title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2005, Scheer began collaborating with comedians Rob Huebel, Aziz Ansari, and Jason Woliner on short films. Their first videos were "Shutterbugs and Illusionators. Shutterbugs" saw Huebel and Ansari play talent agents for child actors, and "llusionators", starred Ansari and Scheer as Criss Angel-style magicians. In mid-2006, MTV greenlit a sketch series from the trio, called "Human Giant." The series debuted April 5, 2007, and ran for two seasons from 2007 to 2008, exploring comedic aspects of modern life and pop culture.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2009, "S"cheer joined the semi-scripted FX comedy", The League," from Jeff and Jackie Marcus Schaffer about a group of friends in a fantasy football league. Scheer plays Dr. Andre Nowzick, a rich plastic surgeon whose naivete makes him the butt of many jokes. Scheer co-scripted a handful of episodes: "The Anniversary Party," "Expert Witness," "The Out of Towner," and "Tailgate" with co-star Nick Kroll; he co-wrote the episode "Bringer Show" with Stephen Rannazzisi and was the sole credited writer of episode 81, "The Block." The series premiered on October 29, 2009, and ran for seven seasons through December 2015.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2009, Scheer created a 15-minute spoof commercial for an action series called " (National Terrorism Strike Force: San Diego: Sport Utility Vehicle)", that aired on Adult Swim. Shortly after airing, it was picked up as a series and ran for three seasons (40+ episodes). Scheer played Trent Hauser. The cast included Kate Mulgrew, Rebecca Romijn, Martin Starr, June Diane Raphael, Rob Riggle, Brandon Johnson, and the voice of Peter Serafinowicz as S.A.M. Scheer served as executive producer, writer, director, and actor. It was produced by Abominable Pictures, Inc. and Scheer's 2nd Man on the Moon Productions. The show concluded with a special “movie event” shot in London, which was made to look like San Diego.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2015, Paul Scheer joined the cast of "Fresh Off the Boat", an ABC comedy loosely based on a memoir by chef Eddie Huang. Scheer played the recurring role of Mitch, whom Eddie Huang hired to be the host at a steakhouse restaurant. He appeared in 26 episodes over the show's six seasons.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2017, Scheer joined the sixth season of Veep as the character Stevie, the producer of "CBS Morning News" Show. He won a SAG Award for an Outstanding Performance by a Cast or Ensemble in a Comedy Series. In 2020, Scheer returned to the cast of "Veep" along with other special guests, including Don Cheadle, Mark Hamill, Beanie Feldstein, Stephen Colbert, and Bryan Cranston in a live table read playing multiple roles to support turnout for the Georgia runoff elections.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2018, Scheer joined the Showtime pilot for "Black Monday." The show is an ensemble period comedy about the Wall Street crash in 1987 and premiered on Showtime on January 20, 2019. Scheer plays Keith, a closeted stockbroker who was originally scripted to die in the first season. That plotline was later altered. "Black Monday" aired for three seasons, concluding in 2021. Scheer's performance was named in the Hollywood Reporter's “Top 30 best Supporting characters on TV” in 2019.


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer has appeared in recurring roles on "30 Rock, The Good Place, Future Man, I'm Sorry," and the Nick Jr. series "Yo Gabba Gabba!." Scheer also had recurring animated series appearances on ", Big City Greens, Big Mouth," and "Adventure Time." Scheer and Jack McBrayer made semi-regular appearances on "Yo Gabba Gabba!", during a segment called "Knock Knock Joke of the Day". They were featured as themselves in the "Yo Gabba Gabba!" comic book, and made appearances on the "Yo Gabba Gabba!" live tour. In 2012, Scheer appeared as a villainous Cowboy Android in an episode of "The Aquabats! Super Show!", another series from the creators of "Yo Gabba Gabba!"


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer appeared as a contestant on the second season of "Nailed it! Holiday". He won the competition, but chose not to keep the $10,000 prize, and instead split it between the other two contestants. In August 2015, Scheer and Rob Huebel created a comedy special on a moving bus, "Crash Test", produced by Paramount and released on Comedy Central. In 2017, he appeared on "Celebrity Family Feud" and lost to his wife, June.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In addition to acting, Scheer has produced "The Hotwives" for Hulu, "Party Over Here" for Fox, "Drive Share" for Go90, "Filthy Preppy Teen$" for FullScreen, "The Amazing Gayle Pyle" for Amazon, and "Unsend" for Comedy Central. In 2016, in addition to executive producing "Party Over Here", Scheer created and directed segments for the late-night sketch comedy series with The Lonely Island. It starred Nicole Byer, Alison Rich, and Jessica McKenna.


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer and Jonathan Stern are executive producers on the Hulu comedy series "The Hotwives". Scheer also co-stars in the series.


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer and Rob Huebel are co-creators and directors on the Go90 comedy series "Drive Share". Scheer also co-created "Filthy Preppy Teen$" with Curtis James Gwinn and Jon Stern.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2013, upon the return of "The Arsenio Hall Show", Scheer launched a web series for JASH called "The ArScheerio Paul Show". In each episode, Scheer re-creates interviews from Arsenio Hall's original show, including the famous Bill Clinton episode, with Will Arnett playing Clinton. Scheer sports a comically enlarged flat-top haircut to resemble Hall.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2014, Scheer co-wrote and co-starred in multiple episodes of the Adult Swim mockumentary, "The Greatest Event in Television History", detailing the recreation of famous television show openings. In 2015, Scheer launched a follow-up web series with JASH to Arscheerio Paul called, "ScheeRL", which recreates interviews from MTV's "Total Request Live" hosted by Carson Daly, with Scheer playing the role of Daly and various comedians playing the musician guests.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2016 Scheer lent his voice to the first Vine animated series "White Ninja" as the titular character. In 2017 Scheer produced and starred in "Playdates", the first independent pilot to debut at Sundance Group, alongside Carla Gallo.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2020 Scheer started the FriendZone Channel on Twitch, where he and other comedians put on weekly shows. Their streams have raised money for charities like Miles for Migrants & Feeding America. In 2021, Scheer's YouTube web series, "Marvel Presents The World's Greatest Book Club," won an honorary Webby for best reality program.


title: Paul Scheer

text: "How Did This Get Made?" a podcast hosted by Scheer, his wife June Diane Raphael, and Jason Mantzoukas launched in 2010 on Earwolf. Each episode has a celebrity guest/comedian and features the deconstruction and mockery of terrible films. In 2011, iTunes selected "How Did This Get Made?" as its favorite comedy podcast of the year. In 2012, "LA Weekly" named the show "The Best Comedy Podcast." Guests have included Kevin Smith, Damon Lindelof, "Weird" Al Yankovic, Danny Trejo, Vanilla Ice, Adam Scott, Tatiana Maslany, and Nick Kroll. In 2022, "How Did This Get Made?" won the iHeartRadio Podcast Award for best TV & film podcast. The podcast also won the 2022 Ambie Award for Best Comedy podcast.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2018, Scheer started "Unspooled", a podcast dedicated to watching and discussing all 100 films on the American Film Institute's top movies of all time, with co-host Amy Nicholson. Unspooled was well received by the press earning top reviews from Esquire, Vanity Fair, Town & Country Magazine, Vulture and Rolling Stone. In 2021, Scheer was involved with HBO Max's scripted podcast, "."


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2014, Scheer ventured into comics with writing partner Nick Giovannetti to create a 5-part Boom mini-series, "ALIENS vs. PARKER". In 2015, he appeared in The Astonishing Ant-Man #4 by Nick Spencer and Ramon Rosanas, after co-writing a team-up between Ant-Man and Drax the Destroyer in Guardians Team-Up #7.


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer and Giovanetti continued their collaboration with Marvel Comics, where they penned "Deadpool Bi-Annual #1", a "Guardians Team Up", which were released September 2014 and 2015. More recently, they wrote for Marvel "Spider-Man-Deadpool" (2017) and "Cosmic Ghost Rider Destroys Marvel History" (2019).


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer also authored two comics for DC. The Harley Quinn short story "It's a Horrible Life" which he co-wrote with Nick Giovanetti, Steve Lieber, Marissa Louise, and Carlos M. Mangual, and Batman: The Audio Adventures Special, a prequel to the podcast series Scheer voiced. Other writers for the comic include Dennis McNicholas, Bobby Moynihan and Heidi Garnder.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2008, along with fellow comedians Rob Riggle, Horatio Sanz, and Rob Hubel, Scheer completed four USO comedy shows for American troops in Iraq.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2010, Scheer organized a charity event with Ben Stiller called "A Night of 140 Tweets," in which he got 140 comedians and actors to appear on stage at the UCB Theater in Los Angeles, each of them reading a single tweet. The performers included Stiller, Will Ferrell, Ashton Kutcher, Demi Moore, Aziz Ansari, the cast of "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia", Dane Cook, Wilmer Valderrama, John Cho, Mindy Kaling, and Sasha Grey. The event, released as a charity DVD and online download, raised over $500,000 for Haiti.


title: Paul Scheer

text: In 2019, Paul was arrested during Jane Fonda’s Fire Drill Friday demonstration on the Capitol steps in Washington DC. Scheer also helped organize The Big 100, a program that asked Americans to take progressive actions in the 100 days following President Donald Trump's inauguration.


