title: Bulbbul

text: The story starts in the nineteenth century in a village in Bengal Presidency. Bulbbul is married off to Indranil, the Bado Thakur (Elder Lord), when she is barely five years old. She is close with Satya, Indranil's youngest brother, who is closer to her age. Bulbbul and Satya grow up together, playing and telling each other stories of a demon woman ("chudail"). Indranil's mentally challenged twin brother Mahendra shows a strange appeal toward Bulbbul.


title: Bulbbul

text: Twenty years later, Satya returns home from London. In the interim Mahendra was killed in what was believed to be a chudail's attack. His widow Binodini now lives in an outhouse. Indranil has left the village and Bulbbul has taken over his responsibilities. The village doctor, Sudip, regularly visits to check Bulbbul's feet due to an undisclosed incident Bulbbul refuses to discuss. Their closeness raises doubts in Satya about Sudip and Bulbbul's relation. While on a hunt, a man is killed; the incident is attributed to the chudail. Satya, however, suspects Sudip. Meanwhile, Bulbbul is informed by a village boy, whose family previously visited the estate to discuss the matter of his father’s second marriage, that his mother had committed suicide after her husband chose his second wife over her, causing Bulbbul to seek the man out.


title: Bulbbul

text: In flashbacks, it is revealed that Binodini had been jealous of Indranil and Bulbbul's marriage, and had repeatedly hinted to Indranil that Bulbbul had feelings for Satya. With his mind poisoned, Indranil sends Satya to London to separate those two. Bulbbul and Satya had been working so far on a story together, the manuscript of which Satya hands over to her before leaving for London. Heartbroken, she throws the manuscript into the fireplace and lights them up. At this time, influenced by Binodini, Indranil goes to Bulbbul's room, happens to take out some of the burning pages. Upon reading them, he becomes positively convinced of Bulbbul's feelings for Satya. Enraged, he beats and mutilates her feet with iron bars. On top of that, while she is bedridden, Mahendra rapes her, accidentally suffocating her while caught up in his sadism. However, following this, there is a supernatural change in Bulbbul — she comes back with a mission to help the women in the village fight back against injustice. She goes through a symbolic transformation each time, represented by a blood red moon, which indicates that the goddess Kali had given her a chance to return to fight back. She begins to punish the men who abuse and murder their wives or take advantage of other girls by killing them though the villagers think those as doings of the "chudail", who is distinguished by her backward feet. It is also revealed that she killed Mahendra following this transformation as punishment for raping her.


title: Bulbbul

text: At present time, Satya is seen to escort Sudip to Calcutta on the suspicion of being the murderer. On the way, the driver of the carriage (the man Bulbbul was previously informed of) is killed by the chudail, making Satya realize that Sudip is innocent. He shoots the chudail woman, mortally wounding her. As he escapes the carriage, Sudip finds Bulbbul, realizing and accepting her as the chudail. During a brawl with Sudip, Satya unintentionally sets the forest on fire. He realises that Bulbbul is the chudail when Sudip shouts for her. Upon realizing this, Satya cries in agony, while Bulbbul who was trying to escape, takes refuge on a tree and watches everything around her burn before she is slowly engulfed by the flames.


title: Bulbbul

text: A year later, Indranil returns to his empty estate. He discovers that Satya has departed, as he, guilt-ridden for what had happened with Bulbbul, had felt that he too was becoming like his brothers. That night, Indranil is awoken from his sleep by Bulbbul, who emerges from embers and smirks at him, hinting that she kills him as revenge.


title: Bulbbul

text: The story of the movie was written by Anvita Dutt, who has been a commissioned writer for films. She wrote the first two pages of the story after awaking from her sleep one night and outlined the "chudail" and the myth and idea behind her in this first draft. She completed the rest of the story after returning from a trip from Kolkata, after seeing a bulbul make a nest outside her house and after some encouragement from her colleagues. She intended the story to resemble a fairy tale and set it in the neoclassical era of Bengal to fulfill that. She was also inspired by Rabindranath Tagore's portrayal of women; Binodini is the name of one of the characters in his work. The premise has similarities with Tagore's novella "Nastanirh", which was adapted by Satyajit Ray as the 1964 film "Charulata". Dutt describes, "Now in reality what happens to women is much worse. The emotional, the physical and the psychological abuse is much, much worse. In telling of the story, I chose to tell it this way. I wanted the cold rage of women to find an outlet... It's a tragedy. The story is set 200 years ago but it's still relevant."


title: Bulbbul

text: The film was shot over a period of thirty-three days in locations near Kolkata and Mumbai. Siddharth Diwan led the cinematography. With inputs from Dutt, the artwork of Raja Ravi Varma and Caravaggio were used as inspiration, in addition to influences from Expressionism and Surrealism. Diwan also took inspiration from photographers like Man Ray and Raja Deen Dayal. Satyajit Ray's poster of the film "Devi" was an inspiration for the lighting. Some examples of symbolism used include the grass, "kaash phool", the bird and flower motifs, all significant to the goddess Durga. The mansion used in the film is Bawali Rajbari, located from Kolkata in the village of Nodakhali. The mansion has previously featured in the film "Chokher Bali" by Rituparno Ghosh.


title: Bulbbul

text: Set in the late 18th century in Bengal, the film delves into the idea of aristocratic Bengali women embracing Western ideologies of freedom. Aruna Chakravarti's "Jorasanko" described Tagore's relationship with his child-bride sister-in-law, Kadambari, which Shreya Paul of "Firstpost" noted as the foundation behind the relationship between Bulbbul and Satya. Chakravarti described how Kadambari was devastated when she was separated from Tagore (due to his marriage). Further, Tagore's older brother, Birendranath, suffered from a mental illness but was still married off and abused his wife, similar to Binodini being married off to Mahender.


title: Bulbbul

text: Aditya Mani Jha of "Firstpost" noted that the film is "a postmodern example of the Gothic genre", the most common example of which is Bram Stoker's "Dracula". Satya is similar to Jonathan Harker, the protagonist of "Dracula", in that they have the same "cold, unemotional logic" that leads them to investigate the case (much like Sherlock Holmes) and eventually decide to kill the monster themselves. The supernatural element ("chudail" in this case) embodying repressed emotions or desires is a trope of the Gothic genre. Bulbbul's reveal as the "chudail" frames her like a goddess, specifically like Kali. Binodini subtly planting the idea of Bulbbul and Satya in Indranil's head makes her like Iago.


title: Bulbbul

text: "Bulbbul" opened up to generally positive reception from the critics and the audience with a particular praise for its stand on feminism, visual effects, background music, and performance of the leads, especially Tripti Dimri.


title: Bulbbul

text: Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" stated: "Bulbbul is very much its own film, the mix of classic pre-Renaissance Bengal and desi horror gothic making for gripping viewing... It is a powerfully feminist, revisionist tale of a woman wronged, and it is told with economy, precision and feeling...Dutt uses the ancient trope of a bloodthirsty 'chudail with ultey pair', a familiar creature tale in our scary 'kisse-kahaani', to create dread and fear. The writing is skilful and stays on point, and the performances are all solid."


title: Bulbbul

text: Namrata Joshi of "The Hindu" applauded the rebellious idea of Dutt and stated: "Anvita Dutt mixes the feudal with the supernatural, the spooky, the mythological and the fablesque in a thoughtful, moving and engaging manner...She mixes the feudal with the supernatural and the spooky, the mythological and the fablesque to strike at the putrid core of patriarchy in a thoughtful, moving, engaging and powerful manner."


title: Bulbbul

text: Rohan Naahar of "Hindustan Times" reviewed the film as over-directed but underwritten. He wrote that the characters are thinly written and the surprises are carelessly telegraphed and a weak script let down the film in spite of visually striking imagery.


title: Bulbbul

text: Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion South wrote "What we’re left with is a fever-dreamscape quasi-giallo movie, which transforms the pulp premise of a female vigilante...into something very human and emotional and deeply mysterious...the film’s imagery may be teasingly ambiguous, but the "hell hath no fury" messaging couldn't be clearer".


title: Bulbbul

text: Shubhram Kulkarni of "Koimoi" gave it 3.5 stars and stated "As much as I am in love with Anvita Dutt as the writer, her direction is point one below. As observed, while the script tries to keep the big reveal hidden, the direction and dialogue make it predictable. Thus making the climax less hitting."


title: Bulbbul

text: Stutee Ghosh of "The Quint" gave it 3 stars and mentioned "One of the questions that the film throws up and doesn't answer is if the binary between being a devi or a chudail is the only recourse that feminine power has to navigate in this patriarchal set up."


title: Bulbbul

text: Kritika Vaid of "India.com" mentioned the universally positive reaction of the audience in social media. Veteran Director Anurag Kashyap tweeted and called the film one of the best he had seen in this millennium and also praised the performance by the lead actors and Anvita Dutt.


title: Bulbbul

text: Sameer Sulunkhe of "Cineblitz" rated it as 2.5 stars and observed "The film is a celebration of colors – red hues symbolizing anger, celebration, menstruation and above all womanhood, stark blue representing the grim past. Adding to this visual spectacle is Amit Trivedi’s hauntingly beautiful score, dominated by violin. It’s a great combination of audio-visual storytelling. What hurts Bulbbul is its writing. Writer-director Anvita Dutt has tremendous command over the language, and the dialogues have a literary touch (no surprise as it is set in Tagore’s Bengal), but the overall narrative lacks novelty and doesn’t have much impact either. "


