title: Miranda (TV series)

text: The first series was picked as one of the top 10 forthcoming TV shows for Autumn 2009 by "The Sunday Times". Ahead of the first episode airing, Dominic Maxwell in an article for "The Times" described it as an "old-school" sitcom and said that "It's good fun, if you buy into it. And if you do, it's because of Hart." Also describing it as "old-fashioned", Vicky Frost for "The Guardian" said of the slapstick physical comedy that "It's not clever – but it is funny. And that, I think is at the heart of Miranda's appeal." Mark Wright for "The Stage" said that Hodge gives a "brilliant, brilliant performance" and that "what sets "Miranda" out as something special is Hart herself, and the rest just gels around her." The first series opened with 2.63 million viewers (10% audience share), rising to 3.14 million viewers (12% share) for the fourth episode.


title: Miranda (TV series)

text: The second series opened with 3.19 million viewers, rising to 4.01 million viewers for the third episode. Rachel Tarley from the "Metro" said "Miranda" is an acquired taste and that an episode can be a mixed bag. However, Tarley enjoyed the festive episode of series 2, saying "Hart got away with a lot of the more irritating qualities of her work, with help from the fantastic Patricia Hodge and Sally Phillips. Tonight was also the first we saw of Miranda's father, played by Tom Conti, who filled most of the episode's falling-over quota, so that Miranda finally remained pretty vertical throughout the episode." She added that Hart is "a great observer of everyday dilemmas" and the best thing of all is she left the door open for a third series. Dominic Cavendish of "The Daily Telegraph" called "Miranda" "the sitcom of the year", while Chris Harvey of the same newspaper said "The truth is, pretty much every time Miranda turns and looks at the camera, I burst out laughing. And even when her slapstick is so obvious it wouldn't confuse a small child [..] I still laugh. Even when I'm trying not to. Even when I really, really don't want to." Meanwhile, Catherine Gee said the show was a flop and listed six reasons why, which included unoriginal jokes, Hart's asides to the camera and the show retaining "the worst aspects of the sitcoms of yesteryear."


title: Miranda (TV series)

text: The opening episode of the third series became one of the most watched shows in the UK over the Christmas period, attracting a total audience of over 11.5 million viewers. For The Telegraph, Michael Deacon compares the programme to a childish Christmas panto, finally adding, "Perhaps I’m just getting old. I’m sure I’d have loved this show when I was six." Keith Watson, writing for Metro, says the series three finale is a "great end to an up-to-scratch season, Miranda never fails to cheer up an evening, reminding many of us that we aren’t alone in the everyday awkward situations that we might find ourselves in – to some extent, anyway."


title: Miranda (TV series)

text: George Entwistle stated, "Miranda's been a tremendous hit with audiences on BBC Two and I'm very glad she's let us persuade her to move to BBC One, where we believe we can build an even bigger following for her multi-award-winning show. BBC Two has done an exceptional job of supporting and nurturing Miranda over a number of years and I'm certain she'll be equally well looked after at BBC One."


title: Miranda (TV series)

text: In August 2018, it was reported that "The Big Bang Theory" star Jim Parsons was developing a US remake for Warner Bros. Television. Hart would be involved in developing the remake as a producer, but it was not revealed if she would star as well. The series was ordered by Fox on 19 September 2019 and titled as "Call Me Kat", in which Mayim Bialik would also star.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Industrial engineering is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information and equipment. Industrial engineering is central to manufacturing operations.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Industrial engineers use specialized knowledge and skills in the mathematical, physical and social sciences, together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results obtained from systems and processes. There are several industrial engineering principles followed in the manufacturing industry to ensure the effective flow of the systems, processes and operations. This includes Lean Manufacturing, Six Sigma, Information Systems, Process Capability and Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control (DMAIC). These principles allow the creation of new systems, processes or situations for the useful coordination of labour, materials and machines and also improve the quality and productivity of systems, physical or social. Depending on the sub-specialties involved, industrial engineering may also overlap with, operations research, systems engineering, manufacturing engineering, production engineering, supply chain engineering, management science, management engineering, financial engineering, ergonomics or human factors engineering, safety engineering, logistics engineering or others, depending on the viewpoint or motives of the user.


title: Industrial engineering

text: There is a general consensus among historians that the roots of the industrial engineering profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The technologies that helped mechanize traditional manual operations in the textile industry including the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, and perhaps most importantly the steam engine generated economies of scale that made mass production in centralized locations attractive for the first time. The concept of the production system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. It has also been suggested that perhaps Leonardo da Vinci was the first industrial engineer because there is evidence that he applied science to the analysis of human work by examining the rate at which a man could shovel dirt around the year 1500. Others also state that the industrial engineering profession grew from Charles Babbage’s study of factory operations and specifically his work on the manufacture of straight pins in 1832 . However, it has been generally argued that these early efforts, while valuable, were merely observational and did not attempt to engineer the jobs studied or increase overall output.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Adam Smith's concepts of Division of Labour and the "Invisible Hand" of capitalism introduced in his treatise "The Wealth of Nations" motivated many of the technological innovators of the Industrial revolution to establish and implement factory systems. The efforts of James Watt and Matthew Boulton led to the first integrated machine manufacturing facility in the world, including the application of concepts such as cost control systems to reduce waste and increase productivity and the institution of skills training for craftsmen.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Charles Babbage became associated with Industrial engineering because of the concepts he introduced in his book "On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers" which he wrote as a result of his visits to factories in England and the United States in the early 1800s. The book includes subjects such as the time required to perform a specific task, the effects of subdividing tasks into smaller and less detailed elements, and the advantages to be gained from repetitive tasks.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets and pistols for the US Government. Under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, which eventually led to the industrial environment to be studied later.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) is generally credited as being the father of the industrial engineering discipline. He earned a degree in mechanical engineering from Stevens Institute of Technology and earned several patents from his inventions. His books, "Shop Management" and "The Principles of Scientific Management", which were published in the early 1900s, were the beginning of industrial engineering. Improvements in work efficiency under his methods was based on improving work methods, developing of work standards, and reduction in time required to carry out the work. With an abiding faith in the scientific method, Taylor did many experiments in machine shop work on machines as well as men. Taylor developed "time study" to measure time taken for various elements of a task and then used the study observations to reduce the time further. Time study was done for the improved method once again to provide time standards which are accurate for planning manual tasks and also for providing incentives.


title: Industrial engineering

text: The husband-and-wife team of Frank Gilbreth (1868–1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972) was the other cornerstone of the industrial engineering movement whose work is housed at Purdue University School of Industrial Engineering. They categorized the elements of human motion into 18 basic elements called therbligs. This development permitted analysts to design jobs without knowledge of the time required to do a job. These developments were the beginning of a much broader field known as human factors or ergonomics.


title: Industrial engineering

text: In 1908, the first course on industrial engineering was offered as an elective at Pennsylvania State University, which became a separate program in 1909 through the efforts of Hugo Diemer. The first doctoral degree in industrial engineering was awarded in 1933 by Cornell University.


title: Industrial engineering

text: In 1912, Henry Laurence Gantt developed the Gantt chart, which outlines actions the organization along with their relationships. This chart opens later form familiar to us today by Wallace Clark.


title: Industrial engineering

text: With the development of assembly lines, the factory of Henry Ford (1913) accounted for a significant leap forward in the field. Ford reduced the assembly time of a car from more than 700 hours to 1.5 hours. In addition, he was a pioneer of the economy of the capitalist welfare ("welfare capitalism") and the flag of providing financial incentives for employees to increase productivity.


title: Industrial engineering

text: In 1927, the then Technische Hochschule Berlin was the first German university to introduce the degree. The course of studies developed by Willi Prion was then still called Business and Technology and was intended to provide descendants of industrialists with an adequate education.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Comprehensive quality management system (Total quality management or TQM) developed in the forties was gaining momentum after World War II and was part of the recovery of Japan after the war.


title: Industrial engineering

text: The American Institute of Industrial Engineering was formed in 1948. The early work by F. W. Taylor and the Gilbreths was documented in papers presented to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers as interest grew from merely improving machine performance to the performance of the overall manufacturing process, most notably starting with the presentation by Henry R. Towne (1844–1924) of his paper "The Engineer as An Economist" (1886).


title: Industrial engineering

text: From 1960 to 1975, with the development of decision support systems in supply such as material requirements planning (MRP), one can emphasize the timing issue (inventory, production, compounding, transportation, etc.) of industrial organization. Israeli scientist Dr. Jacob Rubinovitz installed the CMMS program developed in IAI and Control-Data (Israel) in 1976 in South Africa and worldwide.


title: Industrial engineering

text: In the 1970s, with the penetration of Japanese management theories such as Kaizen and Kanban, Japan realized very high levels of quality and productivity. These theories improved issues of quality, delivery time, and flexibility. Companies in the west realized the great impact of Kaizen and started implementing their own continuous improvement programs. W. Edwards Deming made significant contributions in the minimization of variance starting in the 1950s and continuing to the end of his life.


title: Industrial engineering

text: In the 1990s, following the global industry globalization process, the emphasis was on supply chain management and customer-oriented business process design. The theory of constraints, developed by Israeli scientist Eliyahu M. Goldratt (1985), is also a significant milestone in the field.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Engineering is traditionally decompositional. To understand the whole of something, it is first broken down into its parts. One masters the parts, then puts them back together to create a better understanding of how to master the whole. The approach of industrial and systems engineering (ISE) is opposite; any one part cannot be understood without the context of the whole system. Changes in one part of the system affect the entire system, and the role of a single part is to better serve the whole system.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Also, industrial engineering considers the human factor and its relation to the technical aspect of the situation and all of the other factors that influence the entire situation, while other engineering disciplines focus on the design of inanimate objects.


title: Industrial engineering

text: "Industrial Engineers integrate combinations of people, information, materials, and equipment that produce innovative and efficient organizations. In addition to manufacturing, Industrial Engineers work and consult in every industry, including hospitals, communications, e-commerce, entertainment, government, finance, food, pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, sports, insurance, sales, accounting, banking, travel, and transportation."