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer lives in Los Angeles and is married to actress-writer June Diane Raphael. They first met in January 2004, after the artistic director of Manhattan's Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre brought Scheer in to offer tips to Raphael and her comedy partner, Casey Wilson, on improving their UCB two-woman sketch show and started dating shortly afterward. They moved from New York to Los Angeles in 2006. In October 2009, Scheer and Raphael married at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. Scheer's best man was a Jack Nicholson impersonator. They have two sons, born in April 2014 and August 2016.


title: Paul Scheer

text: Scheer is a self-described fan of the Los Angeles Clippers. His favorite vacation spot is Disney World. In September 2015, Scheer said he practices Transcendental Meditation.


title: 1,000,000

text: One million (1,000,000), or one thousand thousand, is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001. The word is derived from the early Italian "millione" ("milione" in modern Italian), from "mille", "thousand", plus the augmentative suffix "-one".


title: 1,000,000

text: It is commonly abbreviated in British English as m (not to be confused with the metric prefix "m", "milli", for ), M, MM ("thousand thousands", from Latin "Mille"; not to be confused with the Roman numeral = 2,000), mm (not to be confused with millimetre), or mn in financial contexts.


title: 1,000,000

text: In scientific notation, it is written as or 10. Physical quantities can also be expressed using the SI prefix mega (M), when dealing with SI units; for example, 1 megawatt (1 MW) equals 1,000,000 watts.


title: 1,000,000

text: The meaning of the word "million" is common to the short scale and long scale numbering systems, unlike the larger numbers, which have different names in the two systems.


title: 1,000,000

text: The million is sometimes used in the English language as a metaphor for a very large number, as in "Not in a million years" and "You're one in a million", or a hyperbole, as in "I've walked a million miles" and "You've asked a million-dollar question".


title: 1,000,000

text: Even though it is often stressed that counting to precisely a million would be an exceedingly tedious task due to the time and concentration required, there are many ways to bring the number "down to size" in approximate quantities, ignoring irregularities or packing effects.


title: 1,000,000

text: In Indian English and Pakistani English, it is also expressed as 10 lakh. Lakh is derived from for 100,000 in Sanskrit.


title: Cream

text: Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-fat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, eventually rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called "separators". In many countries, it is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content. It can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets, and contains high levels of saturated fat.


title: Cream

text: Cream skimmed from milk may be called "sweet cream" to distinguish it from cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a lower fat content and tastes more salty, tangy and "cheesy". In many countries partially fermented cream is also sold: sour cream, crème fraîche, and so on. Both forms have many culinary uses in both sweet and savoury dishes.


title: Cream

text: Cream produced by cattle (particularly Jersey cattle) grazing on natural pasture often contains some carotenoid pigments derived from the plants they eat; traces of these intensely colored pigments give milk a slightly yellow tone, hence the name of the yellowish-white color: cream. Carotenoids are also the origin of butter's yellow color. Cream from goat's milk, water buffalo milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white.


title: Cream

text: Cream is used as an ingredient in many foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases, and is also used for cakes. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, lassi, eggnog, sweet pies, strawberries, blueberries or peaches. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes.


title: Cream

text: Both single and double cream (see Types for definitions) can be used in cooking. Double cream or full-fat crème fraîche is often used when the cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent it separating or "splitting". Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream.


title: Cream

text: The French word "crème" denotes not only dairy cream but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream.


title: Cream

text: Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, and so on. In many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type.


title: Cream

text: The Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code – Standard 2.5.2 – Defines cream as a milk product comparatively rich in fat, in the form of an emulsion of fat-in-skim milk, which can be obtained by separation from milk. Cream sold without further specification must contain no less than 350 g/kg (35%) milk fat.


title: Cream

text: Manufacturers labels may distinguish between different fat contents, a general guideline is as follows:


title: Cream

text: Canadian cream definitions are similar to those used in the United States, except for "light cream", which is very low-fat cream, usually with 5 or 6 percent butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by both geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer: "coffee cream" may be 10 or 18 percent cream and "half-and-half" ("crème légère") may be 3, 5, 6 or 10 percent, all depending on location and brand.


title: Cream

text: Regulations allow cream to contain acidity regulators and stabilizers. For whipping cream, allowed additives include skim milk powder (≤ 0.25%), glucose solids (≤ 0.1%), calcium sulphate (≤ 0.005%), and xanthan gum (≤ 0.02%). The content of milk fat in canned cream must be displayed as a percentage followed by "milk fat", "B.F", or "M.F".


title: Cream

text: In France, the use of the term "cream" for food products is defined by the decree 80-313 of April 23, 1980. It specifies the minimum rate of milk fat (12%) as well as the rules for pasteurisation or UHT sterilisation. The mention "crème fraîche" (fresh cream) can only be used for pasteurised creams conditioned on production site within 24h after pasteurisation. Even if food additives complying with French and European laws are allowed, usually, none will be found in plain "crèmes" and "crèmes fraîches" apart from lactic ferments (some low cost creams (or close to creams) can contain thickening agents, but rarely). Fat content is commonly shown as "XX% M.G." ("matière grasse").


title: Cream

text: Russia, as well as other EAC countries, legally separates cream into two classes: normal (10–34% butterfat) and heavy (35–58%), but the industry has pretty much standardized around the following types:


title: Cream

text: Sour cream and crème fraîche (German: Sauerrahm, Crème fraîche; French: crème acidulée, crème fraîche; Italian: panna acidula, crème fraîche) are defined as cream soured by bacterial cultures.


title: Cream

text: Thick cream (German: verdickter Rahm; French: crème épaissie; Italian: panna addensata) is defined as cream thickened using thickening agents.


title: Cream

text: In the United Kingdom, these types of cream are produced. Fat content must meet the Food Labelling Regulations 1996.


title: Cream

text: Not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. The above figures, except for "manufacturer's cream", are based on the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 131.


title: Cream

text: Cream may have thickening agents and stabilizers added. Thickeners include sodium alginate, carrageenan, gelatine, sodium bicarbonate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, and alginic acid.


title: Cream

text: Other processing may be carried out. For example, cream has a tendency to produce oily globules (called "feathering") when added to coffee. The stability of the cream may be increased by increasing the non-fat solids content, which can be done by partial demineralisation and addition of sodium caseinate, although this is expensive.


title: Cream

text: Whipped cream is made by whisking or mixing air into cream with more than 30% fat, to turn the liquid cream into a soft solid. Nitrous oxide, from whipped-cream chargers may also be used to make whipped cream.


title: Cream

text: Sour cream, produced in many countries, is cream (12 to 16% or more milk fat) that has been subjected to a bacterial culture that produces lactic acid (0.5%+), which sours and thickens it.


title: Cream

text: Crème fraîche (28% milk fat) is slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as sour cream. Mexican crema (or cream espesa) is similar to crème fraîche.


title: Cream

text: Clotted cream in the United Kingdom is made through a process that starts by slowly heating whole milk to produce a very high-fat (55%) product, similar to Indian malai.


title: Cream

text: Some non-edible substances are called creams due to their consistency: shoe cream is runny, unlike regular waxy shoe polish; hand/body "creme" or "skin cream" is meant for moisturizing the skin.


title: Cream

text: Regulations in many jurisdictions restrict the use of the word "cream" for foods. Words such as "creme", "kreme", "creame", or "whipped topping" (e.g., Cool Whip) are often used for products which cannot legally be called cream, though in some jurisdictions even these spellings may be disallowed, for example under the doctrine of "idem sonans". Oreo and Hydrox cookies are a type of sandwich cookie in which two biscuits have a soft, sweet filling between them that is called "crème filling." In some cases, foods can be described as cream although they do not contain predominantly milk fats; for example, in Britain, "ice cream" can contain non-milk fat (declared on the label) in addition to or instead of cream, and salad cream is the customary name for a non-dairy condiment that has been produced since the 1920s.


title: Cream

text: In other languages, cognates of "cream" are also sometimes used for non-food products, such as fogkrém (Hungarian for toothpaste), or Sonnencreme (German for sunscreen).


title: Cream

text: Some products are described as "cream alternatives". For example, "Elmlea Double", etc. are blends of buttermilk or lentils and vegetable oil with other additives sold by Upfield in the United Kingdom packaged and shelved in the same way as cream, labelled as having "a creamy taste".


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: Lymphadenopathy or adenopathy is a disease of the lymph nodes, in which they are abnormal in size or consistency. Lymphadenopathy of an inflammatory type (the most common type) is lymphadenitis, producing swollen or enlarged lymph nodes. In clinical practice, the distinction between lymphadenopathy and lymphadenitis is rarely made and the words are usually treated as synonymous. Inflammation of the lymphatic vessels is known as lymphangitis. Infectious lymphadenitis affecting lymph nodes in the neck is often called scrofula.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: Lymphadenopathy is a common and nonspecific sign. Common causes include infections (from minor causes such as the common cold and post-vaccination swelling to serious ones such as HIV/AIDS), autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Lymphadenopathy is frequently idiopathic and self-limiting.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: Lymph node enlargement is recognized as a common sign of infectious, autoimmune, or malignant disease. Examples may include:


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: Infectious causes of lymphadenopathy may include bacterial infections such as cat scratch disease, tularemia, brucellosis, or prevotella, as well as fungal infections such as paracoccidioidomycosis.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: lymphadenopathy is a common biopsy finding, and may often be confused with malignant lymphoma. It may be separated into major morphologic patterns, each with its own differential diagnosis with certain types of lymphoma. Most cases of reactive follicular hyperplasia are easy to diagnose, but some cases may be confused with follicular lymphoma. There are seven distinct patterns of benign lymphadenopathy:


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: These morphological patterns are never pure. Thus, reactive follicular hyperplasia can have a component of paracortical hyperplasia. However, this distinction is important for the differential diagnosis of the cause.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: In cervical lymphadenopathy (of the neck), it is routine to perform a throat examination including the use of a mirror and an endoscope.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: On ultrasound, B-mode imaging depicts lymph node morphology, whilst power Doppler can assess the vascular pattern. B-mode imaging features that can distinguish metastasis and lymphoma include size, shape, calcification, loss of hilar architecture, as well as intranodal necrosis. Soft tissue edema and nodal matting on B-mode imaging suggests tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis or previous radiation therapy. Serial monitoring of nodal size and vascularity are useful in assessing treatment response.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) has sensitivity and specificity percentages of 81% and 100%, respectively, in the histopathology of malignant cervical lymphadenopathy. PET-CT has proven to be helpful in identifying occult primary carcinomas of the head and neck, especially when applied as a guiding tool prior to panendoscopy, and may induce treatment related clinical decisions in up to 60% of cases.


