title: Democratic backsliding

text: The 2020 report of the Varieties of Democracy Institute found that the global share of democracies declined from 54% in 2009 to 49% in 2019, and that a greater share of the global population lived in autocratizing countries (6% in 2009, 34% in 2019). The 10 countries with the highest degree of democratizing from 2009 to 2019 were Tunisia, Armenia, The Gambia, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, Myanmar, Fiji, Kyrgyzstan, Ecuador, and Niger; the 10 countries with the highest degree of autocratizing from 2009 to 2019 were Hungary, Turkey, Poland, Serbia, Brazil, Bangladesh, Mali, Thailand, Nicaragua, and Zambia. However, the institute found that signs of hope in an "unprecedented degree of mobilization for democracy" as reflected in increases in pro-democracy mass mobilization; the proportion of countries with "substantial pro-democracy mass protests" increased to 44% in 2019 (from 27% in 2009). According to a 2020 study, "Democratic backsliding does not necessarily see all democratic institutions erode in parallel fashion... we establish that elections are improving and rights are retracting in the same time period, and in many of the same cases."


title: Democratic backsliding

text: In the 2010s, a scholarly consensus developed that the Central and Eastern Europe region was experiencing democratic backsliding, most prominently in Hungary and Poland, and the European Union (EU) failed to prevent democratic backsliding in some of its other member states. Rutgers University political scientist R. Daniel Kelemen argues that EU membership has enabled an "authoritarian equilibrium" and may even make it easier for authoritarian-minded leaders to erode democracy due to the EU's system of party politics, a reluctance to interfere in domestic political matters; appropriation of EU funds by backsliding regimes; and free movement for dissatisfied citizens, which allows citizens to leave backsliding regimes and deplet the opposition while strengthening the regimes. According to Dalia Research's 2020 poll, only 38 percent of Polish citizens and 36 percent of Hungarian citizens believe that their countries are democratic, while the rest say they would like their countries to be more democratic.


title: Democratic backsliding

text: A 2011 study examined the effects of judicial independence in preventing democratic backsliding. The study, which analyzed 163 nations from 1960 to 2000, concluded that established independent judiciaries are successful at preventing democracies from drifting to authoritarianism, but that states with newly formed courts "are positively associated with regime collapses in both democracies and nondemocracies".


title: Billy Howle

text: William Walter Douglas Howle (born 9 November 1989) is a British actor. His films include "On Chesil Beach", "The Seagull", and "Outlaw King". On television, he is known for his roles in the E4 drama "Glue", the BBC miniseries "The Serpent", "MotherFatherSon", and the BritBox thriller series "The Beast Must Die".


title: Billy Howle

text: Howle was born in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire. His mother was a school teacher and his father was a music professor and composer. He was born the second of four boys, with three brothers, Sam (older), George and Alfie (younger).


title: Billy Howle

text: Due to his father's profession the family moved 12 times when Howle was a child, before settling in Scarborough. It was there that he became involved in the local music scene. At 18, he left home to study drama at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, before embarking on his career.


title: Billy Howle

text: Howle made his debut as James Warwick on the E4 television series "Glue". He co-starred in the 2017 film "The Sense of an Ending" (as the younger version of Jim Broadbent's lead character) and the miniseries "The Witness for the Prosecution" in the pivotal role of the defendant in a murder case, Leonard Vole.


title: Billy Howle

text: Howle appeared in the war film "Dunkirk", and starred alongside Saoirse Ronan in the film, "On Chesil Beach", an adaptation of Ian McEwan's novel. He appears in the film adaptation of Anton Chekhov's "The Seagull" and in the Netflix film "Outlaw King".


title: Billy Howle

text: In 2019, Howle starred alongside Richard Gere and Helen McCrory in the BBC Drama series "MotherFatherSon", which was written by Tom Rob Smith and he and Jodie Comer made cameo for "Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker"


title: Billy Howle

text: In 2021 he starred in the BBC series "The Serpent" as Herman Knippenberg, and on BritBox's "The Beast Must Die" as Nigel.


title: Billy Howle

text: In February 2022, Howle starred in "Chloe" as Elliott, appearing in all six episodes. He also appeared in "Under the Banner of Heaven". In the latter part of 2022, Howle played the title role in John Haidar’s production of Shakespeare’s "Hamlet". It was performed at the Bristol Old Vic.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Fracture is a 2007 psychological legal crime thriller film starring Anthony Hopkins and Ryan Gosling, and directed by Gregory Hoblit. It is the story of a man who shoots his unfaithful wife, and then engages in a battle of wits with a young assistant district attorney.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Theodore "Ted" Crawford, a wealthy Irish aeronautical engineer living in Los Angeles, confirms that his wife, Jennifer, is having an affair with police detective Robert Nunally. Confronting his wife, Crawford shoots her. Police are called, including Nunally, who enters the house cautiously, negotiating with Crawford for both to put down their guns. Crawford confesses he shot his wife. Recognizing the victim, and being subtly goaded by Crawford, Nunally becomes enraged and assaults him.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Now in jail awaiting trial, Crawford engages in a battle of wits with rising star deputy district attorney William "Willy" Beachum, who considers the case an open-and-shut matter and agrees to go to trial immediately. Beachum is preparing to transition from criminal law to a corporate attorneyship at well-known law firm Wooton Sims, and flirts with his future boss, Nikki Gardner.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: At the trial, Crawford acts as his own attorney, thereby matching himself, an untrained litigant, against a star prosecutor. Crawford informs the court that the arresting officer (Nunally) was having an affair with his wife, assaulted him during his arrest, and was present during his interrogation. Crawford's confession is therefore ruled inadmissible as evidence, being fruit of the poisonous tree. Beachum discovers that Crawford's handgun could not have been used in the shooting because it does not match shell casings at the crime scene and in fact has never been fired. This baffles police, since CCTV surveillance was in use during the shooting and until Crawford's arrest.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Nunally comes up with a scheme to plant false evidence to implicate Crawford, which Beachum rejects. With no new evidence to present, Beachum has to concede the trial is lost, and Crawford is acquitted. Disgraced, Nunally commits suicide outside the court.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Beachum's future with the prestigious law firm is now in tatters. However, he begins to see his DA job as a means to fight for justice for those such as Crawford's wife. Crawford himself observes the change, commenting sarcastically that Beachum has "found God". This motivates Beachum to continue searching for evidence, almost obsessively. Realizing that Crawford's plan is to dispose of the only eyewitness to the crime, Beachum obtains a court order to keep Jennifer on life support. He arrives at the hospital, but is unable to prevent staff turning off her life support.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: A mix-up of cell phones causes Beachum to realize that Nunally and Crawford both used the same type of gun, a .45 caliber Glock 21. He figures out that before the crime Crawford must have switched his and Nunally's guns in the hotel room where Jennifer and Nunally secretly met. Crawford had shot his wife with Nunally's gun, then reloaded it. The detective had arrived on the scene carrying Crawford's gun, and both had put down their weapons as a preliminary move in negotiations. When Nunally had recognized Jennifer, rushing over to her, Crawford had switched the guns again, retrieving his own, unused, weapon. When Crawford had reappeared brandishing his gun, Nunally tackled and assaulted him, before Crawford's arrest. Nunally had then unwittingly holstered the murder weapon, allowing the unused gun to be taken as evidence.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Beachum confronts Crawford with his deductions. With Jennifer now dead, the bullet lodged in her head can now be retrieved and matched with Nunally's gun. Crawford confesses, confident he is protected by the principle of double jeopardy. However, Beachum dryly informs him that by allowing his wife to die, Crawford can now be prosecuted for murder, having previously been tried merely for attempted murder. Since he had taken Jennifer off life support, new charges can be filed against Crawford and a new trial can be held. Crawford is arrested by waiting police.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: The film ends with a new trial about to begin, with Beachum prosecuting and Crawford surrounded by a team of highly paid defense attorneys.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: "Fracture" was released on April 20, 2007. It opened in 2,443 theaters in the United States and grossed $3.7 million on its opening day and $11 million during its opening weekend, ranking No. 2 with a per theater average of $4,508. During its second weekend, it dropped to No. 4 and grossed $6.8 million– $2,789 per theater average. During its third weekend, it moved up to No. 3 and made $3.7 million– $1,562 per theater average.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: "Fracture" went on to gross $39 million in the United States and Canada, and $52.3 million overseas, for a worldwide total of $92.1 million.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: "Fracture" opened in 2007 to positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 72% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 172 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critics consensus states: "Though "Fracture"s plot is somewhat implausible, the onscreen face-off between Gosling and Hopkins overshadows any faults." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 35 critics, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Peter Rainer of "The Christian Science Monitor" gave the film a positive review, praising both Hopkins and Gosling's performances, noting that "although Hopkins obviously has played a variation on this role before, his Ted is more playfully malevolent than Hannibal Lecter ever was". About the film itself, he stated: "The plot's many complications pretty much all add up, which is a rarity these days for a murder mystery. It's possible that audiences don't even care anymore if a film makes sense as long as it's entertaining". Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" also gave the film a positive review, and like Rainer, he praised the performances of Hopkins and Gosling, noting that "the two actors "are terrific"". He also stated that ""Fracture" is working on us, playing us, but that's its pleasure. It makes overwrought manipulation seem more than a basic instinct."


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Scott Foundas of "The Village Voice" gave the film a positive review, praising Gosling's performance, stating: "Gosling is the kind of actor who makes other actors look lazy. He is Brando at the time of "Streetcar", or Nicholson in "Five Easy Pieces", and altogether one of the more remarkable happenings at the movies today." Claudia Puig of "USA Today" also gave the film a positive review, praising not only the two leading actors' performances, but also Hoblit's direction, noting that "he also knows how to draw remarkable performances from young actors, with Ed Norton in "Primal Fear" and Gosling here". She also added about the film that "it's a provocative game that plays out with intelligence and wit." James Berardinelli of "ReelViews" gave the film three stars out of four, calling the film "gruesomely engaging." William Arnold of "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" also gave the film a positive review, calling the film "better-than-average", and stated: "It's occasionally quite witty, it's able to tell us a great deal about its characters and their back stories in an economic fashion... its plot swings are surprising and compelling."