title: Industrial engineering

text: "Industrial Engineering is the branch of Engineering most closely related to human resources in that we apply social skills to work with all types of employees, from engineers to salespeople to top management. One of the main focuses of an Industrial Engineer is to improve the working environments of people – not to change the worker, but to change the workplace."


title: Industrial engineering

text: "All engineers, including Industrial Engineers, take mathematics through calculus and differential equations. Industrial Engineering is different in that it is based on discrete variable math, whereas all other engineering is based on continuous variable math. We emphasize the use of linear algebra and difference equations, as opposed to the use of differential equations which are so prevalent in other engineering disciplines. This emphasis becomes evident in optimization of production systems in which we are sequencing orders, scheduling batches, determining the number of materials handling units, arranging factory layouts, finding sequences of motions, etc. As, Industrial Engineers, we deal almost exclusively with systems of discrete components."


title: Industrial engineering

text: While originally applied to manufacturing, the use of "industrial" in "industrial engineering" can be somewhat misleading, since it has grown to encompass any methodical or quantitative approach to optimizing how a process, system, or organization operates. In fact, the "industrial" in "industrial engineering" means the industry in its broadest sense. People have changed the term "industrial" to broader terms such as industrial and manufacturing engineering, industrial and systems engineering, industrial engineering and operations research, industrial engineering and management.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Industrial engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most common of which are listed below. Although there are industrial engineers who focus exclusively on one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of them such as supply chain and logistics, and facilities and energy management.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Industrial engineers study the interaction of human beings with machines, materials, information, procedures and environments in such developments and in designing a technological system.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Industrial engineering degrees accredited within any member country of the Washington Accord enjoy equal accreditation within all other signatory countries, thus allowing engineers from one country to practise engineering professionally in any other.


title: Industrial engineering

text: In the United States, the undergraduate degree earned is either a bachelor of science (B.S.) or a bachelor of science and engineering (B.S.E.) in industrial engineering (IE). In South Africa, the undergraduate degree is a bachelor of engineering (BEng). Variations of the title include Industrial & Operations Engineering (IOE), and Industrial & Systems Engineering (ISE or ISyE).


title: Industrial engineering

text: The typical curriculum includes a broad math and science foundation spanning chemistry, physics, mechanics (i.e., statics, kinematics, and dynamics), materials science, computer science, electronics/circuits, engineering design, and the standard range of engineering mathematics (i.e., calculus, linear algebra, differential equations, statistics). For any engineering undergraduate program to be accredited, regardless of concentration, it must cover a largely similar span of such foundational work – which also overlaps heavily with the content tested on one or more engineering licensure exams in most jurisdictions.


title: Industrial engineering

text: The coursework specific to IE entails specialized courses in areas such as optimization, applied probability, stochastic modeling, design of experiments, statistical process control, simulation, manufacturing engineering, ergonomics/safety engineering, and engineering economics. Industrial engineering elective courses typically cover more specialized topics in areas such as manufacturing, supply chains and logistics, analytics and machine learning, production systems, human factors and industrial design, and service systems.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Certain business schools may offer programs with some overlapping relevance to IE, but the engineering programs are distinguished by a much more intensely quantitative focus, required engineering science electives, and the core math and science courses required of all engineering programs.


title: Industrial engineering

text: The usual graduate degree earned is the master of science (MS), master of science and engineering (MSE) or master of engineering (MEng) in industrial engineering or various alternative related concentration titles.


title: Industrial engineering

text: While industrial engineering as a formal degree has been around for years, consensus on what topics should be taught and studied differs across countries. For example, Turkey focuses on a very technical degree while Denmark, Finland and the United Kingdom have a management focus degree, thus making it less technical. The United States, meanwhile, focuses on case-studies, group problem solving and maintains a balance between the technical and non-technical side.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Traditionally, a major aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines and other manufacturing paradigms. And now, in lean manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy, and other resources.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Examples of where industrial engineering might be used include flow process charting, process mapping, designing an assembly workstation, strategizing for various operational logistics, consulting as an efficiency expert, developing a new financial algorithm or loan system for a bank, streamlining operation and emergency room location or usage in a hospital, planning complex distribution schemes for materials or products (referred to as supply-chain management), and shortening lines (or queues) at a bank, hospital, or a theme park.


title: Industrial engineering

text: Modern industrial engineers typically use predetermined motion time system, computer simulation (especially discrete event simulation), along with extensive mathematical tools for modeling, such as mathematical optimization and queueing theory, and computational methods for system analysis, evaluation, and optimization. Industrial engineers also use the tools of data science and machine learning in their work owing to the strong relatedness of these disciplines with the field and the similar technical background required of industrial engineers (including a strong foundation in probability theory, linear algebra, and statistics, as well as having coding skills).


title: Government of Russia

text: The Government of Russia exercises executive power in the Russian Federation. The members of the government are the prime minister, the deputy prime ministers, and the federal ministers. It has its legal basis in the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal constitutional law "On the Government of the Russian Federation". The Apparatus of the Government of Russia is a governmental body which administrates the activities of the government.


title: Government of Russia

text: According to the 1991 amendment to the 1978 constitution, the President of Russia was the head of the executive branch and headed the Council of Ministers of Russia. According to the current 1993 constitution, the president is not a part of the government of Russia, which exercises executive power. However, the president appoints the prime minister.


title: Government of Russia

text: The large body was preceded by Government of the Soviet Union. Since the Russian Federation emerged from 1991 to 1992, the government's structure has undergone several major changes. In the initial years, a large number of government bodies, primarily the different ministries, underwent massive reorganization as the old Soviet governing networks were adapted to the new state. Many reshuffles and renamings occurred.


title: Government of Russia

text: On 28 November 1991, President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin signed presidential decree No.242 "On the reorganization of the government bodies of the RSFSR". Yeltsin officially declared the end of the Soviet Union and became the President of the Russian Federation. Yeltsin was a reformer and promised Western-styled democracy.


title: Government of Russia

text: In 1993, the new Russian Constitution was adopted. The new Constitution gained legitimacy through its bicameral legislature, an independent judiciary, the position of the president and the prime minister, and democratic features. These democratic features included competitive multi-party elections, separation of powers, federalism, and protection of civil liberties.


title: Government of Russia

text: In 1999, Yeltsin appointed Vladimir Putin as the Prime Minister. Later in that year, Yeltsin resigned from the presidency and Putin took over as the Acting President. In a highly biased 2000 election, Putin won the presidential election.


title: Government of Russia

text: The most recent change took place on 21 January 2020, when President Vladimir Putin signed a presidential decree on forming Mikhail Mishustin's Cabinet.


title: Government of Russia

text: The Government is the subject of the 6th chapter of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. According to the constitution, the government of the Russian Federation must:


title: Government of Russia

text: The government issues its acts in the way of decisions (Постановления) and orders (Распоряжения). These must not contradict the constitution, federal constitutional laws, federal laws, and Presidential decrees, and are signed by the Prime Minister.


title: Government of Russia

text: The Government, also assists the Prime Minister, in faithfully carrying out the country's domestic and foreign policy as determined by the President, in general.


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha (, ), sometimes rendered Narasingha, is the fourth avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. He is regarded to have incarnated in the form of a part-lion, part-man being to slay Hiranyakashipu, to end religious persecution and calamity on earth, thereby restoring dharma. Narasimha is often depicted with three eyes, and is described in Vaishnavism to be the God of Destruction; he who destroys the entire universe at the time of the great dissolution (Mahapralaya). Hence, he is known as Kala (time) or Mahakala (great-time), or Parakala (beyond time) in his epithets. There exists a matha (monastery) dedicated to him by the name of Parakala Matha in the Sri Vaishnava tradition. Narasimha is also described as the God of Yoga, in the form of Yoga-Narasimha.


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha iconography shows him with a human torso and lower body, with a leonine face and claws, typically with the asura Hiranyakashipu in his lap, whom he is in the process of defeating. The asura king was the powerful brother of the evil Hiranyaksha, who had been previously defeated by Vishnu, and thus hated the latter. Hiranyakashipu gained a boon from Brahma due to which he could not be killed during the day or night, inside or outside the house; neither in the sky nor on land nor in Svarga nor in Patala, by any weapon, nor by a man, deva, asura, or an animal. Endowed with this boon, he began to wreak chaos and havoc, persecuting all the devotees of Vishnu, including his own son. Vishnu, cognisant of the asura's boon, creatively assumed a hybrid form that was neither man nor animal, and slew the wicked king at the junction of day and night, at the threshold of his house, which was neither inside nor the outside, upon his lap, and with his claws. Narasimha is known primarily as the 'Great Protector' who specifically defends and protects his devotees from evil. The most popular Narasimha myth is the legend of his protection of his devotee Prahlada, and the slaying of Prahlada's wicked father and tyrant, Hiranyakashipu.