title: Lymphadenopathy

text: Lymphadenopathy of the axillary lymph nodes can be defined as solid nodes measuring more than 15 mm without fatty hilum. Axillary lymph nodes may be normal up to 30 mm if consisting largely of fat.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: Toxicity is the second studio album by Armenian-American heavy metal band System of a Down, released on September 4, 2001, through American Recordings and Columbia Records. Expanding on their 1998 eponymous debut, it incorporated more melody, harmonies, and singing than the band's first album. Categorized primarily as alternative metal and nu metal, "Toxicity" features elements of multiple genres, including folk, progressive rock, jazz, and Armenian and Greek music, including prominent use of instruments like the sitar, banjo, keyboards, and piano. It contains a wide array of political and non-political themes, such as mass incarceration, the CIA, the environment, police brutality, drug addiction, scientific reductionism, and groupies.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: "Toxicity" was recorded at Cello Studios in Hollywood, California. Over 30 songs were recorded, but the band narrowed the number of songs on the album to 14. The album peaked at number one on both the "Billboard" 200 and the Canadian Albums Chart, sold 220,000 copies in its first week of release, was certified by the Recording Industry Association of America by July 2022, and has shipped at least six million copies in the United States. All of "Toxicity" singles reached the "Billboard" Hot 100. The final single, "Aerials", went to number one on both the Mainstream Rock Tracks and the Modern Rock Tracks charts. "Toxicity" received mainly positive ratings and reviews from critics, among them perfect ratings from AllMusic, "Kerrang!", and Blabbermouth.net. Many critics praised the album's sound and innovation, and it ranked on multiple year-end lists.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: The promotional shows for "Toxicity" resulted in a number of controversial incidents. A six-hour riot ensued at a free concert in Hollywood the day before the album's release as a result of the show's cancellation due to an overcrowded show; the crowd in attendance was estimated to be at least twice the size which was expected, another scheduled System of a Down performance was also canceled to prevent a similar riot. The band then toured with Slipknot, and bassist Shavo Odadjian was harassed, racially profiled, and physically beaten by guards when he tried to enter backstage at a concert in October 2001.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: Primarily considered a nu metal and alternative metal album, "Toxicity" has also been described as thrash metal, art metal, hard rock, progressive metal, and heavy metal. "Toxicity" features elements of multiple genres of music: folk, progressive rock, jazz, hip hop, Middle Eastern music, and Greek music. System of a Down guitarist Daron Malakian said that he "wanted to add a bit more harmony for" himself "in the songs and that required tastefully mixing in some softer guitars between the really heavy parts". Malakian also cited the Beatles as an influence on "Toxicity". Sounds of instruments other than drums, vocals, electric guitar and bass guitar, such as sitar, banjo, keyboards and piano, are also featured on "Toxicity". The majority of the album's music was written in the tuning of drop C.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: System of a Down recorded over thirty songs during the recording of "Toxicity" but narrowed the number of songs on the album to fourteen. Several of these recorded songs that didn't make it onto "Toxicity" were re-recorded for System of a Down's next studio album "Steal This Album!", an album released in 2002. "Toxicity" was recorded at Cello Studios in Hollywood, California, mixed at Enterprise Studios in Burbank, California, and mastered at Oasis Mastering in Studio City, California. According to System of a Down bassist Shavo Odadjian, the song "Chop Suey!" is "about drug addiction, but [System of a Down took] something really serious and made it a little quacky". "Prison Song" is about mass incarceration. System of a Down vocalist Serj Tankian said: "It's about the unfairness of mandatory minimum sentences and how there are about 2,000,000 Americans in jail, and a lot of them are in there for marijuana possession and things of that sort. [...] Instead of rehabilitating men who have drug problems, they're throwing them in prison. That's not really solving anything." Tankian said that "Prison Song" also addresses "how drug money is used to rig elections in other countries by the CIA". "Bounce" is about group sex. "Psycho" is about groupies. "ATWA" is about Charles Manson's beliefs on the environment. Malakian has said that "[Manson is] in jail for the wrong reasons. I think he had an unfair trial". "Deer Dance" is about the protests surrounding the 2000 Democratic National Convention.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: On September 3, 2001, System of a Down had planned on launching "Toxicity" at a free concert in Hollywood, California as a "thank you" to fans. The concert, which was to be held in a parking lot, was set up to accommodate 3,500 people; however, an estimated 7,000 to 10,000 fans showed up. Because of the large excess number of fans, the performance was cancelled by police officers just before System of a Down took the stage. No announcement was made that the concert had been cancelled. Fans waited for more than an hour for the band to appear, but when a banner hanging at the back of the stage that read "System of a Down" was removed by security, the audience rushed the stage, destroying all the band's touring gear (approximately $30,000 worth of equipment) and began to riot, throwing rocks at police, breaking windows, and knocking over portable toilets. The riot lasted six hours, during which six arrests were made. The band's manager, David "Beno" Benveniste, later said that the riot could have been avoided if System of a Down had been permitted to perform or had they been allowed to make a statement at the concert regarding the cancellation. System of a Down's scheduled in-store performance the next day was cancelled to prevent a similar riot.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: Later that month, System of a Down embarked on tour in the United States and Mexico with Slipknot. During their concert at Grand Rapids, Michigan's Van Andel Arena in October 2001, Odadjian was harassed, racially profiled and physically beaten by some guards when he attempted to enter backstage. After the attack, he received medical help from the arena personnel and the police in place. Odadjian then filed a lawsuit against DuHadway Kendall Security, the company the guards were working for. Despite this incident, the tour, as a whole, was a success and System of a Down later co-headlined the Pledge of Allegiance leg of Slipknot's Iowa World Tour.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: On review aggregator website Metacritic, "Toxicity" holds a score of 73 out of 100, based on reviews from nine critics, which indicates "generally favourable reviews". AllMusic writer Eduardo Rivadavia called "Toxicity" "hands down one of 2001's top metal releases" and wrote that the album "may well prove to be a lasting heavy metal classic to boot". "Toxicity" is one of only 21 albums to achieve a perfect rating from Blabbermouth.net, with writer Don Kaye praising System of a Down in a contemporary review of the album as "one of the few bands that people may still be talking about ten years from now". "Drowned in Sound" writer Don Kaye praised the band as "probably the most vital band around in the big, wide world of metal right now". Ben Myers of "Kerrang!" stated that the band had "gone and bettered" their debut album and hailed "Toxicity" as "metal album of the year, hands down". "Q" wrote that "Toxicity" "matches Slipknot for manic intensity while employing a freeform approach to songcraft which invites comparison to the lunatic-fringe rock of the '60s".


title: Toxicity (album)

text: Referring to "Toxicity" as "both manic and schizoid", Keith Harris of "Rolling Stone" noted Tankian's ability to veer "easily from sing-rap rhythm to Korn-ish hysterics to demonic baritone growl to doomily ruminative" and that "the music insists on forward motion without trapping itself in a thrashy lock-step rut". Tom Sinclair of "Entertainment Weekly" called the album "strange and engaging", with a wide variety of sounds which "all adds up to bizarro type of metal that has a warped majesty and strength". Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" cited "Prison Song" and "Bounce" as highlights and later assigned the album a one-star honorable rating. "Spin"s Joe Gross wrote that the band "have an undeniable nerd-prog charm". "Uncut", on the other hand, panned "Toxicity" as "virtually unlistenable".


title: Toxicity (album)

text: "Toxicity" peaked at number one on the "Billboard" 200, selling 220,000 copies in its first week of release. The album also topped the Canadian Albums Chart. "Toxicity" sold at least 2,700,000 copies in the United States, and at least 12,000,000 copies worldwide. On November 27, 2002, the album was certified triple-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: All of the album's singles reached the "Billboard" Hot 100; "Chop Suey!" peaked at number 76, "Toxicity" at number 70, and "Aerials" at number 55. "Aerials" would remain the band's biggest domestic hit until "B.Y.O.B." surpassed it, reaching number 27 in 2005. "Aerials" peaked at number one on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart and number one on the Alternative Songs chart. "Chop Suey!" and "Toxicity" were both top ten hits. In 2005, "Toxicity" went to number one on the Catalog Albums chart. Added to the 2001 Clear Channel memorandum, "Chop Suey!" was temporarily pulled from playlists of most radio stations after the September 11 attacks in 2001, as it featured some lyrics that Clear Channel deemed inappropriate following the attacks. The song returned to the airwaves when things settled down.


title: Toxicity (album)

text: The album is listed on "Blender" 500 CDs You Must Own. MusicRadar held a public poll and "Toxicity" was ranked as the 28th greatest heavy metal album on its list of The 50 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time. The album is ranked number 44 on "Rolling Stone" 100 Best Albums of the Decade for 2000s and 27th on the magazine's "100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time". "Toxicity" was voted the 27th best album of the year in "The Village Voice"s annual Pazz & Jop critics poll for 2001. "Spin" named the album one of The 300 Best Albums Of The Past 30 Years, with "Toxicity" being one of the highest-listed heavy metal albums on the list. "Spin" also named "Toxicity" the Album of the Year in 2001, and finally ranked it number 38 on its list of The 40 Greatest Metal Albums Of All Time. "Kludge" ranked it number five on their list of best albums of 2001. "Alternative Press" ranked it number nine on its 25 Best Albums of 2001. "Mojo" ranked it number 93 on its 100 Modern Classics. The album won a 2001 "Metal Edge" Readers' Choice Award for Album of the Year. "Loudwire" listed the album at number one on its list of Top 11 Metal Albums of the 2000s, number two on the Top 100 Hard Rock + Metal Albums Of The 21st Century, and number 11 on its list of Top 50 Metal Albums of All Time. "NME" listed the album at number six on its list of 20 Greatest Metal Albums Ever. "Metal Hammer" declared "Toxicity" the best album of 2001. "The Observer" ranked "Toxicity" as one of the Top 50 Albums Of The Decade, at number 34. In 2007, "The Guardian" placed the album on its list of the 1000 Albums To Hear Before You Die. "Entertainment Weekly" also put "Toxicity" on its list of the 100 Best Albums of the 1983–2008 Period, at number 90. "Revolver" named "Toxicity" the eighth greatest metal album of all time on its list of the 69 Greatest Metal Albums Of All Time. The album was included on "The A.V. Club"s list of the best metal records of the 2000s. "PopMatters" ranked "Toxicity" at 62 on its Best Albums of the 2000s list. "Chop Suey" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 44th Grammy Awards in 2002. Spice Girl Melanie C picked it as one of her favourite albums. In 2020, the album was included at the 100 Best Albums of the 21st Century list of "Stacker", being ranked at 85.