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The Khilafat Movement (1919–24), also known as the Caliphate movement or the Indian Muslim movement, was a pan-Islamist political protest campaign launched by Muslims of British India led by Shaukat Ali, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Abul Kalam Azad to restore the caliph of the Ottoman Caliphate, promote Muslim interests and to bring the Muslim in national struggle. During that time the idea of a separate nation for Muslims in India started to build up slowly. It was a protest against the sanctions placed on the caliph and the Ottoman Empire after the First World War by the Treaty of Sèvres.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The movement collapsed by late 1922 when Turkey gained a more favorable diplomatic position and moved towards Nationalism. By 1924, Turkey had simply abolished the role of caliph.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II (1842–1918) launched his pan-Islamist program in a bid to protect the Ottoman Empire from Western attack and dismemberment and to crush the democratic opposition at home. He sent an emissary, Jamaluddin Afghani, to India in the late 19th century. The cause of the Ottoman monarch evoked religious passion and sympathy amongst Indian Muslims. Being the caliph, the Ottoman sultan was nominally the supreme religious and political leader of all Sunni Muslims across the world. However, this authority was never actually used.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: A large number of Muslim religious leaders began working to spread awareness and develop Muslim participation on behalf of the caliphate. Muslim religious leader Maulana Mehmud Hasan attempted to organize a national war of independence with support from the Ottoman Empire.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Abdul Hamid II was forced to restore the constitutional monarchy marking the start of the Second Constitutional Era by the Young Turk Revolution. He was succeeded by his brother Mehmed V (1844–1918) but following the revolution, the real power in the Ottoman Empire lay with the nationalists. The movement was a topic in Conference of London (February 1920); however, nationalist Arabs saw it as threat of continuation of Islamic dominance of Arab lands.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The Ottoman Empire, having sided with the Central Powers during World War I, suffered a major military defeat. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) reduced its territorial extent and diminished its political influence but the victorious Europe powers promised to protect the Ottoman sultan's status as the caliph. However, under the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), territories such as Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq were severed from the empire.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Within Turkey, a progressive, secular nationalist movement arose, known as the Turkish national movement. During the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923), the Turkish revolutionaries, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, abolished the Treaty of Sèvres with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Pursuant to Atatürk's Reforms, the Republic of Turkey abolished the position of the caliphate in 1924. Atatürk offered the caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid. The title was then claimed by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and Hejaz, leader of the Arab Revolt, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by Ibn Saud in 1925.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Although political activities and popular outcry on behalf of the caliphate emerged across the Muslim world, the most prominent activities took place in India. A prominent Oxford educated Muslim journalist, Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar had spent four years in prison for advocating resistance to the colonial government and support for the caliphate. At the onset of the Turkish War of Independence, Muslim religious leaders feared for the caliphate, which the European powers were reluctant to protect. To some of the Muslims of India, the prospect of being conscripted to fight against fellow Muslims in Turkey was anathema. To its founders and followers, the Khilafat was not a religious movement but rather a show of solidarity with their fellow Muslims in Turkey.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Mohammad Ali and his brother Maulana Shaukat Ali joined with other Muslim leaders such as Pir Ghulam Mujaddid Sarhandi, Sheikh Shaukat Ali Siddiqui, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Raees-Ul-Muhajireen Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo, Hasrat Mohani, Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, Mohammad Farooq Chishti, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr. Hakim Ajmal Khan to form the All India Khilafat Committee. The organisation was based in Lucknow, India at Hathe Shaukat Ali, the compound of Landlord Shaukat Ali Siddiqui. They aimed to build political unity amongst Muslims and use their influence to protect the caliphate. In 1920, they published the Khilafat Manifesto, which called upon the British to protect the caliphate and for Indian Muslims to unite and hold the British accountable for this purpose. The Khilafat Committee in Bengal included Mohmmad Akram Khan, Manruzzaman Islamabadi, Mujibur Rahman Khan and Chittaranjan Das.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: In 1920 an alliance was made between Khilafat leaders and the Indian National Congress, the largest political party in India and of the nationalist movement. Congress leader Mahatma Gandhi and the Khilafat leaders promised to work and fight together for the causes of Khilafat and "Swaraj". Seeking to increase pressure on the colonial government, the Khilafatists became a major part of the non-cooperation movement — a nationwide campaign of mass, peaceful civil disobedience. Some also engaged in a protest emigration from North-West Frontier Province to Afghanistan under Amanullah Khan. Khilafat leaders such as Dr. Ansari, Maulana Azad and Hakim Ajmal Khan also grew personally close to Gandhi. These leaders founded the Jamia Millia Islamia in 1920 to promote independent education and social rejuvenation for Muslims.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The non-cooperation campaign was at first successful. The programme started with boycott of legislative councils, government schools, colleges and foreign goods. Government functions and surrender of titles and distinctions. Massive protests, strikes and acts of civil disobedience spread across India. Hindus and Muslims joined forces in the campaign, which was initially peaceful. Gandhi, the Ali brothers and others were swiftly arrested by the colonial government. Under the flag of Tehrik-e-Khilafat, a Punjab Khilafat deputation comprising Moulana Manzoor Ahmed and Moulana Lutfullah Khan Dankauri took a leading role throughout India, with a particular concentration in the Punjab (Sirsa, Lahore, Haryana etc.). People from villages such as Aujla Khurd were the main contributors to the cause.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Although holding talks with the colonial government and continuing their activities, the Khilafat movement weakened as Muslims were divided between working for the Congress, the Khilafat cause and the Muslim League.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The final blow came with the victory of Mustafa Kemal Pasha's forces, who overthrew the Ottoman rule to establish a progressive, secular republic in independent Turkey. He abolished the role of caliph and sought no help from Indians.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The Khilafat leadership fragmented on different political lines. Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari created Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam with the support of Chaudhry Afzal Haq. Leaders such as Dr. Ansari, Maulana Azad and Hakim Ajmal Khan remained strong supporters of Gandhi and the Congress. The Ali brothers joined Muslim League. They would play a major role in the growth of the League's popular appeal and the subsequent Pakistan movement. There was, however, a caliphate conference in Jerusalem in 1931 following Turkey's abolition of the Khilafat, to determine what should be done about the caliphate.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: The Khilafat movement evokes controversy and strong opinions. By critics, it is regarded as one of the political agitation based on a pan-Islamist, fundamentalist platform and being largely indifferent to the cause of Indian independence. Critics of the Khilafat see its alliance with the Congress as a marriage of convenience. Proponents of the Khilafat see it as the spark that led to the non-cooperation movement in India and a major milestone in improving Hindu-Muslim relations, while advocates of Pakistan and Muslim separatism see it as a major step towards establishing the separate Muslim state. The Ali brothers are regarded as founding-fathers of Pakistan, while Azad, Dr. Ansari and Hakim Ajmal Khan are widely celebrated as national heroes in India.


title: Khilafat Movement

text: Critics also argue that the movement was associated with incidents of large scale killings of Hindus such as the Malabar rebellion.


title: Modbus

text: Modbus is a data communications protocol originally published by Modicon (now Schneider Electric) in 1979 for use with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). Modbus has become a "de facto" standard communication protocol and is now a commonly available means of connecting industrial electronic devices.


title: Modbus

text: Modbus is popular in industrial environments because it is openly published and royalty-free. It was developed for industrial applications, is relatively easy to deploy and maintain compared to other standards, and places few restrictions on the format of the data to be transmitted.


title: Modbus

text: The Modbus protocol uses character serial communication lines, Ethernet, or the Internet protocol suite as a transport layer. Modbus supports communication to and from multiple devices connected to the same cable or Ethernet network. For example, there can be a device that measures temperature and another device to measure humidity connected to the same cable, both communicating measurements to the same computer, via Modbus.


title: Modbus

text: Modbus is often used to connect a plant/system supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Many of the data types are named from industrial control of factory devices, such as ladder logic because of its use in driving relays: a single-bit physical output is called a "coil", and a single-bit physical input is called a "discrete input" or a "contact".


title: Modbus

text: The development and update of Modbus protocols have been managed by the Modbus Organization since April 2004, when Schneider Electric transferred rights to that organization. The Modbus Organization is an association of users and suppliers of Modbus-compliant devices that advocates for the continued use of the technology. Modbus Organization, Inc. is a trade association for the promotion and development of the Modbus protocol.


title: Modbus

text: The following object types may be provided by a Modbus server to a Modbus client device: The addresses are representative of the original


title: Modbus

text: Modicon specification. Under the current standard the address can be 0 - 65535 with the object type identified by the command used


title: Modbus

text: Versions of the Modbus protocol exist for serial ports, and for Ethernet and other protocols that support the Internet protocol suite. There are many variants of Modbus protocols:


title: Modbus

text: Data models and function calls are identical for the first four variants listed above; only the encapsulation is different. However the variants are not interoperable, nor are the frame formats.


title: Modbus

text: In Modbus RTU, Modbus ASCII, and Modbus Plus (which are all RS-485 single-cable multi-drop networks), only the node assigned as the 'master' may initiate a command. All other devices are 'slaves' which respond to requests and commands.


title: Modbus

text: Nomenclature is different for the protocols using Ethernet, such as Modbus TCP. Here any device can send out a Modbus command, and as is usual in computer networks, the device sending the command is the 'client' and the response comes from a 'server'.


title: Modbus

text: Many modems and gateways support Modbus, as it is a simple and often-copied protocol. Some of them were specifically designed for this protocol. Different implementations use wireline or wireless communication, such as in the ISM radio band, and even Short Message Service (SMS) or General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).


title: Modbus

text: A Modbus command contains the Modbus address of the device it is intended for (1 to 247). Only the addressed device will respond and act on the command, even though other devices might receive it (an exception is specific broadcastable commands sent to node 0, which are acted on but not acknowledged).


title: Modbus

text: All Modbus commands contain checksum information to allow the recipient to detect transmission errors.


title: Modbus

text: A Modbus "frame" consists of an Application Data Unit (ADU), which encapsulates a Protocol Data Unit (PDU):


title: Modbus

text: This format is primarily used on asynchronous serial data lines like RS-485/EIA-485. Its name refers to a remote terminal unit.


title: Modbus

text: Address, Function, Data, and LRC are ASCII hexadecimal encoded values, whereby 8-bit values (0–255) are encoded as two human-readable ASCII characters from the ranges 0–9 and A–F. For example, a value of 122 (7A) is encoded as two ASCII characters, "7" and "A", and transmitted as two bytes, codice_7 (37, ASCII value for "7") and codice_8 (41, ASCII value for "A").


title: Modbus

text: LRC is calculated as the sum of 8-bit values (excluding the start and end characters), negated (two's complement) and encoded as an 8-bit value. For example, if Address, Function, and Data are 247, 3, 19, 137, 0, and 10, the two's complement of their sum (416) is −416; this trimmed to 8 bits is 96 (256 × 2 − 416 = 60), giving the following 17 ASCII character frame: codice_9. LRC is specified for use only as a checksum: because it is calculated on the encoded data rather than the transmitted characters, its 'longitudinal' characteristic is not available for use with parity bits to locate single-bit errors.


title: Modbus

text: "Unit identifier" is used with Modbus/TCP devices that are composites of several Modbus devices, e.g. Modbus/TCP to Modbus RTU gateways. In such a case, the unit identifier is the Server Address of the device behind the gateway. Natively Modbus/TCP-capable devices usually ignore the Unit Identifier.


title: Modbus

text: The commands to read and write these entities are summarized in the following table. The most primitive reads and writes are shown in bold.


title: Modbus

text: Some sources use terminology that differs from the standard; for example "Force Single Coil" instead of "Write Single Coil".