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha is one of the major deities in Vaishnavism, and his legends are revered in Vaikhanasas, Sri Vaishnavism, Sadh Vaishnavism, and various other Vaishnava traditions of Hinduism. He is celebrated in many regional Hindu temples, texts, performance arts, and festivals such as the Hindu festival of colours of the spring, called Holi.


title: Narasimha

text: One of the earliest representation of Narasimha, dating back to the 4th-century CE, is from Kondamotu in Coastal Andhra. Other older known artworks of Narasimha have been found at several sites across Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, such as at the Mathura archaeological site. These have been variously dated between the 2nd and the 4th century CE.


title: Narasimha

text: In Sanskrit the word "Narasimha" consists of two words "nara" which means man, and "simha" which means lion, referring to a man-lion avatar of Vishnu. Additionally, the word "singh" is often used in place of "simha" which also means lion in Sanskrit and other Indian languages.


title: Narasimha

text: He is known as "Nrisimha, Nrisingha, Narasingha", "Narasingh, Narsingh", "Narasimba" and "Narasinghar" in derivative languages. His other names are "Agnilochana" (अग्निलोचन) – the one who has fiery eyes, "Bhairavadambara" (भैरवडम्बर) – the one who causes terror by roaring, "Karala" (कराल) – the one who has a wide mouth and projecting teeth, "Hiranyakashipudvamsa" (हिरण्यकशिपुध्वंस) – the one who killed Hiranyakashipu, "Nakhastra" (नखास्त्र) – the one for whom nails are his weapons, "Sinhavadana" (सिंहवदन) – the whose face is of lion and "Mrigendra" (मृगेन्द्र) – king of animals or lion.


title: Narasimha

text: The Vishnu hymn 1.154 of the "Rigveda" (1700-1200 BCE) contains a verse with allusions to a "wild beast, dread, prowling, mountain-roaming", which has been interpreted by some to be the Narasiṃha legend. Another hymn 8.14 alludes to the Namuci legend with "waters' foam you tore off, Indra, the head of Namuci, subduing all contending hosts", but the hymns does not present details.


title: Narasimha

text: A more complete version of the Namuci legend is found in "Shatapatha Brahmana" (7th - 6th century BCE) of the "Yajurveda" in chapter 12.7.3.v Other references to Narasimha are found in the Vedic texts Vajaseneyi Samhita 10.34, Pancavimsa Brahmana 12.6.8 and Taittiriya Brahmana 1.7.1.6.


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha likely has roots in the metaphor-filled Indra-Namuci legend in the Vedas. Indra is the dharmic leader of the Devas who commands lightning, thunder, rain and rivers, while Namuci is a deceptive demigod Asura in competition for power. Namuci suggests peace to Indra, which the latter accepts. He demands Indra to promise that he will neither try to slay him with his "palm of the hand nor with the fist", neither in day nor in night, neither "anything that the dry" nor "anything that is moist". Indra agrees.


title: Narasimha

text: After the deal is done, Namuci carries away all that nourishes the Devas: the Soma drink, the essence of food and the strength of Indra. The leader of the gods finds himself conflicted and feels bound by his promise. Indra then meets Saraswati (goddess of knowledge) and the Ashvins. They reply they will deal with Namuci, get it all back, if Indra agrees to share his powers, the essence of food and the Soma drink with them. Indra agrees. The gods and the goddess then come up with a creative plan. They pour out "foam of water" as a thunderbolt, which is neither dry nor moist, and the evil Asura Namuci is attacked and killed when it is neither day nor night.


title: Narasimha

text: After Namuci is killed, the gods get all the powers back, but discover that Namuci had drunk the Soma already. The good was thus now mixed with his badness of his blood, which they did not want to drink. So, they extract the good out from the bad. Thus, good returns to the Devas, the bad is discarded.


title: Narasimha

text: According to Deborah Soifer, the Vedic legend has many parallels with the Narasimha legend, it has the same plot, the same "neither-nor" constraints, and the same creative spirit that allows the good to vanquish the evil. Further, the Sanskrit words and phrasing such as "neither palm nor fist" and "neither day nor night" in the later Hindu texts is the same as in the Vedic texts. This suggests a link and continuity between the Vedic Namuci legend and the later Narasimha legend in the Puranas. According to Walter Ruben, both versions along with several other legends in ancient and medieval texts reflect the Indian tradition against despots and tyrants who abuse power.


title: Narasimha

text: There are references to Narasiṃha in a variety of Purāṇas, with 17 different versions of the main narrative. The Valmiki Ramayana (7.24), Harivaṃśa (41 & 3.41-47), "Viṣṇu Purāṇa" (1.16-20), "Bhagavata Purāṇa" (Canto 7), Agni Purāṇa (4.2-3), Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa(2.5.3-29), Vayu Purāṇa (67.61-66), Brahma-Purāṇa (213.44-79), Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa(1.54), Kūrma Purāṇa (1.15.18-72), Matsya Purāṇa(161-163), Padma Purāṇa(Uttara-khaṇḍa 5.42), Śiva Purāṇa (2.5.43 & 3.10-12), "Linga Purana" (1.95-96) and Skanda Purāṇa 7 (2.18.60-130) all contain depictions of the Narasiṃha Avatāra. In all these Puranas, Narasimha is described as the God of Destruction, who does destruction at the time of Pralaya or Yuganta and described as Kala. Narasimha is also described as having three eyes just like Shiva and does destruction with fire coming from his third eye.


title: Narasimha

text: The Bhagavata Purāṇa describes that Vishnu, in his previous avatar as Varāha, killed the evil asura Hiraṇayakṣa. The older brother of Hirṇayakṣa, demon king Hiraṇyakaśipu, hated Vishnu and wanted revenge. He undertook many years of austere penance to gain special powers. Thereafter, Brahma offered Hiraṇyakaśipu a boon. Hiraṇyakaśipu asked, "Grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at night, nor on the ground or in the sky. Grant me that my death not be brought about by any weapon, nor by any human being or animal. Grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving created by you. Grant me, further, that I not be killed by any demigod or demon or by any great snake from the lower planets." Brahma granted him the boon, and Hiraṇyakaśipu gained these powers.


title: Narasimha

text: Hiraṇyakaśipu, once powerful and invincible with the new boon, began to persecute those who were devotees of Vishnu. Hiraṇyakaśipu had a son, Prahlāda, who disagreed and rebelled against his father. Prahlāda became a devotee of Vishnu. This angered Hiraṇyakaśipu, who tried to kill the boy—but with each attempt, Prahlāda was protected by Viṣṇu's mystical power. When asked, Prahlāda refused to acknowledge his father as the supreme lord of the universe and claimed that Viṣṇu is all-pervading and omnipresent.


title: Narasimha

text: Hiraṇyakaśipu pointed to a nearby pillar and asked if 'his Viṣṇu' is in it and said to his son Prahlāda, "O most unfortunate Prahlāda, you have always described a supreme being other than me, a supreme being who is above everything, who is the controller of everyone, and who is all-pervading. But where is He? If He is everywhere, then why is He not present before me in this pillar?" Prahlāda then answered, "He was, He is and He will be."


title: Narasimha

text: In an alternate version of the story, Prahlāda answered,"He is in pillars, and he is in the smallest twig".


title: Narasimha

text: Hiraṇyakaśipu, unable to control his anger, smashed the pillar with his mace, and following a tumultuous sound, Viṣṇu in the form of Narasiṃha appeared from it and moved to attack Hiraṇyakaśipu in defense of Prahlāda. In order to kill Hiraṇyakaśipu and not upset the boon given by Brahma, the form of Narasiṃha was chosen. Hiraṇyakaśipu could not be killed by human, deva or animal. Narasiṃha was none of these, as he is a form of Viṣṇu incarnate as a part-human, part-animal. He came upon Hiraṇyakaśipu at twilight (when it is neither day nor night) on the threshold of a courtyard (neither indoors nor out), and put the demon on his thighs (neither earth nor space). Using his sharp fingernails (neither animate nor inanimate) as weapons, he disemboweled and killed the demon king.


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha was in rage and seeing this, Lord Brahma sent Prahlad to pacify him. Prahlad sang hymns and the 'Ugra' Narasimha now became peaceful 'Soumya' or 'Shant' Narasimha.


title: Narasimha

text: The Kūrma Purāṇa describes the preceding battle between the Puruṣa and demonic forces in which he escapes a powerful weapon called Paśupāta. According to Soifer, it describes how Prahlāda's brothers headed by Anuhrāda and thousands of other demons "were led to the valley of death (yamalayam) by the lion produced from the body of man-lion". The same episode occurs in the "Matsya Purāṇa" 179, several chapters after its version of the Narasiṃha advent.


title: Narasimha

text: In an alternate version, the Shaiva scriptures narrate that god Shiva assumed the Avatar (incarnation) of Sharabha to pacify Narasimha afterwards when he started to threaten the world violently.The "Shiva Purana" mentions: After slaying Hiranyakashipu, Narasimha's wrath threatened the world. At the behest of the gods, Shiva sent Virabhadra to tackle Narasimha. When that failed, Shiva manifested as Sharabha. Sharabha then attacked Narasimha, defeated and immobilized him. Narasimha then brought forth Gandaberunda, for which Lord Sarabeshwara released goddess Pratyangira from one of his wings while goddess Shoolini being the other wing. The Gandabherunda destroyed the form of Goddess , while Narasimha pacified Shiva. Adi Shankaracharya refutes the sectarian Sharabha story and refers to this as 356th name of Vishnu Sahasranama as not mentioning the lion-killing animal at all and instead interprets the name to mean, "As the Lord shines in the body as the indwelling Self, He is called Sharabha, while the body is sara (perishable)."


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha is always shown with a lion face with clawed fingers fused with a human body. Sometimes he is coming out of a pillar signifying that he is everywhere, in everything, in everyone. Some temples such as at Ahobilam, Andhra Pradesh, the iconography is more extensive, and includes nine other icons of Narasimha:


title: Narasimha

text: The earliest known iconography of Narasimha is variously dated to between the 2nd and the 4th-century CE, and these have been found in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. Most images and temples of Narasimha are found in the peninsular region of India, but important ancient and medieval archeological sites containing Narasimha icons are also found as Vaikuntha Chaturmurti in Kashmir and Khajuraho temples, while single face versions are found in Garhwa and Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and in Ellora Caves (Maharashtra). Other major temples with notable icons of Narasimha are found in Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the Vijayanagara Empire ruins in Karnataka. Some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples, such as those found in Tigawa and Eran (Madhya Pradesh), dated to early 5th-century, include Narasimha along with other avatars of Vishnu. The Thuravoor Temple is the most important shrine to Narasimha in Kerala; the form of Narasimha there is known as "Vaṭakanappan".


