title: Meng'er Zhang

text: In 2009, Zhang participated in China's "Super Girl" TV singing contest and was amongst the top 20 participants nationwide before withdrawing as her parents had arranged further schooling overseas for her. She later starred in numerous theatre productions. In 2013, in a Chinese stage adaptation, titled "Finding Destiny" (寻找初恋), of Korean musical, "Finding Mr. Destiny", Zhang played the female lead Luo Yan. In 2017, she starred in the Chinese musical adaptation of "The Street of Dawn" (黎明之街) where she played Nakanishi Akiba (仲系 秋叶), and in "Oliver Twist" where she played Dodger. In 2019, she was in "In The Mood For Sorrow" (马不停蹄的忧伤) where she was nominated for the Best Leading Actress Award at 13th Daegu International Musical Festival.


title: Meng'er Zhang

text: "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" was her debut mainstream film role. Before being cast, she sent an audition tape for an unknown role in an unknown film for women who could speak both Mandarin Chinese and English. After being cast for "Shang-Chi", she was trained intensely in martial arts stunt training. During production of "Shang-Chi", she took advice from co-star Ben Kingsley on the distinction between stage acting and camera acting, and director Destin Daniel Cretton also coached her in on-screen acting as she had little experience working with camera framing. Her casting in the film was revealed at the Disney Investor Day 2020 in December of that year. Zhang joined the cast of "The Witcher" for its third season as a human huntress named Milva.


title: Meng'er Zhang

text: On May 10, 2021, Zhang married Yung Lee, an action designer on "Shang-Chi", whom she met on the set of the film. The "Shang-Chi" cast and crew, including her costars Simu Liu and Awkwafina, hosted a surprise wedding reception for them at Disneyland.


title: Alison Steadman

text: Alison Steadman (born 26 August 1946) is an English actress. She received the 1991 National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress for the Mike Leigh film "Life Is Sweet" and the 1993 Olivier Award for Best Actress for her role as Mari in the original production of "The Rise and Fall of Little Voice". In a 2007 Channel 4 poll, the ‘50 Greatest Actors’ voted for by other actors, she was ranked 42.


title: Alison Steadman

text: Steadman made her professional stage debut in 1968 and went on to establish her career in Mike Leigh's 1970s TV plays "Nuts in May" (1976) and "Abigail's Party" (1977). She received BAFTA TV Award nominations for the 1986 BBC serial "The Singing Detective" and in 2001 for the ITV drama series "Fat Friends" (2000–2005). Other television roles include "Pride and Prejudice" (1995), "Gavin & Stacey" (2007–2010, 2019) and "Orphan Black" (2015–2016). Her other film appearances include "A Private Function" (1984), "Topsy-Turvy" (1999), "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers" (2004), "Dad's Army" (2016) and "The King's Man" (2021).


title: Alison Steadman

text: Steadman was born in Liverpool, the youngest of three sisters born to Marjorie (née Evans) and George Percival Steadman, who worked as a production controller for Plessey, an electronics firm.


title: Alison Steadman

text: Steadman was educated at Childwall Valley High School for Girls, a state grammar school in the Liverpool suburb of Childwall, followed by East 15 Acting School, at which she secured a place in the autumn of 1966 and where she met Mike Leigh during her second year.


title: Alison Steadman

text: Having left the East 15 Acting School in Loughton, Essex, Steadman worked in various regional repertory theatres, starting at Lincoln in 1968, where her first role was the schoolgirl Sandy in "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie". She created the role of the monstrous Beverly in Mike Leigh's "Abigail's Party", which she reprised with the original cast on television. She won an Olivier Award for "The Rise and Fall of Little Voice" and also appeared in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", "Entertaining Mr Sloane", "Hotel Paradiso", and others in locations as diverse as the Royal Court, the Theatre Royal, the Old Vic, the Hampstead Theatre, the Nottingham Playhouse, the Everyman Liverpool and the National Theatre. She starred as Elmire in the 1983 RSC production of Molière's "Tartuffe", which was adapted for BBC television. In 2010 Steadman played Madame Arcati in a revival of Noël Coward's "Blithe Spirit". In 2014 Steadman appeared as Madame Raquin in Helen Edmundson's adaptation of Emile Zola's "Thérèse Raquin".


title: Alison Steadman

text: Steadman has appeared in many films, including "P'tang, Yang, Kipperbang" (1982), "Champions" (1983), "A Private Function" (1984), "Number One" (1984), "Clockwise" (1986), "Stormy Monday" (1988), "The Adventures of Baron Munchausen" (1988), "Shirley Valentine" (1989), "Wilt" (1989), "Life Is Sweet" (1990), "Blame It on the Bellboy" (1992), "Secrets & Lies" (1996), "Topsy-Turvy" (1999), "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers" (2004), "Confetti" (2006), "Burn Burn Burn" (2015) and "23 Walks" (2020).


title: Alison Steadman

text: Steadman's television work includes "Fat Friends" as Betty, "Grumpy Old Women", "Stressed Eric", "Let Them Eat Cake", "The Singing Detective", "No Bananas", "The Caucasian Chalk Circle", "" as Pauline Mole, opposite James Bolam in the television film "The Missing Postman", and "Pride and Prejudice" as Mrs. Bennet. In 1991, she also appeared as Edda Göring in "Selling Hitler" and as Lauren Patterson in "Gone to the Dogs", which was then followed up by "Gone to Seed".


title: Alison Steadman

text: Television productions directed by Leigh in which she has appeared include "Nuts in May", "Hard Labour" and "Abigail's Party". She also appeared in the BBC comedy "The Worst Week of My Life". In 2007 she featured in the BBC Wales programme "Coming Home" about her Welsh family history, with roots in Trefarclawdd and Ruabon.


title: Alison Steadman

text: From May 2007 to January 2010 Steadman starred in the BBC comedy "Gavin & Stacey" as Pam Shipman. She returned in the role in the 2019 Christmas special.


title: Alison Steadman

text: Steadman starred with Myra Frances in "Girl", a 1974 BBC play in the "Second City Firsts" series, performing the first lesbian kiss on British television.


title: Alison Steadman

text: In 2014 Steadman starred in the first series of the BBC comedy "Boomers" as Joyce. The show returned with a Christmas Special in 2015 and a second series in 2016. In 2016 she presented the three-part series "Little British Islands with Alison Steadman" on Channel 4. The series visited Gigha, Jura, Colonsay and Oronsay in episode 1, Jersey, Alderney and Sark in episode 2 and the Isles of Scilly in episode 3. In 2016 she appeared as Abigail in the Midsomer Murders episode ‘The incident at Cooper Hill’.


title: Alison Steadman

text: In 2018 Steadman made a return to BBC1 with John Cleese in "Hold the Sunset". On 9 December 2018 Steadman appeared in the BBC1 Drama ‘Care’ in the role of Mary.


title: Alison Steadman

text: On radio Steadman's talent for mimicry and character voices was given full rein in shows such as "Week Ending", "Castle's on the Air" and "The Worst Show on the Wireless". In the second and third of these she played the over-protective mother to Eli Woods' long-suffering "Bunty/Precious". From 1982 to 1984 she joined Eli Woods and Eddie Braben ("Morecambe and Wise"'s scriptwriter) in 13 episodes of the UK radio show "The Show with No Name", which can be described as an updated version of "Round the Horne" comedy sketch show. Later, from 2002, she starred as Mrs Naughtie in the series "Hamish and Dougal". Steadman had a spell in Roy Hudd's long-running comedy show The News Huddlines in the early to mid 1980s. In December 2009 she starred in Mike Stott's "My Mad Grandad" on BBC Radio 4. From 2012 she played Ginny Fox, a parody of Virginia Woolf, in the sitcom "Gloomsbury". In 2018 she made a guest appearance in Radio 4's The Archers as Olwen, a friend of Jill Archer.


title: Alison Steadman

text: In 1972 director Mike Leigh drove to Liverpool to see Ted Whitehead's play "The Foursome", which featured Steadman. He asked her to be in his film "Hard Labour", during which, both said, they "got together". They married in 1973 and had two sons, Toby (b. 1978) and Leo (b. 1981). The couple lived with their sons in Wood Green, London. They separated in 1995 and divorced in 2001.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Barry Knapp Bostwick (born February 24, 1945) is an American actor and singer. He is best known for portraying Brad Majors in the musical comedy horror film "The Rocky Horror Picture Show" (1975) and Mayor Randall Winston in the sitcom "Spin City" (1996–2002). Bostwick has also had considerable success in musical theatre, winning a Tony Award for his role in "The Robber Bridegroom".


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick was born February 24, 1945, in San Mateo, California. He is the son of Elizabeth "Betty" (née Defendorf), a housewife, and Henry "Bud" Bostwick, a city planner and actor. His only sibling, older brother Henry "Pete" Bostwick, died at the age of 32 in a car accident on July 20, 1973. Bostwick attended San Diego's United States International University in 1967, majoring in acting, got his start on the Hillbarn Theatre stage now located in Foster City, and worked for a time as a circus performer. He also attended NYU's Graduate Acting Program, graduating in 1968.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick was a member of First National Nothing, who released one album, 1970's "If You Sit Real Still and Hold My Hand, You Will Hear Absolutely Nothing." They are described on the album as "A rock-theater commune made up of musicians, actors, dancers, singers, designers, writers, composers, and friends that started a long, long time ago as a lost tribe in California and has ended up as a theatrical performing company in New York City."


title: Barry Bostwick

text: In 1970, Bostwick was a member of a pop band called The Klowns, assembled and promoted by Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, whose members performed wearing stylized clown makeup and costumes. Their sole album, released in 1970, was produced by Jeff Barry, and generated a minor "Billboard" hit single, "Lady Love."