title: Modbus

text: Requests and responses follow the frame formats described above. This section gives details of the data formats of the most often used function codes.


title: Modbus

text: Value of each coil/discrete input is binary (0 for off, 1 for on). First requested coil/discrete input is stored as least significant bit of first byte in reply. If number of coils/discrete inputs is not a multiple of 8, most significant bit(s) of last byte will be stuffed with zeros.


title: Modbus

text: For example, if eleven coils are requested, two bytes of values are needed. Suppose states of those successive coils are "on, off, on, off, off, on, on, on, off, on, on", then the response will be codice_10 in hexadecimal.


title: Modbus

text: Because the byte count returned in the reply message is only 8 bits wide and the protocol overhead is 5 bytes, a maximum of 2008 (251 x 8) discrete inputs or coils can be read at once.


title: Modbus

text: The value of each coil is binary (0 for off, 1 for on). The first requested coil is stored as the least significant bit of the first byte in the request. If a number of coils is not a multiple of 8, the most significant bit(s) of the last byte should be stuffed with zeros. See example for function codes 1 and 2.


title: Modbus

text: Because the maximum length of a Modbus PDU is 253 (inferred from the maximum Modbus ADU length of 256 on RS485), up to 125 registers can be requested at once when using the RTU format, and up to 123 over TCP.


title: Modbus

text: Because the maximum length of a Modbus PDU is 253 (inferred from the maximum Modbus ADU length of 256 on RS485), up to 123 registers can be written at once.


title: Modbus

text: For a normal response, the server repeats the function code. Should a server want to report an error, it will reply with the requested function code plus 128 (hex codice_11) (3 becomes 131 = hex codice_12), and will only include one byte of data, known as the "exception code".


title: Modbus

text: Some conventions govern how Modbus entities (coils, discrete inputs, input registers, holding registers) are referenced.


title: Modbus

text: In the traditional convention, entity "numbers" start with a digit representing the entity type, followed by four digits representing the entity location:


title: Modbus

text: For data communications, the entity "location" (1 to 9,999) is translated into a 0-based entity "address" (0 to 9,998) by subtracting 1. For example, in order to read holding registers starting at "number" 40001, the data frame will contain function code 3 (as seen above) and "address" 0. For holding registers starting at "number" 40100, the "address" will be 99.


title: Modbus

text: This limits the number of "addresses" to 9,999 for each entity. A "de facto" standard extends this to 65,536 by adding one digit to the previous list:


title: Modbus

text: When using extended referencing, all "number" references must have exactly 6 digits to avoid confusion between coils and other entities. For example, to distinguish between holding register #40001 and coil #40001, if coil #40001 is the target, it must appear as #040001.


title: Modbus

text: Another way to note the data addresses is to use the hexadecimal value, which clarifies the use of the four digits in the traditional convention mentioned previously.


title: Modbus

text: Another "de facto" protocol closely related to Modbus appeared later, and was defined by PLC maker April Automates, the result of a collaborative effort between French companies Renault Automation and Merlin Gerin et Cie in 1985: JBUS. Differences between Modbus and JBUS at that time (number of entities, server stations) are now irrelevant as this protocol almost disappeared with the April PLC series, which AEG Schneider Automation bought in 1994 and then made obsolete. However, the name JBUS has survived to some extent.


title: Modbus

text: JBUS supports function codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 15, and 16 and thus all the entities described above, although numbering is different:


title: Modbus

text: Almost every implementation has variations from the official standard. Different varieties might not communicate correctly between equipment of different suppliers. Some of the most common variations are:


title: Modbus

text: Despite the name, Modbus Plus is not a variant of Modbus. It is a different protocol, involving token passing. It is a proprietary specification of Schneider Electric, though it is unpublished rather than patented. It is normally implemented using a custom chipset available only to partners of Schneider.


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: Bobby Moynihan (born January 31, 1977) is an American actor, comedian and writer who was a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" from 2008 until 2017. He also voiced Louie Duck on Disney's "DuckTales" from 2017 to 2021, Panda in "We Bare Bears" from 2015 to 2020, and Hal the Dog in the PBS Kids series "Nature Cat" since 2015. He has also starred in animated films such as "Monsters University" (2013) and "The Secret Life of Pets" (2016) and its 2019 sequel. He portrayed Jayden Kwapis on the sitcom "Mr. Mayor" and the manatee Loafy in the 2020 show of the same name of which he is also the creator, executive producer, director and writer.


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: Moynihan frequently performed with the Derrick Comedy sketch group and appeared in many of their popular internet videos and various projects. He also filmed a supporting role in the group's feature film "Mystery Team", which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2009 before a limited theatrical release.


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: In mid-2008, Moynihan had a supporting role in the popular web-series "The Line", an online video project funded by Lorne Michaels' production company, directed by "SNL" head writer and cast member Seth Meyers, and starring "SNL" cast members Bill Hader and Jason Sudeikis. He acted as a sketch regular on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" for a number of years and was a contributing writer on MTV's "Human Giant", and in years past, he often submitted scripts to "SNL" with comedy partner Charlie Sanders. Moynihan has also acted in a number of comedy shorts for the website "CollegeHumor", including their webseries "Every Week on Entourage" where he plays "Turtle" from "Entourage". During the summer of 2008, Moynihan featured in a national television ad campaign for ESPN Radio with Yankees broadcaster Michael Kay. In the summer of 2009, Moynihan starred in the music video for Colbie Caillat's single, "Fallin' for You". He also appeared in three of The Lonely Island's music videos; "Boombox", "Shy Ronnie 2" and "Threw It On The Ground". He made a guest appearance as the drug-addicted Conrad Bellingham on "Mercy". He also appeared in the films "The Invention of Lying", "When in Rome", and "Certainty". In 2013, he made his voice acting film debut in "Monsters University" as Chet Alexander, a member of the Roar Omega Roar fraternity. Moynihan also voiced the titular character in the FX animated comedy "Chozen", which aired for one season in 2014.


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: In 2015, he was a featured character, Lenny, in the romantic comedy film "Slow Learners" (original title "Bad Boys, Crazy Girls"). He also voiced Panda in the Cartoon Network series "We Bare Bears", as well as Hal the Dog in the PBS Kids animated series "Nature Cat", he was replaced by Johnny Yong Bosch from rest of the series. In 2016, Moynihan appeared in a commercial for Pizza Hut's Bacon Stuffed crust pizza, and voiced Mel from "The Secret Life of Pets" in the same year. From 2017 to 2021, he voiced the character Louie Duck in the Disney Channel/Disney XD revival of "DuckTales".


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: Moynihan currently plays interim Director of Communications Jayden Kwapis in the NBC sitcom "Mr. Mayor", and stars as the titular manatee Loafy in the Comedy Central animated series that Moynihan created himself. Most recently, Moynihan is releasing a children's book titled "Not All Sheep Are Boring" (https://ew.com/books/author-interviews/bobby-moynihan-not-all-sheep-are-boring-interview/)


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: Moynihan joined the cast of NBC's "Saturday Night Live" during its 34th season on September 13, 2008, and stayed to the end of season 42 on May 20, 2017.


title: Bobby Moynihan

text: Moynihan is a native of Eastchester, New York. In August 2016, Moynihan married his longtime girlfriend, Broadway actress Brynn O'Malley. Their daughter was born in July 2017.


title: UFC 270

text: UFC 270: Ngannou vs. Gane was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that took place on January 22, 2022 at the Honda Center in Anaheim, California.


title: UFC 270

text: A UFC Heavyweight Championship title unification bout between current champion Francis Ngannou and interim champion Ciryl Gane served as the event headliner.


title: UFC 270

text: A UFC Flyweight Championship trilogy bout between current champion Brandon Moreno and former champion Deiveson Figueiredo took place at the event. The pairing first met at UFC 256 on December 12, 2020 which ended in a majority draw (Figueiredo retained the title). Their second meeting took place at UFC 263 on June 12, 2021 where Moreno captured the title by submission in the third round. The rematch was originally expected to take place at UFC 269, but it was moved to this event.


title: UFC 270

text: A middleweight bout between Jared Cannonier and Derek Brunson was scheduled for the event. However, the pairing was moved to UFC 271 three weeks later.


title: UFC 270

text: A women's flyweight bout between Kay Hansen and Jasmine Jasudavicius was scheduled for . However, the pairing was moved to this event due to undisclosed reasons.


title: UFC 270

text: A women's flyweight between Viviane Araújo and Alexa Grasso was scheduled for the event. However, Araújo was forced to pull out from the event due to injury and the bout was cancelled.


title: UFC 270

text: A featherweight bout between undefeated prospects Movsar Evloev and Ilia Topuria was scheduled for the event. However, Evloev withdrew from the bout due to undisclosed reasons. He was replaced by Charles Jourdain. In turn, Topuria withdrew from the bout just before the weigh in due to a medical issue from cutting weight and the bout was scrapped.


title: UFC 270

text: Poliana Botelho and Ji Yeon Kim were expected to meet in a women's flyweight bout at in May 2021, but Kim pulled out due to an injury. They were then rescheduled for this event, but Botelho pulled out instead and the pairing was scrapped.


title: UFC 270

text: A women's strawweight bout between Vanessa Demopoulos and Silvana Gómez Juárez was initially scheduled for a week earlier, but it was pushed back to this event.


title: UFC 270

text: A heavyweight bout between Alexey Oleynik and Greg Hardy was expected to take place at the event. However on January 13, Oleynik withdrew from the event due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Sergey Spivak. In turn, just a week before the event Hardy withdrew due to a finger injury and the bout was removed from the event. The pair was moved to UFC 272.


title: UFC 270

text: Four-time Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu World Champion Rodolfo Vieira was expected to face Wellington Turman in a middleweight bout at the event. However, Vieira pulled out in the days leading up to the event and the bout was cancelled.


title: UFC 270

text: The following is the reported payout to the fighters as reported to the California State Athletic Commission. It is important to note the amounts do not include sponsor money, discretionary bonuses, viewership points or additional earnings. The total disclosed payout for the event was $2,026,000.


title: Caroline Catz

text: Caroline Catz (born Caroline Caplan; 19 October 1970) is an English film, television and theatre actress and narrator. She is best known for her role as Louisa Glasson in "Doc Martin" since 2004. Her other major roles have included Detective Inspector Kate Ashurst in "Murder in Suburbia", Detective Inspector Helen Morton in "DCI Banks", and PC Cheryl Hutchins in "The Vice".


title: Caroline Catz

text: Caroline Catz was born Caroline Caplan on 19 October 1969 in Manchester to Bernard and Rosemary Caplan.