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Scott Tobias of "The A.V. Club" gave the film a "B" rating, and also praised Hopkins and Gosling's performances, stating that "not since Lecter has a role been this well suited to Hopkins, whose intelligence and pristine formality as an actor often make him seem alien—or worse, an incorrigible ham. Gosling is equally good in the less showy role of a righteous prosecutor, investing a stock part with as much droll humor and charisma as he can muster." Justin Chang of "Variety" magazine also gave the film a positive review and stated that the film is "an absorbing legal thriller that can't help but taste like exquisitely reheated leftovers." Philip French of The Guardian wrote that "wily old gander Hopkins running rings around the confident young Gosling is a lot of fun." Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" also positively reviewed Hopkins' and Gosling's performances, writing, "Mr. Hopkins and Mr. Gosling navigate the film’s sleekly burnished surfaces and darkly lighted interiors, its procedural twists and courtroom turns without breaking stride or into a sweat."


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: Ross Bennett of "Empire" magazine gave the film three stars out of five and stated that "the two leads are on fine form, but the surrounding structure is too familiar from a thousand other films. Still, tense and occasionally twisty stuff." Wesley Morris of "The Boston Globe" gave the film a mixed review, stating about the film itself and both Hopkins and Gosling: "You needn't actually see "Fracture" to know that if the charge is acting that winks, these two are guilty." Pete Vonder Haar of "Film Threat" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, stating, ""Fracture" may be smarter than the majority of movies out there, but it's not half as clever as it thinks it is." Richard Schickel of "Time" magazine, like Bennett, Morris and Vonder Haar, gave the film a mixed review, and stated: "It renders passion dispassionate and turns murder into a kind of fashion statement, something we observe without really caring about."


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: "Fracture" was nominated for two awards, a Teen Choice Award for Ryan Gosling in the "Choice Movie Actor" category, and a World Soundtrack Award for Mychael Danna in the "Film Composer of the Year" category.


title: Fracture (2007 film)