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick replaced C.C. Courtney in the musical "Salvation". His next stage appearance was in the 1971 rock opera "Soon", which closed after three performances. In 1972, Bostwick originated the role of bad boy Danny Zuko in the stage production of "Grease", earning a Tony Award nomination for his performance. This was followed by a voice role as Terr in the English-dubbed version of "Fantastic Planet" in 1973. He later starred with Tim Curry and Susan Sarandon in "The Rocky Horror Picture Show" (1975) portraying the character of Brad Majors. He also won a Tony Award for his performance in the 1977 musical "The Robber Bridegroom". In 1981, Bostwick starred in the TV series adaptation of the 1978 movie "Foul Play", with his role modeled after Chevy Chase's and co-star Deborah Raffin in Goldie Hawn's part. The following year, he starred in "Megaforce". Bostwick starred, along with Carl Weintraub, as Rick Armstrong in the short-lived ABC sitcom "Dads" during the 1986–87 season. From 1996 to 2002, Bostwick portrayed Randall Winston, the mayor of New York City in the sitcom "Spin City" opposite Michael J. Fox and his successor, Charlie Sheen. In 2006, Bostwick replaced Peter Scolari as Mr. Tyler, the father of Amanda Bynes's and Jennie Garth's lead characters, on "What I Like About You".


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick had a recurring role between 2004 and 2007 on "". He has also had leading roles in various mini-series, including "George Washington", its sequel "", "Scruples", "A Woman of Substance", "War and Remembrance", and "Till We Meet Again".


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick served as host of the nationally televised annual "Capitol Fourth" celebration on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. for eight years. Bostwick was also seen in a Pepsi Twist commercial. In the "Cold Case" episode "Creatures of the Night," in which he is the main suspect, the theme of the episode revolves around "The Rocky Horror Picture Show", which is among his best-known performances to date.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: In 2003, Bostwick appeared on "Scrubs" as a patient diagnosed with prostate cancer, a disease Bostwick had in real life. In 2008, he appeared in an episode of TV series "Ugly Betty" as an attorney to the Meade family. In 2007, Bostwick gained a recurring role, as Grandpa Clyde Flynn on the animated television series, "Phineas and Ferb". Bostwick is also the spokesperson for Optimum Voice. In June 2009, he played Father Jimmy, the ineffective exorcist in the independent horror comedy "The Selling", written by Gabriel Diani and directed by Emily Lou.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Other television credits include guest appearances in "Charlie's Angels", "Hawaii Five-O", "The Golden Palace", "Grace Under Fire", and "Las Vegas".


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick was supposed to appear on the third season of "Private Practice" as "the Captain," a father of the Addison Montgomery character, but had to resign due to a scheduling conflict. In 2011, Bostwick portrayed a small-town sheriff in the John Landis-produced thriller "Some Guy Who Kills People"


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Since 2009, Bostwick has had a recurring role as Roger Frank on the sitcom "Cougar Town" which stars Courteney Cox. In season three of the show, we learn that Bostwick's character has become mayor of the town the comedy is set in, Gulf Haven. In 2015, he starred in Darren Lynn Bousman's segment of the anthology film "Tales of Halloween", which was his second time acting under Bousman after "The Devil's Carnival", and appeared in the comedy horror film "Helen Keller vs. Nightwolves". In 2015, he portrayed Collin Winthrop, father of the Gig Harbor Killer, in the season-ending "" episode "The End Game." He has also had a return to cult musical horror films in the form of Terrance Zdunich's "Alleluia! The Devil's Carnival", which is a sequel to the 2012 short film "The Devil's Carnival", of which he was not previously a cast member, being a newcomer to the franchise.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: In 2020, Bostwick executive produced and starred in the short film "Molly Robber" as Ron Baker, which won an Audience Award at the 2020 Austin Film Festival and was an official selection at the 2021 Tribeca Film Festival.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: Bostwick married Stacey Nelkin in 1987, and they were divorced in 1991. He married his second wife Sherri Ellen Jensen in 1993; they have two children, a son Brian Bostwick and a daughter Chelsea Bostwick.


title: Barry Bostwick

text: In 1997, Bostwick was diagnosed with prostate cancer, and had his prostate removed in July 1997. In 2004, he won the Gilda Radner Courage Award from Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: Royal Caribbean Group, formerly known as Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd., is a global cruise holding company incorporated in Liberia and based in Miami, Florida, United States. It is the world's second-largest cruise line operator, after Carnival Corporation & plc. As of January 2021, Royal Caribbean Group fully owns three cruise lines: Royal Caribbean International, Celebrity Cruises, and Silversea Cruises. They also hold a 50% stake in TUI Cruises and the now-defunct Pullmantur Cruises and CDF Croisières de France. Previously Royal Caribbean Group also fully owned Azamara Cruises selling the cruise line to Sycamore Partners in January 2021, and 50% of Island Cruises, selling their stake to TUI Travel PLC in October 2008.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: Royal Caribbean Group was formed as Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. in 1997 when Royal Caribbean Cruise Line purchased Celebrity Cruises. The decision was made to keep the two cruise line brands separate following the merger; as a result Royal Caribbean Cruise Line was re-branded Royal Caribbean International and Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. was established as the new parent company of both Royal Caribbean International and Celebrity Cruises.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: A third brand under Royal Caribbean Cruises ownership was formed in 2000 when Island Cruises was created as a joint venture with First Choice Holidays. Island Cruises became an informal cruise line on the British and Brazilian markets.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: In November 2006, Royal Caribbean Cruises purchased Pullmantur Cruises based in Madrid, Spain. From there, the company expanded rapidly with the creation of Azamara Cruises in May 2007 as a subsidiary of Celebrity Cruises. It followed this with the formation of CDF Croisières de France in May 2008 to serve the French-language market.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: Royal Caribbean also has an interest in TUI Cruises, a joint venture with TUI AG, which began operations in 2009 aimed at a German-speaking market. TUI Cruises's subsidiary, TUI Travel, had a 50% interest in Island Cruises following their merger with First Choice Holidays in 2007. In October 2008, Royal Caribbean Cruises rationalized their holdings by selling their share of Island Cruises to TUI.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: In early 2019, Royal Caribbean announced in a joint venture with ITM Group the formation of Holistica, a company that intends to develop cruise destinations. The only known destination that the company is to develop is the Grand Lucayan Resort, located in Freeport after the hotel campus was sold to newly formed subsidiary by the Bahamian Government.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: On July 10, 2020, Royal Caribbean Cruises purchased the remaining shares of Silversea Cruises. That same month, it also changed its name to Royal Caribbean Group. It also adjusted its logo. Royal Caribbean sold Azamara Cruises to Sycamore Partners in March 2021 for $201 million.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: In July 2022, Royal Caribbean Group received court approval to purchase Endeavor, a former Crystal Cruise ship, for $275 million. The ship will be renamed Silver Endeavour when it officially joins the Royal Caribbean's subsidiary, Silversea Cruises' fleet.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: Silversea Cruises is a luxury cruise line headquartered in Monaco. Founded in 1994 by the Vlasov Group of Monaco and the Lefebvre family of Rome it pioneered all-inclusive cruising with its first ship, "Silver Cloud". Since July 2020, it has been owned by Royal Caribbean Group.


title: Royal Caribbean Group

text: Holistica was formed in early 2019 after the purchase of the Grand Lucayan Resort in a joint venture by Royal Caribbean and ITM Group. Since the purchase, Royal Caribbean has announced that it is intended for the resort to be developed into a cruise destination that will benefit the local Freeport economy. It was also announced by the CEO of Royal Caribbean that Freeport Harbor will be developed into a cruise facility of choice.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier () is a Dutch academic publishing company specializing in scientific, technical, and medical content. Its products include journals such as "The Lancet", "Cell", the ScienceDirect collection of electronic journals, "Trends", the "Current Opinion" series, the online citation database Scopus, the SciVal tool for measuring research performance, the ClinicalKey search engine for clinicians, and the ClinicalPath evidence-based cancer care service. Elsevier's products and services also include digital tools for data management, instruction, research analytics and assessment.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier is part of the RELX Group (known until 2015 as Reed Elsevier), a publicly traded company. According to RELX reports, in 2021 Elsevier published more than 600,000 articles annually in over 2,700 journals; as of 2018 its archives contained over 17 million documents and 40,000 e-books, with over one billion annual downloads.


title: Elsevier

text: Researchers have criticized Elsevier for its high profit margins and copyright practices. The company earned £942 million in profit with an adjusted operating margin of 37% in 2018. Much of the research that Elsevier publishes is publicly funded; its high costs have led to accusations of rent-seeking, boycotts, and the rise of alternate avenues for publication and access, such as preprint servers and shadow libraries.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier was founded in 1880 and adopted the name and logo from the Dutch publishing house Elzevir that was an inspiration and has no connection to the contemporary Elsevier. The Elzevir family operated as booksellers and publishers in the Netherlands; the founder, Lodewijk Elzevir (1542–1617), lived in Leiden and established that business in 1580. As a company logo, Elsevier used the Elzevir family's printer's mark, a tree entwined with a vine and the words "Non Solus", which is Latin for "not alone". According to Elsevier, this logo represents "the symbiotic relationship between publisher and scholar".