title: Caroline Catz

text: She played opposite Michael Kitchen in a TV movie, "The Guilty" in June 1992. In 1994 she took a lead role in the BBC's "All Quiet on the Preston Front", which ran for three series. She followed this with a spell in "The Bill" as Rosie Fox, during which she met Michael Higgs, who later became her husband. Her part in "The Bill" was the first of four long-term roles in which she played police officers; in "The Vice" she was a PC, in "Murder in Suburbia" and "DCI Banks" she was a Detective Inspector.


title: Caroline Catz

text: From 2004 to 2022 Catz has starred in ITV's "Doc Martin", where she plays primary school headmistress Louisa Ellingham, (nee Glasson).


title: Caroline Catz

text: Catz has continued to appear in one-off roles, including "In Denial of Murder", in which she played real-life murder victim Wendy Sewell, and in an episode of "Hotel Babylon". She also appeared in a two-part episode of "Single Handed", entitled "The Stolen Child", as Dr Maggie Hunter. Originally shown in Ireland in January 2008, the episode was broadcast by ITV on 9 August 2009.


title: Caroline Catz

text: From 2012 until 2016, she played Detective Inspector Helen Morton in "DCI Banks". In November 2016, ITV cancelled the programme.


title: Caroline Catz

text: In 2014, Catz directed the documentary titled "A Message to the World...Whatever Happened to Jesse Hector?" Also in 2014, she narrated the BBC's television documentary "Ebola – The Search for a Cure".


title: Caroline Catz

text: In 2017, Catz wrote, directed, and starred in a short documentary, "Delia Derbyshire: The Myths And The Legendary Tapes," (2017) that was screened at the BFI London Film Festival. She expanded it into a feature-length film that debuted in October 2020.


title: Caroline Catz

text: In 2018, she was the narrator on "Britain's Biggest Warship", a documentary series about the aircraft carrier .


title: Caroline Catz

text: In November 2008 she played Anna, the puppet maker, in the stage production "On Emotion". She has previously appeared in the West End in the Out of Joint/Royal Court Theatre production of Mark Ravenhill's "Shopping and Fucking" in 1997, which earned controversy for its subject matter, while Catz herself appeared topless in one scene. However, she gained notice for her performance by critics, as well as for being the only woman in the production. In 2012 she played Marlene in Caryl Churchill's play "Top Girls" directed by Max Stafford-Clark. In 2018, Catz played Susan in "Curtains" at the Rose Theatre in Kingston. Other theatre roles include Haunted (West End), "The Recruiting Officer" (Chichester Festival Theatre), "Dogs Barking" (Bush Theatre) and "Six Degrees of Separation" at the Royal Court Theatre.


title: Caroline Catz

text: Catz is married to actor Michael Higgs, who she met on the set of "The Bill". They have a son born in 2001 and a daughter born in 2006.


title: Todd Field

text: William Todd Field (born February 24, 1964) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is known for directing three feature films: "In the Bedroom" (2001), "Little Children" (2006), and "Tár" (2022). He has received three Academy Award nominations.


title: Todd Field

text: Field was born in Pomona, California, where his family ran a poultry farm. When Field turned two, his family moved to Portland, Oregon, where his father went to work as a salesman, and his mother became a school librarian. At an early age, he became interested in performing sleight-of-hand and later music.


title: Todd Field

text: As a child in Portland, Field was a batboy for the Portland Mavericks, a single A independent minor league baseball team owned by Hollywood actor Bing Russell. Kurt Russell, Bing's son and later an actor in his own right, also played for the Portland Mavericks during this time. Field and Maverick pitching coach Rob Nelson created the first batch of Big League Chew in the Field family kitchen. In 1980, Nelson and former New York Yankees all-star Jim Bouton sold the idea to the Wrigley Company. Since that time over 800 million pouches have been sold worldwide.


title: Todd Field

text: A budding jazz musician, at the age of sixteen Field became a member of the Big Band at Mount Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon. Headed by Larry McVey, the band had become a proving-ground and regular stop for Stan Kenton and Mel Tormé when they were looking for new players. It was here Field played trombone along with his friend, trumpeter and future Grammy Award Winner Chris Botti. During this same time he also worked as a non-union projectionist at a second-run movie theater. Field graduated with his class from Centennial High School on Portland's east side and briefly attended Southern Oregon State College (now Southern Oregon University) in Ashland on a music scholarship, but left after his freshman year favoring a move to New York to study acting with Robert X. Modica at his renowned Carnegie Hall Studio. Soon after, Field began performing with the Ark Theatre Company as both an actor and musician. He received his Master of Fine Arts from the AFI Conservatory.


title: Todd Field

text: Field has worked in varying capacities as an actor, director, producer, composer, and screenwriter, and began making motion pictures after Woody Allen cast him in "Radio Days" (1987). He went on to work with some of America's greatest filmmakers, including Stanley Kubrick, Victor Nuñez, and Carl Franklin. Franklin and Nuñez, both AFI alumni, encouraged Field to enroll as a Directing Fellow at the AFI, which he did in 1992. Since then, he has received the Franklin J. Schaffner Fellow Award from the AFI, the Satyajit Ray Award from the British Film Institute, and a Jury Prize from the Sundance Film Festival. His short films have been exhibited at various venues overseas and domestically at the Museum of Modern Art.


title: Todd Field

text: Field became one of Hollywood's hottest new writer/directors with the release of "In the Bedroom", a film based on Andre Dubus's short story "Killings". (Kubrick and Dubus were among Field's mentors; both died right before the production of "In the Bedroom".) "In the Bedroom" was nominated for five Academy Awards including Best Picture, Best Actor (Tom Wilkinson, his first nomination), Best Actress (Sissy Spacek, her sixth), Supporting Actress (Marisa Tomei, her second), and Best Adapted Screenplay. The film was shot in Rockland, Maine, a New England town where Field resides. The house where he, his wife (Serena Rathbun), and their four children live was even used as the setting for one sequence. Rathbun and Spacek did some of the set design and Field handled the camera himself on many of the shots.


title: Todd Field

text: "In the Bedroom" made its debut at the 2001 Sundance Film Festival. Dennis Lim wrote in the "Village Voice":


title: Todd Field

text: Anthony Quinn of "The Independent" wrote, "Field has pulled off something here I thought no American filmmaker would ever manage again: he makes violence feel genuinely shocking."


title: Todd Field

text: For his work on "In the Bedroom", Field was named Director of the Year by the National Board of Review, and his script was awarded Best Original Screenplay. The film was named Best Picture of the Year by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and the New York Film Critics Circle awarded Field Best First Film. "In the Bedroom" received six American Film Institute Awards, including Best Picture, Director, and Screenplay, three Golden Globe nominations, and five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Actor, Actress, Supporting Actress, and two individually for Field as screenwriter and producer. The American Film Institute honored Field with the Franklin Schaffner Alumni Medal.


title: Todd Field

text: The February 2020 issue of "New York Magazine" lists "In the Bedroom" alongside "Citizen Kane", "Sunset Boulevard", "Dr. Strangelove", "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid", "The Conversation", "Nashville", "Taxi Driver", "The Elephant Man", "Pulp Fiction", "There Will Be Blood", and "Roma" as "The Best Movies That Lost Best Picture at the Oscars."


title: Todd Field

text: Field followed "In the Bedroom" with "Little Children", which was nominated for three Academy Awards, including two for the actors: Kate Winslet (her fifth nomination, and with it a record for the youngest actor to be nominated for five Academy Awards) and Jackie Earle Haley (his first nomination and first leading role in over 15 years). After having written, directed and produced just two feature films, Field had garnered five Academy Award nominations for his actors and three for himself. The film, based on Tom Perrotta's novel of the same name, premiered at the 2006 New York Film Festival. In his roundup "Best of 2006", A.O. Scott of "The New York Times" wrote:


title: Todd Field

text: International Cinephile Society's Matt Mazur called the film "subversive" and designed to disorient the viewer with "seemingly non-connected imagery to suggest a tone and a mood of disquiet." Mazur compared Field's technique with that of Sergei Eisenstein, D. W. Griffith, Georges Méliès, and Edwin S. Porter.


title: Todd Field

text: Many members of Field's creative team on "In the Bedroom" returned to work with him on the film, including Serena Rathbun. In a 2006 interview with "The Hollywood Reporter"'s Anne Thompson, Field said he quit acting and began making his own films after Rathbun told him, "Do what you want to do. Don't get distracted." Later that year, Field spoke extensively about the importance of Rathbun as his creative partner, describing a conversation he had with her where she gave him the most pivotal scene: "for me, the film is unthinkable without it."


title: Todd Field

text: After "Little Children", Field went fifteen years without directing anything, which various film journalists lamented. In his 2015 "Ioncinema" piece "Top 10 American Indie Filmmakers Missing in Action", Nicholas Bell wrote, "It is definitely time for Field to throw one down the middle. In the meantime, we'll just have to watch "In the Bedroom" for the umpteenth time."


title: Todd Field

text: During that time, Field was attached to a number of film projects, including a film adaptation of the 2009 Boston Teran novel "The Creed of Violence", set during the Mexican Revolution, which at different times was set to star Leonardo DiCaprio, Christian Bale and Daniel Craig; a coming-of-age Minor League Baseball story set in the 1970s Northwest; an adaptation of the 1985 Cormac McCarthy novel "Blood Meridian"; a political thriller called "As It Happens", co-written by Joan Didion; an adaptation of Jess Walter's novel "Beautiful Ruins"; and a film about U.S. soldier Bowe Bergdahl.


title: Todd Field

text: In 2016, Field worked on a planned television adaptation of the 2015 Jonathan Franzen novel "Purity", which was to be a 20-hour limited series for Showtime. The series was to be co-written by Field, Franzen and playwright David Hare. It would have starred Daniel Craig as Andreas Wolf and be executive produced by Field, Franzen, Craig, Hare and Scott Rudin. In 2016 Franzen said on "The Diane Rehm Show" that he was learning the art of adaptation from Field, whom he considered a "master" of the form. But in a February 2018 interview with "The Times", Hare said that, given the budget for the adaptation ($170 million), he doubted it would ever be made. "It was one of the richest and most interesting six weeks of my life, sitting in a room with Todd Field, Jonathan Franzen and Daniel Craig bashing out the story. They're extremely interesting people", Hare added.


title: Todd Field

text: Speaking publicly for the first time in 16 years, Field told the "New York Times" in 2022, "I set my sights in a very particular way on certain material that was probably very tough to get made."