text: "Fracture" was released on DVD by New Line Home Entertainment on August 14, 2007. The film was released on DVD–Blu-ray multiformat on June 16, 2009, by Warner Home Video.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The PJSC United Aircraft Corporation (UAC) () is a Russian aerospace and defense corporation. With a majority stake belonging to the Russian government, it consolidates Russian private and state-owned aircraft manufacturing companies and assets engaged in the manufacture, design and sale of military, civilian, transport, and unmanned aircraft. Its headquarters are in Krasnoselsky District, Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: Many of the corporation's assets are located in various regions in Russia, with joint-ventures with foreign partners in Italy, India and China.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: After the Soviet Union's sudden collapse in 1991, the aerospace industry of Russia was in turmoil. An excessive amount of imports and highly protective tariffs devastated the manufacturing industry, both the aerospace and the automotive industry. The military aircraft industry was able to benefit from improving export possibilities by profiting from a large storage of components and parts from Soviet times, while the civilian aircraft industry suffered losses and production of civilian aircraft diminished. For example, in 1990, Russia produced 715 aircraft. 8 years later, that number decreased by 661 to only 56 aircraft. In 2000, only 4 civilian aircraft were produced. In order to solve this, the president of Russia at that time, Boris Yeltsin, decided that consolidation was necessary, and created the VPK-MAPO (Military Industrial Complex – Moscow Aircraft Production Association), which includes companies such as Mikoyan. The consolidation wasn't successful and MAPO later merged with Sukhoi.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The UAC was created on 20 February 2006 by Russian President Vladimir Putin in Presidential Decree No. 140 by merging shares from Ilyushin, Irkut, Mikoyan, Sukhoi, Tupolev, and Yakovlev as a new joint-stock company named the OJSC United Aircraft Corporation in order to optimize production and minimize losses. The UAC stated the reason why the corporation was created was to protect and develop the scientific and industrial potential of the Russian aircraft industry, the security and defense of the state, and the concentration of intellectual, industrial, and financial resources to implement long-term aviation programs. The United Aircraft Corporation started out producing the Tupolev Tu-154 "Careless", the Tupolev Tu-204, the Ilyushin Il-96, the Ilyushin Il-114, and all of Mikoyan, Sukhoi, Yakovlev, Tupolev, and Ilyushin military aircraft; all created prior to the corporation's creation.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In February 2007, the UAC presented its first aircraft and the first military aircraft designed and exported under the UAC brand, the Mikoyan MiG-35, designated by NATO as "Fulcrum-F" and a Generation 4++ jet fighter by Mikoyan. The MiG-35 was officially presented during the Aero India 2007 air show in Bangalore, India and officially unveiled when the Russian Minister of Defense, Sergei Ivanov, visited the Lukhovitsky Machine Building Plant "MAPO-MIG". The MiG-35 was a contender for its fourth generation counterparts in the Indian MRCA competition but was taken out of the competition in April 2011. The MiG-35 would be adopted by the Russian Air Force and was planned to be introduced in 2018.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In October 2007, the Federal Financial Markets Service registered a primary issue of common shares for the United Aircraft Building Corporation. The issue included 96,724,000,000 shares priced at 1 RUB (US$0.04). In December 2007, the second largest (and state-owned) Russian bank Vneshtorgbank (VTB) announced that it would sell its 5% share in EADS to UAC at market price. Later that month VTB sold its share in EADS to the state-owned Russian Development Bank (VEB). EADS already owns a 10% stake in Irkut which it plans to convert into UAC shares, leading to EADS and UAC owning shares of each other. They also announced plans for a possible 10–15% share issue in 2008, planning to retain a 75% stake. Currently, after placing 5 additional share issues, the Corporation's chartered capital amounts to 174.61 bln. RUB. The share of the Russian Federation in UAC's chartered capital is 80.29%.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In February 2008, the UAC brought out an improved version of the Sukhoi Su-27, the Sukhoi Su-35S, also called the Su-35BM, which was to serve as the interim aircraft for the upcoming Sukhoi PAK FA, Russia's first fifth generation jet fighter. This is the second modernized version of the Su-27, where the first modernized version took place back on 28 June 1988, designated as the Sukhoi Su-27M, also known as the Su-35. The improved aircraft includes a reinforced airframe, air-thrusted engines, radar, and improved avionics, while excluding canards and an air brake. The Russian Air Force designated them as the Su-35S and ordered 98 units with additional orders from China and Indonesia. Sukhoi thought sales of the Su-35S would go over 160 but they are blunted by updated versions of the Sukhoi Su-30.In May 2008, the UAC presented its third aircraft and the first airliner designed and exported under the UAC brand, the Sukhoi Superjet 100 (SSJ 100). The SSJ 100 is the fourth civilian aircraft and the first airliner to be made by Sukhoi. Before, Sukhoi and Boeing made a cooperation agreement and where Boeing consultants would help and advise Sukhoi on the airliner. The SSJ 100 was introduced on 21 April 2011, with Armavia. The Sukhoi Superjet 100 was later described as the most important and the most successful airliner program of the Russian aerospace industry, and is regarded by the Ministry of Industry and Trade as a top priority project. Sukhoi Holdings of the UAC signed a joint venture with Leonardo-Finmeccanica (now Leonardo S.p.A.) to establish Superjet International in order to sell the SSJ 100 to potential customers.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In October 2009, the UAC signed a joint venture with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) of India named the Multirole Transport Aircraft Limited (MTAL) where the two companies would be cooperating on making aircraft for both of the Russian Armed Forces, the Indian Armed Forces, and friendly third-party countries. One of the projects being developed by the joint-venture is the Ilyushin Il-214 Multirole Transport Aircraft (MTA) which was intended to replace India's Antonov An-32 transport fleet. The Il-214 would perform regular transport duties as well as deploying paratroopers. The aircraft is planned to be revealed in 2017 and planned to be introduced in 2018.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In 2009, UAC delivered 90 aircraft, including 17 passenger models. This figure includes 31 MiG-29 and two Su-34 fighter jets produced for the Russian Air Force. The company's revenues for 2009 were expected to be 115 billion–120 billion rubles.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 29 January 2010, Sukhoi and the UAC revealed Russia's first fifth generation jet fighter, the Sukhoi PAK FA (T-50). The PAK FA is a stealth, single-seat, twin-engine, multirole jet fighter designed for air supremacy and attack roles. The PAK FA would also be Russia's first aircraft to use stealth technology. The PAK FA is designed to replace the Mikoyan MiG-29 and the Sukhoi Su-27 and is expected to be introduced to the Russian Air Force in 2019. Also, under the MTAL joint venture, Sukhoi and HAL would co-develop the Sukhoi/HAL FGFA, now known as the Perspective Multirole Fighter (PMF), a variant of the PAK FA, of which would be designed for the Indian Air Force. On 11 August 2017, the Russian Air Force designated the Sukhoi PAK FA as the Sukhoi Su-57.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 27 October 2010, the UAC and the Ukrainian state-owned aircraft corporation, Antonov, signed a joint venture contract, LLC UAC - Antonov, in the capital city of Ukraine, Kyiv. The purpose of the joint-venture was to deal with the coordination of Antonov and the UAC on purchasing spare parts, production, marketing and sales, as well as servicing and joint creation of new modifications of Antonov aircraft, according to Defense-Aerospace.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In 2013, nine aircraft repair plants of the Ministry of Defense was transferred under the ownership of the UAC. As a result, in 2014, the serviceability of the Russian Air Force increased from 40% to 65%.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: As a result of Russian military intervention in Ukraine in 2014, international sanctions were put against Russia, and because the UAC was part of Russia's aerospace and defense industry, it was sanctioned as well by the European Union. However though, since the sanctions did not include the airliner industry of the UAC, such as the Sukhoi Superjet 100, exports of the regional jet to Western nations and economical activities of Superjet International will not be affected.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: In April 2015, the company changed its full name to Public Joint-Stock Company (PJSC) "United Aircraft Corporation" (UAC). In 2011–2015, UAC companies delivered to the Russian Defence Ministry more than 200 aircraft.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 28 September 2015, according to a resolution by the Ukrainian government, the state-owned corporation Antonov would be exiting the LLC UAC - Antonov joint venture between the two companies.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 13 January 2016, India's HAL announced it would not be involved in the Ilyushin Il-214 MTA project anymore, and that Ilyushin would have to work on the project alone. The project is now designated as the "Ilyushin Il-214" with the MTA taken out since the project is no longer under the Multirole Transport Aircraft Limited joint-venture.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 8 June 2016, UAC officially revealed the Irkut MC-21, its first medium-range jet airliner, when it rolled out in Irkutsk. The aircraft could be the first with an out of autoclave composite manufacturing for its wings. The goal of the MC-21 was to replace the Tupolev Tu-154, Tupolev Tu-134, Tupolev Tu-204, and the Yakovlev Yak-42. and to compete with the Airbus A320neo and the Boeing B737 MAX. Despite the domination of the airliner market by Boeing and Airbus as well as Russian protectionism preventing western companies to supply the program, the MC-21 was able to have its maiden flight on 28 May 2017, have 2 prototypes built and another 4 in assembly, and getting a total of 205 orders as of 24 July 2017, with an introduction planned in 2019 with Aeroflot.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 25 June 2016, the UAC and the Chinese Government owned aircraft corporation, Comac, signed a joint venture contract, China-Russia Aircraft International Co, Ltd. (CRAIC), based in Shanghai. According to the UAC, CRAIC is responsible for product and technology development, manufacturing, marketing, sales and customer service, consulting, program management and other related field. The two companies are now cooperating in creating a new generation long range wide body commercial aircraft and to take charge of its operation under the joint-venture. This aircraft, now named the CRAIC CR-929, formerly the C929, would compete with the Airbus A330neo and the Boeing 787; thus challenging the Airbus-Boeing duopoly.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 1 September 2017, the UAC Board of Directors, and UAC's subsidiaries, Sukhoi Civil Aircraft and the Irkut Corporation made an agreement to merge the civil industry Irkut Corporation and the Sukhoi Civil Aircraft into a Civil Aviation Division on the basis of Irkut Corporation. In accordance with the decisions taken, In turn, Sukhoi will become the financial basis of all civil aircraft produced by UAC. According to the UAC, corporate transformations were aimed to realize UAC's strategic goal to increase the share of civil products in its portfolio to 45% by 2035 and to drive annual civil aircraft production to 100-120 aircraft per year, as well as to increase UAC's economic effectiveness and lower costs by centralizing supporting processes and decreasing levels of management. The transformation will allow to concentrate resources to develop, manufacture and market Russian civil aircraft, it will also ensure consistency in these areas and simplify certification and licensing procedures.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 9 July 2018, UAC was targeting 4.5% airliner market share by value and profitability by 2025, to grow its civil aircraft business from 17% to 40% of its income and to attract investors before 2035.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 25 October 2018, the UAC was acquired from the Federal Agency for State Property Management by Russian state-owned conglomerate Rostec with a turnover cost in excess of one billion rubles (US$15 million). This would result in the entire national aviation assets being put in the hands of Rostec, as Rostec also owns the helicopter monopoly Russian Helicopters and the engine monopoly United Engine Corporation. Rostec had stated it was willing to invest up to 40 billion rubles into the MC-21, taking some burden away from the federal budget. The transfer was to be completed within 18 months.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 30 November 2021, the UAC board of directors approved the annexation to the corporation of both military aircraft producers Mikoyan and Sukhoi, previewed for 2022. The daily management of both is already made by UAC. In January 2022, UAC shareholders approved the annexation. As of 2022, UAC was 88 percent owned by Rostec.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: On 22 March 2022, it was remarked that the Russian aviation industry was not even receiving imported parts already paid for as a result of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The company and its CEO Yury Slyusar were sanctioned by the British government on 24 February 2022, as it was judged to have aided in the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In May 2022 the United States Department of the Treasury placed sanctions on Slyusar pursuant to as a member of the Government of Russia.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The conglomerate finished the process of Mikoyan and Sukhoi absorption in June 2022. Relevant records were changed on June 1 in the United State Register of Legal Entities.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The United Aircraft Corporation started out producing the Tupolev Tu-154, the Tupolev Tu-204, the Ilyushin Il-86, the Ilyushin Il-96, and the Ilyushin Il-114; all created prior to the corporation's creation. The Tupolev Tu-154 is a medium-range, narrow-body, three-engine jet airliner developed and introduced in Soviet times. It saw large use in Aeroflot and was exported to many nations that had connections to the Soviet Union, and a total of 1,026 aircraft were built. Production of the Tu-154 stopped in 2013. Following a crash in 2016, all Russian Tu-154s were grounded, and now the airliner is in limited service by a few airline companies and military. The Ilyushin Il-86 is a short/medium-range, wide-body jet airliner, developed and introduced in Soviet times as well. The Ilyushin Il-86 was the first Soviet wide-body airliner and the world's second four-engine wide-body airliner developed. The Il-86 was praised for its safety and reliability, but only 106 were built, as a result of many delays during development. Production of the airliner stopped in 1995, and the airliner was retired in 2011, with only four in service in the Russian Air Force. The Ilyushin Il-96 is a shortened, long-ranged successor of the Il-86, with updated technologies, and the first airliner from the Russian Federation to be introduced. Only 30 were built however, and the airliner is in low-rate production and used by only a few airlines. The Il-96's purpose as an airliner ended in 2009, as it is deemed inferior to its Boeing and Airbus counterparts. The Tupolev Tu-204 is a medium-range, narrow-body jet airliner, featuring many technological innovations such as a fly-by-wire control system, a glass cockpit, etc., and was developed primarily for Aeroflot. The Tu-204 was succeeded by its variant, the Tu-214. The Ilyushin Il-114 is a turboprop, narrow-body regional airliner developed to replace the Antonov An-24, which most were in service of Aeroflot. However, only 20 had been built, and only two airlines were using it, so the Il-114's production was temporarily halted.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The Sukhoi Superjet 100 is the first airliner and regional jet airliner that is developed and exported under the UAC brand, by which it was developed by Sukhoi Civil Aircraft, a branch of the UAC. The Sukhoi Superjet 100 was designed to compete with the Antonov An-148, Embraer E-Jet, and the Bombardier CSeries, and to replace the aging Tupolev Tu-134 and the Yakovlev Yak-42 jet airliners, claimed by Sukhoi to have a lower purchase and operating cost. The Sukhoi Superjet 100 was later described as the most important and the most successful airliner program of the Russian aerospace industry, and is regarded by the Ministry of Industry and Trade as a top priority project. The Irkut MC-21 is currently the newest jet airliner developed under the UAC brand, of which it is developed by the Irkut Corporation, a brand of the UAC. The goal of the MC-21 is to replace the Tupolev Tu-154, Tupolev Tu-134, Tupolev Tu-204, and the Yakovlev Yak-42. and to compete with the Airbus A320neo and the Boeing B737 MAX. Despite the domination of the airliner market by Boeing and Airbus as well as Russian protectionism preventing western companies to supply the program, the MC-21 was able to have its maiden flight, have two prototypes built and another four in assembly, and getting a total of 366 orders as of 24 July 2017, with an introduction planned in 2019 with Aeroflot. The Sukhoi Superjet 130 is currently being developed by Sukhoi Civil Aircraft, intending to bridge the gap between the Superjet Stretch and the MC-21. The Ilyushin Il-114's production and development continued as the Ilyushin Il-114-300, now restarted with all-Russian parts with a maiden flight planned in 2019 and an introduction planned in 2021. The CRAIC CR-929 is developed under the CRAIC joint-venture between the UAC and Chinese aircraft corporation Comac, with the purpose being a wide-body jet airliner as well as to compete with the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A330neo.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The United Aircraft Corporation started out producing the Ilyushin Il-96-400T and the Tupolev Tu-204C, both cargo variants of their airliner counterparts, and the Sukhoi Su-80, a twin-turboprop, twin-boom STOL aircraft. The Il-96-400T is a freight version of the Il-96-400, which features Russian avionics and engines and carries more room than the standard Il-96. The Sukhoi Su-80 can be used for both civilian and military purposes and has sleek hull which can provide space for 30 passengers and a "beaver-tail" ramp that can help unload cargo easier. The Su-80 was made by Sukhoi Civil Aircraft to replace the Antonov An-24/26, the Antonov An-28, and the Yakovlev Yak-40, and to compete with the Antonov An-38.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The Ilyushin Il-214 was formerly a project designated as the "Ilyushin Il-214 Multirole Transport Aircraft" under the joint-venture between the UAC and HAL. The project was first conceived in 2007, two to three years before the joint-venture, "Multirole Transport Aircraft Ltd." between the two state corporations were created, and development begun in 2012. However, the team under Ilyushin Aviation Complex, a branch of the UAC, and the team under HAL had many disagreements and misunderstandings. In January 2016, Ilyushin halted the project, and HAL announced it would not be involved in the Ilyushin Il-214 MTA project anymore, and that Ilyushin would have to work on the project alone. The project is now designated as the "Ilyushin Il-214" with the MTA taken out since the project is no longer under the Multirole Transport Aircraft Ltd. joint-venture. The Il-214 was later renamed the Il-276 in October 2017.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The Ilyushin Il-112 is a high-wing, light, military transport aircraft based on the Ilyushin Il-114 currently being developed by Ilyushin Aviation Complex for air landing and airdrop. Development of the aircraft started before 2011, the year of which the maiden flight of the Ilyushin Il-112 is supposed to occur. The project was later abandoned in May 2011 by the Russian Ministry of Defense and seven Antonov An-140T were purchased. The project was later continued in January 2013 and a maiden flight would be planned in 2017.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The Beriev Aircraft Company is a branch of the UAC that specializes in special purposed and amphibious aircraft. The Beriev Be-200 "Altair", based on the Beriev A-40 "Albatross", was designed prior to the UAC's creation, and is a multi-purposed amphibious aircraft. The Be-200 is marketed as a firefighter, search and rescue aircraft, maritime patrol aircraft, cargo aircraft, and an airliner. The Beriev A-100 is an airborne early warning and control aircraft designed to replace the Beriev A-50, also made by Beriev. Its maiden flight was on 26 October 2016, with an introduction with the Russian Air Force. The A-100 is developed from the Ilyushin Il-476 with avionics and configuration being similar to the A-50U as well as a new active phased array radar made by JSC Vega.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: Most of the military aircraft produced by the UAC were designed prior to the corporation's creation, many of them designed in the Soviet era. Jet fighters such as the Sukhoi Su-25 "Grach", Sukhoi Su-27 "Sofiyka", Mikoyan MiG-29, Sukhoi Su-33, Sukhoi Su-30, and the Sukhoi Su-34, and large military aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-76, Tupolev Tu-160 "Beliy Lebed", and the Ilyushin Il-78, were all designed in the Soviet Union. However though, some Soviet aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-160 "Beliy Lebed", Sukhoi Su-33, Sukhoi Su-30, and the Sukhoi Su-34, were introduced later in the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union's successor. The Yakovlev Yak-130 is the only aircraft to be developed after the Soviet era and before the creation of the UAC.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The Mikoyan MiG-35 is the first aircraft and the first military aircraft designed and exported under the UAC brand, as Mikoyan, the company that designed it, is a branch of the corporation. The MiG-35 was a contender for its fourth generation counterparts in the Indian MRCA competition but was taken out of the competition in April 2011. The MiG-35 would be adopted by the Russian Air Force and is planned to be introduced in 2018. The Sukhoi Su-35S, the UAC's second military aircraft, is designed by the Sukhoi Design Bureau, a branch of the UAC. The aircraft is to serve as the interim for the Sukhoi PAK FA, Russia's first fifth-generation jet fighter. This is the second modernized version of the Su-27, where the first modernized version took place back on 28 June 1988, designated as the Sukhoi Su-27M, also known as the Su-35. The improved aircraft includes a reinforced airframe, air-thrusted engines, radar, and improved avionics, while excluding canards and an air brake. The Russian Air Force designated them as the Su-35S and ordered 98 units with additional orders from China and Indonesia. Sukhoi thought sales of the Su-35S would go over 160 but they are blunted by updated versions of the Sukhoi Su-30. 30 Tupolev Tu-22M3 bombers would be upgraded to the Tupolev Tu-22M3M with advanced avionics, ability to use air-to-surface weaponry, hardware components, and adapted for extended ranged weaponry. The first flight is scheduled in August 2018. Remaining Tupolev Tu-22M3 bombers would be undergoing modernization.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: The Sukhoi PAK FA, designated by the Russian Air Force as the Sukhoi Su-57, under the Prospective Airborne Complex (PAK) platform, would be the first Russian aircraft to use stealth technology, as well as being Russia's first fifth-generation jet fighter, as stated before. The Sukhoi Su-57 would replace the aging Sukhoi Su-27 and the Mikoyan MiG-29 in the Russian Air Force with an introduction planned in 2019. Other aircraft being developed under the PAK platform are the Ilyushin PAK TA, a supersonic transport aircraft, the Tupolev PAK DA, a strategic bomber, the Sukhoi PAK ShA, a close air support aircraft designed to replace the Sukhoi Su-25, and the Mikoyan PAK DP, a new fast interceptor aircraft. Military aircraft that are not under the PAK platform and are under development are the Mikoyan MiG-41 and the Mikoyan LMFS.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: At the MAKS 2021 Air show UAC announced that the Mikoyan LMFS project was developed into the Sukhoi LFS.