title: Elsevier

text: The expansion of Elsevier in the scientific field after 1945 was funded with the profits of the newsweekly "Elsevier", which published its first issue on 27 October 1945. The weekly was an instant success and very profitable. The weekly was a continuation, as is stated in its first issue, of the monthly "Elsevier", which was founded in 1891 to promote the name of the publishing house and had to stop publication in December 1940 because of the German occupation of the Netherlands.


title: Elsevier

text: In May 1939 Klautz established the Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd. in London to distribute these academic titles in the British Commonwealth (except Canada). When the Nazis occupied the Netherlands for the duration of five years from May 1940, he had just founded a second international office, the Elsevier Publishing Company Inc. in New York.


title: Elsevier

text: In 1947, Elsevier began publishing its first English-language journal, "Biochimica et Biophysica Acta".


title: Elsevier

text: In 1971 the firm acquired Excerpta Medica, a small medical abstract publisher based in Amsterdam. As the first and only company in the world that employed a database for the production of journals, it introduced computer technology to Elsevier. In 1978 Elsevier merged with Dutch newspaper publisher NDU, and devised a strategy to broadcast textual news to people's television sets through Viewdata and Teletext technology.


title: Elsevier

text: In 1979 Elsevier Science Publishers launched the Article Delivery Over Network Information System (ADONIS) project in conjunction with four business partners. The project aims to find a way to deliver scientific articles to libraries electronically, and would continue for over a decade. In 1991, in conjunction with nine American universities, Elsevier's The University Licensing Project (TULIP) was the first step in creating published, copyrighted material available over the Internet. It formed the basis for ScienceDirect, launched six years later. In 1997, after almost two decades of experiments, ScienceDirect is launched as the first online repository of electronic (scientific) books and articles. Though librarians and researchers were initially hesitant regarding the new technology, more and more of them switched to e-only subscriptions.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2004, Scopus was launched. The abstract database covers journals and books from various publishers, and measures performance on both author and publication levels. In 2009 SciVal Spotlight was released. This tool enabled research administrators to measure their institution's relative standing in terms of productivity, grants, and publications .


title: Elsevier

text: In 2013, Elsevier acquired Mendeley, a UK company making software for managing and sharing research papers. Mendeley, previously an open platform for sharing of research, was greatly criticized for the sale, which users saw as acceding to the "paywall" approach to research literature. Mendeley's previously open-sharing system now allows exchange of paywalled resources only within private groups. "The New Yorker" described Elsevier's reasons for buying Mendeley as two-fold: to acquire its user data, and to "destroy or coöpt an open-science icon that threatens its business model".


title: Elsevier

text: , researchers submitted over 1.8 million research papers to Elsevier-based publications. Over 20,000 editors managed the peer review and selection of these papers, resulting in the publication of more than 470,000 articles in over 2,500 journals. Editors are generally unpaid volunteers who perform their duties alongside a full-time job in academic institutions, although exceptions have been reported. In 2013, the five editorial groups Elsevier, Springer, Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis, and SAGE Publications published more than half of all academic papers in the peer-reviewed literature. At that time, Elsevier accounted for 16% of the world market in science, technology, and medical publishing. In 2019, Elsevier accounted for the review, editing and dissemination 18% of the world's scientific articles. About 45% of revenue by geography in 2019 derived from North America, 24% from Europe, and the remaining 31% from the rest of the world. Around 84% of revenue by format came from electronic usage and 16% came from print.


title: Elsevier

text: The firm employs 8,100 people. The CEO is Kumsal Bayazit, who was appointed on 15 February 2019. In 2018, it reported a mean 2017 gender pay gap of 29.1% for its UK workforce, while the median was 40.4%, the highest yet reported by a publisher in UK. Elsevier attributed the result to the under-representation of women in its senior ranks and the prevalence of men in its technical workforce. The UK workforce consists of 1,200 people in the UK, and represents 16% of Elsevier's global employee population. Elsevier's parent company, RELX, has a global workforce that is 51% female to 49% male, with 43% female and 57% male managers, and 29% female and 71% male senior operational managers.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2018, Elsevier accounted for 34% of the revenues of RELX group (£2.538 billion of £7.492 billion). In operating profits, it represented 40% (£942 million of £2,346 million). Adjusted operating profits (with constant currency) rose by 2% from 2017 to 2018. Profits grew further from 2018 to 2019, to a total of £982 million. the first half of 2019, RELX reported the first slowdown in revenue growth for Elsevier in several years: 1% vs. an expectation of 2% and a typical growth of at least 4% in the previous 5 years. Overall for 2019, Elsevier reported revenue growth of 3.9% from 2018, with the underlying growth at constant currency at 2%. In 2019, Elsevier accounted for 34% of the revenues of RELX (£2.637billion of £7.874billion). In adjusted operating profits, it represented 39% (£982m of £2.491bn). Adjusted operating profits (with constant currency) rose by 2% from 2018 to 2019.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2019, researchers submitted over two million research papers to Elsevier-based publications. Over 22,000 editors managed the peer review and selection of these papers, resulting in the publication of about 500,000 articles in over 2,500 journals.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2020 Elsevier was the largest academic publisher, with approximately 16 % of the academic publishing market and more than 3000 journals."


title: Elsevier

text: Products and services include electronic and print versions of journals, textbooks and reference works, and cover the health, life, physical, and social sciences.


title: Elsevier

text: The target markets are academic and government research institutions, corporate research labs, booksellers, librarians, scientific researchers, authors, editors, physicians, nurses, allied health professionals, medical and nursing students and schools, medical researchers, pharmaceutical companies, hospitals, and research establishments. It publishes in 13 languages including English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Japanese, Hindi, and Chinese.


title: Elsevier

text: Flagship products and services include VirtualE, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Scirus, EMBASE, Engineering Village, Compendex, Cell, Knovel, SciVal, Pure, and Analytical Services, The Consult series (FirstCONSULT, PathCONSULT, NursingCONSULT, MDConsult, StudentCONSULT), Virtual Clinical Excursions, and major reference works such as "Gray's Anatomy", "Nelson Pediatrics", "Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary", "Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy", and online versions of many journals including "The Lancet".


title: Elsevier

text: ScienceDirect is Elsevier's platform for online electronic access to its journals and over 40,000 e-books, reference works, book series, and handbooks. The articles are grouped in four main sections: "Physical Sciences and Engineering", "Life Sciences", "Health Sciences", and "Social Sciences and Humanities". For most articles on the website, abstracts are freely available; access to the full text of the article (in PDF, and also HTML for newer publications) often requires a subscription or pay-per-view purchase.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2019, Elsevier published 49,000 gratis open access articles and 370 full open access journals. Moreover, 1,900 of its journals sold hybrid open access options.


title: Elsevier

text: The subscription rates charged by the company for its journals have been criticized; some very large journals (with more than 5,000 articles) charge subscription prices as high as £9,634, far above average, and many British universities pay more than a million pounds to Elsevier annually. The company has been criticized not only by advocates of a switch to the open-access publication model, but also by universities whose library budgets make it difficult for them to afford current journal prices.


title: Elsevier

text: For example, in 2004, a resolution by Stanford University's senate singled out Elsevier's journals as being "disproportionately expensive compared to their educational and research value", which librarians should consider dropping, and encouraged its faculty "not to contribute articles or editorial or review efforts to publishers and journals that engage in exploitive or exorbitant pricing". Similar guidelines and criticism of Elsevier's pricing policies have been passed by the University of California, Harvard University, and Duke University.


title: Elsevier

text: In July 2015, the Association of Universities in the Netherlands announced a plan to start boycotting Elsevier, which refused to negotiate on any open access policy for Dutch universities.


title: Elsevier

text: In October 2018, a complaint against Elsevier was filed with the European Commission, alleging anticompetitive practices stemming from Elsevier's confidential subscription agreements and market dominance. The European Commission decided not to investigate.


title: Elsevier

text: The elevated pricing of field journals in economics, most of which are published by Elsevier, was one of the motivations that moved the American Economic Association to launch the "American Economic Journal" in 2009.


title: Elsevier

text: RELX Group has been active in mergers and acquisitions. Elsevier has incorporated other businesses that were either complementing or competing in the field of research and publishing and that reinforce its market power, such as Mendeley (after the closure of 2collab), SSRN, bepress/Digital Commons, PlumX, Hivebench, Newsflo, Science-Metrix, and Interfolio.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier also conducts conferences, exhibitions, and workshops around the world, with over 50 conferences a year covering life sciences, physical sciences and engineering, social sciences, and health sciences.


title: Elsevier

text: According to the BBC, in 2009, the firm [Elsevier] offered a £17.25 Amazon voucher to academics who contributed to the textbook "Clinical Psychology" if they would go on Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble (a large US books retailer) and give it five stars. Elsevier responded by stating "Encouraging interested parties to post book reviews isn't outside the norm in scholarly publishing, nor is it wrong to offer to nominally compensate people for their time. But in all instances the request should be unbiased, with no incentives for a positive review, and that's where this particular e-mail went too far", and that it was a mistake by a marketing employee.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier seeks to regulate text and data mining with private licenses, claiming that reading requires extra permission if automated and that the publisher holds copyright on output of automated processes. The conflict on research and copyright policy has often resulted in researchers being blocked from their work. In November 2015, Elsevier blocked a scientist from performing text mining research at scale on Elsevier papers, even though his institution already pays for access to Elsevier journal content. The data was collected using the R package "statcheck".