title: Todd Field

text: Field's latest film project is "Tár", which he wrote and directed, and which stars Cate Blanchett as the title character, fictional classical music conductor and composer Lydia Tár. Production began in August 2021. The film is set in Berlin. It premiered in September 2022 at the Venice International Film Festival, where it competed for the Golden Lion and Queer Lion, with Cate Blanchett winning the Volpi Cup for Best Actress. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 91 out of 100 based on 43 critics, indicating a Metascore "Must-See" film and "Universal Acclaim" from critics.


title: Chartreuse (color)

text: Chartreuse (, , ), also known as yellow-green, is a color between yellow and green. It was named because of its resemblance to the green color of a French liqueur called "green chartreuse", introduced in 1764. Similarly, "chartreuse yellow" is a yellow color mixed with a small amount of green; it was named because of its resemblance to the color of another French liqueur called "yellow chartreuse", introduced in 1838.


title: Chartreuse (color)

text: The French word "chartreuse" means "charterhouse". The monasteries of the monks of the Carthusian order, of which the first one was established in 1082 by Saint Bruno, are called charter houses because they were chartered—and given generous material support—by the Duke of Burgundy, known as Philip the Bold, when he took over the area in 1378. Philip the Bold's elaborately decorated tomb was initially installed at a Carthusian charterhouse when he died in 1404. These monks started producing Chartreuse liqueur in 1764.


title: Chartreuse (color)

text: Yellow-green algae, also called "Xanthophytes", are a class of algae in the Heterokontophyta division. Most live in fresh water, but some are found in marine and soil habitats. They vary from single-celled flagellates to simple colonial and filamentous forms. Unlike other heterokonts, the plastids of yellow-green algae do not contain fucoxanthin, which is why they have a lighter color.


title: Chartreuse (color)

text: Chartreuse yellow is used on traffic safety vests to provide increased visibility for employees working near traffic. The chartreuse yellow background material, together with a retro-reflective satisfy the ANSI 107-2010 standard since 1999. High-visibility clothing ANSI Standards were adopted as an Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States) requirement in 2008.


title: Chartreuse (color)

text: Since about 1973, a sort of fluorescent chartreuse green has been adopted as the color of fire engines in parts of the United States and elsewhere. The use of chartreuse fire engines began when New York ophthalmologist Stephen Solomon produced research claiming that sparkling bright lime-green paint would boost the night time visibility of emergency vehicles compared to those painted the traditional fire engine red. The reason for this is the Purkinje effect, i.e., the cones do not function as efficiently in dim light, so red objects appear to be black. In Australia and New Zealand this form of chartreuse yellow is also known as "ACT yellow" as this is the color of the fire engines in the Australian Capital Territory.


title: Chartreuse (color)

text: When Bharatpur State was a princely state, it was the only political entity ever to have a chartreuse yellow-colored flag.


The Reform Party of the United States of America (RPUSA), generally known as the Reform Party USA or the Reform Party, is a centrist political party in the United States, founded in 1995 by Ross Perot.


title: Reform Party of the United States of America

text: Perot believed Americans were disillusioned with the state of politics as being corrupt and unable to deal with vital issues. After he received 18.9 percent of the popular vote as an independent candidate in the 1992 presidential election, he founded the Reform Party and presented it as a viable alternative to Republicans and Democrats. As the Reform Party presidential nominee, Perot won 8.4 percent of the popular vote in the 1996 presidential election. Although he did not receive a single electoral vote, no other third-party or independent candidate has since managed to receive as high a share of the popular vote.


text: The party has nominated other presidential candidates over the years, including Pat Buchanan and Ralph Nader. Its most significant victory came when Jesse Ventura was elected Governor of Minnesota in 1998, although he left the party shortly into his term. Donald Trump was a member of the Reform Party during his brief 2000 presidential campaign. In around the year 2000, party infighting and scandals led to a major decline in the party's strength. Beginning with Buchanan's poor showing in the 2000 election, no Reform Party presidential nominee since 1996 has been able to gather 1 percent of the popular vote.


text: The party grew out of Ross Perot's efforts in the 1992 presidential election, where—running as an independent—he became the first non-major party candidate since 1912 to have been considered viable enough to win the presidency. Perot received attention for focusing on fiscal issues such as the federal deficit and national debt; government reform issues such as term limits, campaign finance reform, and lobbying reform; and issues on trade. A large part of his following was grounded in the belief he was addressing vital problems largely ignored by the two major parties.


text: A Gallup poll showed Perot with a slim lead, but on July 19 he suspended his campaign, accusing Republican operatives of threatening to sabotage his daughter's wedding. He was accused by "Newsweek" of being a "quitter" in a well-publicized cover-page article. After resuming his campaign on October 1, Perot was dogged by the "quitter" moniker and other allegations concerning his character. On Election Day many voters were confused as to whether Perot was actually still a candidate. He ended up receiving about 18.9 percent of the popular vote, a record level of popularity not seen in an independent candidate since former President Theodore Roosevelt ran on the "Bull Moose" Progressive Party ticket in 1912. He continued being politically involved after the election, turning his campaign organization (United We Stand America) into a lobbying group. One of his primary goals was the defeat of the North American Free Trade Agreement during this period.


text: In 1995, Republicans took control of the House of Representatives, largely on the strength of the "Contract with America", which recognized and promised to deal with many of the issues Perot's voters had mobilized to support in 1992. However, two of the major provisions (Constitutional amendments for term limits and the balanced budgets) failed to secure the two-thirds congressional majorities required to be submitted to the states.


text: Dissatisfied, the grassroots organizations that had made Perot's 1992 candidacy possible began to band together to found a third party intended to rival the Republicans and Democrats. For legal reasons, the party ended up being called the "Reform Party" ("Independent Party" was preferred, but already taken, as were several variants on the name). A drive to get the party on the ballot in all fifty states succeeded, although it ended with lawsuits in some regions over state ballot access requirements. In a few areas, minor parties became incorporated as state party organizations.


text: At first, when the 1996 election season arrived, Perot held off from entering the contest for the Reform Party's presidential nomination, calling for others to try for the ticket. The only person who announced such an intention was Dick Lamm, former Governor of Colorado. After the Federal Election Commission indicated only Perot and not Lamm would be able to secure federal matching funds—because his 1992 campaign was as an independent—Perot entered the race. Some were upset that Perot changed his mind because, in their view, Perot overshadowed Lamm's run for the party nomination. This built up to the beginning of a splinter within the movement, when it was alleged certain problems in the primary process—such as many Lamm supporters not receiving ballots, and some primary voters receiving multiple ballots—were Perot's doing. The Reform Party claimed these problems stemmed from the petition process for getting the Reform Party on the ballot in all of the states since the party claimed they used the names and addresses of petition signers as the basis of who received ballots. Primary ballots were sent by mail to designated voters. Eventually, Perot was nominated for president and he chose economist Pat Choate as his vice presidential running mate. The results of the party’s presidential primary were: Perot 32,145, Lamm 17,121.


text: Between 1992 and 1996, the Commission on Presidential Debates changed its rules regarding how candidates could qualify to participate in the presidential debates. As Perot had previously done very well in debates, it was a decisive blow to the campaign when the Commission ruled that he could not participate on the basis of somewhat vague criteria — such as that a candidate was required to have already been endorsed by "a substantial number of major news organizations," with "substantial" being a number to be decided by the Commission on a case-by-case basis. Perot could not have qualified for the debates in 1992 under these rules, and was able to show that various famous U.S. presidents would likewise have been excluded from the modern debate by the Commission on Presidential Debates.


text: Despite legal action by the Perot team, and an 80 percent majority of Americans supporting his participation in the debates, the Commission refused to budge and Perot was reduced to making his points heard via a series of half-hour "commercials". In the end, Perot and Choate won 8 percent of the vote.


text: By October 1997, factional disputes began to emerge with the departure of a group that believed Perot had rigged the 1996 party primary to defeat Lamm. These individuals eventually established the "American Reform Party" (ARP). The ARP is actually a minor political action committee. Then chairman, Roy Downing, said the split came about when it was "...discovered [that the Reform Party] was a top-down party instead of a bottom-up organization." Although members of the group attempted to persuade former Colorado Governor Dick Lamm – Perot's chief rival for the nomination – to run for president as an Independent, he declined, pointing out that he had promised before running that he would not challenge the party's decision. During this time, Perot himself chose to concentrate on lobbying efforts through United We Stand America.


text: When the ARP was founded, Jackie Salit noted in the "Christian Science Monitor": "At its founding meeting in Kansas City in 1997, the 40 black delegates in the room, led by the country’s foremost African-American independent – Lenora Fulani – represented the first time in US history that African-Americans were present at the founding of a major national political party."


text: The ARP has yet to organize in more than a few states. In the 2000, 2004, and 2008 elections, the American Reform Party supported Ralph Nader for president. The ARP is not a political party in the conventional sense. It does not have ballot access in any state, and it does not run candidates. It supports third-party candidates and independents who support the primary principles of the Party's platform.


text: About 2010–2011, the party shifted from a relatively centrist platform to a Tea Party-style fiscal conservative one. In the 2012 presidential election, the ARP endorsed Republican Party nominee Mitt Romney against incumbent president Barack Obama. In the 2016 presidential election, the Party endorsed the Republican candidate Donald Trump.


text: According to the League of Women Voters, the Reform Party USA obtained more votes nationwide in 1998 than did any other third party in America (without those garnered by Ventura). Counting Ventura's performance, Reformers took in more votes than all other third parties in the United States combined, establishing the Reform Party as America's third-largest party.


text: The Reform Party's presidential nominee for the 2000 election was due federal matching funds of $12.5 million, based on Perot's 8 percent showing in 1996. Early on, there was a failed effort to draft Ron Paul.


text: Donald Trump entered the race briefly, giving television interviews outlining his platform. Trump was progressive on social issues, and supported allowing openly gay soldiers in the military, saying: "it would not disturb me". Trump considered himself a conservative, but criticized Pat Buchanan, saying: "I'm on the conservative side, but Buchanan is Attila the Hun." He withdrew from the race citing the party's infighting, as did Jesse Ventura and the Minnesota Reform Party. Donald Trump stated: "So the Reform Party now includes a Klansman, Mr. Duke, a neo-Nazi, Mr. Buchanan, and a communist, Ms. Fulani. This is not company I wish to keep." "Mr. Duke" was a reference to David Duke, a former Grand Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.


text: Pat Buchanan decided to leave the Republican Party because: "The Republican Party at the national level has ceased to be my party. This divorce began around the end of the Cold War when President (George) Bush declared it to be a New World-order party and began intervening all over the world. While he and I were allies and friends during the Cold War, I just felt that once the Cold War was over the United States should return to a more traditional non-intervention foreign policy."