title: United Aircraft Corporation

text: According to the UAC, the President is the sole executive body of PJSC UAC with functions of the Chairman of the Management Board. The President is empowered to decide all issues pertaining to the Corporation's current activities, except for matters falling within the competence of the General Shareholders' Meeting, the Board of Directors and the Management Board.


title: Eddy current

text: Eddy currents (also called Foucault's currents) are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor according to Faraday's law of induction or by the relative motion of a conductor in a magnetic field. Eddy currents flow in closed loops within conductors, in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field. They can be induced within nearby stationary conductors by a time-varying magnetic field created by an AC electromagnet or transformer, for example, or by relative motion between a magnet and a nearby conductor. The magnitude of the current in a given loop is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the area of the loop, and the rate of change of flux, and inversely proportional to the resistivity of the material. When graphed, these circular currents within a piece of metal look vaguely like eddies or whirlpools in a liquid.


title: Eddy current

text: By Lenz's law, an eddy current creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic field that created it, and thus eddy currents react back on the source of the magnetic field. For example, a nearby conductive surface will exert a drag force on a moving magnet that opposes its motion, due to eddy currents induced in the surface by the moving magnetic field. This effect is employed in eddy current brakes which are used to stop rotating power tools quickly when they are turned off. The current flowing through the resistance of the conductor also dissipates energy as heat in the material. Thus eddy currents are a cause of energy loss in alternating current (AC) inductors, transformers, electric motors and generators, and other AC machinery, requiring special construction such as laminated magnetic cores or ferrite cores to minimize them. Eddy currents are also used to heat objects in induction heating furnaces and equipment, and to detect cracks and flaws in metal parts using eddy-current testing instruments.


title: Eddy current

text: The term "eddy current" comes from analogous currents seen in water in fluid dynamics, causing localised areas of turbulence known as "eddies" giving rise to persistent vortices. Somewhat analogously, eddy currents can take time to build up and can persist for very short times in conductors due to their inductance.


title: Eddy current

text: The first person to observe eddy currents was François Arago (1786–1853), the 25th Prime Minister of France, who was also a mathematician, physicist and astronomer. In 1824 he observed what has been called rotatory magnetism, and that most conductive bodies could be magnetized; these discoveries were completed and explained by Michael Faraday (1791–1867).


title: Eddy current

text: In 1834, Heinrich Lenz stated Lenz's law, which says that the direction of induced current flow in an object will be such that its magnetic field will oppose the change of magnetic flux that caused the current flow. Eddy currents produce a secondary field that cancels a part of the external field and causes some of the external flux to avoid the conductor.


title: Eddy current

text: French physicist Léon Foucault (1819–1868) is credited with having discovered eddy currents. In September 1855, he discovered that the force required for the rotation of a copper disc becomes greater when it is made to rotate with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disc at the same time becoming heated by the eddy current induced in the metal. The first use of eddy current for non-destructive testing occurred in 1879 when David E. Hughes used the principles to conduct metallurgical sorting tests.


title: Eddy current

text: A magnet induces circular electric currents in a metal sheet moving through its magnetic field. See the diagram at right. It shows a metal sheet "(C)" moving to the right under a stationary magnet. The magnetic field "(, green arrows)" of the magnet's north pole N passes down through the sheet. Since the metal is moving, the magnetic flux through a given area of the sheet is changing. In the part of the sheet moving under the leading edge of the magnet "(left side)" the magnetic field through a given point on the sheet is increasing as it gets nearer the magnet, . From Faraday's law of induction, this creates a circular electric field in the sheet in a counterclockwise direction around the magnetic field lines. This field induces a counterclockwise flow of electric current "(, red)", in the sheet. This is the eddy current. In the part of the sheet under the trailing edge of the magnet "(right side)" the magnetic field through a given point on the sheet is decreasing as it is moving further away from the magnet, , inducing a second eddy current in a clockwise direction in the sheet.


title: Eddy current

text: Another equivalent way to understand the current is to see that the free charge carriers (electrons) in the metal sheet are moving with the sheet to the right, so the magnetic field exerts a sideways force on them due to the Lorentz force. Since the velocity of the charges is to the right and the magnetic field is directed down, from the right hand rule the Lorentz force on positive charges is toward the rear of the diagram (to the left when facing in the direction of motion ). This causes a current toward the rear under the magnet, which circles around through parts of the sheet outside the magnetic field, clockwise to the right and counterclockwise to the left, to the front of the magnet again. The mobile charge carriers in the metal, the electrons, actually have a negative charge () so their motion is opposite in direction to the conventional current shown.


title: Eddy current

text: The magnetic field of the magnet, acting on the electrons moving sideways under the magnet, then exerts a Lorentz force directed to the rear, opposite to the velocity of the metal sheet. The electrons, in collisions with the metal lattice atoms, transfer this force to the sheet, exerting a drag force on the sheet proportional to its velocity. The kinetic energy which is consumed overcoming this drag force is dissipated as heat by the currents flowing through the resistance of the metal, so the metal gets warm under the magnet.


title: Eddy current

text: Due to Ampere's circuital law each of the circular currents in the sheet creates a counter magnetic field ("blue arrows"). Another way to understand the drag force is to see that due to Lenz's law the counterfields oppose the change in magnetic field through the sheet. At the leading edge of the magnet "(left side)" by the right hand rule the counterclockwise current creates a magnetic field pointed up, opposing the magnet's field, causing a repulsive force between the sheet and the leading edge of the magnet. In contrast, at the trailing edge "(right side)", the clockwise current causes a magnetic field pointed down, in the same direction as the magnet's field, creating an attractive force between the sheet and the trailing edge of the magnet. Both of these forces oppose the motion of the sheet.


title: Eddy current

text: Eddy currents in conductors of non-zero resistivity generate heat as well as electromagnetic forces. The heat can be used for induction heating. The electromagnetic forces can be used for levitation, creating movement, or to give a strong braking effect. Eddy currents can also have undesirable effects, for instance power loss in transformers. In this application, they are minimized with thin plates, by lamination of conductors or other details of conductor shape.


title: Eddy current

text: Self-induced eddy currents are responsible for the skin effect in conductors. The latter can be used for non-destructive testing of materials for geometry features, like micro-cracks. A similar effect is the proximity effect, which is caused by externally induced eddy currents.


title: Eddy current

text: An object or part of an object experiences steady field intensity and direction where there is still relative motion of the field and the object (for example in the center of the field in the diagram), or unsteady fields where the currents cannot circulate due to the geometry of the conductor. In these situations charges collect on or within the object and these charges then produce static electric potentials that oppose any further current. Currents may be initially associated with the creation of static potentials, but these may be transitory and small.


title: Eddy current

text: Eddy currents generate resistive losses that transform some forms of energy, such as kinetic energy, into heat. This Joule heating reduces efficiency of iron-core transformers and electric motors and other devices that use changing magnetic fields. Eddy currents are minimized in these devices by selecting magnetic core materials that have low electrical conductivity (e.g., ferrites) or by using thin sheets of magnetic material, known as laminations. Electrons cannot cross the insulating gap between the laminations and so are unable to circulate on wide arcs. Charges gather at the lamination boundaries, in a process analogous to the Hall effect, producing electric fields that oppose any further accumulation of charge and hence suppressing the eddy currents. The shorter the distance between adjacent laminations (i.e., the greater the number of laminations per unit area, perpendicular to the applied field), the greater the suppression of eddy currents.