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha is a significant iconic symbol of creative resistance, hope against odds, victory over persecution, and destruction of evil. He is the destructor of not only external evil, but also one's own inner evil of "body, speech, and mind" states Pratapaditya Pal.


title: Narasimha

text: In South Indian art – sculptures, bronzes and paintings – Viṣṇu's incarnation as Narasiṃha is one of the most chosen themes and amongst Avatāras perhaps next only to Rāma and Kṛṣṇa in popularity.


title: Narasimha

text: Narasimha is worshipped across Telangana and Andhra Pradesh States in numerous forms. Although, it is common that each of the temples contain depictions of Narasimha in more than one form, Ahobilam contains nine temples of Narasimha dedicated to the nine forms of Narasimha. It is also notable that the central aspect of Narasimha incarnation is killing the demon Hiranyakasipu, but that image of Narasimha is not commonly worshipped in temples, although it is depicted.


title: Narasimha

text: The Narasimha legend was influential by the 5th-century, when various Gupta Empire kings minted coins with his images or sponsored inscriptions that associated the ethos of Narasimha with their own. The kings thus legitimized their rule as someone like Narasimha who fights evil and persecution. Some of the coins of the Kushan era show Narasimha-like images, suggesting possible influence.


title: Narasimha

text: Some of the oldest Narasimha terracotta artworks have been dated to about the 2nd century CE, such as those discovered in Kausambi. A nearly complete, exquisitely carved standing Narasimha statue, wearing a "pancha", with personified attributes near him has been found at the Mathura archeological site and is dated to the 6th century.


title: Narasimha

text: The Narasimha legends have been a part of various Indian classical dance repertoire. For example, Kathakali theatre has included the Narasimha-Hiranyakasipu battle storyline, and adaptations of "Prahlada Caritam" with Narasimha has been one of the popular performances in Kerala. Similarly, the Bhagavata Mela dance-drama performance arts of Tamil Nadu traditionally celebrate the annual Narasimha jayanti festival by performing the story within regional Narasimha temples.


title: Narasimha

text: In Andhra Pradesh, a panel dating to third-fourth century AD shows a full theriomorphic squatting lion with two extra human arms behind his shoulders holding Vaiṣṇava emblems. This lion, flanked by five heroes ("vīra"), often has been identified as an early depiction of Narasiṃha. Standing cult images of Narasiṃha from the early Gupta period, survive from temples at Tigowa and Eran. These sculptures are two-armed, long maned, frontal, wearing only a lower garment, and with no demon-figure of Hiraṇyakaśipu. Images representing the narrative of Narasiṃha slaying the demon Hiraṇyakaśipu survive from slightly later Gupta-period temples: one at Madhia and one from a temple-doorway now set into the Kūrma-maṭha at Nachna, both dated to the late fifth or early sixth century A.D.


title: Narasimha

text: An image of Narasiṃha supposedly dating to second-third century AD sculpted at Mathura was acquired by the Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1987. It was described by Stella Kramrisch, the former Philadelphia Museum of Art's Indian curator, as ""perhaps the earliest image of Narasiṃha as yet known"". This figure depicts a furled brow, fangs, and lolling tongue similar to later images of Narasiṃha, but the idol's robe, simplicity, and stance set it apart. On Narasiṃha's chest under his upper garment appears the suggestion of an amulet, which Stella Kramrisch associated with Visnu's cognizance, the Kauṣtubha jewel. This upper garment flows over both shoulders; but below Hiranyakasipu, the demon-figure placed horizontally across Narasiṃha's body, a twisted waist-band suggests a separate garment covering the legs. The demon's hair streams behind him, cushioning his head against the man-lion's right knee. He wears a simple single strand of beads. His body seems relaxed, even pliant. His face is calm, with a slight suggestion of a smile. His eyes stare adoringly up at the face of Viṣṇu. There is little tension in this figure's legs or feet, even as Narasiṃha gently disembowels him. His innards spill along his right side. As the Matsya purana describes it, Narasiṃha ripped "apart the mighty Daitya chief as a plaiter of straw mats shreds his reeds". Based on the Gandhara-style of robe worn by the idol, Michael Meiste altered the date of the image to fourth century AD.


title: Narasimha

text: An image of Narasiṃha, dating to the 9th century, was found on the northern slope of Mount Ijo, at Prambanan, Indonesia. Images of Trivikrama and Varāha avatāras were also found at Prambanan, Indonesia. Viṣṇu and His avatāra images follow iconographic peculiarities characteristic of the art of central Java. This includes physiognomy of central Java, an exaggerated volume of garment, and some elaboration of the jewelry. This decorative scheme once formulated became, with very little modification, an accepted norm for sculptures throughout the Central Javanese period (circa 730–930 A.D.). Despite the iconographic peculiarities, the stylistic antecedents of the Java sculptures can be traced back to Indian carvings as the Chalukya and Pallava images of the 6th–7th centuries AD.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: "I Don't Like Mondays" is a song by Irish new wave group the Boomtown Rats about the 1979 Cleveland Elementary School shooting in San Diego. It was released in 1979 as the lead single from their third album, "The Fine Art of Surfacing". The song was a number-one single in the UK Singles Chart for four weeks during the summer of 1979, and ranks as the sixth-biggest hit of the UK in 1979. Written by Bob Geldof and Johnnie Fingers, the piano ballad was the band's second single to reach number one on the UK chart.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: According to Geldof, he wrote the song after reading a telex report at Georgia State University's campus radio station, WRAS, on the shooting spree of 16-year-old Brenda Ann Spencer, who fired at children in a school playground at Grover Cleveland Elementary School in San Diego, California, on 29 January 1979, killing two adults and injuring eight children and one police officer. Spencer showed no remorse for her crime; her explanation for her actions was "I don't like Mondays. This livens up the day". Geldof had been contacted by Steve Jobs to play a gig for Apple, inspiring the opening line about a "silicon chip". The song was first performed less than a month later.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: I was doing a radio interview in Atlanta with Johnnie Fingers and there was a telex machine beside me. I read it as it came out. Not liking Mondays as a reason for doing somebody in is a bit strange. I was thinking about it on the way back to the hotel and I just said 'silicon chip inside her head had switched to overload'. I wrote that down. And the journalists interviewing her said, 'Tell me why?' It was such a senseless act. It was the perfect senseless act and this was the perfect senseless reason for doing it. So perhaps I wrote the perfect senseless song to illustrate it. It wasn't an attempt to exploit tragedy.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: Geldof had originally intended the song as a B-side, but changed his mind after the song was successful with audiences on the Rats' US tour. Spencer's family tried to prevent the single from being released in the United States, but were unsuccessful.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: In later years, Geldof admitted that he regretted writing the song because he "made Brenda Spencer famous".


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: In 2019 Bob Geldof and Johnnie Fingers reached an agreement in their dispute over who wrote the song, until then credited solely to Geldof. Fingers received a financial settlement and co-credit.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: Despite reaching number-one in the United Kingdom, it only reached number 73 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: In the UK the song won the Best Pop Song and Outstanding British Lyric categories at the Ivor Novello Awards.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: On 9 September 1981, Geldof was joined on stage by fellow Boomtown Rat Johnnie Fingers to perform the song for The Secret Policeman's Ball sponsored by Amnesty International. A recording of that performance appears on the 1982 album "The Secret Policeman's Other Ball".


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: The Boomtown Rats performed the song for Live Aid at Wembley Stadium in 1985. This was the band's final major appearance. On singing the line, "And the lesson today is how to die", Geldof paused for 20 seconds while the crowd applauded the significance to those starving in Africa that Live Aid was intended to help.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: At a concert in London in 1995, almost ten years later to the day, Bon Jovi covered the song after being joined on stage by Geldof at Wembley Stadium. This recorded performance features on Bon Jovi's live album "One Wild Night Live 1985–2001", as well as on the bonus 2-CD edition of "These Days". Bon Jovi was again joined by Geldof for a performance of the song at The O2 Arena on 23 June 2010, the 10th night of their 12-night residency. Geldof himself performed a version of the song while hosting the Live 8 concert in London, on 2 July 2005.


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: "I Don't Like Mondays" was subsequently covered by Tori Amos on her 2001 album "Strange Little Girls" and later by G4 on their 2006 album "Act Three".


title: I Don't Like Mondays

text: A music video directed by David Mallet was used to promote the song. The video begins with the Boomtown Rats performing in a choir with children in the pews miming the chorus ("Tell Me Why?"). It then cuts to a family living room with the daughter just coming back from school but here the chorus is mimed by the other three band members to lead singer Bob Geldof. It then transitions to a soft piano fill with Geldof in front of a white background wearing sunglasses singing the final verse of the single version. After the line "And the lesson today is how to die" a series of jump cuts of Geldof quickly appear before he sings the last few lines. Afterwards the final chorus is presented this time mimed with the same children from the beginning. The clip ends with the Boomtown Rats looking at a chroma key image of a house in a grassy plain.


title: Cannabis indica

text: Cannabis indica is an annual plant species in the family Cannabaceae which produces large amounts of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and is cultivated for purposes including hashish in India. The high concentrations of THC provide euphoric effects making it popular for use both as a recreational drug, alternative medicine, and a clinical research drug.


title: Cannabis indica

text: In 1785, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a description of a second species of "Cannabis", which he named "Cannabis indica". Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. Richard Evans Schultes described "C. indica" as relatively short, conical, and densely branched, whereas "C. sativa" was described as tall and laxly branched. Loran C. Anderson described "C. indica" plants as having short, broad leaflets whereas those of "C. sativa" were characterized as relatively long and narrow. "C. indica" plants conforming to Schultes's and Anderson's descriptions originated from the Hindu Kush mountain range. Because of the often harsh and variable climate of those parts (extremely cold winters and warm summers), "C. indica" is well-suited for cultivation in temperate climates.


title: Cannabis indica

text: The specific epithet "indica" is Latin for "of India" and has come to be synonymous with the cannabis strain.


title: Cannabis indica

text: There was very little debate about the taxonomy of "Cannabis" until the 1970s, when botanists like Richard Evans Schultes began testifying in court on behalf of accused persons who sought to avoid criminal charges of possession of "C. sativa" by arguing that the plant material could instead be "C. indica".