title: Roth IRA

text: A Roth IRA is an individual retirement account (IRA) under United States law that is generally not taxed upon distribution, provided certain conditions are met. The principal difference between Roth IRAs and most other tax-advantaged retirement plans is that rather than granting a tax reduction for contributions to the retirement plan, qualified withdrawals from the Roth IRA plan are tax-free, and growth in the account is tax-free.


title: Roth IRA

text: The Roth IRA was introduced as part of the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 and is named for Senator William Roth.


title: Roth IRA

text: A Roth IRA can be an individual retirement account containing investments in securities, usually common stocks and bonds, often through mutual funds (although other investments, including derivatives, notes, certificates of deposit, and real estate are possible). A Roth IRA can also be an individual retirement annuity, which is an annuity contract or an endowment contract purchased from a life insurance company. As with all IRAs, the Internal Revenue Service mandates specific eligibility and filing status requirements. A Roth IRA's main advantages are its tax structure and the additional flexibility that this tax structure provides. Also, there are fewer restrictions on the investments that can be made in the plan than many other tax-advantaged plans, and this adds somewhat to their popularity, though the investment options available depend on the trustee (or the place where the plan is established).


title: Roth IRA

text: The total contributions allowed per year to all IRAs is the lesser of one's taxable compensation (which is not the same as adjusted gross income) and the limit amounts as seen below (this total may be split up between any number of traditional and Roth IRAs. In the case of a married couple, each spouse may contribute the amount listed):


title: Roth IRA

text: Originally called an "IRA Plus", the idea was proposed by Senator Bob Packwood of Oregon and Senator William Roth of Delaware in 1989. The Packwood–Roth plan would have allowed individuals to invest up to $2,000 in an account with no immediate tax deductions, and the earnings could later be withdrawn tax-free at retirement.


title: Roth IRA

text: The Roth IRA was established by the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 (Public Law 105-34) and named for Senator Roth, its chief legislative sponsor. In 2000, 46.3 million taxpayers held IRA accounts worth a total of $2.6 trillion in value according to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Only a little over $77 billion of that amount was held in Roth IRAs. By 2007, the number of IRA owners had jumped to over 50 million taxpayers with $3.3 trillion invested.


title: Roth IRA

text: In 1997, Roth wanted to restore the traditional IRA which had been repealed in 1986, and the upfront tax deduction that goes with it. Under congressional budget rules, which worked within a 10-year window, the revenue cost of giving that tax break to everyone was too high, so his staff limited deductible IRAs to people with very low income, and made Roth IRAs (initially with income limitations) available to others. This slid the revenue cost outside the 10-year window and got the legislation out from under the budget rules.


title: Roth IRA

text: Economists have warned about exploding future revenue losses associated with Roth IRAs. With these accounts, the government is "bringing in more now, but giving up much more in the future," said economist and Forbes contributor Leonard Burman. In a study for The Tax Policy Center, Burman calculated that from 2014 to 2046, the Treasury would lose a total of $14 billion as a result of IRA-related provisions in the 2006 tax law. The losses stem from both Roth conversions and the ability to make nondeductible IRA contributions and then immediately convert them to Roths.


title: Roth IRA

text: In contrast to a traditional IRA, contributions to a Roth IRA are not tax-deductible. Withdrawals are tax-free under certain conditions (for example, if the withdrawal is only on the principal portion of the account, or if the owner is at least 59½ years old). A Roth IRA has fewer withdrawal restrictions than traditional IRAs. Transactions inside a Roth IRA (including capital gains, dividends, and interest) do not incur a current tax liability.


title: Roth IRA

text: Double taxation may still occur within these tax sheltered investment plans. For example, foreign dividends may be taxed at their point of origin, and the IRS does not recognize this tax as a creditable deduction. There is some controversy over whether this violates existing Joint Tax Treaties, such as the Convention Between Canada and the United States of America With Respect to Taxes on Income and on Capital.


title: Roth IRA

text: For Canadians with U.S. Roth IRAs: A 2008 rule provides that Roth IRAs (as defined in section 408A of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code) and similar plans are considered to be pensions. Accordingly, distributions from a Roth IRA (as well as other similar plans) to a resident of Canada will generally be exempt from Canadian tax to the extent that they would have been exempt from U.S. tax if paid to a resident of the U.S. Additionally, a resident of Canada may elect to defer any taxation in Canada with respect to income accrued in a Roth IRA but not distributed by the Roth IRA, until and to the extent that a distribution is made from the Roth IRA or any plan substituted therefor. The effect of these rules is that, in most cases, no portion of the Roth IRA will be subject to taxation in Canada.


title: Roth IRA

text: However, where an individual makes a contribution to a Roth IRA while they are a resident of Canada (other than rollover contributions from another Roth IRA), the Roth IRA will lose its status as a "pension" for purposes of the Treaty with respect to the accretions from the time such contribution is made. Income accretions from such time will be subject to tax in Canada in the year of accrual. In effect, the Roth IRA will be bifurcated into a "frozen" pension that will continue to enjoy the benefit of the exemption for pensions and a non-pension (essentially a savings account) that will not.


title: Roth IRA

text: Congress has limited who can contribute to a Roth IRA based upon income. A taxpayer can contribute the maximum amount listed at the top of the page only if their Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI) is below a certain level (the bottom of the range shown below). Otherwise, a phase-out of allowed contributions runs proportionally throughout the MAGI ranges shown below. Once MAGI hits the top of the range, no contribution is allowed at all; however, a minimum of $200 may be contributed as long as MAGI is below the top of the range. Excess Roth IRA contributions may be recharacterized into Traditional IRA contributions as long as the combined contributions do not exceed that tax year's limit. The Roth IRA MAGI phase out ranges for 2021 are:


title: Roth IRA

text: The lower number represents the point at which the taxpayer is no longer allowed to contribute the maximum yearly contribution. The upper number is the point as of which the taxpayer is no longer allowed to contribute at all. People who are married and living together, but who file separately, are only allowed to contribute a relatively small amount.


title: Roth IRA

text: However, once a Roth IRA is established, the balance in the plan remains tax-sheltered, even if the taxpayer's income rises above the threshold. (The thresholds are just for annual eligibility to contribute, not for eligibility to maintain a Roth IRA.)


title: Roth IRA

text: To be eligible, one must meet the earned income minimum requirement. In order to make a contribution, one must have taxable compensation (not taxable income from investments). If one makes only $2,000 in taxable compensation, one's maximum IRA contribution is $2,000.


title: Roth IRA

text: If a taxpayer's income exceeds the income limits, they may still be able to effectively contribute by using a "backdoor" contribution process (see Traditional IRA conversion as a workaround to Roth IRA income limits below).


title: Roth IRA

text: Contributions to both a Roth IRA and a traditional IRA are limited to the total amount allowed for either of them. Generally, the contribution cannot exceed your earned income for the year in question. The one exception is for a "spousal IRA" where a contribution can be made for a spouse with little or no earned income provided the other spouse has sufficient earned income and the spouses file a joint tax return.


title: Roth IRA

text: The government allows people to convert Traditional IRA funds (and some other untaxed IRA funds) to Roth IRA funds by paying income tax on any account balance being converted that has not already been taxed (e.g., the Traditional IRA balance minus any non-deductible contributions).


title: Roth IRA

text: Prior to 2010, two circumstances prohibited conversions: Modified Adjusted Gross Income exceeding $100,000 or the participant's tax filing status is Married Filing Separately. These limitations were removed as part of the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005.


title: Roth IRA

text: Regardless of income but subject to contribution limits, contributions can be made to a Traditional IRA and then converted to a Roth IRA. This allows for "backdoor" contributions where individuals are able to make Roth IRA contributions even if their income is above the limits.


title: Roth IRA

text: One major caveat to the entire "backdoor" Roth IRA contribution process, however, is that it only works for people who do not have any pre-tax contributed money in IRA accounts at the time of the "backdoor" conversion to Roth; conversions made when other IRA money exists are subject to pro-rata calculations and may lead to tax liabilities on the part of the converter. In effect, one cannot choose the tax character of the contribution, as it must reflect the existing proportion of tax character in traditional IRAs. For example, a traditional IRA contains $10,000 post-tax and $30,000 pre-tax funds, it has 75% pre-tax character. Converting $10,000 into a Roth would lead to 75% ($7,500) of the contribution being considered taxable. The pro-rata calculation is made based on all traditional IRA contributions across all the individual's traditional IRA accounts (even if they are in different institutions).


title: Roth IRA

text: Backdoor Roth IRA contributions were explicitly allowed by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Prior to that, there was concern that the process would violate the step transaction doctrine that one cannot combine individually legal steps to achieve an outcome that would be illegal if done in a single step.


title: Roth IRA

text: Returns of regular contributions from Roth IRA(s) are always withdrawn tax and penalty-free. Eligible (tax and penalty-free) distributions of earnings must fulfill two requirements. First, the seasoning period of five years since the opening of the Roth IRA account must have elapsed, and secondly a justification must exist such as retirement or disability. The simplest justification is reaching 59.5 years of age, at which point qualified withdrawals may be made in any amount on any schedule. Becoming disabled or being a "first time" home buyer can provide justification for limited qualified withdrawals. Finally, although one can take distributions from a Roth IRA under the substantially equal periodic payments (SEPP) rule without paying a 10% penalty, any interest earned in the IRA will be subject to tax—a substantial penalty which forfeits the primary tax benefits of the Roth IRA.