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier is one of the most prolific publishers of books aimed at expanding the production of fossil fuels. Since at least 2010 the company has worked with the fossil fuel industry to optimise fossil fuel extraction. It commissions authors, journal advisory board members and editors who are employees of the largest oil firms. In addition it markets data services and research portals directly to the fossil fuel industry to help “increase the odds of exploration success”.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2013, one of Elsevier's journals was caught in the sting set up by John Bohannon, published in "Science", called "Who's Afraid of Peer Review?" The journal "Drug Invention Today" accepted an obviously bogus paper made up by Bohannon that should have been rejected by any good peer-review system. Instead, "Drug Invention Today" was among many open-access journals that accepted the fake paper for publication. As of 2014, this journal had been transferred to a different publisher.


title: Elsevier

text: At a 2009 court case in Australia where Merck & Co. was being sued by a user of Vioxx, the plaintiff alleged that Merck had paid Elsevier to publish the "Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine", which had the appearance of being a peer-reviewed academic journal but in fact contained only articles favourable to Merck drugs. Merck described the journal as a "complimentary publication," denied claims that articles within it were ghost written by Merck, and stated that the articles were all reprinted from peer-reviewed medical journals. In May 2009, Elsevier Health Sciences CEO Hansen released a statement regarding Australia-based sponsored journals, conceding that they were "sponsored article compilation publications, on behalf of pharmaceutical clients, that were made to look like journals and lacked the proper disclosures." The statement acknowledged that it "was an unacceptable practice." "The Scientist" reported that, according to an Elsevier spokesperson, six sponsored publications "were put out by their Australia office and bore the Excerpta Medica imprint from 2000 to 2005," namely the "Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine" ("Australas. J. Bone Joint Med."), the "Australasian Journal of General Practice" ("Australas. J. Gen. Pract."), the "Australasian Journal of Neurology" ("Australas. J. Neurol."), the "Australasian Journal of Cardiology" ("Australas. J. Cardiol."), the "Australasian Journal of Clinical Pharmacy" ("Australas. J. Clin. Pharm."), and the "Australasian Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine" ("Australas. J. Cardiovasc. Med."). Excerpta Medica was a "strategic medical communications agency" run by Elsevier, according to the imprint's web page. In October 2010, Excerpta Medica was acquired by Adelphi Worldwide.


title: Elsevier

text: There was speculation that the editor-in-chief of Elsevier journal "Chaos, Solitons & Fractals", Mohamed El Naschie, misused his power to publish his own work without appropriate peer review. The journal had published 322 papers with El Naschie as author since 1993. The last issue of December 2008 featured five of his papers. The controversy was covered extensively in blogs. The publisher announced in January 2009 that El Naschie had retired as editor-in-chief. the co-Editors-in-Chief of the journal were Maurice Courbage and Paolo Grigolini. In June 2011, El Naschie sued the journal "Nature" for libel, claiming that his reputation had been damaged by their November 2008 article about his retirement, which included statements that "Nature" had been unable to verify his claimed affiliations with certain international institutions. The suit came to trial in November 2011 and was dismissed in July 2012, with the judge ruling that the article was "substantially true", contained "honest comment", and was "the product of responsible journalism". The judgement noted that El Naschie, who represented himself in court, had failed to provide any documentary evidence that his papers had been peer-reviewed. Judge Victoria Sharp also found "reasonable and serious grounds" for suspecting that El Naschie used a range of false names to defend his editorial practice in communications with "Nature", and described this behavior as "curious" and "bizarre".


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier's 'Duties of Authors' states that authors should ensure they have written entirely original works, and that proper acknowledgement of other's work must always be given. Elsevier claims plagiarism in all its forms constitutes unethical behaviour. Some Elsevier journals automatically screen submissions for plagiarism, but not all.


title: Elsevier

text: Albanian politician, Taulant Muka claimed that Elsevier journal "Procedia" had plagiarized in the abstract of one of its articles. It is unclear whether or not Muka had access to the entirety of the article.


title: Elsevier

text: Angela Saini has criticized the two Elsevier journals "Intelligence" and "Personality and Individual Differences" for having included on their editorial boards such well-known proponents of scientific racism as Richard Lynn and Gerhard Meisenberg; in response to her inquiries, Elsevier defended their presence as editors. The journal "Intelligence" has been criticized for having "occasionally included papers with pseudoscientific findings about intelligence differences between races." It is the official journal of the International Society for Intelligence Research, which organizes the controversial series of conferences London Conference on Intelligence, described by the "New Statesman" as a forum for scientific racism.


title: Elsevier

text: In response to a 2019 open letter, efforts by Retraction Watch and a petition signed by over 1000 people, on 17 June 2020 Elsevier announced it was retracting an article that J. Philippe Rushton and Donald Templer published in 2012 in the Elsevier journal "Personality and Individual Differences". The article had claimed that there was scientific evidence that skin color was related to aggression and sexuality in humans.


title: Elsevier

text: One of their Journals, "Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis", was involved in the manipulation of the peer review report.


title: Elsevier

text: According to the signatories of the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (see also Goodhart's law), commercial academic publishers benefit from manipulation of bibliometrics and scientometrics, such as the journal impact factor. The impact factor, which is often used as a proxy of prestige, can influence revenues, subscriptions, and academics' willingness to contribute unpaid work. However, there's evidence suggesting that reliability of published research works in several fields may "decrease" with increasing journal rank.


title: Elsevier

text: Nine Elsevier journals, which exhibited unusual levels of self-citation, had their journal impact factor of 2019 suspended from "Journal Citation Reports" in 2020, a sanction which hit 34 journals in total.


title: Elsevier

text: In November 1999, the entire editorial board (50 persons) of the "Journal of Logic Programming" (founded in 1984 by Alan Robinson) collectively resigned after 16 months of unsuccessful negotiations with Elsevier Press about the price of library subscriptions. The personnel created a new journal, "Theory and Practice of Logic Programming", with Cambridge University Press at a much lower price, while Elsevier continued publication with a new editorial board and a slightly different name (the "Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming"). In 2002, dissatisfaction at Elsevier's pricing policies caused the European Economic Association to terminate an agreement with Elsevier designating Elsevier's "European Economic Review" as the official journal of the association. The EEA launched a new journal, the "Journal of the European Economic Association". In 2003, the entire editorial board of the "Journal of Algorithms" resigned to start "ACM Transactions on Algorithms" with a different, lower-priced, not-for-profit publisher, at the suggestion of "Journal of Algorithms" founder Donald Knuth. The "Journal of Algorithms" continued under Elsevier with a new editorial board until October 2009, when it was discontinued.


title: Elsevier

text: The same happened in 2005 to the "International Journal of Solids and Structures", whose editors resigned to start the "Journal of Mechanics of Materials and Structures". However, a new editorial board was quickly established and the journal continues in apparently unaltered form with editors D.A. Hills (Oxford University) and Stelios Kyriakides (University of Texas at Austin). In August 2006, the entire editorial board of the distinguished mathematical journal "Topology" handed in their resignations, again because of stalled negotiations with Elsevier to lower the subscription price. This board then launched the new "Journal of Topology" at a far lower price, under the auspices of the London Mathematical Society. After this mass resignation, "Topology" remained in circulation under a new editorial board until 2009, when the last issue was published.


title: Elsevier

text: In May 2015, Stephen Leeder was removed from his role as editor of the "Medical Journal of Australia" when its publisher decided to outsource the journal's production to Elsevier. As a consequence, all but one of the journal's editorial advisory committee members co-signed a letter of resignation. In October 2015, the entire editorial staff of the general linguistics journal "Lingua" resigned in protest of Elsevier's unwillingness to agree to their terms of Fair Open Access. Editor-in-chief Johan Rooryck also announced that the "Lingua" staff would establish a new journal, "Glossa". In January 2019, the entire editorial board of Elsevier's "Journal of Informetrics" resigned over the open-access policies of its publisher and founded open-access journal called "Quantitative Science Studies". In March 2020, Elsevier effectively severed the tie between the "Journal of Asian Economics" and the academic society that founded it, the American Committee on Asian Economic Studies (ACAES), by offering the ACAES-appointed editor, Calla Wiemer, a terminal contract for 2020. A diverse group of 43 academic stakeholders, including editorial board members, ACAES Advisory Council members, and authors, petitioned Elsevier in support of a three-year renewable contract for the editor. Elsevier nonetheless stood by its offer, which the editor declined to accept. A majority of the editorial board members refused invitations from Elsevier to continue with the post-ACAES journal and remain on the executive board of ACAES.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2003, various university librarians began coordinating with each other to complain about Elsevier's "big deal" journal bundling packages, in which the company offered a group of journal subscriptions to libraries at a certain rate, but in which librarians claimed no economical option was available to subscribe to only the popular journals at a rate comparable to the bundled rate. Librarians continued to discuss the implications of the pricing schemes, many feeling pressured into buying the Elsevier packages without other options.


title: Elsevier

text: On 21 January 2012, mathematician Timothy Gowers publicly announced he would boycott Elsevier, noting that others in the field have been doing so privately. The reasons for the boycott are high subscription prices for individual journals, bundling subscriptions to journals of different value and importance, and Elsevier's support for SOPA, PIPA, and the Research Works Act, which would have prohibited open-access mandates for U.S. federally-funded research and severely restricted the sharing of scientific data.


title: Elsevier

text: Following this, a petition advocating noncooperation with Elsevier (that is, not submitting papers to Elsevier journals, not refereeing articles in Elsevier journals, and not participating in journal editorial boards), appeared on the site "The Cost of Knowledge". By February 2012, this petition had been signed by over 5,000 academics, growing to over 17,000 by November 2018. The firm disputed the claims, claiming that their prices are below the industry average, and stating that bundling is only one of several different options available to buy access to Elsevier journals. The company also claimed that its profit margins are "simply a consequence of the firm's efficient operation". The academics replied that their work was funded by public money, thus should be freely available.