text: After a bitter fight, Pat Buchanan secured the Reform Party's presidential nomination over John Hagelin of the Natural Law Party. Hagelin and an anti-Buchanan faction walked out and held a separate convention across the street, where they nominated Hagelin as the party's presidential candidate. The dispute went to the courts and the FEC decided that Buchanan was the legitimate nominee and awarded him $12.6 million in campaign funds. Buchanan's vice presidential running mate was Ezola B. Foster. Buchanan got 449,225 votes, 0.4 percent of those voting, and the party lost its matching funds for 2004.


text: In 2002, Buchanan returned to the Republican Party. Many of his campaign supporters also left the Reform Party to form the America First Party.


text: By the October 2003 National Convention, the Reform Party had only begun rebuilding, but several former state organizations had elected to rejoin now that the interference from the Freedom Parties was gone. They increased their ranks from 24 to 30 states and managed to retrieve ballot access for seven of them. (Buchanan's poor showing in 2000 had lost ballot access for almost the entire party.)


text: Because of organizational and financial problems in the party, it opted to support the independent campaign of Ralph Nader as the best option for an independent of any stripe that year. While the endorsement generated publicity for Nader and the Reform Party, the party was only able to provide Nader with seven ballot lines down from the 49 of 51 guaranteed ballot lines the party had going into the 2000 election.


text: In 2005, a dispute arose: the number of National Committee members required under the party's by-laws to call meetings of the National Committee, and the Executive Committee did so. These members came from several states including Texas, Michigan, and Florida. At both meetings, it was determined that a national convention would be called and held in Tampa, Florida. The Chairman at the time and National Committee members from Arizona, California, and Oklahoma boycotted the National and Executive Committee meetings, claiming the meetings were illegitimate. As a result, those states held a second convention in Yuma, Arizona.


text: In response to a suit filed by the group that met in Tampa, leaders of the Reform Party filed a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) complaint claiming the Tampa group were extremists and guilty of conspiracy.


text: In 2006, the Reform Party nominated candidates in Arizona, and petitioned to regain ballot access in several other states where state Reform Party organizations were active. The Reform Party of Kansas nominated a slate of candidates, led by Iraq War veteran Richard Ranzau. In Colorado's 4th congressional district, "fiscal conservative" Eric Eidsness (a former assistant U.S. Environmental Protection Agency administrator and Navy veteran) ran on the Reform Party ticket. He received 11.28 percent of the vote, five times the winning candidate's margin of victory; he later switched his affiliation to the Democratic Party. The Florida Reform Party granted use of its ballot line for governor to Max Linn of Florida Citizens for Term Limits (a Republican-leaning organization) in the 2006 Florida gubernatorial election. Linn retained professional campaign staff with connections to the Perot and Ventura campaigns, but received only 1.9 percent of the vote. By March 2007, the Reform Party had ballot access for the 2008 presidential election in four states (Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi) and had already started petitioning in an additional four.


text: At the national convention, Ted Weill of Mississippi was nominated to be the party's 2008 presidential candidate. Frank McEnulty of California, the 2008 presidential candidate of the New American Independent Party, was nominated to be the party's 2008 vice-presidential candidate. David Collison of Texas was elected national chairman of the party. However, the party could not announce the results of the national convention on its web site until October because of a court order obtained by a dissident faction associated with the Independence Party of New York. Therefore, the Weill/McEnulty ticket appeared on the ballot only in Mississippi, in which it received 481 votes.


text: An erroneous news report was broadcast by ABC News that stated the party had endorsed John McCain. Frank MacKay of the dissident Independence Party of New York faction had made the endorsement, not the Reform Party USA. Reform Party USA Reference David Collison, the Reform Party's chairman, said during a 2009 interview, "Do you believe that any legitimate national party would endorse the Republican candidate for President rather than have a candidate of their own?"


text: A long-standing feud in the party involved John Blare, of the Reform Party of California, and the Reform Party officers.


text: On December 4, 2009, a New York Federal judge heard "MacKay v Crews" on the question of who are the legal Reform Party officers. On December 16, 2009 the judge ruled in favor of David Collison's faction.


text: Collison said: "After over two years of litigation in Texas and New York, it is my profound pleasure to announce that US District Court Judge Joseph Bianco of the Eastern District of New York has ruled in our favor, and has further reinforced the 2008 ruling of Judge Carl Ginsberg of the 193rd District Court in Texas."


text: In January 2010, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operations officer Charles S. Faddis announced his support of the party in "The Baltimore Sun": "I have decided to throw in my lot with the Reform Party of the United States." Faddis later left the party, and ran in 2016 for Maryland's 5th congressional district as a Republican.


text: In February 2010, former Reform Party Chairman Pat Choate emerged to discuss the appeal of the Tea Party movement, contrasting it with Ross Perot's party, saying: "The difference with the Tea Party is it's been heavily pushed by a bunch of talk-show conservatives. You have the Republican Party attempting to use this as a means to pull independents or conservative independents to their policies, to their agenda."


text: In February, Congressional candidates filed to run as Reform Party candidates in all four of Mississippi's congressional districts, but none for any statewide offices. Among these were Barbara Dale Washer, Tracella Lou O'Hara Hill, and Anna Jewel Revies.


text: In April 2010, former Vice President Dan Quayle condemned the Reform Party on CBS, saying: "Many remember the Reform Party of the 1990s, which formed around the candidacy of Ross Perot. I sure do, because it eliminated any chance that President George H.W. Bush and I would prevail over Bill Clinton and Al Gore in 1992. Speaking on behalf of the Bush-Quayle campaign, to this day we firmly believe that Perot cost the Republican Party the White House."


text: Pat Choate in an April 28, 2010 interview with Monmouth University's student newspaper remained suspicious of the Tea Party movement, saying: "At these [Tea Party] events, a professional Republican always speaks. What to me is questionable is that the Tea Parties endorse candidates, but never endorse Democrats—they seem to be a front for the Republican Party. We were seen as very serious. Perot gave millions, we fielded candidates, and we were a real threat to the status quo. The media treats the Tea Parties as a sign of dissatisfaction, and views them skeptically."


text: Kristin M. Davis, the Manhattan madam involved in the Eliot Spitzer scandal, announced on June 27, 2010, that she was running for governor on an independent line in New York State using the name, Reform Party without Reform Party authorization after failing to secure the Libertarian Party nomination. Davis condemned the Democrats and Republicans for catering to wealthy white males, saying: "Where are the women, the Hispanics, the African-Americans, and the gay people? We must reject their tired old thinking..."


text: On June 29, 2010, Reform Party National Committee chairman David Collison sent Davis a cease-and-desist notice demanding that she immediately change the name under which she was seeking to run for governor. Davis made no attempt to obtain permission to run as an official Reform Party candidate, and therefore withdrew her use of the Reform Party name. Davis was not a member of the Reform Party. Davis changed her Independent Ballot Line name and filed as an independent candidate by obtaining the required signatures needed in New York State to run for governor on the "Anti-Prohibition" line.


text: At the national convention, the Reform Party nominated Andre Barnett from New York for president and Ken Cross from Arkansas for vice president. Among those who sought the presidential nomination before dropping out several months prior to the convention were former Savannah State University football coach Robby Wells, economist Laurence Kotlikoff, historian Darcy Richardson, and former Louisiana Governor Buddy Roemer.


text: The Reform Party co-nominated the American Delta Party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates Rocky de la Fuente and Michael Steinberg as their 2016 presidential ticket. However, in 2016, De La Fuente ran as a Democrat in the presidential and U.S. Senate primaries too.


text: On June 20, 2020 during a virtual convention, the Reform Party again nominated Rocky de la Fuente for president. De la Fuente defeated three other recognized candidates, Max Abramson, Souraya Faas, and Ben Zion (formerly the nominee for the Transhumanist Party). Darcy Richardson from Florida was nominated for vice president.


text: A noticeable absence from the Reform Party platform has been social issues, including abortion and gay rights. Reform Party representatives had long stated beliefs that their party could bring together people from both sides of these issues, which they consider divisive, to address what they considered to be more vital concerns as expressed in their platform. The idea was to form a large coalition of moderates; that intention was overridden in 2001 by the Buchanan takeover which rewrote the RPUSA Constitution to include platform planks opposed to any form of abortion. The Buchananists, in turn, were overridden by the 2002 Convention which reverted the Constitution to its 1996 version and the party's original stated goals.


title: Bulgars

text: The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. They became known as nomadic equestrians in the Volga-Ural region, but some researchers say that their ethnic roots can be traced to Central Asia. During their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe, the Bulgar tribes absorbed other tribal groups and cultural influences in a process of ethnogenesis, including Iranian, Finnic and Hunnic tribes. Modern genetic research on Central Asian Turkic people and ethnic groups related to the Bulgars points to an affiliation with Western Eurasian populations. The Bulgars spoke a Turkic language, i.e. Bulgar language of Oghuric branch. They preserved the military titles, organization and customs of Eurasian steppes, as well as pagan shamanism and belief in the sky deity Tangra.


title: Bulgars

text: The Bulgars became semi-sedentary during the 7th century in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, establishing the polity of Old Great Bulgaria c. 630–635, which was defeated by the Khazar Empire in 668 AD. In c. 679, Khan Asparukh conquered Scythia Minor, opening access to Moesia, and established the Danubian Bulgaria – the First Bulgarian Empire, where the Bulgars became a political and military elite. They merged subsequently with established Byzantine populations, as well as with previously settled Slavic tribes, and were eventually Slavicized, thus forming the ancestors of modern Bulgarians.


title: Bulgars

text: The remaining Pontic Bulgars migrated in the 7th century to the Volga River, where they founded the Volga Bulgaria; they preserved their identity well into the 13th century. The modern Volga Tatars and Chuvash people claim to have originated from the Volga Bulgars.


title: Bulgars

text: The etymology of the ethnonym "Bulgar" is not completely understood and difficult to trace back earlier than the 4th century AD. Since the work of Wilhelm Tomaschek (1873), it is generally said to be derived from Proto-Turkic root *"bulga-" ("to stir", "to mix"; "to become mixed"), which with the consonant suffix "-r" implies a noun meaning "mixed". Other scholars have added that "bulğa" might also imply "stir", "disturb", "confuse" and Talat Tekin interpreted "bulgar" as the verb form "mixing" (i.e. rather than the adjective "mixed"). Both Gyula Németh and Peter Benjamin Golden initially advocated the "mixed race" theory, but later, like Paul Pelliot, considered that "to incite", "rebel", or "to produce a state of disorder", i.e. the "disturbers", was a more likely etymology for migrating nomads.