title: Eddy current

text: The conversion of input energy to heat is not always undesirable, however, as there are some practical applications. One is in the brakes of some trains known as eddy current brakes. During braking, the metal wheels are exposed to a magnetic field from an electromagnet, generating eddy currents in the wheels. This eddy current is formed by the movement of the wheels. So, by Lenz's law, the magnetic field formed by the eddy current will oppose its cause. Thus the wheel will face a force opposing the initial movement of the wheel. The faster the wheels are spinning, the stronger the effect, meaning that as the train slows the braking force is reduced, producing a smooth stopping motion.


title: Eddy current

text: Under certain assumptions (uniform material, uniform magnetic field, no skin effect, etc.) the power lost due to eddy currents per unit mass for a thin sheet or wire can be calculated from the following equation:


title: Eddy current

text: This equation is valid only under the so-called quasi-static conditions, where the frequency of magnetisation does not result in the skin effect; that is, the electromagnetic wave fully penetrates the material.


title: Eddy current

text: In very fast-changing fields, the magnetic field does not penetrate completely into the interior of the material. This "skin effect" renders the above equation invalid. However, in any case increased frequency of the same value of field will always increase eddy currents, even with non-uniform field penetration.


title: Eddy current

text: where is the penetration depth (m), is the frequency (Hz), is the magnetic permeability of the material (H/m), and is the electrical conductivity of the material (S/m).


title: Eddy current

text: The derivation of a useful equation for modelling the effect of eddy currents in a material starts with the differential, magnetostatic form of Ampère's Law, providing an expression for the magnetizing field surrounding a current density :


title: Eddy current

text: Taking the curl on both sides of this equation and then using a common vector calculus identity for the curl of the curl results in


title: Eddy current

text: Using Ohm's law, , which relates current density to electric field in terms of a material's conductivity , and assuming isotropic homogeneous conductivity, the equation can be written as


title: Eddy current

text: By definition, , where is the magnetization of the material and is the vacuum permeability. The diffusion equation therefore is


title: Eddy current

text: Eddy current brakes use the drag force created by eddy currents as a brake to slow or stop moving objects. Since there is no contact with a brake shoe or drum, there is no mechanical wear. However, an eddy current brake cannot provide a "holding" torque and so may be used in combination with mechanical brakes, for example, on overhead cranes. Another application is on some roller coasters, where heavy copper plates extending from the car are moved between pairs of very strong permanent magnets. Electrical resistance within the plates causes a dragging effect analogous to friction, which dissipates the kinetic energy of the car. The same technique is used in electromagnetic brakes in railroad cars and to quickly stop the blades in power tools such as circular saws. Using electromagnets, as opposed to permanent magnets, the strength of the magnetic field can be adjusted and so the magnitude of braking effect changed.


title: Eddy current

text: In a varying magnetic field, the induced currents exhibit diamagnetic-like repulsion effects. A conductive object will experience a repulsion force. This can lift objects against gravity, though with continual power input to replace the energy dissipated by the eddy currents. An example application is separation of aluminum cans from other metals in an eddy current separator. Ferrous metals cling to the magnet, and aluminum (and other non-ferrous conductors) are forced away from the magnet; this can separate a waste stream into ferrous and non-ferrous scrap metal.


title: Eddy current

text: With a very strong handheld magnet, such as those made from neodymium, one can easily observe a very similar effect by rapidly sweeping the magnet over a coin with only a small separation. Depending on the strength of the magnet, identity of the coin, and separation between the magnet and coin, one may induce the coin to be pushed slightly ahead of the magnet – even if the coin contains no magnetic elements, such as the US penny. Another example involves dropping a strong magnet down a tube of copper – the magnet falls at a dramatically slow pace.


title: Eddy current

text: In a perfect conductor with no resistance, surface eddy currents exactly cancel the field inside the conductor, so no magnetic field penetrates the conductor. Since no energy is lost in resistance, eddy currents created when a magnet is brought near the conductor persist even after the magnet is stationary, and can exactly balance the force of gravity, allowing magnetic levitation. Superconductors also exhibit a separate inherently quantum mechanical phenomenon called the Meissner effect in which any magnetic field lines present in the material when it becomes superconducting are expelled, thus the magnetic field in a superconductor is always zero.


title: Eddy current

text: Using electromagnets with electronic switching comparable to electronic speed control it is possible to generate electromagnetic fields moving in an arbitrary direction. As described in the section above about eddy current brakes, a non-ferromagnetic conductor surface tends to rest within this moving field. When however this field is moving, a vehicle can be levitated and propelled. This is comparable to a maglev but is not bound to a rail.


title: Eddy current

text: In some coin-operated vending machines, eddy currents are used to detect counterfeit coins, or slugs. The coin rolls past a stationary magnet, and eddy currents slow its speed. The strength of the eddy currents, and thus the retardation, depends on the conductivity of the coin's metal. Slugs are slowed to a different degree than genuine coins, and this is used to send them into the rejection slot.


title: Eddy current

text: Eddy currents are used in certain types of proximity sensors to observe the vibration and position of rotating shafts within their bearings. This technology was originally pioneered in the 1930s by researchers at General Electric using vacuum tube circuitry. In the late 1950s, solid-state versions were developed by Donald E. Bently at Bently Nevada Corporation. These sensors are extremely sensitive to very small displacements making them well suited to observe the minute vibrations (on the order of several thousandths of an inch) in modern turbomachinery. A typical proximity sensor used for vibration monitoring has a scale factor of 200 mV/mil. Widespread use of such sensors in turbomachinery has led to development of industry standards that prescribe their use and application. Examples of such standards are American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 670 and ISO 7919.


title: Eddy current

text: A Ferraris acceleration sensor, also called a Ferraris sensor, is a contactless sensor that uses eddy currents to measure relative acceleration.


title: Eddy current

text: Eddy current techniques are commonly used for the nondestructive examination (NDE) and condition monitoring of a large variety of metallic structures, including heat exchanger tubes, aircraft fuselage, and aircraft structural components.


title: Eddy current

text: Similarly, in magnetic materials of finite conductivity, eddy currents cause the confinement of the majority of the magnetic fields to only a couple skin depths of the surface of the material. This effect limits the flux linkage in inductors and transformers having magnetic cores.


title: Rafflesia

text: Rafflesia () is a genus of parasitic flowering plants in the family Rafflesiaceae. The species have enormous flowers, the buds rising from the ground or directly from the lower stems of their host plants; one species has the largest flowers in the world. Plants of the World Online lists up to 41 species from this genus, all of them are found throughout Southeast Asia.


title: Rafflesia

text: Western Europeans first learned about plants of this genus from French surgeon and naturalist Louis Deschamps when he was in Java between 1791 and 1794; but his notes and illustrations, seized by the British in 1803, were not available to western science until 1861. The first British person to see one was Joseph Arnold in 1818, in the Indonesia rainforest in Bengkulu, Sumatra, after a Malay servant working for him discovered a flower and pointed it out to him. The flower, and the genus, was later named after Stamford Raffles, the leader of the expedition and the founder of the British colony of Singapore.


title: Rafflesia

text: The plant has no stems, leaves or roots. It is a holoparasite of vines in the genus "Tetrastigma" (a plant in the Vitaceae, the grape vine family), spreading its absorptive organ, the haustorium, inside the tissue of the vine. The only part of the plant that can be seen outside the host vine is the five-petalled flower. In some species, such as "Rafflesia arnoldii", the flower may be over in diameter, and weigh up to . A "Rafflesia" that flowered in West Sumatra in 2019 was measured to be almost in diameter, the largest flower ever recorded – wider than the flower reported as the largest in 2017. Even one of the smallest species, "R. baletei", has diameter flowers.


title: Rafflesia

text: The flowers look and smell like rotting flesh. The foul odour attracts insects such as carrion flies, which transport pollen from male to female flowers. Most species are dioecious, having separate male and female flowers, but a few ("R. baletei" and "R. verrucosa") have hermaphroditic flowers. Little is known about seed dispersal. Tree shrews and other forest mammals eat the fruits. The extremely tiny seeds have extremely tiny elaiosomes, and are thus most likely dispersed by ants. The seeds are packed into berries, which contains hundreds of thousands of seeds.


title: Rafflesia

text: Because "Amorphophallus" has the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, it is sometimes mistakenly credited as having the world's largest flower. Both "Rafflesia" and "Amorphophallus" are flowering plants, but they are unrelated to each other. "Rafflesia arnoldii" has the largest "single" flower of any flowering plant, at least in terms of weight. "Amorphophallus titanum" has the largest "unbranched" inflorescence, while the talipot palm ("Corypha umbraculifera") forms the largest "branched" inflorescence, containing thousands of flowers; the talipot is monocarpic, meaning the individual plants die after flowering.


title: Rafflesia

text: "Rafflesia" are also remarkable for showing a large horizontal transfer of genes from their host plants. This is well known among bacteria, but not higher organisms. It occurs in the mitochondria (originally derived from bacteria) found within the cells of "Rafflesia"; these appear to have exchanged genes with the mitochondria of the host tissue.


title: Rafflesia

text: In Indonesian and Malaysian, it is known as "padma". The species "R. arnoldii" is known as "padma raksasa" ("giant "padma""). In Javanese it is called "patma". In Malay, the 'normal' "R. hasseltii" is vernacularly known as "pakma", "patma" or "ambai-ambai", whereas the goliath "R. arnoldii" from Sumatra is called "krubut" or "kerubut", 'great flower'. The words "padma", "pakma" or "patma" originate etymologically from the word पद्म ("padma"), Sanskrit for 'lotus'.


title: Rafflesia

text: A webpage for a class project by two American students, made in 2003, incorrectly stated that the local name translated to "corpse flower". A month later this sentence was copied to Wikipedia, but due to subsequent edits, by 2010 the sentence came to claim that the "English" name was "corpse flower", and by 2020 this name has been used numerous times in news articles and the like.


title: Rafflesia

text: The name "corpse flower" referred to the titan arum ("Amorphophallus titanum") of the family Araceae.


title: Rafflesia

text: Robert Brown introduced the genus "Rafflesia" to the wider scientific world in a presentation before the Linnean Society of London in June 1820, but his scientific paper on the subject was only published in late 1821.