title: Elsevier

text: On 27 February 2012, Elsevier issued a statement on its website that declared that it has withdrawn support from the Research Works Act. Although the Cost of Knowledge movement was not mentioned, the statement indicated the hope that the move would "help create a less heated and more productive climate" for ongoing discussions with research funders. Hours after Elsevier's statement, the sponsors of the bill, US House Representatives Darrell Issa and Carolyn Maloney, issued a joint statement saying that they would not push the bill in Congress.


title: Elsevier

text: The Plan S open-access initiative, which began in Europe and has since spread to some US research funding agencies, would require researchers receiving some grants to publish in open-access journals by 2020. A spokesman for Elsevier said "If you think that information should be free of charge, go to Wikipedia". In September 2018, UBS advised to sell Elsevier (RELX) stocks, noting that Plan S could affect 5-10% of scientific funding and may force Elsevier to reduce pricing.


title: Elsevier

text: For 14 years, Colciencias, now Minciencias, led negotiations with Elsevier, as a practical and effective response to the informative growth of presumptive problems, allowing a greater number of Higher Education Institutions to join this project, thanks to it saves the scale that is obtained. Colombia has converted in the fourth country with the largest number of documents indexed in Scopus in Latin America (except for Brazil), growing by 57% in the last five years, a rate visibly greater in neighboring countries.


title: Elsevier

text: The Colombian National Consortium "Consorcio Colombia" managed by Consortia S.A.S. agreed in 2016 to have better prices for the Consortium members. The current agreement is that (Colombia National Ministry of Science and Technology) and (Colombian National ministry of Education) reintegrate money to institutions on the total payment of products, with the condition that money must be reinvested in academic and research resources.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2015, Finnish research organizations paid a total of 27 million euros in subscription fees. Over one-third of the total costs went to Elsevier. The information was revealed after successful court appeal following a denied request on the subscription fees, due to confidentiality clauses in contracts with the publishers. Establishing of this fact lead to creation of tiedonhinta.fi petition demanding more reasonable pricing and open access to content signed by more than 2800 members of the research community. While deals with other publishers have been made, this was not the case for Elsevier, leading to the nodealnoreview.org boycott of the publisher signed more than 600 times.


title: Elsevier

text: The French Couperin consortium agreed in 2019 to a 4-year contract with Elsevier, despite criticism from the scientific community.


title: Elsevier

text: The French École Normale Supérieure has stopped having Elsevier publish the journal "Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure" (as of 2008).


title: Elsevier

text: Effective on 1 January 2020, the French Academy of Sciences stopped publishing its 7 journals Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences with Elsevier and switched to Centre Mersenne.


title: Elsevier

text: Germany's DEAL project (Projekt DEAL), which includes over 60 major research institutions, has announced that all of its members are cancelling their contracts with Elsevier, effective 1 January 2017. The boycott is in response to Elsevier's refusal to adopt "transparent business models" to "make publications more openly accessible". Horst Hippler, spokesperson for the DEAL consortium states that "taxpayers have a right to read what they are paying for" and that "publishers must understand that the route to open-access publishing at an affordable price is irreversible". In July 2017, another 13 institutions announced that they would also be cancelling their subscriptions to Elsevier journals. In August 2017, at least 185 German institutions had cancelled their contracts with Elsevier. In 2018, whilst negotiations were ongoing, around 200 German universities that cancelled their subscriptions to Elsevier journals were granted complimentary open access to them until this ended in July of the year.


title: Elsevier

text: On 19 December 2018, the Max Planck Society (MPS) announced that the existing subscription agreement with Elsevier would not be renewed after the expiration date of 31 December 2018. MPS counts 14,000 scientists in 84 research institutes, publishing 12,000 articles each year.


title: Elsevier

text: In March 2018, the Hungarian "Electronic Information Service National Programme" entered negotiations on its 2019 Elsevier subscriptions, asking for a read-and-publish deal. Negotiations were ended by the Hungarian consortium in December 2018, and the subscription was not renewed.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2013, Elsevier changed its policies in response to sanctions announced by the US Office of Foreign Assets Control that year. This included a request that all Elsevier journals avoid publishing papers by Iranian nationals who are employed by the Iranian government. Elsevier executive Mark Seeley expressed regret on behalf of the company, but did not announce an intention to challenge this interpretation of the law.


title: Elsevier

text: CRUI (an association of Italian universities) sealed a 5-year-long deal for 2018–2022, despite protests from the scientific community, protests focused on aspects such as the lack of prevention of cost increases by means of the double dipping.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2015, a consortium of all of Netherlands' 14 universities threatened to boycott Elsevier if it could not agree that articles by Dutch authors would be made open access and settled with the compromise of 30% of its Dutch papers becoming open access by 2018. Gerard Meijer, president of Radboud University in Nijmegen and lead negotiator on the Dutch side noted, "it's not the 100% that I hoped for".


title: Elsevier

text: In March 2019, the Norwegian government on behalf of 44 institutions — universities, university colleges, research institutes, and hospitals — decided to break negotiations on renewal of their subscription deal with Elsevier, because of disagreement regarding open-access policy and Elsevier's unwillingness to reduce the cost of reading access.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2017, over 70 university libraries confirmed a "contract boycott" movement involving three publishers including Elsevier. As of January 2018, whilst negotiations remain underway, a decision will be made as to whether or not continue the participating libraries will continue the boycott. It was subsequently confirmed that an agreement had been reached.


title: Elsevier

text: In May 2018, the Bibsam Consortium, which negotiates license agreements on behalf of all Swedish universities and research institutes, decided not to renew their contract with Elsevier, alleging that the publisher does not meet the demands of transition towards a more open-access model, and referring to the rapidly increasing costs for publishing. Swedish universities will still have access to articles published before 30 June 2018. Astrid Söderbergh Widding, chairman of the Bibsam Consortium, said, "the current system for scholarly communication must change and our only option is to cancel deals when they don't meet our demands for a sustainable transition to open access". Sweden has a goal of open access by 2026. In November 2019 the negotiations concluded, with Sweden paying for reading access to Elsevier journals and open access publishing for all its researchers' articles.


title: Elsevier

text: In Taiwan, more than 75% of universities, including the country's top 11 institutions, have joined a collective boycott against Elsevier. On 7 December 2016, the Taiwanese consortium, CONCERT, which represents more than 140 institutions, announced it would not renew its contract with Elsevier.


title: Elsevier

text: In March 2018, Florida State University's faculty elected to cancel its $2 million subscription to a bundle of several journals. Starting in 2019, it will instead buy access to titles" à la carte".


title: Elsevier

text: In February 2019, the University of California said it would terminate subscriptions "in [a] push for open access to publicly funded research." After months of negotiations over open access to research by UC researchers and prices for subscriptions to Elsevier journals, a press release by the UC Office of the President issued Thursday, 28 February 2019 stated "Under Elsevier’s proposed terms, the publisher would have charged UC authors large publishing fees on top of the university’s multimillion dollar subscription, resulting in much greater cost to the university and much higher profits for Elsevier." On 10 July 2019, Elsevier began restricting access to all new paywalled articles and approximately 5% of paywalled articles published before 2019.


title: Elsevier

text: In April 2020, the University of North Carolina elected not to renew its bundled Elsevier package, citing a failure "to provide an affordable path". Rather than extend the license, which was stated to cost $2.6 million annually, the university decided to continue subscribing to a smaller set of individual journals. The State University of New York Libraries Consortium also announced similar outcome, with the help of estimates from Unpaywall Journals. Similarly, MIT announced in June 2020 that it would no longer pay for access to new Elsevier articles.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2022 Elsevier and the University of Michigan have established an agreement to support authors who wish to publish open access.


title: Elsevier

text: In June 2020 the Ukrainian government cancelled subscriptions for all universities in the country after failed negotiations. The Ministry of Education stated that Elsevier indexes journals in its register which call themselves Russian but are from occupied territories.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier have been known to be involved in lobbying against open access. These have included the likes of:


title: Elsevier

text: In 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, Elsevier was found to be selling some articles that should have been open access, but had been put behind a paywall. A related case occurred in 2015, when Elsevier charged for downloading an open-access article from a journal published by John Wiley & Sons. However, whether Elsevier was in violation of the license under which the article was made available on their website was not clear.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2013, Digimarc, a company representing Elsevier, told the University of Calgary to remove articles published by faculty authors on university web pages; although such self-archiving of academic articles may be legal under the fair dealing provisions in Canadian copyright law, the university complied. Harvard University and the University of California, Irvine also received takedown notices for self-archived academic articles, a first for Harvard, according to Peter Suber.


title: Elsevier

text: Months after its acquisition of Academia.edu rival Mendeley, Elsevier sent thousands of takedown notices to Academia.edu, a practice that has since ceased following widespread complaint by academics, according to Academia.edu founder and chief executive Richard Price.


title: Elsevier

text: After Elsevier acquired the repository SSRN in May 2016, academics started complaining that some of their work has been removed without notice. The action was explained as a technical error.


title: Elsevier

text: In 2015, Elsevier filed a lawsuit against the sites Sci-Hub and LibGen, which make copyright-protected articles available for free. Elsevier also claimed illegal access to institutional accounts.


title: Elsevier

text: Among the major academic publishers, Elsevier alone declined to join the Initiative for Open Citations. In the context of the resignation of the "Journal of Informetrics"' editorial board, the firm stated: "Elsevier invests significantly in citation extraction technology. While these are made available to those who wish to license this data, Elsevier cannot make such a large corpus of data, to which it has added significant value, available for free."