title: Cannabis indica

text: Broad-leafed "C. indica" plants in the Indian Subcontinent are traditionally cultivated for the production of charas, a form of hashish. Pharmacologically, "C. indica" landraces tend to have higher THC content than "C. sativa" strains. Some users report more of a "stoned" feeling and less of a "high" from "C. indica" when compared to "C. sativa". (The terms "sativa" and "indica", used in this sense, are more appropriately termed "narrow-leaflet" and "wide-leaflet" drug type, respectively.) The "C. indica" high is often referred to as a "body buzz" and has beneficial properties such as pain relief in addition to being an effective treatment for insomnia and an anxiolytic, as opposed to "C. sativa"'s more common reports of a cerebral, creative and energetic high, and even (albeit rarely) including hallucinations. Differences in the terpenoid content of the essential oil may account for some of these differences in effect. Common "C. indica" strains for recreational or medicinal use include Kush and Northern Lights.


title: Cannabis indica

text: A recent genetic analysis included both the narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug "biotypes" under "C. indica", as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp (fiber/seed) landraces and wild Himalayan populations.


title: Cannabis indica

text: In 2011, a team of Canadian researchers led by Andrew Sud announced that they had sequenced a draft genome of the Purple Kush strain of "C. indica".


title: Pandava

text: The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, IAST: Pāṇḍava) refers to the five legendary brothers— Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva—who are the central characters of the Hindu epic "Mahabharata". They are acknowledged as the sons of Pandu, the King of Kuru, but were fathered by different "Devas" (gods) due to Pandu's inability to naturally conceive children. In the epic, the Pandavas married Draupadi, the princess of Panchala, and founded the city of Indraprastha after the Kuru Kingdom was split to avoid succession disputes. After their paternal cousins the Kauravas—led by Duryodhana—tricked them into surrendering their kingdom and refused to return it, the Pandavas waged a civil war against their extended family, and this conflict was known as the Kurukshetra War. With the help of the god Krishna, the Pandavas eventually won the war with the death of the Kauravas, albeit at great cost.


title: Pandava

text: The word "Pandava" (, ) is derived from their father's name, "Pandu" (, ) and means "descendants of Pandu". Other epithets given to the Pandavas are:


title: Pandava

text: The Pandava brothers were collectively married to Draupadi. In the Section 268 of "Vana Parva" of the epic, Draupadi describes the appearance of the Pandavas to Jayadratha after she is abducted by him and the Pandavas pursuit them.


title: Pandava

text: According to the "Adi Parva" of the epic, Pandu was crowned as the king of the Kuru Kingdom despite being younger than his elder brother Dhritrashtra, who was denied the throne for being blind. He married Kunti, a princess of the Yadu clan, and Madri, the princess of Madra Kingdom. Once he was hunting in a forest when he shot a copulating pair of deer. However, they turn out to be a sage named Kindama and his wife, who had used their divine powers to take the form of the animals. Enraged, Kindama berated the king for having killed him before he had finished the act of mating and before dying, he cursed Pandu that he would die the moment he touched his wife intending to make love. After the event Pandu voluntarily renounced royal life as penance, leaving the Kingdom under Dhritarashtra. Kunti and Madri accompanied Pandu and together they lived in a forest.


title: Pandava

text: Before her marriage, Kunti was blessed with a boon by the sage Durvasa, that she could have a son by any god whom she respects without having any marital affair. After Pandu got to know about this, he requested her to perform "Niyoga" and bore him sons using the boon. The first three of the Pandavas were the sons of Kunti, while the younger two were born to Madri after Kunti shared her mantra with her at Pandu's request. The divine fathers of the Pandavas were:


title: Pandava

text: A few years later after the birth of the Pandavas, Pandu died after trying to have a union with Madri and the latter immolated herself out of remorse. Kunti brought the Pandavas back to Hastinapura, the capital of Kuru, and they were raised together with their cousins, the Kauravas, who were the hundred sons of Dhritrashtra. The Pandavas were guided and taught by Bhishma, Vidura and Kripa.


title: Pandava

text: Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas, refused to accept the Pandavas as his cousins. This usually led to much tension between the cousins. Insecure and jealous, Duryodhana harbored an intense hatred for the five brothers throughout his childhood and youth and following the advice of his maternal uncle Shakuni, often plotted to get rid of them to clear his path to the lordship of the Kuru Dynasty.


title: Pandava

text: This plotting took a grave turn when Dhritarashtra had to relent to the will of the masses and rightfully appointed his nephew Yudhishthira as crown prince. This went against the personal ambitions of both father and son (Dhritarashtra and Duryodhana) and drove Duryodhana into such a rage that he enthusiastically agreed to an evil ploy by Shakuni to murder Yudhishthira. Shakuni commissioned the construction of a palace in Varnavart, secretly built by incorporating flammable materials like oil, ghee etc. into the structure, most notably the lacquer known as lac. This palace was known as Lakshagraha. Duryodhana then successfully lobbied Dhritarashtra to send Yudhishthira to represent the royal household in Varnavarta during the celebrations of Shiva Mahotsava. The plan was to set the palace on fire during the night while Yudhishthira would likely be asleep. Yudhishthira left for Varnavrata, accompanied by his four brothers and their mother Kunti. The plan was discovered by their paternal uncle Vidura, who was very loyal to them and an extraordinarily wise man. In addition, Yudhishthira had been forewarned about this plot by a hermit who came to him and spoke of an imminent disaster. Vidura arranged for a tunnel to be secretly built for the Pandavs to safely escape the palace as it was set afire.


title: Pandava

text: The Pandavas had polyandrous marriage with Draupadi, the princess of Panchala Kingdom who was prophesied to bring the end of the Kauravas. The "Adi Parva" narrates that after their flight from the palace, the five brothers lived in the forests for some time disguised as Brahmins. They heard from a group of travelling sages about a contest (Svayamvara) being held in the Kingdom of Panchala that offered Draupadi's hand in marriage to the winner. The Svayamvara turned out to rely on the skills of archery, and Arjuna, who was a peerless archer, entered the competition and won. When the brothers took Draupadi to introduce her to their mother, they jokingly announced to Kunti that they had arrived with excellent alms. Kunti was busy with some work and replied without turning to look at Draupadi (who the alms referred to) ordering the brothers to share the alms equally amongst the five of them. Even when uttered erroneously, their mother's word was supreme for the Pandavas, and they agreed to share the princess, who was subsequently married to all five brothers. To prevent jealousy among the brothers and identify the paternity of Draupadi's children, the Pandavas followed a condition in which one brother was given a year with her and others were forbidden to enter her chamber. If the condition was violated, the brother, who entered the room, had to go on a pilgrimage for a year. Arjuna was the only one to violate this condition.


title: Pandava

text: Each Pandava had a son with Draupadi and they were collectively referred to as Upapandavas; their names were Prativindhya (fathered by Yudhishthira), Sutasoma (fathered by Bhima), Shrutakarma (fathered by Arjuna), Shatanika ( fathered by Nakula), and Shrutasena (fathered by Sahadeva).


title: Pandava

text: When Dhritarashtra heard that the five brothers were alive, he invited them back to the kingdom. However, in their absence, Duryodhana had succeeded in being made the crown prince. Upon the return of the Pandavas, the issue of returning Yudhishthira's crown to him was raised. Dhritarashtra led the subsequent discussions into ambiguity and agreed to a partition of the kingdom "to do justice to both crown princes". He retained the developed Hastinapura for himself and Duryodhana and gave the barren, arid and hostile lands of Khandavaprastha to the Pandavas. The Pandavas successfully developed their land and built a great and lavish city, which was considered comparable to the heavens, and thus came to be known as Indraprastha.


title: Pandava

text: Reeling under the loss of half the lands of his future kingdom, Duryodhana's jealousy and rage were further fuelled by the Pandavas' success and prosperity. Eventually Shakuni sired yet another plot and got Duryodhana to invite the Pandavas over to his court for a game of dice (gambling). Shakuni was a master at gambling and owned a pair of dice which magically did his bidding. Owing to this, bet after bet, Yudhishthira lost all of his wealth, and eventually his kingdom, in the game. He was then enticed by Duryodhana and Shakuni to place his brothers as bets. Yudhishthira fell for it and put his brothers at stake, losing them too. He then placed himself as a bet and lost again. Duryodhana now played another trick and told Yudhishthira that he still had his wife Draupadi to place as a bet and if Yudhishthira won, he would return everything to the Pandavas. Yudhishthira fell for the ruse and bet Draupadi, losing her too. At this point, Duryodhana ordered that Draupadi, who was now a slave to him, be brought to the court. None of the Pandavas fought for their wife's honour. Duryodhana's younger brother Dushasana dragged Draupadi to the royal court, pulling her by her hair, insulting her dignity and asserting that she, like the Pandava brothers, was now their servant. This caused immense anguish to all the great warriors seated in the court, but each of them, namely, Bhishma (grandsire of the clan), Dronacharya (teacher/guru of Kauravas and Pandavas) and Kripacharya except Vidura remained silent. Duryodhana then ordered Dushasana to disrobe Draupadi before everyone, as a slave girl has no rights. The elders and warriors in the audience were shocked but did not intervene. As Dushasana began to disrobe her, she prayed to Krishna to protect her honour. Krishna, using his divine powers, protected her by providing her garments with an unending length. Dushasana, shocked and tired, gave up on disrobing Draupadi. Finally, as the blind king Dhritarashtra realized that this humiliation could prompt Draupadi to curse his sons, he intervened, apologizing to Draupadi for the behaviour of his sons, and turned the winnings of the dice game back over to the Pandava brothers, releasing them from the bondage of slavery.


title: Pandava

text: Incensed at the loss of all that he had won, Duryodhana threatened suicide and coerced his father into inviting the Pandavas for one last round of gambling, the terms of which were that the loser would be condemned to 12 years of exile into forests and a 13th year to be spent incognito, and if the cover is blown during the 13th year, another cycle of 13 years would ensue. Obeying their uncle's orders, the Pandavas played the round and again lost to Shakuni's cheating. However, this time, their patience had been nearly pushed to its edge.