title: Rafflesia

text: In 1999 the British botanical historian David Mabberley pointed out that the genus "Rafflesia" was first validated by an anonymous report on the meeting published in the "Annals of Philosophy" in September 1820 (the name was technically an unpublished "nomen nudum" until this publication). Mabberley claimed the author was Samuel Frederick Gray. However, as that is nowhere stated in the "Annals", per Article 46.8 of the code of ICBN, Mabberley was wrong to formally ascribe the validation to Gray. The validation of the name was thus attributed to one Thomas Thomson, the editor of the "Annals" in 1820, by the IPNI. Mabberley admitted his error in 2017. This Thomson was not the botanist Thomas Thomson, who was three years old in 1820, but his identically named father, a chemist.


title: Rafflesia

text: Comparison of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of "Rafflesia" with other angiosperm mtDNA indicated this parasite evolved from photosynthetic plants of the order Malpighiales. Another 2004 study confirmed this result using both mtDNA and nuclear DNA sequences, and showed the three other groups traditionally classified in Rafflesiaceae were unrelated. A 2007 study more specifically found "Rafflesia" and its relatives to be embedded within the family Euphorbiaceae as traditionally circumscribed, which was surprising, as members of that family typically have very small flowers. According to their analysis, the rate of flower size evolution was more or less constant throughout the family except at the origin of Rafflesiaceae, where the flowers rapidly evolved to become much larger before reverting to the slower rate of change.


title: Rafflesia

text: To maintain monophyletic families, in 2016 the APG IV system separated the family Peraceae from the Euphorbiaceae. A summary cladogram is shown below, with family placements in the APG IV system.


title: Rafflesia

text: A 2010 molecular phylogenetic study of 18 species of "Rafflesia" found that they fell into four clear-cut geographically defined groups:


title: Rafflesia

text: However, the clear monophyly of the four geographical clades does not correspond to any clear difference in appearance. There is no consistency within the clades in the size of flowers, or the presence or absence of white warts; species in different clades resemble one another more than they do some other species within the same clade. Homoplasy – repeatedly gaining or losing traits – seems to be the rule within "Rafflesia".


title: Rafflesia

text: Research published in 2014 revealed that one Philippine "Rafflesia" species from the island of Luzon, "R. lagascae" (a synonym of "R. manillana"), may have lost the genome of its chloroplast and it is speculated that the loss happened due to the parasitic lifestyle of the plant.


title: Rafflesia

text: In Peninsular Malaysia, the flower can be found in few states such as Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Terengganu. In Perak, three species of the flower can be found in Royal Belum state park and Gerik forest reserve of which are "Rafflesia kerrii", "Rafflesia cantleyi" and "Rafflesia azlanii". "Rafflesia azlanii" was named after the Sultan of Perak, Sultan Azlan Shah. Meanwhile, two species of the flower hosted by "Tetrastigma Planch" can be found in three location in Kelantan. The "Rafflesia cantleyi" species can be found in Ulut Sat and Chabang Tongkat while "Rafflesia kerrii" can be found in Lojing. Furthermore, two locations in Pahang where this flower can be found are Lembah Benum forest reserve and Lata Jarum. For Terengganu, the flower of "Rafflesia Cantleyi" species can be found in Kuala Berang. A flower has been found in this area hanging on the root of its host three metres above the ground, unlike the common flowers found on the ground roots.


title: Rafflesia

text: The locations of these flowers are turned into tourist attractions for biodiversity lovers and hikers and helps to generate income for the local people.


title: Rafflesia

text: In Thailand "Rafflesia" can be observed in Khao Sok National Park where the flowers are numbered and monitored by the park rangers.


title: Rafflesia

text: Species native to Borneo include "Rafflesia arnoldii", "R. cantleyi", "R. hasseltii", "R. keithii", "R. kerrii", "R. pricei", "R. tengku-adlinii" and "R. tuan-mudae". "R. arnoldii" boasts the world's largest single bloom.


title: Rafflesia

text: "R. keithii" is an endemic species in Sabah and the largest among the three species of Rafflesia found in Sabah. The flower size is between 60 cm to 80 cm. Due to its size, the flower is generally found on the forest floor growing on the underground stem or root of "Tetrastigma lanceolarium". "R. keithii" can be mostly found around the area of Poring, Sabah.


title: Rafflesia

text: The Mindanao species is known as "Rafflesia schadenbergiana", after the naturalist Alexander Schadenberg, who first discovered the species at the foothills of Mount Apo in 1882. With a flower of nearly a meter, it is close to the size of a seated child. On Mindanao, the species has been seen in Davao del Sur, South Cotabato and Mount Kitanglad in Bukidnon. "R. mira" and "R. magnifica" are two names for a single species. Both were discovered at Mount Candalaga in Maragusan, Compostela Valley. The two forms differ in size measurements in which the scientific description of "R. magnifica" came from measurements of flowers in full bloom while that of "R. mira" was from photographs of nearly dead samples. The medium-sized "R. mira" flowers measure about half a meter in diameter and they have round or elliptic perigone wart. The third species on Mindanao is the "R. mixta" which has only been found so far in the town of Mainit, Surigao del Norte. It shows a combination of three features of Philippine "Rafflesia", namely: the shape and size of the conical process in "R. schadenbergiana", the floral size and sparsely distributed perigone warts of "R. speciosa", and the overall resemblance, floral size, faint scent, diaphragm and ramenta morphology of "R. mira". A fourth species is "Rafflesia verrucosa" which is found only in Mount Kampalili in Davao Oriental Province.


title: Rafflesia

text: Species of "Rafflesia" are all thought to be holoparasites of lianas of the genus "Tetrastigma", vines which belong to the Vitaceae, the family of the grape vines. They are thus, in a way, hyperparasites, because "Tetrastigma" are themselves, in a way, structural parasites of the trees they use to climb up to the light. "Rafflesia" appear to be species-specific, with each "Rafflesia" species naturally only growing on one to three species of "Tetrastigma". Of the 57 known species of "Tetrastigma", only ten are known to be host plants. Of the 30 odd species of "Rafflesia", the host plants are only known from about half of the species. A certain species of "Tetrastigma" is very popular among "Rafflesia": "T. tuberculatum" is a host plant for at least 15 species, and only two Philippine species are not known to infect it. "T. papillosum" and "T. diepenhorstii" both host at least two species. The flowers may bud from different locations; "R. cantleyi" flowers from the vine some two meters from the ground,


title: Rafflesia

text: The gender ratio may be skewed. In "R. lobata" there are approximately nine male flowers for every female flower. Rarely are there flowers of both sexes at one location to ensure pollination and thus sexual reproduction. This may not matter: female flowers usually form fruit anyway and may thus be agamospermous. Flowering is relatively constant, and sites may continue to flower for decades.


title: Rafflesia

text: In "Rafflesia arnoldii" the flowers are visited by the flies "Drosophila colorata", "Chrysomya megacephala" and "Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis". Black ants of the genus "Euprenolepis" may feed on the developing flower buds, perhaps killing them. Mammals which are known to eat the flowers are the Javan treeshrew "Tupaia javanica" and the porcupine "Hystrix javanica". Mammals which have been recorded destroying the buds or flowers, often simply by stepping on and crushing them, are: pigs ("Sus scrofa"), wild cats ("Prionailurus bengalensis"), rusa ("Cervus timorensis"), muntjak ("Muntiacus muntjak") and banteng ("Bos javanicus").


title: Rafflesia

text: In Thailand the buds and flowers of "R. kerrii" are considered a delicacy. They are also harvested for herbalism, a concoction is believed to act as a sexual stimulant and to help for fever or backache. In the Philippines the plants are also used in folk herbalism, but the flowers are also fed to swine as fodder. On Java the buds of "R. zollingeriana" are harvested and dried for use in "jamu", the ancient traditional herbalism of the island. It is unknown for what the buds are supposed to be good for; "jamu" concoctions are often complex mixtures and often are supposed to help with sexual prowess.


title: Rafflesia

text: Research in Malaysia and Indonesia has made it possible to propagate the species for use in horticulture, with the famous Bogor Botanical Garden growing the first plants in the 1850s using grafts of infected vines. The Malaysian biologist Jamili Nais was the first to propagate the plants using the seeds around the year 2000.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard (), known in Japan as , is a Pokémon in Nintendo and Game Freak's "Pokémon" franchise. Created by Atsuko Nishida, Charizard first appeared in the video games "Pokémon Red" and "Blue" ("Pokémon Red" and "Green" in Japan) and subsequent sequels. They have later appeared in various merchandise, spinoff titles and animated and printed adaptations of the franchise. It is known as the Flame Pokémon. Shin-ichiro Miki, the actor who voices James in the original Japanese version of the "Pokémon" anime, voices Charizard in both the Japanese and English-language versions of the anime. An orange, draconic Pokémon, Charizard is the evolved form of Charmeleon and the final evolution of Charmander. It also has two Mega Evolved forms, Mega Charizard X and Y, that were likely both designed by Tomohiro Kitakaze, the designer of Mega Charizard X, and are not permanent and always revert to the normal Charizard form once a battle is complete. It also has a Gigantamax form in "Pokémon Sword and Shield", which changes its appearance and size for 3 turns, until it is knocked out, until it is returned, or until the battle ends.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard is featured in the "Pokémon" anime series with the most recurring being from the main character Ash Ketchum. It is featured in printed adaptations such as "Pokémon Adventures", in the possession of Blue, one of the main characters. Charizard appears in "Pokémon Origins" with main character Red as its trainer. In this series, Charizard is iconic, because it was the first Pokémon to Mega Evolve into Mega Charizard X and it helped beat Mewtwo. Charizard has received positive reception from the media, with GamesRadar describing it as "hands-down one of the coolest Pokémon out there". Charizard is the version mascot of "Pokémon Red" and "FireRed" versions, and makes an appearance on the boxarts of "Pokémon Stadium", "Pokémon Ranger", "", "", and "Pokémon Super Mystery Dungeon". It has appeared in every entry of the "Super Smash Bros." series, in an unplayable capacity in the first two games before becoming a playable character from "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" onwards. A Charizard also appears in the live-action animated film "Detective Pikachu".