title: Roth IRA

text: In addition, the beneficiary may elect to choose from one of two methods of distribution. The first option is to receive the entire distribution by December 31 of the fifth year following the year of the IRA owner's death. The second option is to receive portions of the IRA as distributions over the life of the beneficiary, terminating upon the death of the beneficiary and passing on to a secondary beneficiary. If the beneficiary of the Roth IRA is a trust, the trust must distribute the entire assets of the Roth IRA by December 31 of the fifth year following the year of the IRA owner's death, unless there is a "Look Through" clause, in which case the distributions of the Roth IRA are based on the Single Life Expectancy table over the life of the beneficiary, terminating upon the death of the beneficiary. Subtract one from the "Single Life Expectancy" for each successive year. The age of the beneficiary is determined on 12/31 of the first year after the year that the owner died.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The Triple Goddess is a deity or deity archetype revered in many Neopagan religious and spiritual traditions. In common Neopagan usage, the Triple Goddess is viewed as a triunity of three distinct aspects or figures united in one being. These three figures are often described as the Maiden, the Mother, and the Crone, each of which symbolizes both a separate stage in the female life cycle and a phase of the Moon, and often rules one of the realms of heavens, earth, and underworld. In various forms of Wicca, her masculine consort is the Horned God.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The Triple Goddess was the subject of much of the writing of the prominent early and middle 20th-century poet, novelist and mythographer Robert Graves, in his books "The White Goddess" and "The Greek Myths" as well as in his poetry and novels. Modern neopagan conceptions of the Triple Goddess have been heavily influenced by Graves, who regarded her as the continuing muse of all true poetry, and who speculatively imagined her ancient worship, drawing on the scholarship, fiction and mythology of his time, in particular the work of Jane Ellen Harrison and other Cambridge Ritualists. The influential Hungarian scholar of Greek mythology Karl Kerenyi likewise perceived an underlying triple moon goddess in Greek mythology. Archaeologist Marija Gimbutas also argued for the ancient worship of a universal Triple Goddess in European cultures but, as with Graves, her generalization of these theories to multiple unrelated cultures, and the unsourced homogenization of diverse cultures into one unified cultural and religious figure, has attracted much controversy. Many neopagan belief systems follow Graves' and Gimbutas' proposed figure of a universal, cross-cultural Triple Goddess, and these ideas continue to be an influence on feminism, literature, Jungian psychology and literary criticism.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Various triune or triple goddesses, or deities who appeared in groupings of three, were known to ancient religion. Well-known examples include Tridevi (Saraswati, Lakshmi, Kali), the Charites (Graces), the Horae (Seasons, of which there were three in the ancient Hellenistic reckoning), and the Moirai (Fates). Some deities generally depicted as singular also included triplicate aspects. In Stymphalos, Hera was worshiped as a Girl, a Grown-up, and a Widow.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: According to Robert Graves, Hecate was the "original" and most prominent ancient triple moon goddess. Hecate was represented in triple form from the early days of her worship. Diana (Artemis) also came to be viewed as a trinity of three goddesses in one, which were viewed as distinct aspects of a single divine being: "Diana as huntress, Diana as the moon, Diana of the underworld." Additional examples of the goddess Hecate viewed as a triple goddess associated with witchcraft include Lucan's tale of a group of witches, written in the 1st century BCE. In Lucan's work (LUC. B.C. 6:700-01), the witches speak of "Persephone, who is the third and lowest aspect of our goddess Hecate". Another example is found in Ovid's "Metamorphosis" (Met. 7:94–95), in which Jason swears an oath to the witch Medea, saying he would "be true by the sacred rites of the three-fold goddess."


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry was the first to record an explicit belief that the three aspects of Hecate (an important goddess in the Neoplatonic tradition of Late Antiquity) represented the phases of the moon: new, waxing, and full. In his 3rd century AD work "On Images", Porphyry wrote: "the moon is Hekate, the symbol of her varying phases and of her power dependent on the phases. Wherefore her power appears in three forms, having as symbol of the new moon the figure in the white robe and golden sandals, and torches lighted: the basket, which she bears when she has mounted high, is the symbol of the cultivation of the crops, which she makes to grow up according to the increase of her light: and again the symbol of the full moon is the goddess of the brazen sandals." Porphyry also associated Hecate with Dionysus, who he said they set beside her partially "on account of their growth of horns".


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The specific character of the modern neopagan Maiden, Mother, and Crone archetype is not found in any ancient sources related directly to Hecate. Both Diana and Hecate were almost invariably described as maiden goddesses, with an appearance like that of a young woman. However, according to the 3rd century BC grammarian Epigenes, the three Moirai, or Fates, were regarded by the Orphic tradition as representing the three divisions of the Moon, "the thirtieth and the fifteenth and the first" (i.e. the crescent moon, full moon, and dark moon, as delinted by the divisions of the calendar month). The Moirai themselves are traditionally depicted as a young girl, or Spinner of the thread of life, an older woman, or Measurer, and an elderly woman, or Cutter, representing birth, active life, and death. The connection between the Fates and the variously named Triple Moon Goddess, then ultimately led to the conflation of these concepts. Servius made the explicit connection between these phases and the roles of the Moirai: "some call the same goddess Lucina, Diana, and Hecate, because they assign to one goddess the three powers of birth, growth, and death. Some that say that Lucina is the goddess of birth, Diana of growth, and Hecate of death. On account of this three-fold power, they have imagined her as three-fold and three-form, and for that reason they built temples at the meeting of three roads." Servius' text included a drawing of a crescent moon (representing the new moon), a half moon (representing the waxing moon), and the full moon.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: According to Jane Ellen Harrison:The three Horae are the three phases of Selene, the Moon waxing, full, and waning. ... [T]he Moon is the true mother of the triple Horae, who are themselves Moirai, and the Moirai, as Orpheus tells us, are but the three "moirai" or divisions ("μέρη") of the Moon herself, the three divisions of the old year. And these three Moirai or Horae are also Charites."


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The syncretism of the prominent triple moon goddess (a united figure of Diana/Hecate/Selene), combined with the Orphic belief that the Seasons and the Fates were divisions of this same divinity, along with the latter representing the three stages of life, ultimately gave rise to the modern conception of a Triple Goddess whose symbol is the moon and whose triplicity can be conceived of both in terms of the moon's phases as the "Maiden, Mother, and Crone". However, it was not until the early 20th century that this fairly obscure ancient connection was developed and popularized.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The belief in a singular Triple Moon Goddess was likely brought to modern scholarship, if not originated by, the work of Jane Ellen Harrison. Harrison asserts the existence of female trinities, and uses Epigenes and other ancient sources to elaborate on the Horae, Fates, and Graces as chronological symbols representing the phases of the Moon and the threefold division of the Hellenistic lunar month.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: However, Harrison's interpretations and contribution to the development and study of the Triple Goddess were somewhat overshadowed by the more controversial and poorly-supported ideas in her works. Most notably, Harrison used historical sources for the existence of an ancient Triple Moon Goddess to support her belief in an ancient matriarchal civilization, which has not stood up to academic scrutiny.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Ronald Hutton writes:[Harrison's] work, both celebrated and controversial, posited the previous existence of a peaceful and intensely creative woman-centred civilization, in which humans, living in harmony with nature and their own emotions, worshipped a single female deity. The deity was regarded as representing the earth, and as having three aspects, of which the first two were Maiden and Mother; she did not name the third. ... Following her work, the idea of a matristic early Europe which had venerated such a deity was developed in books by amateur scholars such as Robert Briffault's "The Mothers" (1927) and Robert Graves's "The White Goddess" (1946).


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: John Michael Greer writes:Harrison proclaimed that Europe itself had been the location of an idyllic, goddess-worshipping, matriarchal civilization just before the beginning of recorded history, and spoke bitterly of the disastrous consequences of the Indo-European invasion that destroyed it. In the hands of later writers such as Robert Graves, Jacquetta Hawkes, and Marija Gimbutas, this 'lost civilization of the goddess' came to play the same sort of role in many modern Pagan communities as Atlantis and Lemuria did in Theosophy.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The "myth and ritual" school or the Cambridge Ritualists, of which Harrison was a key figure, while controversial in its day, is now considered passé in intellectual and academic terms. According to Robert Ackerman, "[T]he reason the Ritualists have fallen into disfavor... is not that their assertions have been controverted by new information... Ritualism has been swept away not by an access of new facts but of new theories."


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Ronald Hutton wrote on the decline the "Great Goddess" theory specifically: "The effect upon professional prehistorians was to make most return, quietly and without controversy, to that careful agnosticism as to the nature of ancient religion which most had preserved until the 1940s. There had been no absolute disproof of the veneration of a Great Goddess, only a demonstration that the evidence concerned admitted of alternative explanations." Hutton did not dispute that in ancient pagan worship "partnerships of three divine women" occurred; rather he proposed that Jane Harrison looked to such partnerships to help explain how ancient goddesses could be both virgin and mother (the third person of the triad being as yet unnamed). She was, according to Hutton, "extending" the ideas of the prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans who in excavating Knossos in Crete had come to the view that prehistoric Cretans had worshiped a single mighty goddess at once virgin and mother. In Hutton's view Evans' opinion owed an "unmistakable debt" to the Christian belief in the Virgin Mary.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The Triple Goddess as an archetype is discussed in the works of both Carl Jung and Karl Kerényi, and the later works of their follower, Erich Neumann. Jung considered the general arrangement of deities in triads as a pattern which arises at the most primitive level of human mental development and culture.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: In 1949 Jung and Kerényi theorized that groups of three goddesses found in Greece become quaternities only by association with a male god. They give the example of Diana only becoming three (Daughter, Wife, Mother) through her relationship to Zeus, the male deity. They go on to state that different cultures and groups associate different numbers and cosmological bodies with gender. "The threefold division [of the year] is inextricably bound up with the primitive form of the goddess Demeter, who was also Hecate, and Hecate could claim to be mistress of the three realms. In addition, her relations to the moon, the corn, and the realm of the dead are three fundamental traits in her nature. The goddess's sacred number is the special number of the underworld: '3' dominates the chthonic cults of antiquity."