title: Bulgars

text: According to Osman Karatay, if the "mixed" etymology relied on the westward migration of the Oğurs, meeting and merging with the Huns, north of the Black Sea, it was a faulty theory, since the Oghurs were documented in Europe as early as 463, while the Bulgars were not mentioned until 482 – an overly short time period for any such ethnogenesis to occur. However, the "mixing" in question may have occurred before the Bulgars migrated from further east, and scholars such as Sanping Chen have noted analogous groups in Inner Asia, with phonologically similar names, who were frequently described in similar terms: during the 4th century, the "Buluoji" (Middle Chinese "b'uo-lak-kiei"), a component of the "Five Barbarian" groups in Ancient China, were portrayed as both a "mixed race" and "troublemakers". Peter A. Boodberg noted that the "Buluoji" in the Chinese sources were recorded as remnants of the Xiongnu confederation, and had strong Caucasian elements.


title: Bulgars

text: Another theory linking the Bulgars to a Turkic people of Inner Asia has been put forward by Boris Simeonov, who identified them with the "Pugu" (僕骨; "buk/buok kwət"; "Buqut"), a Tiele and/or Toquz Oguz tribe. The Pugu were mentioned in Chinese sources from 103 BC up to the 8th century AD, and later were situated among the eastern Tiele tribes, as one of the highest-ranking tribes after the Uyghurs. According to the "Chronicle" by Michael the Syrian, which comprises several historical events of different age into one story, three mythical Scythian brothers set out on a journey from the mountain Imaon (Tian Shan) in Asia and reached the river Tanais (Don), the country of the Alans called Barsalia, which would be later inhabited by the Bulgars and the Pugurs ("Puguraje").


title: Bulgars

text: The names Onoğur and Bulgar were linked by later Byzantine sources for reasons that are unclear.Tekin derived "-gur" from the Altaic suffix "-gir". Generally, modern scholars consider the terms "oğuz" or "oğur", as generic terms for Turkic tribal confederations, to be derived from Turkic "*og/uq", meaning "kinship or being akin to". The terms initially were not the same, as "oq/ogsiz" meant "arrow", while "oğul" meant "offspring, child, son", "oğuš/uğuš" was "tribe, clan", and the verb "oğša-/oqša" meant "to be like, resemble".


title: Bulgars

text: There also appears to be an etymological association between the Bulgars and the preceding Kutrigur ("Kuturgur" > "Quturğur" > "*Toqur(o)ğur" < "toqur"; "nine" in Proto-Bulgar; "toquz" in Common Turkic) and Utigur ("Uturgur" > "Uturğur" < "utur/otur"; "thirty" in Proto-Bulgar; "otuz" in Common Turkic) – as "'Oğur" (Oghur) tribes, with the ethnonym Bulgar as a "spreading" adjective. Golden considered the origin of the Kutrigurs and Utigurs to be obscure and their relationship to the Onogurs and Bulgars – who lived in similar areas at the same time – as unclear. He noted, however, an implication that the Kutrigurs and Utigurs were related to the Šarağur ("šara oğur", "shara oghur"; "white oğhurs"), and that according to Procopius these were Hunnish tribal unions, of partly Cimmerian descent. Karatay considered the Kutrigurs and Utigurs to be two related, ancestral people, and prominent tribes in the later Bulgar union, but different from the Bulgars.


title: Bulgars

text: Among many other theories regarding the etymology of Bulgar, the following have also had limited support.


title: Bulgars

text: The origin of the early Bulgars is still unclear. Their homeland is believed to be situated in Kazakhstan and the North Caucasian steppes. Interaction with the Hunnic tribes, causing the migration, may have occurred there, but the Pontic–Caspian steppe seems a more likely location.


title: Bulgars

text: The first clear mention and evidence of the Bulgars was in 480, when they served as the allies of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno (474–491) against the Ostrogoths. Anachronistic references about them can also be found in the 7th-century geography work "Ashkharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi, where the "Kup'i Bulgar", "Duč'i Bulkar", "Olxontor Błkar" and immigrant "Č'dar Bulkar" tribes are mentioned as being in the North Caucasian-Kuban steppes. An obscure reference to "Ziezi ex quo Vulgares", with Ziezi being an offspring of Biblical Shem, is in the "Chronography of 354".


title: Bulgars

text: According to D. Dimitrov, the 5th-century "History of Armenia" by Movses Khorenatsi speaks about two migrations of the Bulgars, from Caucasus to Armenia. The first migration is mentioned in the association with the campaign of Armenian ruler Valarshak (probably Varazdat) to the lands "named Basen by the ancients... and which were afterwards populated by immigrants of the vh' ndur Bulgar Vund, after whose name they (the lands) were named Vanand". The second migration took place during the time of the ruler Arshak III, when "great disturbances occurred in the range of the great Caucasus mountain, in the land of the Bulgars, many of whom migrated and came to our lands and settled south of Kokh". Both migrations are dated to the second half of the 4th century AD. The "disturbances" which caused them are believed to be the expansion of the Huns in the East-European steppes. Dimitrov recorded that the toponyms of the Bolha and Vorotan rivers, tributaries of the Aras river, are known as "Bolgaru-chaj" and "Vanand-chaj", and could confirm the Bulgar settlement of Armenia.


title: Bulgars

text: Around 463 AD, the Akatziroi and other tribes that had been part of the Hunnic union were attacked by the Šarağurs, one of the first Oğuric Turkic tribes that entered the Ponto-Caspian steppes as the result of migrations set off in Inner Asia. According to Priscus, in 463 the representatives of Šarağur, Oğur and Onoğur came to the Emperor in Constantinople, and explained they had been driven out of their homeland by the Sabirs, who had been attacked by the Avars. This tangle of events indicates that the Oğuric tribes are related to the Ting-ling and Tiele people. It seems that Kutrigurs and Unigurs arrived with the initial waves of Oğuric peoples entering the Pontic steppes. The Bulgars were not mentioned in 463.


title: Bulgars

text: The account by Paul the Deacon in his "History of the Lombards" (8th century) says that at the beginning of the 5th century in the North-Western slopes of the Carpathians the "Vulgares" killed the Lombard king Agelmund. Scholars attribute this account to the Huns, Avars or some Bulgar groups were probably carried away by the Huns to the Central Europe. The Lombards, led by their new king Laimicho, rose up and defeated the Bulgars with great slaughter, gaining great booty and confidence as they "became bolder in undertaking the toils of war." The defeated Bulgars then became subjects of the Lombards and later migrated in Italy with their king Alboin. When the army of Ostrogoth chieftain Theodoric Strabo grew to 30,000-men strong, it was felt as a menace to Byzantine Emperor Zeno, who somehow managed to convince the Bulgars to attack the Thracian Goths. The Bulgars were eventually defeated by Strabo in 480/481. In 486 and 488 they fought against the Goths again, first as allies of the Byzantium, according to Magnus Felix Ennodius, and later as allies of the Gepids, according to Paul the Deacon. However, when Theoderic the Great with Ostrogoths parted for Italy in 489, the Illyricum and Thrace were open for Bulgar raids.


title: Bulgars

text: In 493, according to Marcellinus Comes, they defeated and killed magister militum Julian. In 499, crossed Danube and reached Thrace where on the banks of the river Tzurta (considered a tributary of Maritsa) defeated 15,000 men strong Roman army led by magister militum Aristus. In 502, Bulgars again devastated Thrace as reportedly there were no Roman soldiers to oppose them. In 528–529 again invaded the region and defeated Roman generals Justin and Baduarius. However, Gothic general, Mundus, offered allegiance to the Emperor Justinian I (527–565) in 530, and managed to kill 5,000 Bulgars plundering Thrace. John Malalas recorded that in the battle was captured Bulgar warlord. In 535, magister militum Sittas defeated the Bulgar army at the river Yantra.


title: Bulgars

text: Ennodius, Jordanes and Procopius identified the Bulgars with the Huns in a 6th-century literary topos, in which Ennodius referred to a captured Bulgar horse as ""equum Huniscum"". In 505, the alleged 10,000 Hun horsemen in the Sabinian army, which was defeated by the Ostrogoths, are believed to be the Bulgars. In 515, Bulgar mercenaries were listed along with others from the Goths, Scythians and Hunnic tribes as part of the Vitalian army. In 539, two Hunnic "kinglets" defeated two Roman generals during the raid into Scythia Minor and Moesia. A Roman army led by magister militum Ascum and Constantiolus intercepted and defeated them in Thrace, however, another raiding party ambushed and captured two Roman generals. In 539 and 540, Procopius reported a powerful Hunnic army crossed the Danube, devastated Illyricum and reached up to the Anastasian Wall. Such large distances covered in short time indicate they were horsemen.


title: Bulgars

text: Jordanes described, in his work "Getica" (551), the Pontic steppe beyond the Acatziri, above the Pontic Sea, as the habitat of the "Bulgari", "whom the evils of our sins have made famous". In this region, the "Hunni" divided into two tribes: the "Altziagiri" (who trade and live next to Cherson) and "Saviri", while the "Hunuguri" (believed to be the Onoğurs) were notable for the marten skin trade. In the Middle Ages, marten skin was used as a substitute for minted money.


title: Bulgars

text: The Syriac translation of Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor's "Ecclesiastical History" (c. 555) in Western Eurasia records:


title: Bulgars

text: The land Bazgun... extends up to the Caspian Gates and to the sea, which are in the Hunnish lands. Beyond the gates live the Burgars (Bulgars), who have their language, and are people pagan and barbarian. They have towns. And the Alans – they have five towns... Avnagur (Aunagur, considered Onoğurs) are people, who live in tents


title: Bulgars

text: Then he records 13 tribes, the "wngwr" (Onogur), "wgr" (Oğur), "sbr" (Sabir), "bwrgr" (Burğa, i.e. Bulgar), "kwrtrgr" (Kutriğurs), "br" (probably Vars, also known as the Avars), "ksr" ("Kasr"; possibly Akatziri), "srwrgwr" (Saragur), "dyrmr" (unknown), "b'grsyq" ("Bagrasir", i.e. Barsil), "kwls" (unknown), "bdl" (probably Abdali), and "ftlyt" (Hephthalite) ... They are described in typical phrases reserved for nomads in the ethnographic literature of the period, as people who "live in tents, earn their living on the meat of livestock and fish, of wild animals and by their weapons (plunder)".


