited as contributing factors.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: On December 4, 2014, a Richmond County grand jury decided not to indict Pantaleo. This decision stirred public protests and rallies, with charges of police brutality made by protesters. By December 28, 2014, at least 50 demonstrations had been held nationwide in response to the Garner case, while hundreds of demonstrations against general police brutality counted Garner as a focal point. On July 13, 2015, an out-of-court settlement was reached, under which the City of New York would pay the Garner family $5.9 million. In 2019, the U.S. Department of Justice declined to bring criminal charges against Pantaleo under federal civil rights laws. A New York Police Department disciplinary hearing regarding Pantaleo's treatment of Garner was held in the summer of 2019; on August 2, 2019, an administrative judge recommended that Pantaleo's employment be terminated. Pantaleo was fired on August 19, 2019, more than five years after Garner's death.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: Eric Garner (September 15, 1970 – July 17, 2014) was an African-American man. He was a horticulturist at the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation before quitting for health reasons. Garner, who was married to Esaw Garner, has been described by his friends as a "neighborhood peacemaker" and as a generous, congenial person. He was the father of six children, had three grandchildren, and at the time of his death had a 3-month-old child.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: Garner had been arrested by the NYPD more than 30 times since 1980 on charges such as assault, resisting arrest, and grand larceny. According to an article in "The New York Times", many of these arrests had been for allegedly selling unlicensed cigarettes. In 2007, he filed a handwritten complaint in federal court accusing a police officer of conducting a cavity search of him on the street, "digging his fingers in my rectum in the middle of the street" while people passed by. Garner had, according to "The New York Times", "recently ... told lawyers at Legal Aid that he intended to take all the cases against him to trial". At the time of the incident, he was out on bail for allegedly selling untaxed cigarettes, driving without a license, marijuana possession, and false personation.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: At the time of Garner's death, Daniel Pantaleo was a 29-year-old New York City Police Department officer living in Eltingville, Staten Island. He joined the NYPD in 2006 after graduating from Monsignor Farrell High School, and with a bachelor's degree from the College of Staten Island. Pantaleo was the subject of two civil rights lawsuits in 2013 where plaintiffs accused him of falsely arresting them and abusing them. In one of the cases, he and other officers allegedly ordered two black men to strip naked on the street for a search and the charges against the men were dismissed.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: Ramsey Orta is a member of Copwatch in New York City who filmed the incident. Following a campaign of alleged police harassment after the video went viral, he was arrested on weapons charges. Al Sharpton made a statement that prosecuting Orta while also calling him as a witness could constitute a conflict of interest.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: In February 2015, Orta was incarcerated on Rikers Island. In March 2015, a lockdown was initiated, and he was not permitted to prepare his own food. The prisoners were served meatloaf by the prison officers. After falling ill multiple times after eating food on Rikers, Orta believed he had been deliberately poisoned. He described that the other prisoners fell ill, vomiting blood, but the guards reportedly laughed, and no prisoners were brought to the infirmary. Court documents stated that the prisoners had suffered from various ailments after eating the food. Blue-green pellets were found in the meatloaf, and determined to be brodifacoum, the main ingredient of rat poison. As a result, Orta stopped eating the food, only taking food passed to him from his visiting wife. He has alleged that prison officers booked him on false or trivial offences in a biased manner, resulting in him not being able to receive food from his wife. Orta also claimed that the prison officers have threatened, insulted, and beaten him, and deliberately crushed the food from his wife. Orta stated that when he was initially arrested, a police officer told him it would be better for Orta to kill himself before he was jailed.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: After prosecutors questioned whether the money raised for his bail was crowd-sourced legally, Orta was released on bail on April 10, 2015.


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: In 2016, he was sentenced to four years in prison for weapons and drug charges after accepting a plea deal for which the prosecutor agreed to drop charges against his mother. In May 2020, he was released from Groveland Correctional Facility,


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: On July 17, 2014, at approximately 3:30 p.m., Garner was approached by a plainclothes police officer, Justin D'Amico, in front of a beauty supply store at 202 Bay Street in Tompkinsville, Staten Island. According to bystanders (including a friend of Garner, Ramsey Orta, who recorded the incident on his cell phone) Garner had just broken up a fight, which may have drawn the attention of the police. Officers confronted Garner and accused him of selling "loosies" (single cigarettes without a tax stamp) in violation of New York state law. Garner is heard on the video saying the following:


title: Killing of Eric Garner

text: When Pantaleo approached Garner from behind and attempted to handcuff him, Garner pulled his arms away, saying, "Don't touch me, please." Pantaleo then placed his arm around Garner's neck and pulled him backward in an attempt to bring him to the ground; in the process, Pantaleo and Garner slammed into a glass window, which did not break. Garner went to his knees and forearms and did not say anything for a few seconds. At that point, three uniformed officers and the two plainclothes officers had surrounded him. After 15 seconds, the video shows Pantaleo removing his arm from around Garner's neck; Pantaleo then used his hands to push Garner's face into the sidewalk while pinning him down. Garner is heard saying "I can't breathe" eleven times while lying face down on the sidewalk. The arrest was supervised by a female African-American NYPD sergeant, Kizzy Adonis, who did not intercede. Adonis was quoted in the original police report as stating, "The perpetrator's condition did not seem serious and he did not appear to get worse."