title: Charizard

text: Charizard was designed by Atsuko Nishida for the first generation of Pocket Monsters games Red and Green, which were localized outside Japan as "Pokémon Red" and "Blue". Charizard was designed before Charmander, the latter being actually based on the former. Originally called "Lizardon" in Japanese, Nintendo decided to give the various Pokémon species "clever and descriptive names" related to their appearance or features when translating the game for western audiences as a means to make the characters more relatable to American children. As a result, they were renamed "Charizard", a portmanteau of the words "charcoal" or "char" and "lizard". During an interview, Pokémon Company


title: Charizard

text: President Tsunekazu Ishihara stated that Charizard was expected to be popular with North American audiences because of their preference for strong, powerful characters.


title: Charizard

text: Whereas its pre-evolutions Charmander and Charmeleon are ground-bound lizard like creatures, Charizard's design is inspired by dragons, more specifically European dragons. Even though Charizard gains the Flying secondary type instead of the Dragon type upon evolving, it belongs to the Dragon Egg Group, learns Dragon moves like Dragon Claw, and has its Flying type replaced by Dragon in its "Mega Charizard X" form.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard has two teal wings, with a mostly orange body and back. Its plantigrade feet have the bottom mostly covered by a single pad that is cream-colored like its large belly, while its eyes are light blue in color. When Charizard is Mega Evolved, it can take on one of two forms. Both forms are characterized by white pupils, bigger and sharper teeth, claws and horns and the bright coloring of the belly reaching the whole bottom of the muzzle, which also features a more pronounced snout. In its "X" form, its color scheme changes from orange and cream to black and blue, with red eyes, two claws appearing on each shoulder and wings acquiring a multilobed, feather-like structure. The flame at the tip of its tail becomes blue and blue flames are constantly breathed out from the sides of its mouth. In its "Y" form, its appearance is influenced by that of Pteranodons, with a central big pointed horn, loss of fingers passing through the patagia of the main wings that increase in size, smaller wings stemming from Pteranodon-like hands. It also gains a more slender appearance with a thinner torso, a longer tail and digitigrade feet that are longer and devoid of pads.


title: Charizard

text: The video games describe Charizard as having wings that can carry them close to an altitude of 4,600 feet (1,400 m), flying proudly around the sky and constantly seeking for powerful opponents to battle with. They can breathe intense flames that can melt any material, but will never torch a weaker foe. If Charizard becomes angry, the flame at the tip of their tail can flare up in a whitish-blue color. Because of their reckless behavior, Charizard are known to unintentionally cause wildfires. While Mega Charizard X is known for its black, toned body, hotter blue flames as well as its Dragon type, Mega Charizard Y is generally regarded for its flying prowess, with it allegedly being able to reach up to 10,000 meters of altitude while flying. In "Pokémon Go", Charizard exists in two forms, its original form with orange body and a cream-coloured patch on its belly, and its shiny form, which is a gray body with the same cream-coloured patch on its belly. Charizard's shiny form first made its appearance in Pokémon Gold and Silver, during "Pokémon Go" Community Day event featuring Charmander. During the Community Day event, shiny Charmander may be encountered, which can be evolved into a shiny Charmeleon, and in turn, evolved into a shiny Charizard. In Generation VIII, Charizard is capable of Gigantamaxing, a special type of Dynamaxing wherein it completely changes Charizard's form. When Gigantamaxed, Charizard's belly is all lit up, its wings are cloaked in fire, and its tail flame has grown as well. If Charizard knows any Fire-type damage dealing moves, they will be transformed into G-Max Wildfire, which deals damage for five turns. Gigantamax Charizard is best seen during battles with Galarian Champion Leon. The player can also get a Gigantamax Charizard by obtaining a Charmander in a Poke Ball in Leon's house (the Poke Ball is located in his bedroom) and evolving it into Charizard.


title: Charizard

text: From its release in the first generation to the fifth generation, Charizard failed to make a major impact on the competitive scene, to the point where it "wasn't seen in serious competitive play" and was "doomed ... to be forgotten". This relative lack of viability, combined with its relentless popularity, gave it an unfavorable "reputation of a Pokémon that represents the fanboys". In VGC (Video Game Championship) the official competitive format for Pokémon is a doubles format that started in Generation IV, and Charizard did not start to have much presence until it gained its Mega Charizard Y form in 2014 and 2015 where its ability Drought set up sun which could support its team members by activating abilities like Solar Power and Chlorophyll and halving damage from water attacks whilst also boosting its already powerful Fire-Type moves, while also allowing it to use the move Solar Beam in one turn, when it normally took two, it could also help its team even more with Tailwind. However, in 2016 it fell from usage as Primal Groudon outclassed it as a sun setter and fire type. In 2017 mega evolutions weren't allowed and in 2018 it again had lots of usage until Primal Groudon outclassed it again in 2019. In 2020 mega evolution was not present in the newest games, Pokémon Sword and Shield, and so far it has been phenomenal with its incredible Gigantamax form with the move G-max Wildfire which gives it a really strong damaging effect, even winning the Dallas Regionals. It got even better with its hidden ability being allowed with its Gigantamax form making it do 50% more damage when sun is up which is easier with Torkoal to make Charizard do more damage. Mega Charizard X hasn't been nearly as good in VGC over the years with its ability being less useful and being weak to the common ability Intimidate however it has still seen some success with people like Jamie Boyt winning a regional with this. In singles, it periodically found niches, such as with the boosting move Belly Drum, but it was crippled by the fourth generation's entry hazard Stealth Rock, which removed half of its health upon entering the battle while active. The sixth generation rescued Charizard's competitive status by introducing its Mega Charizard X and Mega Charizard Y forms, transforming it into a "top-level threat" of Smogon's standard tier. With the release of Generation VIII and Pokemon Sword and Shield in 2019, Charizard gained more popularity with the new item "Heavy-Duty Boots", which negated the effects of Stealth Rock, it's previously mentioned major issue.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard made its video game debut in 1996 with the Japanese release of "Pokémon Red" and "Blue". It is available only through Pokémon evolution from the starter Pokémon Charmander. In "Pokémon Gold", "Silver", and "Crystal", and their remakes "Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver", Charizard is used by Red, who acts as the games' final boss. Charizard is one of several Pokémon in "Pokémon X" and "Y" that is able to use the new Mega Evolution mechanic, becoming either Mega Charizard X or Mega Charizard Y. It was given a Mega Evolution about one and a half years into the development of "Pokémon X" and "Y". Charmander (along with Bulbasaur and Squirtle) was added to the game in a significant role in order to allow players to experience Charizard's Mega Evolution. It is also able to have a new form "Pokémon Sword" and "Shield" called a Gigantamax form. Champion Leon has it as his main Pokémon in these games as well.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard has made appearances in many other Pokémon games. It appears in on a team with an Alakazam and Tyranitar, who play a significant role in the story. In "Pokémon Ranger", Charizard is a boss Pokémon who becomes attached to the player's character and assists him or her throughout the game. Charizard returns in "" as another boss character, and "Pokémon Rumble". It is also one of the photographable Pokémon in "Pokémon Snap", as well as a non-playable character in "" and its sequel, "".


title: Charizard

text: Charizard has appeared many times throughout the "Super Smash Bros." series. Charizard first appears as a non-playable character in "Super Smash Bros." and "Super Smash Bros. Melee", as one of the Pokémon which can appear if a player throws a Poké Ball. In "Super Smash Bros. Brawl", Charizard is playable while under the command of the Pokémon Trainer. The Trainer has a Squirtle and an Ivysaur, all three of which can be switched between; unlike the other fighters, these Pokémon become fatigued and consequently weaker, and must be switched out long enough in order to recover. Charizard's moves include Rock Smash, Flamethrower, and Fly. Charizard is playable as a standalone character in "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS" and "Wii U", where it gains the move Flare Blitz and its new Final Smash is transforming into Mega Charizard X. Charizard returns in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate", where it is once again under the command of the Pokémon Trainer alongside Squirtle and Ivysaur. Charizard also appears as a playable fighter in "Pokkén Tournament" and "Pokémon Unite".


title: Charizard

text: In the anime, the most notable Charizard is one Ash Ketchum has had since he was a Charmander abandoned by his former owner Damian. Ash's Charmander evolved into Charmeleon after a battle against an army of Exeggutor, and his personality changed completely, becoming a disobedient and prideful Pokémon and fighting when and how he pleased. Charmeleon evolved when Ash summoned him for protection from wild prehistoric Pokémon; when an Aerodactyl attacked him and carried Ash off, Charmeleon evolved to fight the Aerodactyl and rescue Ash. Charizard still disobeyed Ash, preferring to sleep, and only battled Pokémon that would pose a challenge, but Charizard helped Ash reach his goals, particularly against Gym Leader Blaine. Charizard's disobedience to Ash cost him the Indigo League because Charizard chose to sleep instead of fighting. Charizard became loyal during the after Ash battled a trainer with a Poliwrath and Charizard was frozen solid. Because Ash helped Charizard thaw out, he began to obey Ash and defeated the Poliwrath in a rematch. He remained on Ash's team and contributed to his wins in the Orange League and parts of Johto. He eventually stayed behind in the Charizific Valley, a reserve where wild Charizard battle and train to become stronger. This was likely due to meeting Charla, a female Charizard for whom he developed a fondness. Charizard, like some of Ash's other Pokémon, returns on a temporary basis to battle at Ash's side, typically when Ash faces a particularly powerful Pokémon. Charizard has saved Ash's life on more than one occasion, as seen in the film "", where he battled against Entei after arriving in the nick of time to prevent Ash and Pikachu from falling to their deaths, having flown over from the Charizific Valley after originally seeing a live broadcast of Ash running after Entei who had kidnapped Ash's mother, Delia Ketchum. Charizard returned during the Johto Pokémon League and defeated Gary's Blastoise, who had a type advantage over Charizard. Charizard also returned for Ash's first Battle Frontier battle, where he took on Articuno at the Battle Factory and won thanks to an unorthodox strategy. During the , Charizard officially rejoined Ash's team (replacing Ash's Unfezant, who was sent to Professor Oak's Lab in the process), while Ash was exploring Unova. Upon meeting Ash again, he gave his trainer a Flamethrower to the face much to everyone's surprise. Charizard also developed a fierce rivalry with Iris's Dragonite so much so that both Ash and Iris agreed to have a battle. During the battle which originally began on the ground but later ascended skywards when both Pokémon took to the skies, it was shown that Charizard had learnt Wing Attack, Slash, and Dragon Tail but despite the two Pokémon having something of a very fierce rivalry with one another, N immediately called the battle off after realizing that Dragonite had injured its right arm. Charizard stayed with all of Ash's Pokémon sans Pikachu at Professor Oak's laboratory when Ash leaves Kanto once more for the faraway Kalos region. In Generation VIII, Charizard is capable of Gigantamaxing, a special type of Dynamaxing wherein it completely changes Charizard's form. When Gigantamaxed, Charizard's belly is all lit up, its wings are cloaked in fire, and its tail flame has grown as well. If Charizard knows any Fire-type damage-dealing moves, they will be transformed into G-Max Wildfire, which deals damage for five turns. Gigantamax Charizard is best seen during battles with Galarian Champion Leon.