title: Bulgars

text: ...all of them are called in general Scythians and Huns in particular according to their nation. Thus, some are Koutrigours or Outigours and yet others are Oultizurs and Bourougounds... the Oultizurs and Bourougounds were known up to the time of the Emperor Leo (457–474) and the Romans of that time and appeared to have been strong. We, however, in this day, neither know them, nor, I think, will we. Perhaps, they have perished or perhaps they have moved off to very far place.


title: Bulgars

text: According to D. Dimitrov, scholars partially managed to identify and locate the Bulgar groups mentioned in the Armenian "Ashkharatsuyts". The "Olxontor Błkar" is one of the variations used for the Onoğurs Bulgars, while others could be related to the ancient river names, such as the "Kup'i Bulgar" and the Kuban (Kuphis). The "Duč'i" could read "Kuchi Bulkar" and as such could be related to the Dnieper (Kocho). However, the "Č'dar Bulkar" location is unclear. Dimitrov theorized that the differences in the "Bulgar" ethnonym could be due to the dialect differentiations in their language.


title: Bulgars

text: By the middle of the 6th century, the Bulgars momentarily fade from the sources and the Kutrigurs and Utigurs come to the front. Between 548 and 576, mostly due to Justinian I (527–565), through diplomatic persuasion and bribery the Kutrigurs and Utigurs were drawn into mutual warfare, decimating one another. In the end, the Kutrigurs were overwhelmed by the Avars, while the Utigurs came under the rule of the Western Turks.


title: Bulgars

text: The Oğurs and Onoğurs, in the 6th- and 7th-century sources, were mentioned mostly in connection with the Avar and Turk conquest of Western Eurasia. From the 8th century, the Byzantine sources often mention the Onoğurs in close connection with the Bulgars. Agathon (early 8th century) wrote about the nation of Onoğurs Bulğars. Nikephoros I (early 9th century) noted that Kubrat was the lord of the "Onoğundurs"; his contemporary Theophanes referred to them as "Onoğundur–Bulğars". Constantine VII (mid-10th century) remarked that the Bulğars formerly called themselves "Onoğundurs". This association was previously mirrored in Armenian sources, such as the "Ashkharatsuyts", which refers to the "Olxontor Błkar", and the 5th century "History" by Movses Khorenatsi, which includes an additional comment from a 9th-century writer about the colony of the Vłĕndur Bułkar. Marquart and Golden connected these forms with the "Iġndr" (*Uluġundur) of Ibn al-Kalbi (c. 820), the "Vnndur" (*Wunundur) of Hudud al-'Alam (982), the "Wlndr" (*Wulundur) of Al-Masudi (10th century) and Hungarian name for Belgrad "Nándor Fejérvár", the "nndr" (*Nandur) of Gardīzī (11th century) and "*Wununtur" in the letter by the Khazar King Joseph. All the forms show the phonetic changes typical of later Oğuric (prothetic v-).


title: Bulgars

text: Scholars consider it unclear how this union came about, viewing it as a long process in which a number of different groups were merged. During that time, the Bulgars may have represented a large confederation including the remnants of Onoğurs, Utigurs and Kutrigurs among others.


title: Bulgars

text: The Turk rule weakened sometime after 600, allowing the Avars to reestablish the control over the region. As the Western Turkic Khaganate declined, finally collapsing in the middle of the 7th century, it was against Avar rule that the Bulgars, recorded as "Onoğundur–Bulğars", reappeared. They revolted under their leader Kubrat (c. 635), who seems to have been prepared by Heraclius (610–641) against the Sasanian–Avar alliance. With his uncle Organa in 619, Kubrat had been baptized in Constantinople. He founded the Old Great Bulgaria ("Magna Bulgaria"), also known as "Onoğundur–Bulğars" state, or "Patria Onoguria" in the "Ravenna Cosmography".


title: Bulgars

text: Little is known about Kubrat's activities. It is considered that Onogur Bulgars remained the only steppe tribes in good relations with the Byzantines. His date of death is placed between 650 and 663 AD. According to Nikephoros I, Kubrat instructed his five sons to "never separate their place of dwelling from one another, so that by being in concordance with one another, their power might thrive".


title: Bulgars

text: Subsequent events proved Old Great Bulgaria to be only a loose tribal union, as there emerged a rivalry between the Khazars and the Bulgars over Turk patrimony and dominance in the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Some historians consider the war an extension of the Western Turks struggle, between the "Nushibi" tribes and Ashina clan, who led the Khazars, and the "Duolu/Tu-lu" tribes, which some scholars associated with the Dulo clan, from which Kubrat and many Bulgar rulers originated. The Khazars were ultimately victorious and parts of the Bulgar union broke up.


title: Bulgars

text: It is unclear whether the parting ways by brothers was caused by the internal conflicts or strong Khazar pressure. The latter is considered more likely. The Bulgars led by the first two brothers Batbayan and Kotrag remained in the Pontic steppe zone, where they were known as "Black Bulgars" by Byzantine and Rus sources, and became Khazar vassals. The Bulgars led by Kotrag migrated to the middle Volga region during the 7th and 9th centuries, where they founded Volga Bulgaria, with Bolghar as its capital. According to Ahmad ibn Rustah (10th century), the Volga Bulgars were divided into three branches: "the first branch was called Bersula (Barsils), the second Esegel, and the third Bulgar". In 922 they accepted Islam as the official religion. They preserved their national identity well into the 13th century by repelling the first Mongol attacks in 1223. They were eventually subdued by the Mongols in 1237. They gradually lost their identity after 1431 when their towns and region were captured by the Russians.


title: Bulgars

text: Asparukh, according to the "Pseudo"–Zacharias Rhetor, "fled from the Khazars out of the Bulgarian mountains". In the Khazar ruler Joseph's letter is recorded "in the country in which I live, there formerly lived the Vununtur (< Vunundur < Onoğundur). Our ancestors, the Khazars warred with them. The Vununtur were more numerous, as numerous as the sand by the sea, but they could not withstand the Khazars. They left their country and fled... until they reached the river called Duna (Danube)".


title: Bulgars

text: This migration and the foundation of the Danube Bulgaria (the First Bulgarian Empire) is usually dated c. 679. The composition of the horde is unknown, and sources only mention tribal names Čakarar, Kubiar, Küriger, and clan names Dulo, Ukil/Vokil, Ermiyar, Ugain and Duar. The "Onglos" where Bulgars settled is considered northern Dobruja, secured to the West and North by Danube and its Delta, and bounded to the East by the Black Sea. They re-settled in North-Eastern Bulgaria, between Shumen and Varna, including Ludogorie plateau and southern Dobruja. The distribution of pre-Christian burial assemblages in Bulgaria and Romania is considered as the indication of the confines of the Bulgar settlement.


title: Bulgars

text: In the Balkans they merged with the Slavs and other autochthonous Romance and Greek speaking population, like the Thracians and Vlachs, becoming a political and military elite. However, the influence of the pre-Slavic population had relatively little influence on the Slavs and Bulgars, indicating their population was reduced in previous centuries. The hinterlands of the Byzantine territory were for years occupied by many groups of Slavs. According to Theophanes, the Bulgars subjugated the so-called Seven Slavic tribes, of which the Severeis were re-settled from the pass of Beregaba or Veregava, most likely the Rish Pass of the Balkan Mountains, to the East, while the other six tribes to the Southern and Western regions as far the boundary with the Pannonian Avars. Scholars consider that the absence of any source recording the Slavic resistance to the invasion was because it was in their interest to be liberated from the Byzantine taxation. It is considered that the Slavic tribal organization was left intact, and paid tribute to the ruling Bulgars.


title: Bulgars

text: According to Nikephoros I and Theophanes, an unnamed fourth brother, believed to be Kuber, "having crossed the river Ister, resides in Pannonia, which is now under the sway of the Avars, having made an alliance with the local peoples". Kuber later led a revolt against the Avars and with his people moved as far as the region of Thessaloniki in Greek Macedonia.


title: Bulgars

text: The fifth brother, reported by Nikephoros I and Theophanes, "settling in the five Ravennate cities became a subject of the Romans". This brother is believed to be Alcek, who after a stay in Avar territory left and settled in Italy, in Sepino, Bojano and Isernia. These Bulgars preserved their speech and identity until the late 8th century.


title: Bulgars

text: The First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018) had a significant political influence in the Balkans. In the time of Tervel (700–721) the Bulgars helped Byzantines two times, in 705 the Emperor Justinian II to regain his throne, and 717–718 defeating the Arabs during the siege of Constantinople. Sevar (738–753) was the last ruler from the Dulo clan, and the period until c. 768–772 was characterized by the Byzantino-Bulgar conflict and internal crisis. In the short period followed seven rulers from the Uokil and Ugain clan. Telerig (768–777) managed to establish a pacific policy with Byzantium, and restore imperial power.


title: Bulgars

text: During the reign of Khan Krum (803–814), the Empire doubled its size, including new lands in Macedonia and Serbia. He also successfully repelled the invading force of the Byzantines, as well defeated the Pannonian Avars where additionally extended the Empire size. In 865, during the reign of Khan Boris I (852–889), the Bulgars accepted Christianity as the official religion, and Eastern Orthodoxy in 879. The greatest expansion of the Empire and prosperity during the time of Simeon I (893–927) is considered as the Bulgarian Golden Age. However, from the time of Peter I (927–969) their power declined. The Hungarians, Kievan Rus' Slavs, as well Pechenegs and Cumans held many raids into their territory, and so weakened were eventually conquered in 1018 by the Byzantine Empire.


title: Bulgars

text: In 1185, the Bulgarians and Vlachs held a revolt against the Byzantine Empire, and helped by the settled Cumans from Hungary, created the Second Bulgarian Empire (1186–1396) ruled by the Asen dynasty (1187–1280). From 1280 till 1322 periodically ruled the Terter dynasty, and from 1323 till 1396 the Shishman dynasty, all the three of Cuman origin. In 1396, the Bulgarians were conquered by the Ottoman Turks, and only in 1878 established an autonomous principality, while in 1908 declared independence.


title: Bulgars

text: Bulgars had the typical culture of the nomadic equestrians of Central Asia, who migrated seasonally in pursuit of good pastures, as well attraction to economic and cultural interaction with sedentary societies. Being in contact with sedentary cultures, they began mastering the crafts of blacksmithing, pottery, and carpentry. The politically dominant tribe or clan usually gave its name to the tribal confederation. Such confederations were often encouraged by the Imperial powers, for whom it was easier to deal with one ruler than several tribal chieftains.