title: Pandava

text: During the 12 years of exile in the forest, they prepared for war. Arjuna performed penance and won the entire gamut of celestial weapons (Divyastras) as boons from the Gods. They spent the 13th year masquerading as peasants in the service of the royal family of Virata, the king of Matsya. Upon completion of the terms of the last bet, the Pandavas returned and demanded that their kingdom be rightfully returned to them. Duryodhana refused to yield Indraprastha. For the sake of peace and to avert a disastrous war, Krishna proposed that if Hastinapura agrees to give the Pandavas only five villages named Indraprastha (Delhi), Swarnprastha (Sonipat), Panprastha (Panipat), Vyaghrprastha (Baghpat) and Tilprastha (Tilpat) if these five villages given they would be satisfied and would make no more demands. Duryodhana vehemently refused, commenting that he would not part even with land as much as the point of a needle. Thus the stage was set for the great war, for which the epic of Mahabharata is known most of all.


title: Pandava

text: The war was intense and lasted 18 days, over the course of which both parties worked around, bent and even broke rules of warfare. In the end, all 100 Kaurava brothers and their entire army was slain, with only three surviving on their side. The Pandavas too lost several allies but the five brothers survived. After having won the war, Yudhishthira was crowned the king.


title: Pandava

text: At the end of the war, only 10 survived the war on both sides, namely Ashwatthama, Kripacharya and Kritverma on the Kaurava side and the five Pandavas, Krishna and Saatyakee on the Pandava side.


title: Pandava

text: The Pandavas ruled Hastinapura for 36 years and established a righteous kingdom. Shortly after Krishna left the Earth, they all decided that the time had come for them to renounce the world, as the age of "Kali Yuga" had started.


title: Pandava

text: So the five Pandavas and Draupadi left to the path of liberation. For this purpose, they all climbed Mount Kailash, which leads to the Swarga Loka. On their way, all except Yudhisthira slipped and died one by one. Yudhisthira was accompanied by a dog who was none other than God Yama himself.


title: Pandava

text: The first to die was Draupadi; she was imperfect because she loved Arjuna more than her other husbands. Then it was Sahadeva, imperfect because he was overconfident about his knowledge in science. He was followed by Nakula, imperfect because he was over-enthusiastic about his good looks. Then fell Arjuna, imperfect because he was proud of his skills- he challenged Hanuman and Shiva. Next was Bhima, imperfect because he killed his enemies brutally- thus enjoyed their sufferings. Only the eldest Pandava, Yudhisthira, reached the door of Svarga Loka (heaven), carried on Indra's chariot. On reaching Heaven, he did not find either his virtuous brothers or his wife Draupadi. Instead, he finds Duryodhana sitting on a divine throne.


title: Pandava

text: He wanted an explanation from Yama, the lord of death. Yama explained that the Kauravas had been allowed into heaven because they died as warriors on the battlefield. This earned them so much merit and credit that it wiped out all their debts. Yudhisthira demanded to know where his brothers and his wife were. He was then taken to hell. Yama explained that they were experiencing the reactions of their actions but it was temporary. Once the debt had been repaid, they would join them in Swarga. Yudhisthira loyally met his brothers, but the sight and sound of gore and blood horrified him. Though initially he was tempted to flee, he mastered himself and remained after hearing the voices of his beloved brothers and Draupadi calling out to him, asking him to stay with them in their misery. Yudhisthira decided to remain, ordering the divine charioteer to return. He preferred to live in hell with good people than in the heaven of his enemies. Eventually, this turned out to be another illusion to test him. Yama explained to Yudhishtira that it was all illusion created by Yama himself. It was a punishment to Yudhishtira to feel sad and soak tears on seeing his beloved ones being punished. It was because Drona felt sad on hearing fake news that his son was dead. Yudhishtira told the message incompletely due to which Drona felt sad and cried in grief. Because of this, Yudhishtira had to feel sad in a similar manner. Hence Yama created this illusion. In reality, Pandavas and Draupadi reached heaven just after their deaths. Yama explained everything and Yudhishtira reached heaven with his mortal body.Pandavas were the incarnation of previous Indra's. After the Duration, the lifespan of Indra, is completed Krishna assures Pandavas of offering them Moksha for their Devotion and purity.


title: Pandava

text: Krishna, being a well-wisher of the Pandavas, helped them in various ways during the time of their ordeals. When the Kurukshetra war was going to be held, both Arjuna on behalf of the Pandavas, and Duryodhana on behalf of the Kauravas, went to Krishna to seek help.


title: Pandava

text: Duryodhana reached first and Arjuna was just behind him. They entered Krishna's room and found him sleeping. Duryodhana sat on a raised chair near Krishna's head and Arjuna sat near Krishna's feet closing his hands.


title: Pandava

text: When Krishna woke up, he saw Arjuna first and asked him about the purpose of his visit. Then he found Duryodhana sitting next to him, and asked him the same question. Krishna was then told that war was going to be held and Arjuna and Duryodhana had come to him seeking his military help. To this Krishna replied that he had seen Arjuna first and so he would give him priority, and asked what he needed. He gave Arjuna two options - either his one lakh fit and healthy army or Krishna himself who shall not fight in the war. To this Arjuna immediately opted for Krishna for his help and thus Duryodhana was given Krishna's one lakh army. Duryodhana was very satisfied to have received a huge army.


title: Pandava

text: Harivamsa Purana (8th century CE) narrates the Jain version of their story. In the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, there has been a long tradition of villagers performing the "Pandav Lila", a ritual re-enactment of episodes from the "Mahabharata" through singing, dancing and recitation. In the performance, the actors spontaneously break into a dance when, it is believed, they become "possessed" by the spirits of their characters.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Parasaurolophus (; meaning "near crested lizard" in reference to "Saurolophus)" is a genus of herbivorous hadrosaurid ornithopod dinosaur that lived in what is now North America and possibly Asia during the Late Cretaceous Period, about 76.5–73 million years ago. It was a herbivore that walked both as a biped and as a quadruped. Three species are universally recognized: P. walkeri (the type species), P. tubicen, and the short-crested P. cyrtocristatus. Additionally, a fourth species, "P. jiayinensis", has been proposed, although it is more commonly placed in the separate genus "Charonosaurus". Remains are known from Alberta (Canada), New Mexico and Utah (United States), and possibly Heilongjiang (China). The genus was first described in 1922 by William Parks from a skull and partial skeleton found in Alberta.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus" was a hadrosaurid, part of a diverse family of Cretaceous dinosaurs known for their range of bizarre head adornments which were likely used for communication and better hearing. This genus is known for its large, elaborate cranial crest, which at its largest forms a long curved tube projecting upwards and back from the skull. "Charonosaurus" from China, which may have been its closest relative, had a similar skull and potentially a similar crest. Visual recognition of both species and sex, acoustic resonance, and thermoregulation have been proposed as functional explanations for the crest. It is one of the rarer hadrosaurids, known from only a handful of good specimens.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Meaning "near crested lizard", the name "Parasaurolophus" is derived from the Greek "para"/παρα "beside" or "near", "saurus"/ "lizard" and "lophos"/λοφος "crest". It is based on ROM 768, a skull and partial skeleton missing most of the tail and the hind legs below the knees, which was found by a field party from the University of Toronto in 1920 near Sand Creek along the Red Deer River in Alberta, Canada. These rocks are now known as the Campanian-age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation. William Parks named the specimen "P. walkeri" in honor of Sir Byron Edmund Walker, chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Royal Ontario Museum. "Parasaurolophus" remains are rare in Alberta, with only one other partial skull from (probably) the Dinosaur Park Formation, and three Dinosaur Park specimens lacking skulls, possibly belonging to the genus. In some faunal lists, there is a mention of possible "P. walkeri" material in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana, a rock unit of late Maastrichtian age. This occurrence is not noted by Sullivan and Williamson in their 1999 review of the genus, and has not been further elaborated upon elsewhere.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: In 1921, Charles H. Sternberg recovered a partial skull (PMU.R1250) from what is now known as the slightly younger Kirtland Formation in San Juan County, New Mexico. This specimen was sent to Uppsala, Sweden, where Carl Wiman described it as a second species, "P. tubicen", in 1931. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin "tǔbǐcěn" "trumpeter". A second, nearly complete "P. tubicen" skull (NMMNH P-25100) was found in New Mexico in 1995. Using computed tomography of this skull, Robert Sullivan and Thomas Williamson gave the genus a monographic treatment in 1999, covering aspects of its anatomy and taxonomy, and the functions of its crest. Williamson later published an independent review of the remains, disagreeing with the taxonomic conclusions.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: John Ostrom described another good specimen (FMNH P27393) from New Mexico as "P. cyrtocristatus" in 1961. It includes a partial skull with a short, rounded crest, and much of the postcranial skeleton except for the feet, neck, and parts of the tail. Its specific name is derived from the Latin "curtus" "shortened" and "cristatus" "crested". The specimen was found in either the top of the Fruitland Formation or, more likely, the base of the overlying Kirtland Formation. The range of this species was in 1979, when David B. Weishampel and James A. Jensen described a partial skull with a similar crest (BYU 2467) from the Campanian-age Kaiparowits Formation of Garfield County, Utah. Since then, another skull has been found in Utah with the short/round "P. cyrtocristatus" crest morphology.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus" is known from three certain species, "P. walkeri", "P. tubicen", and "P. cyrtocristatus". All of them can be distinguished from each other, and have many differences. The first named species, therefore the type, is "P. walkeri". One certain specimen, from the Dinosaur Park Formation is referred to it, but many more are almost certainly referable. Like stated above, it is different from the other two species, with it having a simpler internal structure than "P. tubicen", a straighter crest and different internal structuring than "P. cyrtocristatus".