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier finally joined the initiative in January 2021 after the data was already available with an Open Data Commons license in Microsoft Academic.


title: Elsevier

text: A chamber of the Munich Regional Court has ruled that the research networking site ResearchGate has to take down articles uploaded without consent from their original publishers and ResearchGate must take down Elsevier articles. A case was brought forward in 2017 by the Coalition for Responsible Sharing, a group of publishers that includes Elsevier and the American Chemical Society.


title: Elsevier

text: Elsevier uses its imprints (that is, brand names used in publishing) to market to different consumer segments. Many of the imprints have previously been the names of publishing companies that were purchased by Reed Elsevier.


title: White flight

text: White flight or white exodus is the sudden or gradual large-scale migration of white people from areas becoming more racially or ethnoculturally diverse. Starting in the 1950s and 1960s, the terms became popular in the United States. They referred to the large-scale migration of people of various European ancestries from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions. The term has more recently been applied to other migrations by whites, from older, inner suburbs to rural areas, as well as from the U.S. Northeast and Midwest to the milder climate in the Southeast and Southwest. The term 'white flight' has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial or anti-white state policies.


title: White flight

text: Migration of middle-class white populations was observed during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s out of cities such as Cleveland, Detroit, Kansas City and Oakland, although racial segregation of public schools had ended there long before the Supreme Court of the United States' decision "Brown v. Board of Education" in 1954. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation (or "integration") by means of busing in some areas led to more families' moving out of former areas. More generally, some historians suggest that white flight occurred in response to population pressures, both from the large migration of blacks from the rural Southern United States to urban cities of the Northern United States and the Western United States in the Great Migration and the waves of new immigrants from around the world. However, some historians have challenged the phrase "white flight" as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. In her study of West Side in Chicago during the post-war era, historian Amanda Seligman argues that the phrase misleadingly suggests that whites immediately departed when blacks moved into the neighborhood, when in fact, many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics. Leah Boustan, Professor of Economics at Princeton, attributes white flight both to racism and economic reasons.


title: White flight

text: The business practices of redlining, mortgage discrimination, and racially restrictive covenants contributed to the overcrowding and physical deterioration of areas with large minority populations. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations. The limited facilities for banking and insurance, due to a perceived lack of profitability, and other social services, and extra fees meant to hedge against perceived profit issues, increased their cost to residents in predominantly non-white suburbs and city neighborhoods. According to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism.


title: White flight

text: In 1870, "The Nation" covered the large-scale migrations of white Americans; "The report of the Emigration Commissioners of Louisiana, for the past year, estimates the white exodus from the Southern Atlantic States, Alabama, and Mississippi, to the trans-Mississippi regions, at scores of thousands". By 1888, with rhetoric typical of the time, Walter Thomas Mills's "The Statesman" publication predicted:


title: White flight

text: Social and political equality and the political supremacy of the negro element in any southern state must lead to one of three things: A white exodus, a war of races, or the destruction of representative institutions, as in the District of Columbia.


title: White flight

text: An 1894 biography of William Lloyd Garrison reveals the abolitionist's perception of the pre-Civil War tension and how "the shadows of the impending civil disruption, had brought about a white exodus" of Northerners to Southern states such as Georgia.


title: White flight

text: In the years leading up to World War I, the newspapers in the Union of South Africa were reporting on the "spectre of white flight", in particular due to Afrikaners travelling to the Port of Durban in search of ships for Britain and Australia.


title: White flight

text: In 1958, political scientist Morton Grodzins identified that "once the proportion of non-whites exceeds the limits of the neighborhood’s tolerance for interracial living, whites move out." Grodzins termed this phenomenon the tipping point in the study of white flight.


title: White flight

text: In 2004, a study of UK census figures at The London School of Economics demonstrated evidence of white flight, resulting in ethnic minorities in inner-city areas becoming increasingly isolated from the ethnic White British population. The study, which examined the white population in London, the West Midlands, West Yorkshire and Greater Manchester between 1991 and 2001, also concluded that white population losses were largest in areas with the highest ethnic minority populations.


title: White flight

text: In 2018, research at Indiana University showed that between 2000 and 2010 in the US, of a sample size of 27,891 Census tracts, 3,252 experienced "white flight". The examined areas had "an average magnitude loss of 40 percent of the original white population." Published in "Social Science Research", the study found "relative to poorer neighborhoods, white flight becomes systematically more likely in middle-class neighborhoods at higher thresholds of black, Hispanic, and Asian population presence."


title: White flight

text: In studies in the 1980s and 1990s, blacks said they were willing to live in neighborhoods with 50/50 ethnic composition. Whites were also willing to live in integrated neighborhoods, but preferred proportions of more whites. Despite this willingness to live in integrated neighborhoods, the majority still live in largely segregated neighborhoods, which have continued to form.


title: White flight

text: In 1969, Nobel Prize-winning economist Thomas Schelling published "Models of Segregation", a paper in which he demonstrated through a "checkerboard model" and mathematical analysis, that even when every agent prefers to live in a mixed-race neighborhood, almost complete segregation of neighborhoods emerges as individual decisions accumulate. In his "tipping model", he showed that members of an ethnic group do not move out of a neighborhood as long as the proportion of other ethnic groups is relatively low, but if a critical level of other ethnicities is exceeded, the original residents may make rapid decisions and take action to leave. This tipping point is viewed as simply the end-result of a domino effect originating when the threshold of the majority ethnicity members with the highest sensitivity to sameness is exceeded. If these people leave and are either not replaced or replaced by other ethnicities, then this in turn raises the level of mixing of neighbors, exceeding the departure threshold for additional people.


title: White flight

text: About 800,000 out of an earlier total population of 5.2 million whites left post-Apartheid South Africa after 1995, according to a 2009 report in Newsweek. The country has suffered a high rate of violent crime, a primary stated reason for emigration. Other causes cited in the Newsweek report include attacks against white farmers, concern about being excluded by affirmative action programmes, political instability and worries about corruption. Many of those who leave are highly educated, resulting in skills shortages. Some observers fear the long-term consequences, as South Africa's labor policies make it difficult to attract skilled immigrants. In the global economy, some professionals and skilled people have been attracted to work in the U.S. and European nations.


title: White flight

text: Until 1980, the unrecognised Republic of Rhodesia held a well-publicised image as being one of two nations in sub-Saharan Africa where a white minority of European descent and culture held political, economic, and social control over a preponderantly black African majority. Nevertheless, unlike white South Africans, a significant percentage of white Rhodesians represented recent immigrants from Europe. After the Second World War there was a substantial influx of Europeans migrating into the region (formerly known as Southern Rhodesia), including former residents of India, Pakistan, and other parts of Africa. Also represented were working-class emigrants responding to economic opportunities. In 1969, only 41% of Rhodesia's white community were natural-born citizens, or 93,600 people. The remainder were naturalised European and South African citizens or expatriates, with many holding dual citizenship.


title: White flight

text: During the Rhodesian Bush War, almost the entire white male population between eighteen and fifty-eight was affected by various military commitments, and individuals spent up to five or six months of the year on combat duty away from their normal occupations in the civil service, commerce, industry, or agriculture. These long periods of service in the field led to an increased emigration of men of military age. In November 1963, state media cited the chief reasons for emigration as uncertainty about the future, economic decline due to embargo and war, and the heavy commitments of national service, which was described as "the overriding factor causing people to leave". Of the male emigrants in 1976 about half fell into the 15 to 39 age bracket. Between 1960 and 1976 160,182 whites immigrated, while 157,724 departed. This dynamic turnover rate led to depressions in the property market, a slump in the construction industry, and a decline in retail sales. The number of white Rhodesians peaked in 1975 at 278,000, and rapidly declined as the bush war intensified. In 1976, around 14,000 whites left the country, marking the first year since Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 that more whites had left the country than arrived, with most leaving for South Africa. This became known as the 'chicken run', the earliest use of which was recorded the following year, often by Rhodesians who remained to contemptuously describe those who had left. Other phrases such as 'taking the gap' or 'gapping it' were also used. As the outward flow increased, the phrase 'owl run' also came into use, as leaving the country was deemed by many to be a wise choice. Disfavour with the biracial Zimbabwe Rhodesia administration in 1979 also contributed to a mass exodus.


title: White flight

text: The establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980 sounded the death knell for white political power, and ushered in a new era of black majority rule. White emigration peaked between 1980 and 1982 at 53,000 persons, with the breakdown of law and order, an increase in crime in the rural areas, and the provocative attitude of Zimbabwean officials being cited as the main causes. Political conditions typically had a greater impact on the decision to migrate among white than black professionals. Between 1982 and 2000 Zimbabwe registered a net loss of 100,000 whites, or an average of 5,000 departures per year. A second wave of white emigration was sparked by President Robert Mugabe's violent land reform programme after 2000. Popular destinations included South Africa and Australia, which emigrants perceived to be geographically, culturally, or sociopolitically similar to their home country.


title: White flight

text: From a strictly economic point of view, the departure figures were not as significant as the loss of the skills of those leaving. A disproportionate number of white Zimbabwean emigrants were well educated and highly skilled. Among those living in the United States, for example, 53.7% had a bachelor's degree, while only 2% had not completed secondary school. Most (52.4%) had occupied technical or supervisory positions of critical importance to the modern sector of the economy. Inasmuch as black workers did not begin making large inroads into apprenticeships and other training programs until the 1970s, few were in a position to replace their white colleagues in the 1980s.