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Kerenyi wrote in 1952 that several Greek goddesses were triple moon goddesses of the Maiden Mother Crone type, including Hera and others. For example, Kerenyi writes in "Athene: Virgin and Mother in Greek Religion", 1978, translated from German by Murray Stein (German text 1952) Spring Publications, Zurich, :


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: "With Hera the correspondences of the mythological and cosmic transformation extended to all three phases in which the Greeks saw the moon: she corresponded to the waxing moon as maiden, to the full moon as fulfilled wife, to the waning moon as abandoned withdrawing women" (page 58) He goes on to say that trios of sister goddess in Greek myth refer to the lunar cycle; in the book in question he treats Athene also as a triple moon goddess, noting the statement by Aristotle that Athene was the Moon but not "only" the Moon.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: In discussing examples of his Great Mother archetype, Neumann mentions the Fates as "the threefold form of the Great Mother", details that "the reason for their appearance in threes or nines, or more seldom in twelves, is to be sought in the threefold articulation underlying all created things; but here it refers most particularly to the three temporal stages of all growth (beginning-middle-end, birth-life-death, past-present-future)." Andrew Von Hendy claims that Neumann's theories are based on circular reasoning, whereby a Eurocentric view of world mythology is used as evidence for a universal model of individual psychological development which mirrors a sociocultural evolutionary model derived from European mythology.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: As a poet and mythographer, Robert Graves claimed a historical basis for the Triple Goddess. Although Graves's work is widely discounted by academics as pseudohistory (see The White Goddess § Criticism and The Greek Myths § Reception), it continues to have a lasting influence on many areas of Neopaganism.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Ronald Hutton argues that the concept of the triple moon goddess as Maiden, Mother, and Crone, each facet corresponding to a phase of the moon, is a modern creation of Graves', who in turn drew on the work of 19th and 20th century scholars such as especially Jane Harrison; and also Margaret Murray, James Frazer, the other members of the "myth and ritual" school or Cambridge Ritualists, and the occultist and writer Aleister Crowley.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: While Graves was the originator of the idea of the Triple Goddess as embodying Maiden/Mother/Crone, this was not the only trinity he proposed. In his 1944 historical novel "The Golden Fleece", Graves wrote "Maiden, Nymph and Mother are the eternal royal Trinity...and the Goddess, who is worshipped...in each of these aspects, as New Moon, Full Moon, and Old Moon, is the sovereign deity." In his 1946 novel "King Jesus", Graves again described a Triple Moon-goddess of birth, love, and death, who in the story was embodied by Mary, mother of Jesus, Mary of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: In his best-known work, "The White Goddess: a Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth" (1948), Graves described the trinity of the Triple Goddess in several different ways:


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Graves explained, "As Goddess of the Underworld she was concerned with Birth, Procreation and Death. As Goddess of the Earth she was concerned with the three season of Spring, Summer and Winter: she animated trees and plants and ruled all living creatures. As Goddess of the Sky she was the Moon, in her three phases of New Moon, Full Moon, and Waning Moon...As the New Moon or Spring she was a girl; as the Full Moon or Summer she was woman; as the Old Moon or Winter she was hag."


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: In the 1949 novel "Seven Days in New Crete", Graves extrapolated this theory into an imagined future society where the worship of the Triple Goddess (under the three aspects of the maiden archer Nimuë, the goddess of motherhood and sexuality Mari, and the hag-goddess of wisdom Ana) is the main form of religion.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Graves wrote extensively on the subject of the Triple Goddess who he saw as the Muse of all true poetry in both ancient and modern literature. He thought that her ancient worship underlay much of classical Greek myth although reflected there in a more or less distorted or incomplete form. As an example of an unusually complete survival of the "ancient triad" he cites from the classical source Pausanias the worship of Hera in three persons. Pausanias recorded the ancient worship of "Hera Pais" (Girl Hera), "Hera Teleia" (Adult Hera), and "Hera Khera" (Widow Hera, though "Khera" can also mean separated or divorced) at a single sanctuary reputedly built by Temenus, son of Pelasgus, in Stymphalos. Other examples he gives include the goddess triad Moira, Ilythia and Callone ("Death, Birth and Beauty") from Plato's Symposium; the goddess Hecate; the story of the rape of Kore, (the triad here Graves said to be Kore, Persephone and Hecate with Demeter the general name of the goddess); alongside a large number of other configurations. A figure he used from outside of Greek myth was of the Akan Triple Moon Goddess Ngame, who Graves said was still worshipped in 1960.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Graves regarded "true poetry" as inspired by the Triple Goddess, as an example of her continuing influence in English poetry he instances the "Garland of Laurell" by the English poet, John Skelton (c.1460–1529) — "Diana in the leavës green, Luna that so bright doth sheen, Persephone in Hell." — as evoking his Triple Goddess in her three realms of earth, sky and underworld. Skelton was here following the Latin poet Ovid. James Frazer's seminal Golden Bough centres around the cult of the Roman goddess Diana who had three aspects, associated with the Moon, the forest, and the underworld.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Graves stated that his Triple Goddess is the Great Goddess "in her poetic or incantatory character", and that the goddess in her ancient form took the gods of the waxing and waning year successively as her lovers. Graves believed that the Triple Goddess was an aboriginal deity also of Britain, and that traces of her worship survived in early modern British witchcraft and in various modern British cultural attitudes such as what Graves believed to be a preference for a female sovereign.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: In the anthology "The Greek Myths" (1955), Graves systematically applied his convictions enshrined in "The White Goddess" to Greek mythology, exposing a large number of readers to his various theories concerning goddess worship in ancient Greece. Graves posited that Greece had been settled by a matriarchal goddess-worshipping people before being invaded by successive waves of patriarchal Indo-European speakers from the north. Much of Greek myth in his view recorded the consequent religious political and social accommodations until the final triumph of patriarchy.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Graves did not invent this picture but drew from nineteenth and early twentieth century scholarship. According to Ronald Hutton, Graves used Jane Ellen Harrison's idea of goddess-worshipping matriarchal early Europe


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: and the imagery of three aspects, and related these to the Triple Goddess. This theory has not necessarily been disproved, but modern scholarship has favored other explanations for the evidence used by Graves and Harrison to support their ideas, which are not accepted as a consensus view today. The twentieth century archaeologist Marija Gimbutas (see below) also argued for a triple goddess-worshipping European neolithic modified and eventually overwhelmed by waves of partiarchal invaders although she saw this neolithic civilization as egalitarian and "matristic" rather than "matriarchal" in the sense of gynocratic.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Scholar Marija Gimbutas's theories relating to goddess-centered culture among pre-Indo-European "Old Europe" (6500–3500 BCE) have been widely adopted by New Age and ecofeminist groups. She had been referred to as the "Grandmother of the Goddess Movement" in the 1990s.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Gimbutas postulated that in "Old Europe", the Aegean and the Near East, a single great Triple Goddess was worshipped, predating what she deemed as a patriarchal religion imported by the Kurgans, nomadic speakers of Indo-European languages. Gimbutas interpreted iconography from Neolithic and earlier periods of European history evidence of worship of a triple goddess represented by:


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The first and third aspects of the goddess, according to Gimbutas, were frequently conflated to make a goddess of death-and-regeneration represented in folklore by such figures as Baba Yaga. Gimbutas regarded the Eleusinian Mysteries as a survival into classical antiquity of this ancient goddess worship, a suggestion which Georg Luck echoes.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Skepticism regarding her goddess-centered Old Europe thesis is widespread within the academic community. Gimbutas's work in this area has been criticized as mistaken on the grounds of dating, archaeological context and typologies, with most archaeologists considering her goddess hypothesis implausible. Lauren Talalay, reviewing Gimbutas' last book, "The Living Goddesses", says that it reads "more like a testament of faith than a well-conceived thesis", stating that "Just because a triangle schematically mimics the female pubic region, or a hedgehog resembles a uterus (!), or dogs are allied with death in Classical mythology, it is hardly justifiable to associate all these images with 'the formidable goddess of regeneration'." Lynn Meskell considers such an approach "irresponsible". However, linguist M. L. West has called Gimbutas's goddess-based "Old European" religion being overtaken by a patriarchal Indo-European one "essentially sound".


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Academic rejection of her theories has been echoed by some feminist authors, including Cynthia Eller. Others argue that her account challenges male-centred histories and creates a powerful origin-myth of female empowerment. John Chapman suggests that Gimbutas' Goddess theories were a poetic projection of her personal life, based on her idealized childhood and adolescence.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: While most Neopagans are not Wiccan, and within Neopaganism the practices and theology vary widely, many Wiccans and other neopagans worship the "Triple Goddess" of maiden, mother, and crone. In their view, sexuality, pregnancy, breastfeeding—and other female reproductive processes—are ways that women may embody the Goddess, making the physical body sacred.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Helen Berger writes that "according to believers, this echoing of women's life stages allowed women to identify with deity in a way that had not been possible since the advent of patriarchal religions." The Church of All Worlds is one example of a neopagan organization which identifies the Triple Goddess as symbolizing a "fertility cycle". This model is also supposed to encompass a personification of all the characteristics and potential of every woman who has ever existed. Other beliefs held by worshippers, such as Wiccan author D. J. Conway, include that reconnection with the Great Goddess is vital to the health of humankind "on all levels". Conway includes the Greek goddesses Demeter, Kore-Persephone, and Hecate, in her discussion of the Maiden-Mother-Crone archetype. Conway specifically believes the Triple Goddess stands for unity, cooperation, and participation with all creation, while in contrast masculine gods can represent dissociation, separation and dominion of nature.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The Dianic tradition adopted Graves's Triple Goddess, along with other elements from Wicca, and is named after the Roman goddess Diana, the goddess of the witches in Charles Godfrey Leland's 1899 book "Aradia". Zsuzsanna Budapest, widely considered the founder of Dianic Wicca, considers her Goddess "the original Holy Trinity; Virgin, Mother, and Crone." Dianic Wiccans such as Ruth Barrett, follower of Budapest and co-founder of the "Temple of Diana", use the Triple Goddess in ritual work and correspond the "special directions" of "above", "center", and "below" to Maiden, Mother, and Crone respectively. Barrett says "Dianics honour "She who has been called" by Her daughters throughout time, in many places, and by many names."