title: Parasaurolophus

text: The next named species is "P. tubicen", which is the largest of the "Parasaurolophus" species. It lived in New Mexico, where three specimens are known, and can be differentiated from its other species. It possesses a long and straight crest, with a very complex interior compared to the other species. All known specimens of "P. tubicen" come from the De-Na-Zin Member of the Kirtland Formation.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: In 1961, the third species, "P. cyrtocristatus" was named by John Ostrom. Its three known specimens, have been found in the Fruitland and Kaiparowits formations from Utah and New Mexico. The second specimen, the first known from the Kaiparowits Formation, was originally unassigned to a specific taxon. Of the "Parasaurolophus" species, "P. cyrtocristatus" is the smallest, and has the most curved crest. Because of its possession of the two above features, it has often been speculated that it was a female of "P. walkeri" or "P. tubicen", which were males, although "P. tubicen" lived approximately a million years later. As noted by Thomas Williamson, the type material of "P. cyrtocristatus" is about 72% the size of "P. tubicen", close to the size at which other lambeosaurines are interpreted to begin showing definitive sexual dimorphism in their crests (~70% of adult size). Even though many scientists have supported the possible fact of "P. cyrtocristatus" being a female, many other studies have found that it is not, because of the differences in age, distribution, and the large differences in the crest and its internal structure.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: A study published in "PLoS ONE" in 2014 found that one more species could be referred to "Parasaurolophus". This study, led by Xing, found "Charonosaurus jiayensis" was actually nested deeply inside "Parasaurolophus", which created the new species "P. jiayensis". If this species is indeed inside "Parasaurolophus", then the genus lasted until the K-Pg extinction, and is known from two continents.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Like most dinosaurs, the skeleton of "Parasaurolophus" is incompletely known. The length of the type specimen of "P. walkeri" is estimated at , and its body mass is estimated at according to Gregory S. Paul. Allometry-based body mass estimate indicates that it reached more than in body mass. Its skull is about long, including the crest, whereas the type skull of "P. tubicen" is over long, indicating a larger animal. Its single known forelimb was relatively short for a hadrosaurid, with a short but wide shoulder blade. The thighbone measures long in "P. walkeri" and is robust for its length when compared to other hadrosaurids. The upper arm and pelvic bones were also heavily built.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Like other hadrosaurids, it was able to walk on either two legs or four. It probably preferred to forage for food on four legs, but ran on two. The neural spines of the vertebrae were tall, as was common in lambeosaurines; tallest over the hips, they increased the height of the back. Skin impressions are known for "P. walkeri", showing uniform tubercle-like scales but no larger structures.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: The most noticeable feature was the cranial crest, which protruded from the rear of the head and was made up of the premaxilla and nasal bones. The crest was hollow, with distinct tubes leading from each nostril to the end of the crest before reversing direction and heading back down the crest and into the skull. The tubes were simplest in "P. walkeri", and more complex in "P. tubicen", where some tubes were blind and others met and separated. While "P. walkeri" and "P. tubicen" had long crests with only slight curvature, "P. cyrtocristatus" had a short crest with a more circular profile.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: As its name implies, "Parasaurolophus" was initially thought to be closely related to "Saurolophus" because of its superficially similar crest. However, it was soon reassessed as a member of the lambeosaurine subfamily of hadrosaurids—"Saurolophus" is a hadrosaurine. It is usually interpreted as a separate offshoot of the lambeosaurines, distinct from the helmet-crested "Corythosaurus", "Hypacrosaurus", and "Lambeosaurus". Its closest known relative appears to be "Charonosaurus", a lambeosaurine with a similar skull (but no complete crest yet) from the Amur region of northeastern China, and the two may form a clade Parasaurolophini. "P. cyrtocristatus", with its short, rounder crest, may be the most basal of the three known "Parasaurolophus" species, or it may represent subadult or female specimens of "P. tubicen".


title: Parasaurolophus

text: The following cladogram is after the 2007 redescription of "Lambeosaurus magnicristatus" (Evans and Reisz, 2007):