title: White flight

text: A study of school choice in Copenhagen found that an immigrant proportion of below 35% in the local schools did not affect parental choice of schools. If the percentage of immigrant children rose above this level, white Danes are far more likely to choose other schools. Immigrants who speak Danish at home also opt out. Other immigrants, often more recent ones, stay with local schools.


title: White flight

text: In Finland, white flight has been observed in districts where the share of non-Finnish population is 20% or above. In Greater Helsinki region, there are more than 30 such districts. Those include e.g. Kallahti in Helsinki, Suvela in Espoo and Länsimäki in Vantaa. Outside the Greater Helsinki region, the phenomenon has been witnessed at least in Varissuo district of Turku.


title: White flight

text: A 2007 government report stated that immigration in Dublin has caused "dramatic" white flight from elementary schools in a studied area (Dublin 15). 27% of residents were foreign-born immigrants. The report stated that Dublin was risking creating immigrant-dominated "banlieues", on the outskirts of a city, similar to such areas in France. The immigrants in the area included Eastern Europeans (such as those from Poland), Asians, and Africans (mainly from Nigeria).


title: White flight

text: White flight in Norway has increased since the 1970s, with the immigration of non-Scandinavians from (in numerical order, starting with the largest): Poland, Pakistan, Iraq, Somalia, Vietnam, Iran, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the former Yugoslavia, Thailand, Afghanistan, and Lithuania. By June 2009, more than 40% of Oslo schools had an immigrant majority, with some schools having a 97% immigrant share. Schools in Oslo are increasingly divided by ethnicity. For instance, in the Groruddalen (Grorud valley), four boroughs which currently have a population of around 165,000 saw the ethnic Norwegian population decrease by 1,500 in 2008, while the immigrant population increased by 1,600. In thirteen years, a total of 18,000 ethnic Norwegians have moved from the borough.


title: White flight

text: In January 2010, a news feature from "Dagsrevyen" on the public Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation said, "Oslo has become a racially divided city. In some city districts the racial segregation starts already in kindergarten." Reporters said, "In the last years the brown schools have become browner, and the white schools whiter," a statement which caused a minor controversy.


title: White flight

text: After the Second World War, immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland, Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia. In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, joined later by their relatives.


title: White flight

text: A study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if a majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they may leave the district, avoid the district, or use tactics to keep the minority out. The minority group in turn react by either dispersing or congregating, avoiding certain districts in turn. Detailed analysis of data from the 1990s onwards indicates that the concentration of immigrants in certain city districts, such as Husby in Stockholm and Rosengård in Malmö, is in part due to an immigration influx, but primarily caused by white flight.


title: White flight

text: According to researcher Emma Neuman at Linnaeus University, the white flight phenomenon commences when the fraction of non-European immigrants reaches 3-4%, but European immigration shows no such effect. High income earners and the highly educated move out first, so the ethnic segregation also leads to class segregation.


title: White flight

text: In a study performed at Örebro University, mothers of young children were interviewed to study attitudes on Swedishness, multiculturalism and segregation. It concluded that while many expressed values such as ethnic diversity being an enriching factor, when, in practice, it came to choosing schools or choosing which district to move to, ensuring the children had access to a school with a robust Swedish majority was also a consideration. This was because they did not want their children to grow up in a school where they were a minority, and wanted them to be in a good environment for learning the Swedish language.


title: White flight

text: For centuries, London was the destination for refugees and immigrants from continental Europe. Although all the immigrants were European, neighborhoods showed ethnic succession over time, as older residents moved out and new immigrants moved in, an early case of white flight (though the majority of London's population was still ethnic British).


title: White flight

text: In the 2001 census, the London boroughs of Newham and Brent were found to be the first areas to have non-white majorities. The 2011 census found that, for the first time, less than 50% of London's population were white British, and that in some areas of London white British people make up less than 20% of the population. A 2005 report stated that white migration within the UK is mainly from areas with a high ethnic minority population to those with predominantly white populations; white British families have moved out of London, as many immigrants have settled in the capital. The report's writers expressed concern about British social cohesion, and stated that different ethnic groups were living "parallel lives"; they were concerned that lack of contact between the groups could result in fear more readily exploited by extremists. In a study, the London School of Economics found similar results. A 2016 BBC documentary, "Last Whites of the East End", covered the migration of whites from Newham to Essex. A 2019 "Guardian" article stated that "came to represent 'white flight' in the UK", and a 2013 "Prospect" magazine article gave Essex as an example of white flight.


title: White flight

text: Researcher Ludi Simpson has stated that the growth of ethnic minorities in Britain is due mostly to natural population growth (births outnumbering deaths), rather than immigration. Both white and non-white Britons who can do so economically are equally likely to leave mixed-race inner-city areas. In his opinion, these trends indicate counter urbanisation, rather than white flight.


title: White flight

text: In 2013, the Toronto Star examined the "identity crisis" of Brampton (a suburban city in the Greater Toronto Area), and referring to white Canadians, the "loss of more than 23,000 people, or 12 per cent, in a decade when the city’s population rose by 60 per cent". The paper reported University of Manitoba sociologist Jason Edgerton's analysis that "After you control for retirement, low birth rate, etc. some of the other (shrinkage) could be white flight — former mainstream communities not comfortable being the minority."


title: White flight

text: A 2016 article from "The Globe and Mail", addressing the diversity of Brampton, acknowledged that while academics in Canada are sometimes reluctant to use the term of white flight, it reported that:


title: White flight

text: [...] the Brampton story reveals that we have our own version of white flight, and before we figure out how to manage hyper-diverse and increasingly polarized cities like Greater Toronto, we need to reflect on our own attitudes about race and ethnic diversity.


title: White flight

text: In 2018, "The Guardian" covered the white flight that had occurred in Brampton, and how the suburban city had been nicknamed "Bramladesh" and "Browntown", due to its "73% visible minority, with its largest ethnic group Indian". It was also reported how "the white population fell from 192,400 in 2001 to 169,230 in 2011, and now hovers around 151,000."


title: White flight

text: In 2014, the Vancouver Sun addressed the issue of white flight across Metropolitan Vancouver. Detailing the phenomenon of "unconscious segregation", the article points to large East Asian and South Asian enclaves within Greater Vancouver such as Burnaby, East Vancouver, Richmond, South Vancouver and Surrey. In contrast, other cities and neighbourhoods within the metropolitan region such as Tsawwassen, South Surrey, White Rock and Langley host equally large white enclaves.


title: White flight

text: In the United States during the 1940s, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, low-cost mortgages through the G.I. Bill, and residential redlining enabled white families to abandon inner cities in favor of suburban living and prevent ethnic minorities from doing the same. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, resulted in crumbling "ghettos". Prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still substantially growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its "components." The first data set potentially capable of proving "white flight" was the 1950 census. But original processing of this data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau, failed to attain any approved level of statistical proof. It was rigorous reprocessing of the same raw data on a UNIVAC I, led by Donald J. Bogue of the Scripps Foundation and Emerson Seim of the University of Chicago, that scientifically established the reality of white flight.


title: White flight

text: It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof seemingly required for policy makers to consider taking action. Also instrumental were new statistical methods developed by Emerson Seim for disentangling deceptive counter-effects that had resulted when numerous cities reacted to departures of a wealthier tax base by annexation. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, such that families that had departed from inner cities were not even being counted as having moved from the cities.


title: White flight

text: During the later 20th century, industrial restructuring led to major losses of jobs, leaving formerly middle-class working populations suffering poverty, with some unable to move away and seek employment elsewhere. Real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, and Africa. Immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Phoenix and Tucson. In 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities.


title: White flight

text: In the 1930s, states outside the South (where racial segregation was legal) practiced unofficial segregation via exclusionary covenants in title deeds and real estate neighborhood redlining – explicit, legally sanctioned racial discrimination in real property ownership and lending practices. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it. Suburban expansion was reserved for middle-class and working-class white people, facilitated by their increased wages incurred by the war effort and by subsequent federally guaranteed mortgages (VA, FHA, HOLC) available only to whites to buy new houses, such as those created by the Federal Housing Administration.


title: White flight

text: After World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many White Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs, and shifting the tax base away from the city. This may have exacerbated urban decay. In some cases, such as in the Southern United States, local governments used highway road constructions to deliberately divide and isolate black neighborhoods from goods and services, often within industrial corridors. In Birmingham, Alabama, the local government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people financially unable to leave their destroyed community.


title: White flight

text: The real estate business practice of "blockbusting" was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, and a means to control non-white migration. By subterfuge, real estate agents would facilitate black people buying a house in a white neighborhood, either by buying the house themselves, or via a white proxy buyer, and then re-selling it to the black family. The remaining white inhabitants (alarmed by real estate agents and the local news media), fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. The realtors profited from these "en masse" sales and the ability to resell to the incoming black families, through arbitrage and the sales commissions from both groups. By such tactics, the racial composition of a neighborhood population was often changed completely in a few years.


title: White flight

text: Urban decay is the sociological process whereby a city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. Its characteristics are depopulation, economic restructuring, abandoned buildings, high local unemployment (and thus poverty), fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and a desolate, inhospitable city landscape. White flight contributed to the draining of cities' tax bases when middle-class people left. Abandoned properties attracted criminals and street gangs, contributing to crime.


title: White flight

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was associated with Western cities, especially in North America and parts of Europe. In that time, major structural changes in global economies, transportation, and government policy created the economic, then social, conditions resulting in urban decay.


title: White flight

text: White flight in North America started to reverse in the 1990s, when the rich suburbanites returned to cities, gentrifying the decayed urban neighborhoods.