title: Charizard

text: In "", which loosely parallels the storyline of the anime, Ash catches a Charmander, and it ultimately becomes a Charizard and battles in the Pokémon League tournament. Despite his catch, he has trouble controlling it. Ash brings Charizard to the Orange Islands and trains it diligently since the near-disaster. He then uses it to battle Dragonite in the final showdown with the Orange Crew Supreme gym leader Drake.


title: Charizard

text: In the "Pokémon Adventures" manga, Blue receives a Charmander from his grandfather Professor Oak. It evolves into a Charmeleon, and when Blue is possessed by a Gastly in the Lavender Tower, so is Charmeleon. Blue's Charmeleon is eventually released from its possession only to be faced down by an Arbok, owned by Koga. Charmeleon tricked Koga by using a zombie Psyduck to deflect Arbok's Acid before literally slicing the Arbok in half with his tail. Blue later appears with an evolved Charizard and gains access to Saffron City by helping to disable a barrier created by a Mr. Mime. Later, Red and Blue face off against Koga's Articuno and are frozen by its Ice Beam, but they ultimately defeat the Team Rocket Executive with Charizard's Flamethrower. It then teams up with Red's newly evolved Venusaur, Saur, and Green's Blastoise, Blasty, to defeat Sabrina's monster Pokémon. They end Team Rocket's control of Saffron City, splitting apart the three birds in the process.


title: Charizard

text: Blue's Charizard re-appeared during the final match of the ninth Pokémon League, against his longtime rival Red. Despite the type advantage, Charizard battles against Saur and is nearly knocked out. As the battle progresses the two trainers send out their first Pokémon to battle again, when Saur binds Charizard from attacking. Suddenly, thunderclouds form from the attacks of Poli and Pika, and Saur submerges a vine into the cloud, shocking Charizard and knocking it out. When the "FireRed and LeafGreen" volume of the manga began the original protagonists – Red, Blue, and Green – return to fight the newly formed Team Rocket and the Deoxys under their power. The three trainers become trapped inside the Trainer Tower in the Sevii Islands, battling the main computer of the building and the Deoxys Divides. After struggling to co-ordinate Blasty, Saur, and Charizard, the three trainers manage to focus the angle of the three powerful attacks – Blast Burn, Hydro Cannon, and Frenzy Plant – to free Mewtwo, who in turn destroys the Trainer Tower.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard appeared as the main Pokémon in the short novel, "Charizard Go!" Adapted by Tracey West, the novelization retells Ash's journey with his Charmander, and it reaches its climax as Ash and Charizard battle in the Pokémon League at the Indigo Plateau against his good friend Ritchie. The story covers Ash and his companions finding the abandoned Charmander, the battles in which Charmeleon did not listen to Ash, and Charizard's battle against Blaine's Magmar. "Charizard Go!" is the sixth novel in the "Pokémon Chapter Books" series. Another chapter novel, "All Fired Up: Pokémon the Johto Journeys", adapted by Jennifer Johnson, covers the portion of Ash's journey near Violet City and the Characific Valley. In the novel, Ash wonders if Charizard should leave his team forever; it covers the capture of Ash's Cyndaquil, his new fire Pokémon.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard has been featured in lines of soft toys and action figures in the "Pokémon" franchise, made by Hasbro, and Tomy. In 2004, the "Charizard Medium Plush" was part of a major recall of 13 plush toys due to a manufacturing fault where tips of needles were being found with the stuffing. This allowed Tomy to replace the toys with compensation or replacements. Charizard appears often in the "Pokémon Trading Card Game", most notably in the series' initial release. Cards featuring the character have been stated to be the most desired of the series, quickly rising to high prices amongst collectors and retailers. In 2005, search engine Yahoo! reported Charizard as "one of the top Pokémon-related web searches". David Caballero of "Screen Rant" listed Charizard as the best Ash Ketchum's Pokémon from each region. Kevin Slackie of "Paste" listed Charizard as fourth of the best Pokemon, and further stated that Charizard may seem like a giant scary dragon, but for many people this was the first Pokémon they ever fell in love with. Dale Bishir of "IGN" described Charizard as the most important Pokémon that impacted the franchise's history, and further stated that Charizard has fared well in the past 25 years, having appearances in the anime, playable appearances in three different Smash games, and even having all kinds of forms, from Gigantamax to Mega Evolution. Steven Bogos of "The Escapist" listed Charizard as second of their favorite Pokémon, describing it as "awesome across of the franchise's properties".


title: Charizard

text: Described by the media as "a lean, ferocious, fire-breathing dragon ... sleek, powerful, and utterly destructive", Charizard has been noted as one of the franchise's "most popular" characters. Retailers have attributed the high sales of merchandise related to the character to the popularity of the character's dragon-like design with children. Interviewed children have stated similar; they attributed its appeal to its "cool looking" appearance and associating the character with the "concepts of stubbornness and power". The book "Rebuilding Attachments With Traumatized Children" stated psychiatrists utilized the character as an empowered character traumatized children who were fans of the "Pokémon" series could relate to. The book "Pikachu's Global Adventure: The Rise and Fall of Pokémon" cited Charizard as "popular" with older male children who tend to be drawn to "tough or scary" characters, and compared the character's evolution from Charmander into Charizard with the loss of "cuteness" as one leaves childhood.


title: Charizard

text: "IGN" editor "Pokémon of the Day Chick" called Charizard "certainly the most popular and perhaps the most well-balanced of any of the current starting Pokemon". "GamesRadar"s Brett Elston described Charizard as "hands-down one of the coolest Pokémon out there", heavily praising its character design and calling it "one of the coolest" designs of the entire series. "GamesRadar" editor Raymond Padilla stated "Charizard was an awesome Pokemon back in the day and still an excellent choice more than a decade after it was introduced." "UGO.com" described Charizard as a "winged, dragon-like creature" which is "able to breathe fire and smash opponents into red-tinged goo", but states that in "Brawl", it is "as slow as Bowser" and "lacks the coolness factor of Mario's arch-nemesis". Ben Skipper of the "International Business Times" praised the designs of Charizard, and calling it a great design, but not good as Blastoise. Charizard was ranked 19th in "Complex"s "The 50 Best Pokemon Up to Pokemon Crystal", with Elijah Watson saying that Charizard is one of the best out there. "IGN" readers voted Charizard as one of the best pocket monster, receiving 86.3% of win percentage.


title: Charizard

text: Authors Tracey West and Katherine Noll called Charizard the "best Fire type Pokémon" and the "third best Pokémon overall". They wrote that "there was nothing else that could better fit that spot" and that "it has won [their] hearts and had [them] cheering for more." "1UP" editor Kat Bailey expressed concern about which Pokémon could follow the player in "Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver", stating "allowing popular favorites like Charizard would go over quite well". "The Daily Cardinal" editor Kyle Sparks called Charizard "the most dominant Pokémon in the whole universe, a force of sheer strength". In a poll conducted by "IGN", it was voted as the "best Pokémon", where the staff commented about remembering being torn between choosing Blastoise and Charizard at the start of the game. In a poll by "Official Nintendo Magazine", Charizard was voted as the "best Fire-type Pokémon". They stated, "not only is Charizard your favourite fire Pokémon, but it is probably one of the most popular 'mon of all time". "Kotaku" editor Patricia Hernandez criticized Charizard's Y Mega Evolution for not differing enough from Charizard's original design, while praising Mega Charizard X for changing color, and turning Charizard into a dragon-type. "Game Informer" ranked Charizard as the "coolest Pokémon out of the original 151", describing it as "Powerful, gigantic, and imposing". They further commented that "Pikachu may be the one you recognize, but Charizard is the one you want." Laura Gray of "Screen Rant" stated that Charizard was too overrated on franchise, and has created problems from fans, the popularity also prevents other Pokémon from having a chance at the spotlight.


title: Charizard

text: Charizard has always been a popular character amongst Pokémon card collectors. According to eBay, Charizard's Pokémon card is the one that is sold mostly, especially when a 1999 base 1st-edition holographic shadowless stamp of Charizard was sold for $350,100. In October 2020, popular YouTuber and influencer Logan Paul purchased a base set Charizard card for $150,000. Later in December 2020, another base set Charizard card sold for a record $369,000. In 2021, A rare, non-official card called "thicc Charizard" was sold as an NFT for over $30,000.


title: Commonwealth of the Philippines

text: The Commonwealth of the Philippines ( or ; ) was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country. It was established following the Tydings–McDuffie Act to replace the Insular Government, a United States territorial government. The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence. Its foreign affairs remained managed by the United States.


title: Commonwealth of the Philippines

text: During its more than a decade of existence, the Commonwealth had a strong executive and a Supreme Court. Its legislature, dominated by the Nacionalista Party, was at first unicameral, but later bicameral. In 1937, the government selected Tagalog – the language of Manila and its surrounding provinces – as the basis of the national language, although it would be many years before its usage became general. Women's suffrage was adopted and the economy recovered to its pre-Depression level before the Japanese occupation in 1942.


title: Commonwealth of the Philippines

text: In 1946, the Commonwealth ended and the Philippines claimed full sovereignty as provided for in Article XVIII of the 1935 Constitution.


title: Commonwealth of the Philippines

text: The Commonwealth of the Philippines was also known as the "Philippine Commonwealth", or simply as "the Commonwealth". Its official name in Spanish, the other of the Commonwealth's two official languages, was (). The 1935 Constitution uses "the Philippines" as the country's short-form name throughout its provisions and uses "the Philippine Islands" only to refer to pre-1935 status and institutions. Under the Insular Government (1901–1935), both terms were used officially. In 1937, Tagalog was declared to be the basis of a national language, effective after two years. The country's official name translated into Tagalog would be ().