title: Parasaurolophus

text: As a hadrosaurid, "Parasaurolophus" was a large bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore, eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing. Its teeth were continually being replaced; they were packed into dental batteries containing hundreds of teeth, only a relative handful of which were in use at any time. It used its beak to crop plant material, which was held in the jaws by a cheek-like organ. Vegetation could have been taken from the ground up to a height of around . As noted by Bob Bakker, lambeosaurines have narrower beaks than hadrosaurines, implying that "Parasaurolophus" and its relatives could feed more selectively than their broad-beaked, crestless counterparts. "Parasaurolophus" had a diet consisting of leaves, twigs and pine needles which would imply that it was a browser.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus" is known from many adult specimens, and a juvenile described in 2013, numbered RAM 140000 and nicknamed Joe, after a volunteer at the Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology (RAM). The juvenile was discovered in the Kaiparowits Formation in 2009. Excavated by the joint expedition by museum and The Webb Schools, the juvenile has been identified as around only one year old when it died. Referred to "Parasaurolophus" sp., the juvenile is the most complete, as well as youngest "Parasaurolophus" ever found, and measures . This individual fits neatly into the currently known "Parasaurolophus" growth stages, and lived approximately 75 million years ago. Even though no complete skull of the intermediate age between RAM 14000 and adult "Parasaurolophus" has been found yet, a partial braincase of about the right size is known. At 25% of the total adult size, the juvenile show that crest growth of "Parasaurolophus" began sooner than in related genera, such as "Corythosaurus". It has been suggested that "Parasaurolophus" adults bore such large crests, especially when compared to the related "Corythosaurus", because of this difference in age between when their crests started developing. Its age also means that "Parasaurolophus" had a very fast growth rate, which took place in about a year. The crest of the juvenile is not long and tubular like the adults, but low and hemispherical.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: The skull of RAM 14000 is almost complete, with the left side only lacking a piece of the maxilla. However, the skull was split down the middle by erosion, possibly when it was resting on the bottom of a river bed. The two sides are displaced slightly, with some bones of the right being moved off the main block, also by erosion. After reconstruction, the skull viewed from the side resembles other juvenile lambeosaurines found, being roughly a trapezoid in shape.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: A partial cranial endocast for RAM 14000 was reconstructed from CT scan data, the first ever for a "Parasaurolophus" of any ontogenetic stage. The endocast was reconstructed in two sections, one on the portion of the braincase articulated with the left half of the skull and the remainder on the disarticulated portion of the braincase. Their relative position was then approximated based on cranial landmarks and comparison with other hadrosaurids. Because of weathering, many of the smaller neural canals and foramina could not be identified for certain.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Many hypotheses have been advanced as to what functions the cranial crest of "Parasaurolophus" performed, but most have been discredited. It is now believed that it may have had several functions: visual display for identifying species and sex, sound amplification for communication, and thermoregulation. It is not clear which was most significant at what times in the evolution of the crest and its internal nasal passages.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: As for other lambeosaurines, it is believed that the cranial crest of "Parasaurolophus" changed with age and was a sexually dimorphic characteristic in adults. James Hopson, one of the first researchers to describe lambeosaurine crests in terms of such distinctions, suggested that "P. cyrtocristatus", with its small crest, was the female form of "P. tubicen". Thomas Williamson suggested it was the juvenile form. Neither hypothesis became widely accepted. As only six good skulls, one juvenile braincase, and one recently discovered juvenile skull are known, additional material will help clear up these potential relationships. Williamson noted that in any case, juvenile "Parasaurolophus" probably had small, rounded crests like "P. cyrtocristatus", that probably grew faster as individuals approached sexual maturity. Recent restudy of a juvenile braincase previously assigned to "Lambeosaurus", now assigned to "Parasaurolophus", provides evidence that a small tubular crest was present in juveniles. This specimen preserves a small upward flaring of the frontal bones that was similar to but smaller than what is seen in adult specimens; in adults, the frontals formed a platform that supported the base of the crest. This specimen also indicates that the growth of the crest in "Parasaurolophus" and the facial profile of juvenile individuals differed from the "Corythosaurus"-"Hypacrosaurus"-"Lambeosaurus" model, in part because the crest of "Parasaurolophus" lacks the thin bony 'coxcomb' that makes up the upper portion of the crest of the other three lambeosaurines.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Many early suggestions focused on adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle, following the hypothesis that hadrosaurids were amphibious, a common line of thought until the 1960s. Thus, Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed it served as a snorkel, Martin Wilfarth that it was an attachment for a mobile proboscis used as a breathing tube or for food gathering, Charles M. Sternberg that it served as an airtrap to keep water out of the lungs, and Ned Colbert that it served as an air reservoir for prolonged stays underwater.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Other proposals were more mechanical in nature. William Parks, in 1922, suggested that the crest was joined to the vertebrae above the shoulders by ligaments or muscles, and helped with moving and supporting the head. This is unlikely, because in all modern archosaurs, the nuchal ligament attaches to the neck or base of the skull. Othenio Abel proposed it was used as a weapon in combat among members of the same species, and Andrew Milner suggested that it could be used as a foliage deflector, like the helmet crest (called a 'casque') of the cassowary. Still, other proposals made housing specialized organs the major function. Halszka Osmólska suggested that it housed salt glands, and John Ostrom suggested that it housed expanded areas for olfactory tissue and much improved sense of smell of the lambeosaurines, which had no obvious defensive capabilities.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Most of these hypotheses have been discredited or rejected. For example, there is no hole at the end of the crest for a snorkeling function. There are no muscle scars for a proboscis and it is dubious that an animal with a beak would need one. As a proposed airlock, it would not have kept out water. The proposed air reservoir would have been insufficient for an animal the size of "Parasaurolophus". Other hadrosaurids had large heads without needing large hollow crests to serve as attachment points for supporting ligaments. Also, none of the proposals explain why the crest has such a shape, why other lambeosaurines should have crests that look much different but perform a similar function, how crestless or solid-crested hadrosaurids got along without such capabilities, or why some hadrosaurids had solid crests. These considerations particularly impact hypotheses based on increasing the capabilities of systems already present in the animal, such as the salt gland and olfaction hypotheses, and indicate that these were not primary functions of the crest. Additionally, work on the nasal cavity of lambeosaurines shows that olfactory nerves and corresponding sensory tissue were largely outside the portion of the nasal passages in the crest, so the expansion of the crest had little to do with the sense of smell.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: The large surface area and vascularization of the crest also suggests a thermoregulatory function. The first to propose the cranial crests of lambeosaurines related to temperature regulation was Wheeler (1978). He proposed that there was a nerve connection between the crest and the brain, so that the latter could be cooled by the former. The next people to publish a related idea were Teresa Maryańska and Osmólska, who realized that like modern lizards, dinosaurs could have possessed salt glands, and cooled off by osmo-regulation. In 2006 Evans published an argument about the functions of lambeosaurine crests, and supported why this could be a causing factor for the evolution of the crest.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus" is often hypothesized to have used its crest as a resonating chamber to produce low frequency sounds to alert other members of a group or its species. This function was originally suggested by Wiman in 1931 when he described "P. tubicen". He noted that the crest's internal structures are similar to those of a swan and theorized that an animal could use its elongated nasal passages to create noise. However, the nasal tubes of "Hypacrosaurus", "Corythosaurus", and "Lambeosaurus" are much more variable and complicated than the airway of "Parasaurolophus". A large amount of material and data supports the hypothesis that the large, tubular crest of "Parasaurolophus" was a resonating chamber. Weishampel in 1981 suggested that "Parasaurolophus" made noises ranging between the frequencies 55 and 720 Hz, although there was some difference in the range of individual species because of the crest size, shape, and nasal passage length, most obvious in "P. cyrtocristatus" (interpreted as a possible female). Hopson found that there is anatomical evidence that hadrosaurids had a strong hearing. There is at least one example, in the related "Corythosaurus", of a slender stapes (reptilian ear bone) in place, which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear. Furthermore, the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian's, indicating that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well-developed. Based on the similarity of hadrosaurid inner ears to those of crocodiles, he also proposed that adult hadrosaurids were sensitive to high frequencies, such as their offspring might produce. According to Weishampel, this is consistent with parents and offspring communicating.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Computer modeling of a well-preserved specimen of "P. tubicen", with more complex air passages than those of "P. walkeri", has allowed the reconstruction of the possible sound its crest produced. The main path resonates at around 30 Hz, but the complicated sinus anatomy causes peaks and valleys in the sound.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: The other main behavioral theory is that the crest was used for intra-species recognition. This means that the crest could have been used for species recognition, as a warning signal, and for other, non-sexual uses. These could have been some of the reasons crests evolved in "Parasaurolophus" and other hadrosaurids. Instead, social and physiological functions have become more supported as function(s) of the crest, focusing on visual and auditory identification and communication. As a large object, the crest has clear value as a visual signal and sets this animal apart from its contemporaries. The large size of hadrosaurid eye sockets and the presence of sclerotic rings in the eyes imply acute vision and diurnal habits, evidence that sight was important to these animals. If, as is commonly illustrated, a skin frill extended from the crest to the neck or back, the proposed visual display would have been even showier. As is suggested by other lambeosaurine skulls, the crest of "Parasaurolophus" likely permitted both species identification (such as separating it from "Corythosaurus" or "Lambeosaurus") and sexual identification by shape and size.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Barnum Brown (1912) noted the presence of fine striations near the back of the crest that he hypothesized could be associated with the presence of a frill of skin, comparable to the one found in the modern basilisk lizard. His hypothesis was seemingly supported by skin preserved above the neck and back of "Corythosaurus" and "Edmontosaurus". Subsequently, reconstructions of "Parasaurolophus" with a substantial frill of skin between the crest and neck appeared in influential paleoart including murals by Charles R. Knight and in the Walt Disney animated film "Fantasia". This led to the frill being depicted in many other sources, though the advent of the now-debunked "snorkel" hypothesis, and conflation of the frill hypothesis with the idea that the crest serves as an anchor point for neck ligaments, along with lack of strong evidence for its presence, has seen it fall out of favor in most modern depictions.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus walkeri" is known from one specimen which might contain a pathology. The skeleton shows a v-shaped gap or notch in the vertebrae at the base of the neck. Originally thought to be pathologic, Parks published a second interpretation of this, as a ligament attachment to support the head. The crest would attach to the gap via muscles or ligaments, and be used to support the head while bearing a frill, like predicted to exist in some hadrosaurids. One other possibility, is that during preparation, the specimen was damaged, creating the possible pathology. The notch, however, is still considered more likely to be a pathology, even though some illustrations of "Parasaurolophus" restore the skin flap.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Another possible pathology was noticed by Parks, and from around the notch. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth vertebrae, directly anterior to the notch, the neural spines were damaged. The fourth had an obvious fracture, with the other two possessing a swelling at the base of the break.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Analysis of the pathology undertaken by Bertozzo "et al.," published in December 2020, suggests the pathology to the shoulder and thoracic ribs in the holotype of "P. walkeri" was plausibly the result of the dinosaur being hit by a falling tree, perhaps during a severe storm. Based on the regrowth of bone, it is suggested that the hadrosaur survived for at least one to four months to perhaps years after being injured. None of the pathologies on the holotype individual are believed to have caused or contributed to its death.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus walkeri", from the Dinosaur Park Formation, was a member of a diverse and well-documented fauna of prehistoric animals, including well-known dinosaurs such as the horned "Centrosaurus", "Chasmosaurus", and "Styracosaurus"; fellow duckbills "Gryposaurus" and "Corythosaurus"; tyrannosaurid "Gorgosaurus"; and armored "Edmontonia", "Euoplocephalus" and "Dyoplosaurus". It was a rare constituent of this fauna. The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low-relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward. The climate was warmer than present-day Alberta, without frost, but with wetter and drier seasons. Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants, with an understory of ferns, tree ferns, and angiosperms.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Some of the less common hadrosaurs in the Dinosaur Park Formation of Dinosaur Provincial Park, such as "Parasaurolophus", may represent the remains of individuals who died while migrating through the region. They might also have had a more upland habitat where they may have nested or fed. The presence of "Parasaurolophus" and "Kritosaurus" in northern latitude fossil sites may represent faunal exchange between otherwise distinct northern and southern biomes in Late Cretaceous North America. Both taxa are uncommon outside of the southern biome, where, along with "Pentaceratops", they are predominate members of the fauna.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: In the Fruitland Formation of New Mexico, "P. cyrtocristatus" shared its habitat with other ornithischians and theropods. Specifically, its contemporaries were the ceratopsian "Pentaceratops sternbergii"; the pachycephalosaur "Stegoceras novomexicanum"; and some unidentified fossils belonging to Tyrannosauridae, ?"Ornithomimus", ?Troodontidae, ?"Saurornitholestes langstoni", ?"Struthiomimus", Ornithopoda, ?"Chasmosaurus", ?"Corythosaurus", Hadrosaurinae, Hadrosauridae, and Ceratopsidae. When "Parasaurolophus" existed, the Fruitland Formation was swampy, positioned in the lowlands, and close to the shore of the Cretaceous Interior Seaway. The lowermost part of the Fruitland Formation is just younger than 75.56 ± 0.41 mya, with the uppermost boundary dating to 74.55 ± 0.22 mya.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Existing slightly later than the species from the Fruitland Formation, "P. tubicen" is also found in New Mexico, in the Kirtland Formation. Numerous vertebrate groups are from this formation, including fishes, crurotarsans, ornithischians, saurischians, pterosaurs, and turtles. The fishes are represented by the two species "Melvius chauliodous" and "Myledalphus bipartitus". The crurotarsans include "Brachychampsa montana" and "Denazinosuchus kirtlandicus". Ornithischians from the formation are represented by the hadrosaurids "Anasazisaurus horneri", "Naashoibitosaurus ostromi", "Kritosaurus navajovius", and "P. tubicen"; the ankylosaurids "Ahshislepelta minor" and "Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis"; the ceratopsians "Pentaceratops sternbergii" and "Titanoceratops ouranos"; and the pachycephalosaurs "Stegoceras novomexicanum" and "Sphaerotholus goodwini". Saurischians include the tyrannosaurid "Bistahieversor sealeyi"; the ornithomimid "Ornithomimus" sp.; and the troodontid "Saurornitholestes" "robustus". One pterosaur is known, named "Navajodactylus boerei". Turtles are fairly plentiful, and are known from "Denazinemys nodosa", "Basilemys nobilis", "Neurankylus baueri", "Plastomenus robustus". and "Thescelus hemispherica". Unidentified taxa are known, including the crurotarsan ?"Leidyosuchus", and the theropods ?"Struthiomimus", Troodontidae and Tyrannosauridae. The beginning of the Kirtland Formation dates to 74.55 ± 0.22 mya, with the formation ending at around 73.05 ± 0.25 mya.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: Argon-argon radiometric dating indicates that the Kaiparowits Formation was deposited between 76.6 and 74.5 million years ago, during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. During the Late Cretaceous period, the site of the Kaiparowits Formation was located near the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway, a large inland sea that split North America into two landmasses, Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east. The plateau where dinosaurs lived was an ancient floodplain dominated by large channels and abundant wetland peat swamps, ponds and lakes, and was bordered by highlands. The climate was wet and humid, and supported an abundant and diverse range of organisms. This formation contains one of the best and most continuous records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial life in the world.


title: Parasaurolophus

text: "Parasaurolophus" shared its paleoenvironment with other dinosaurs, such as dromaeosaurid theropods, the troodontid "Talos sampsoni", ornithomimids like "Ornithomimus velox", tyrannosaurids like "Albertosaurus" and "Teratophoneus", armored ankylosaurids, the duckbilled hadrosaur "Gryposaurus monumentensis", the ceratopsians "Utahceratops gettyi", "Nasutoceratops titusi" and "Kosmoceratops richardsoni" and the oviraptorosaurian "Hagryphus giganteus". Paleofauna present in the Kaiparowits Formation included chondrichthyans (sharks and rays), frogs, salamanders, turtles, lizards and crocodilians like the apex predator "Deinosuchus". A variety of early mammals were present including multituberculates, marsupials, and insectivorans.


title: Leyton Orient F.C.

text: Leyton Orient Football Club is a professional football club based in Leyton, East London, England, who compete in , the fourth tier of the English football league system. They are the second oldest football club in London to play at a professional level, and are known to their fans by their nickname "the O's". The club's home colours are all red. They have played home matches at Brisbane Road since 1937, having previously played at Millfields and Lea Bridge Road.