title: White flight

text: New municipalities were established beyond the abandoned city's jurisdiction to avoid the legacy costs of maintaining city infrastructures; instead new governments spent taxes to establish suburban infrastructures. The federal government contributed to white flight and the early decay of non-white city neighborhoods by withholding maintenance capital mortgages, thus making it difficult for the communities to either retain or attract middle-class residents.


title: White flight

text: The new suburban communities limited the emigration of poor and non-white residents from the city by restrictive zoning; thus, few lower-middle-class people could afford a house in the suburbs. Many all-white suburbs were eventually annexed to the cities their residents had left. For instance, Milwaukee, Wisconsin partially annexed towns such as Granville; the (then) mayor, Frank P. Zeidler, complained about the socially destructive "Iron Ring" of new municipalities incorporated in the post–World War II decade. Analogously, semi-rural communities, such as Oak Creek, South Milwaukee, and Franklin, formally incorporated as discrete entities to escape urban annexation. Wisconsin state law had allowed Milwaukee's annexation of such rural and suburban regions that did not qualify for discrete incorporation per the legal incorporation standards.


title: White flight

text: In some areas, the post–World War II racial desegregation of the public schools catalyzed white flight. In 1954, the US Supreme Court case "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) ordered the "de jure" termination of the "separate, but equal" legal racism established with the "Plessy v. Ferguson" (1896) case in the 19th century. It declared that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Many southern jurisdictions mounted massive resistance to the policy. In some cases, white parents withdrew their children from public schools and established private religious schools instead. These schools, termed segregation academies, sprung up in the American South between the late 1950s and mid-1970s and allowed parents to prevent their children from being enrolled in racially mixed schools.


title: White flight

text: Upon desegregation in 1957 in Baltimore, Maryland, the Clifton Park Junior High School had 2,023 white students and 34 black students; ten years later, it had twelve white students and 2,037 black students. In northwest Baltimore, Garrison Junior High School's student body declined from 2,504 whites and twelve blacks to 297 whites and 1,263 blacks in that period. At the same time, the city's working class population declined because of the loss of industrial jobs as heavy industry restructured.


title: White flight

text: In "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" (1971), the Supreme Court ordered the desegregation busing of poor black students to suburban white schools, and suburban white students to the city to try to integrate student populations. In "Milliken v. Bradley" (1974), the dissenting Justice William Douglas observed, "The inner core of Detroit is now rather solidly black; and the blacks, we know, in many instances are likely to be poorer." Likewise, in 1977, the Federal decision in "Penick v. The Columbus Board of Education" (1977) accelerated white flight from Columbus, Ohio. Although the racial desegregation of schools affected only public school districts, the most vehement opponents of racial desegregation have sometimes been whites whose children attended private schools.


title: White flight

text: A secondary, non-geographic consequence of school desegregation and busing was "cultural" white flight: withdrawing white children from the mixed-race public school system and sending them to private schools unaffected by US federal integration laws. In 1970, when the United States District Court for the Central District of California ordered the Pasadena Unified School District desegregated, the proportion of white students (54%) reflected the school district's proportion of whites (53%). Once the federally ordered school desegregation began, whites who could afford private schools withdrew their children from the racially diverse Pasadena public school system. By 2004, Pasadena had 63 private schools educating some 33% of schoolchildren, while white students made up only 16% of the public school populace. The Pasadena Unified School District superintendent characterized public schools as "like the bogey-man" to whites. He implemented policies to attract white parents to the racially diverse Pasadena public school district.


title: White flight

text: Studies suggest that rising crime rates were one of the reasons that white households left cities for suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s. Samuel Kye (2018) cites several studies that identified "factors such as crime and neighborhood deterioration, rather than racial prejudice, as more robust determinants of white flight". Ellen and O'Regan (2010) found that lower crime rates in city centers are associated with less out-migration to suburbs, but they didn't find an effect on lower levels of crime attracting new households to the city.


title: White flight

text: In Sydney, Australian-born minority (white and non-white) people in Fairfield and Canterbury fell by three percentage points, six percentage points in Auburn, and three percentage points in Strathfield between 1991 and 1996. Only in Liverpool, one of the more fast growth areas of Sydney, did both the Australia-born and overseas-born male population increase over the 1991-1996 period. However, the rate of growth of the overseas-born was far greater than that of the Australia-born, thus the sharp increase in Liverpool's population share from 43.5 per cent to 49 per cent by 1996. The Australia-born movers from the south-western suburbs relocated to Penrith in the northwest and Gosford and Wyong in the northeast.


title: White flight

text: According to the New South Wales Secondary Principals Council and the University of Western Sydney, public schools in that state have experienced white flight to private and Catholic schools wherever there is a large presence of Aboriginal and Middle Eastern students.


title: White flight

text: In 2018, NSW Labor Opposition leader Luke Foley talked about White flight, although he later apologised for the comments.


title: White flight

text: White flight has been observed in low socioeconomic decile schools in New Zealand. Data from the Ministry of Education found that 60,000 New Zealand European students attended low-decile schools (situated in the poorest areas) in 2000, and had fallen to half that number in 2010. The same data also found that high-decile schools (which are in the wealthiest areas) had a corresponding increase in New Zealand European students. The Ministry claimed demographic changes were behind the shifts, but teacher and principal associations have attributed white flight to racial and class stigmas of low-decile schools, which commonly have majority Maori and Pacific Islander rolls.


title: White flight

text: In one specific case, white flight has significantly affected Sunset Junior High School in a suburb of the city of Rotorua, with the total number of students reduced from 700 to 70 in the early 1980s. All but one of the 70 students are Maori. The area has a concentration of poor, low-skilled people, with struggling families, and many single mothers. Related to the social problems of the families, student educational achievement is low on the standard reading test.


title: 555 timer IC

text: The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, delay, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing circuits in one package. The design was first marketed in 1972 by Signetics. Since then, numerous companies have made the original bipolar timers, as well as similar low-power CMOS timers. In 2017, it was said that over a billion 555 timers are produced annually by some estimates, and that the design was "probably the most popular integrated circuit ever made".


title: 555 timer IC

text: The timer IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under contract to Signetics. In 1968, he was hired by Signetics to develop a phase-locked loop (PLL) IC. He designed an oscillator for PLLs such that the frequency did not depend on the power supply voltage or temperature. Signetics subsequently laid off half of its employees due to the 1970 recession, and development on the PLL was thus frozen. Camenzind proposed the development of a universal circuit based on the oscillator for PLLs and asked that he develop it alone, borrowing equipment from Signetics instead of having his pay cut in half. Camenzind's idea was originally rejected, since other engineers argued the product could be built from existing parts sold by the company; however, the marketing manager approved the idea.


title: 555 timer IC

text: The first design for the 555 was reviewed in the summer of 1971. Assessed to be without error, it proceeded to layout design. A few days later, Camenzind got the idea of using a direct resistance instead of a constant current source, finding that it worked satisfactorily. The design change decreased the required 9 external pins to 8, so the IC could be fit in an 8-pin package instead of a 14-pin package. This revised version passed a second design review, and the prototypes were completed in October 1971 as the NE555V (plastic DIP) and SE555T (metal TO-5). The 9-pin version had already been released by another company founded by an engineer who had attended the first review and had retired from Signetics; that firm withdrew its version soon after the 555 was released. The 555 timer was manufactured by 12 companies in 1972, and it became a best-selling product.


title: 555 timer IC

text: Several books report the name "555" derived from the three 5 kΩ resistors inside the chip. However, in a recorded interview with an online transistor museum curator, Hans Camenzind said "It was just arbitrarily chosen. It was Art Fury (marketing manager) who thought the circuit was gonna sell big who picked the name '555'."


title: 555 timer IC

text: Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package incorporated the equivalent of 25 transistors, 2 diodes, and 15 resistors on a silicon chip packaged into an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available included the 556 (a DIP-14 combining two complete 555s on one chip), and 558 / 559 (both variants were a DIP-16 combining four reduced-functionality timers on one chip).


title: 555 timer IC

text: The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 °C to +70 °C, and the SE555 part number designated the military temperature range, −55 °C to +125 °C. These chips were available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) form factors. Thus, the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T.


title: 555 timer IC

text: Low-power CMOS versions of the 555 are now available, such as the Intersil ICM7555 and Texas Instruments LMC555, TLC555, TLC551.


title: 555 timer IC

text: The internal block diagram and schematic of the 555 timer are highlighted with the same color across all three drawings to clarify how the chip is implemented:


title: 555 timer IC

text: The pinout of the 8-pin 555 timer and 14-pin 556 dual timer are shown in the following table. Since the 556 is conceptually two 555 timers that share power pins, the pin numbers for each half are split across two columns.


title: 555 timer IC

text: In the following table, longer pin designations are used, because manufacturers never standardized the abbreviated pin names across all datasheets.


title: 555 timer IC

text: In the astable configuration, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specific frequency. The astable configuration is implemented using two resistors, formula_1 and formula_2, and one capacitor formula_3. In this configuration, the control pin is not used, thus it is connected to ground through a 10 nF decoupling capacitor to shunt electrical noise. The threshold and trigger pins are connected to the capacitor formula_3; thus they have the same voltage.


title: 555 timer IC

text: Initially, the capacitor formula_3 is not charged, thus the trigger pin receives zero voltage, which is less than of the supply voltage. Consequently, the trigger pin causes the output to go high and the internal discharge transistor to go to cut-off mode. Since the discharge pin is no longer short-circuited to ground, the current flows through the resistors formula_1 and formula_2 to the capacitor, charging it. The capacitor formula_3 starts charging until the voltage becomes of the supply voltage.