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Some neopagans believe that the Triple Goddess is an archetypal figure which appears in a number of different cultures throughout human history, and that many individual goddesses can be interpreted as Triple Goddesses, The wide acceptance of an archetype theory has led to neopagans adopting the images and names of culturally divergent deities for ritual purposes; for instance, Conway, and goddess feminist artist Monica Sjöö, connect the Triple Goddess to the Hindu Tridevi (literally "three goddesses") of Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Parvati (Kali/Durga). Several advocates of Wicca, such as Vivianne Crowley and Selena Fox, are practising psychologists or psychotherapists and looked specifically to the work of Carl Jung to develop the theory of the Goddess as an archetype. Wouter J. Hanegraaff comments that Crowley's works can give the impression that Wicca is little more than a religious and ritual translation of Jungian psychology.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Valerie H. Mantecon follows Annis V. Pratt that the Triple Goddess of Maiden, Mother and Crone is a male invention that both arises from and biases an androcentric view of femininity, and as such the symbolism is often devoid of real meaning or use in depth-psychology for women. Mantecon suggests that a feminist re-visioning of the Crone symbolism away from its usual associations with "death" and towards "wisdom" can be useful in women transitioning to the menopausal phase of life and that the sense of history that comes from working with mythological symbols adds a sense of meaning to the experience.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Author Margaret Atwood recalls reading Graves's "The White Goddess" at the age of 19. Atwood describes Graves' concept of the Triple Goddess as employing violent and misandric imagery, and says the restrictive role this model places on creative women put her off being a writer. Atwood's work has been noted as containing Triple Goddess motifs who sometimes appear failed and parodic. Atwood's "Lady Oracle" has been cited as a deliberate parody of the Triple Goddess, which subverts the figure and ultimately liberates the lead female character from the oppressive model of feminine creativity that Graves constructed.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Literary critic Andrew D. Radford, discussing the symbolism of Thomas Hardy's 1891 novel "Tess of the d'Urbervilles", in terms of Myth sees the Maiden and Mother as two phases of the female lifecycle through which Tess passes, whilst the Crone phase, Tess adopts as a disguise which prepares her for harrowing experiences .


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Thomas DeQuincey developed a female trinity, Our Lady of Tears, the Lady of Sighs and Our Lady of Darkness, in "Suspiria De Profundis", which has been likened to Graves's Triple Goddess but stamped with DeQuincey's own melancholy sensibility.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: According to scholar Juliette Wood, modern fantasy fiction plays a large part in the conceptual landscape of the neo-pagan world. The three supernatural female figures called variously the Ladies, Mother of the Camenae, the Kindly Ones, and a number of other different names in "The Sandman" comic books by Neil Gaiman, merge the figures of the Fates and the Maiden-Mother-Crone goddess. Alan Garner's "The Owl Service", based on the fourth branch of the "Mabinogion" and influenced by Robert Graves, clearly delineates the character of the Triple Goddess. Garner goes further in his other novels, making every female character intentionally represent an aspect of the Triple Goddess. In George R.R. Martin's "A Song of Ice and Fire" series, the Maid, the Mother, and the Crone are three aspects of the septune deity in the Faith of the Seven, much as the neopagan triple goddess is incorporated in Marion Zimmer Bradley's "The Mists of Avalon".


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: Graves's Triple Goddess motif has been used by Norman Holland to explore the female characters in Alfred Hitchcock's film "Vertigo". Roz Kaveney sees the main characters in James Cameron's movie "Aliens" as: The Alien Queen (Crone), Ripley (Mother) and Newt (Maiden).


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: American heavy metal band The Sword's song, "Maiden, Mother & Crone", on their album "Gods of the Earth", describes an encounter with the Triple Goddess. The video prominently features three aspects of the goddess and a waxing, full, and waning moon.


title: Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)

text: The Triple Goddess is referenced in the "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (TV series) ", "Chapter Twenty-Eight: Sabrina Is Legend" as the Maiden-Mother-Crone Goddess Hecate. Zelda and her coven invoke the power of Hecate to restore their powers and resurrect her sister Hilda. The Church of Night then anoints Hecate as their chosen entity to worship.


title: America's Cup

text: The America's Cup, informally known as the Auld Mug, is a trophy awarded in the sport of sailing. It is the oldest international competition still operating in any sport. America's Cup match races are held between two sailing yachts: one from the yacht club that currently holds the trophy (known as the defender) and the other from the yacht club that is challenging for the cup (the challenger). Matches are held several years apart on dates agreed between the defender and the challenger. There is no fixed schedule, but the races have generally been held every three to four years. The most recent America's Cup match took place in March 2021.


title: America's Cup

text: The cup was originally known as the 'R.Y.S. £100 Cup', awarded in 1851 by the British Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom. The winning yacht was a schooner called "America", owned by a syndicate of members from the New York Yacht Club (NYYC). In 1857, the syndicate permanently donated the trophy to the NYYC, under a Deed of Gift that renamed the trophy as the 'America's Cup' after the first winner and required it be made available for perpetual international competition.


title: America's Cup

text: Any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that currently holds the cup. If the challenging club wins the match, it gains stewardship of the cup. From the first defence of the cup in 1870 until the twentieth defence in 1967, there was always only one challenger. In 1970 multiple challengers applied, so a selection series was held to decide which applicant would become the official challenger and compete in the America's Cup match. This approach has been used for each subsequent competition. The Prada Cup (known as the Louis Vuitton Cup from 1983 to 2017) is awarded to the winner of the challenger selection series.


title: America's Cup

text: The history and prestige associated with the America's Cup attracts the world's top sailors, yacht designers, wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors. It is a test of sailing skill, boat and sail design, and fundraising and management skills. Competing for the cup is expensive, with modern teams spending more than $US100 million each; the 2013 winner was estimated to have spent $US300 million on the competition.


title: America's Cup

text: The trophy was held by the NYYC from 1857 until 1983. The NYYC successfully defended the trophy twenty-four times in a row before being defeated by the Royal Perth Yacht Club, represented by the yacht "Australia II". Including the original 1851 victory, the NYYC's 132-year reign was the longest (in terms of time) winning streak in any sport.


title: America's Cup

text: Early matches for the cup were raced between yachts on the waterline owned by wealthy sportsmen. This culminated with the J-Class regattas of the 1930s. After World War II and almost twenty years without a challenge, the NYYC made changes to the deed of gift to allow smaller, less expensive 12-metre class yachts to compete; this class was used from 1958 until 1987. It was replaced in 1990 by the International America's Cup Class, which was used until 2007.


title: America's Cup

text: After a long legal battle, the 2010 America's Cup was raced in waterline multihull yachts in Valencia, Spain. The victorious Golden Gate Yacht Club then elected to race the 2013 America's Cup in AC72 foiling, wing-sail catamarans and successfully defended the cup. The 2017 America's Cup match was sailed in 50 ft foiling catamarans, after legal battles and disputes over the rule changes.


title: America's Cup

text: The America's Cup is currently held by the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron, who successfully defended the 36th America's Cup in March 2021 using an AC75 foiling monohull called "Te Rehutai", owned and sailed by the Team New Zealand syndicate. The next America's Cup will be held between the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron and the Royal Yacht Squadron, at a date to be determined. Both the 37th and 38th America's Cup matches will be sailed in AC75 class yachts.


title: America's Cup

text: The Cup is an ornate sterling silver bottomless ewer crafted in 1848 by Garrard & Co. Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey bought one and donated it for the Royal Yacht Squadron's 1851 Annual Regatta around the Isle of Wight.


title: America's Cup

text: It was originally known as the "R.Y.S. £100 Cup", standing for a cup of a hundred GB Pounds or "sovereigns" in value. The cup was subsequently mistakenly engraved as the "100 Guinea Cup" by the "America" syndicate, but was also referred to as the "Queen's Cup" (a guinea is an old monetary unit of one pound and one shilling, now £1.05). Today, the trophy is officially known as the "America's Cup" after the 1851 winning yacht, and is affectionately called the "Auld Mug" by the sailing community. It is inscribed with names of the yachts that competed for it, and has been modified twice by adding matching bases to accommodate more names.


title: America's Cup

text: In 1851 Commodore John Cox Stevens, a charter member of the fledgling New York Yacht Club (NYYC), formed a six-person syndicate to build a yacht with intention of taking her to England and making some money competing in yachting regattas and match races. The syndicate contracted with pilot boat designer George Steers for a schooner, which was christened "America" and launched on 3 May 1851.


title: America's Cup

text: On 22 August 1851, "America" raced against 15 yachts of the Royal Yacht Squadron in the club's annual regatta around the Isle of Wight. "America" won, finishing 8 minutes ahead of the closest rival. Apocryphally, Queen Victoria, who was watching at the finish line, was reported to have asked who was second, the famous answer being: "Ah, Your Majesty, there is no second."


title: America's Cup

text: The surviving members of the "America" syndicate donated the cup via the Deed of Gift of the America's Cup to the NYYC on 8 July 1857, specifying that it be held in trust as a perpetual challenge trophy to promote friendly competition among nations.


title: America's Cup

text: No challenge to race for the Cup was issued until British railway tycoon James Lloyd Ashbury's topsail schooner "Cambria" (188 tons, 1868 design) beat the Yankee schooner "Sappho" (274.4 tons, 1867 design) in the Solent in 1868. This success encouraged the Royal Thames Yacht Club in believing that the cup could be brought back home, and officially placed the first challenge in 1870. Ashbury entered "Cambria" in the NYYC Queen's Cup race in New York City on 8 August against a fleet of seventeen schooners, with time allowed based on their tonnage. The "Cambria" only placed eighth, behind the aging "America" (178.6 tons, 1851) in fourth place and Franklin Osgood's "" (92.2 tons, 1857) in the fleet's lead.


title: America's Cup

text: Trying again, Ashbury offered a best-of-seven match race challenge for October 1871, which the NYYC accepted provided a defending yacht could be chosen on the morning of each race. Ashbury's new yacht "Livonia" (264 tons) was beaten twice in a row by Osgood's new centreboard schooner "Columbia" (220 tons), which withdrew in the third race after dismasting. The yacht "Sappho" then stepped in as defender to win the fourth and fifth races, thereby successfully defending the cup. Although the event ended in acrimony, Ashbury was the catalyst for the introduction of greater fairness in no longer allowing the defender to use multiple yachts against a single challenger.


title: America's Cup

text: The next challenge, in 1876 from the Royal Canadian Yacht Club, was the first to be disputed between two yachts only. The schooner "Madeleine" (148.2 tons, 1868), a previous defender from the 1870 fleet race, easily defeated the challenger "Countess of Dufferin" (221 tons, 1876 design by Alexander Cuthbert). Cuthbert filed the second Canadian challenge, bankrolling, designing and sailing the first sloop challenge for the America's Cup in 1881. The small Canadian challenger "Atalanta" (84 tons, 1881), representing the Bay of Quinte Yacht Club, suffered from lack of funds, unfinished build and a difficult delivery through the Erie Canal from Lake Ontario to New York. In contrast, the NYYC cautiously prepared its first selection trials. The iron sloop "Mischief" (79 tons, 1879 design by Archibald Cary Smith) was chosen from four sloop candidates and successfully defended the cup.


title: America's Cup

text: In response to the unsuccessful Canadian challenges, the in 1881 to require that challenges be accepted only from yacht clubs on the sea. The Deed was further amended to provide that challenger yachts must sail to the venue on their own hull. Furthermore, Archibald Cary Smith and the NYYC committee devised a new rating rule that would govern the next races. They included sail area and waterline length into the handicap, with penalties on waterlines longer than . Irish yacht designer John Beavor-Webb launched the challengers "Genesta" (1884) and "Galatea" (1885), which would define the British "plank-on-edge" design of a heavy, deep and narrow-keel hull, making for very stiff yachts ideal for the British breeze. The boats came to New York in 1885 and 1886 respectively, but neither would best the sloops "Puritan" or "Mayflower", whose success in selection trials against many other candidates proved Boston designer Edward Burgess was the master of the "compromise sloop" (lightweight, wide and shallow hull with centerboard). This design paradigm proved ideal for the light Yankee airs.


title: America's Cup

text: In 1887, Edward Burgess repeated his success with the "Volunteer" against Scottish yacht designer George Lennox Watson's challenger "Thistle", which was built in secret. Even when the "Thistle" was drydocked in New York before the races, her hull was draped to protect the secret of her lines, which borrowed from American design. Both "Volunteer" and "Thistle" were completely unfurnished below decks to save weight.


title: America's Cup

text: In 1887, the NYYC adopted the Seawanhaka Corinthian Yacht Club's rating rule, in which Bristol, RI, naval architect Nathanael Herreshoff found loopholes that he would use to make dramatic improvements in yacht design and to shape the America's Cup's largest and most extreme contenders. Both Herreshoff and Watson proceeded to merge Yankee sloop design and British cutter design to make very deep S-shape fin-keeled hulls. Using steel, tobin bronze, aluminium, and even nickel for novel construction, they significantly lengthened bow and stern overhangs, further extending the sailing waterline as their boats heeled over, thus increasing their hull speed.


title: America's Cup

text: The next America's Cup challenge was initially limited to waterline in 1889, but the mutual-agreement clauses of a new 1887 Deed of Gift caused the Royal Yacht Squadron to withdraw the Earl of Dunraven's promising Watson designed challenger "Valkyrie" while she was crossing the Atlantic. Dunraven challenged again in 1893, pleading for a return to the longer limit. In a cup-crazed Britain, its four largest cutters ever were being built, including Watson's "Valkyrie II" for Dunraven's challenge. Meanwhile, the NYYC's wealthiest members ordered two cup candidates from Herreshoff, and two more from Boston yacht designers. Charles Oliver Iselin, who was running the syndicate behind one of the Herreshoff designs called "Vigilant", gave the naval architect leave to design the yacht entirely as he willed. Herreshoff helmed "Vigilant" himself and beat all his rivals in selection trials, and defended the cup successfully from "Valkyrie II".


title: America's Cup

text: Urged to challenge again in yet larger boat sizes, Dunraven challenged again in 1895 with a waterline limit. The Watson designed challenger "Valkyrie III" received many innovations: She would be wider than the defender, and featured the first steel mast. The NYYC ordered another defender from Herreshoff, which he had built in a closed off hangar and launched at night so as to conceal her construction: "Defender" used an aluminium topside riveted to steel frames and manganese bronze below waters. This saved 17 tons of displacement, but later subjected the boat to extreme electrolysis after the Cup races. "Valkyrie III" lost the first race, was deemed disqualified in the second race following a collision with "Defender" before the start line despite finishing first, and in turn withdrew from the contest. The unraveling of the races left Dunraven in a bitter disagreement with all parties over fairness of the cup committee concerning claims. After he asserted that he had been cheated, his honorary membership of the NYYC was revoked. Henry "Hank" Coleman Haff, was inducted into America's Cup Hall of Fame in 2004 for his sailing of "Defender" in 1895 and bringing the cup back. At age 58, Hank Haff was the oldest cup winner in the history of the race.


title: America's Cup

text: The climate was estranged until Scottish businessman Sir Thomas Lipton became the financial backer for the Royal Ulster Yacht Club's 1899 challenge. William Fife was chosen to design the challenging yacht "Shamrock" because of past success in American waters. The yachts increased yet again in size, and this time Herreshoff fitted a telescopic steel mast to his defender "Columbia", but his largest contribution was to recruit Scottish-American skipper Charlie Barr. The latter had helmed Fife designs in Yankee waters before, and he had shown perfect coordination with his hand-picked Scandinavian crew. But Barr successfully helmed "Columbia" to victory, and Lipton's noted fair play provided unprecedented popular appeal to the sport and to his tea brand.


title: America's Cup

text: Although upset with the "Shamrock", Lipton challenged again in 1901, turning this time to George Lennox Watson for a "cup-lifter": "Shamrock II", Watson's fourth and final challenger, was the first cup contender to be thoroughly tank-tested. To defend the Cup, businessman Thomas W. Lawson funded for Boston designer Bowdoin B. Crowninshield a daring project: his yacht "Independence" was capable of unrivaled performance because of her extremely long sailing waterline, but she was largely overpowered and unbalanced and suffered from structural issues. Furthermore, Lawson's failure to commit to the NYYC's terms for defending the Cup defaulted the "Independence"ʼs elimination. Herreshoff had again received a commission from the NYYC, but had failed to secure Charlie Barr to skipper his new yacht "Constitution". Instead, the "Columbia"ʼs syndicate kept Barr's crew and tried another defense. Unexpectedly, Barr led the "Columbia"ʼs crew to win the selection trials, and to successfully defend the cup again.


title: America's Cup

text: Lipton persisted in a third challenge in 1903. With the aim to fend off Lipton's challenges indefinitely, the NYYC garnered a huge budget for a single cup contender, whose design would be commissioned to Herreshoff again. Improving on the "Independence" and his previous designs, the new defender "Reliance" remains the largest race sloop ever built. She featured a ballasted rudder, dual-speed winches below decks, and a cork-decked aluminium topside that hid running rigging. The design focus on balance was exemplary, but the extreme yacht also required the skills of an excellent skipper, which defaulted choice options to Charlie Barr. Facing the equally bold challenger "Shamrock III", Barr led the "Reliance" to victory in just three races.


title: America's Cup

text: Despite the immense success of the "Reliance", she was used only one season, her design and maintenance keeping her from being used for any other purpose than for a cup defense. The extremity of both 1903 cup contenders encouraged Nathanael Herreshoff to make boats more wholesome and durable by devising a new rule. Proposing in the same year the Universal Rule, he added the elements of overall length and displacement into the rating, to the benefit of heavy, voluminous hulls and also divided boats into classes, without handicapping sail area. This went against the American Yacht Clubs' and the British Yacht Racing Association's general desire to promote speed at all costs for cup boats, but the NYYC adopted Herreshoff's proposal. Lipton long pleaded for a smaller size of yachts in the new rule, and the NYYC conceded to seventy-five footers in 1914. Lipton turned to Charles Ernest Nicholson for his fourth challenge, and got a superb design under the inauspicious shape of "Shamrock IV", with a flat transom. She was the most powerful yacht that year, and the NYYC turned out three cup candidates to defend the cup: of George Owen's "Defiance" and William Gardner's "Vanitie", it was Herreshoff who designed the wisest of all contenders. His last design for the cup, the "Resolute", was small, which earned significant time allowance over other yachts. Barr had died, but his crew manned the "Resolute", which faced stiff competition from "Vanitie", but went on to win the selection trials, before the Cup was suspended as World War I broke out.


title: America's Cup

text: Shamrock IV was crossing the Atlantic with the steam yacht Erin, destined for the British Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda, when Britain declared war on Germany on 5 August 1914. Harold Stirling Vanderbilt, the Commodore of the New York Yacht Club, had sent his own yacht, the Vagrant, from Rhode Island to Bermuda to meet them and escort them to the US. The Vagrant arrived on the 8th. Having no radio, the crew remained unaware of the declaration of war. Finding all navigational markers missing, the Vagrant crew attempted to pick their own way in through the barrier reef. St. David's Battery fired a warning shot to bring them to a halt. Shamrock IV and Erin arrived the next day. The America's Cup was cancelled for that year.


title: America's Cup

text: The Shamrock IV and Erin proceeded to New York, from where the Erin returned to Britain while Shamrock IV was laid up in the Erie Basin dry dock until 1920, when she received some adjustments to her build and ballast, just before the races were held. Despite "Shamrock IV"s severe rating, she took the first two races from the defender "Resolute", and came closer to winning back the Cup than any previous challenger. The "Resolute" won every subsequent race of the event.


title: America's Cup

text: "Shamrock IV" was never raced again, but the universal rule drew significant appeal, especially in the small M-Class. Believing that the new rule offered a serious opportunity for the British to take the Cup, Lipton challenged for the fifth and last time at age 79, in 1929. The J-Class was chosen for the contest, to which were added Lloyds' A1 scantling rules in order to ensure that the yachts would be seaworthy and evenly matched, given the Deed of Gift requirement for yachts to sail to the match on their "own bottom." The waterline length was set between and , and there would be no time allowance. Novel rigging technology now permitted the Bermuda rig to replace the gaff rig. Nicholson was chosen to design challenger "Shamrock V", and despite the Wall Street Crash, four NYYC syndicates responded to the threat and built a cup contender each. The venue was moved to Newport, Rhode Island, where, the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company's new naval architect Starling Burgess used his success in the M-Class and his experience as a wartime plane designer to build the Vanderbilt syndicate's defender "Enterprise", the smallest J-Class. Meanwhile, Herreshoff's son, L. Francis Herreshoff, designed a radical boat: The "Whirlwind", despite being the most advanced boat with her double-ended "canoe" build and electronic instruments, maneuvered too clumsily. The old 75-footers "Resolute" and "Vanitie" were rebuilt and converted to the J-Class to serve as trial horses. The "Enterprise"s skipper Harold Vanderbilt won the selection trials with great difficulty. When "Shamrock V" was revealed, she was an outdated wooden boat with a wooden mast and performed poorly to windward. "Enterprise" was then fitted with the world's first duralumin mast, very lightweight at , and beat her opponent soundly.