title: Novaya Zemlya

text: At 7:00 p.m., the ships re-entered the Barents Sea and headed south. Anticipating the breakout, Rear Admiral Hubert Schmundt had positioned several U-boats near the west end of the strait. Six of the seventeen Allied ships exiting the strait were sunk. The badly-damaged American freighter "Alcoa Ranger" was beached on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya; the crew found shelter and were eventually rescued by a Russian vessel which took them to Belushya Bay. The Germans also damaged the Soviet tankers "Donbass" and "Azerbaijan" which reached the sanctuary of Archangel. Of the thirty-four merchant ships in PQ 17, twenty-four were sunk. The American contingent alone lost more than three-fourths of the merchant ships committed to the convoy — more than one fourth of the losses to American shipping in all convoys to northern Russia.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The PQ 17 delivered 896 vehicles and 3,350 were lost, 164 tanks arrived and 430 did not, 87 aircraft reached the USSR and 210 were lost; of cargo were delivered and was sunk at a cost to the Germans of five aircraft. Karlo Štajner, a Gulag prisoner in Norilsk in 1942, wrote "the German cruiser’s attack on Novaya Zemlya and the sinking of the food transports had catastrophic consequences… the population was left without provisions… supplies in the warehouses of Norilsk [were] distributed among the NKVD, the guards, and the few free civilians that lived in the town". Štajner and his fellow prisoners received nothing. Between July and August 1942, German U-boats destroyed the "Maliyye Karmakuly" polar station and damaged the station at "Mys Zhelaniya". German warships also destroyed two Soviet seaplanes and staged an attack on ships in Belushya Bay.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In August 1942, the German Navy commenced Operation Wunderland, to enter the Kara Sea and sink as many Soviet ships as possible. "Admiral Scheer" and other warships rounded Cape Desire, entered the Kara Sea and attacked a shore station on Dikson Island, badly damaging the Soviet ships "Dezhnev" and "Revolutionist". Later that year, Karlo Štajner made the acquaintance of a new prisoner, a Captain Menshikov, who told him that:


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Whether the attack on Menshikov's battery occurred on Dikson Island or on Novaya Zemlya, Stajner's account illuminated the fate of a Soviet officer imprisoned by his countrymen for the "crime" of suffering defeat at the hands of the enemy. Not surprisingly, Menshikov's arrest was never announced in the Soviet press.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In August 1943, a German U-boat sank the Soviet research ship "Akademic Shokalskiy" near "Mys Sporyy Navolok" but the Soviet Navy, now on the offensive, destroyed the German submarine U-639 near "Mys Zhelaniya".


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In 1943, Novaya Zemlya briefly served as a secret seaplane base for Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine", to provide German surveillance of Allied shipping en route to Siberia. The seaplane base was established by U-255 and U-711, which were operating along the northern coast of Soviet Russia as part of "13th U-boat Flotilla". Seaplane sorties were flown in August and September 1943.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In July 1954, Novaya Zemlya was designated as the nuclear weapons testing venue, construction of which began in October and existed during much of the Cold War. "Zone A", Chyornaya Guba (), was used in 1955–1962 and 1972–1975. "Zone B", Matochkin Shar (), was used for underground tests in 1964–1990. "Zone C", Sukhoy Nos (), was used in 1958–1961 and was the site of the 1961 test of the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Other tests occurred elsewhere throughout the islands, with an official testing range covering over half of the landmass. In September 1961, two propelled thermonuclear warheads were launched from Vorkuta Sovetsky and Salekhard to target areas on Novaya Zemlya. The launch rocket was subsequently deployed to Cuba.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: 1963 saw the implementation of the Limited Test Ban Treaty which banned most atmospheric nuclear tests. The largest underground test in Novaya Zemlya took place on September 12, 1973, involving four nuclear devices of 4.2 megatons total yield. Although far smaller in blast power than the Tsar Bomba and other atmospheric tests, the confinement of the blasts underground led to pressures rivaling natural earthquakes. In the case of the September 12, 1973 test, a seismic magnitude of 6.97 on the Richter Scale was reached, setting off an 80 million ton avalanche that blocked two glacial streams and created a lake in length.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Over its history as a nuclear test site, Novaya Zemlya hosted 224 nuclear detonations with a total explosive energy equivalent to 265 megatons of TNT. For comparison, all explosives used in World War II, including the detonations of two US nuclear bombs, amounted to only two megatons.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In 1988–1989, "glasnost" helped make the Novaya Zemlya testing activities public knowledge, and in 1990 Greenpeace activists staged a protest at the site. The last nuclear test explosion was in 1990 (also the last for the entire Soviet Union and Russia). The Ministry for Atomic Energy has performed a series of subcritical underwater nuclear experiments near Matochkin Shar each autumn since 1998. These tests reportedly involve up to of weapons-grade plutonium.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In October 2012, it was reported that Russia would resume subcritical nuclear testing at "Zone B". In Spring 2013, construction of what would become a new tunnel and four buildings was initiated near the "Severny" settlement, west-northwest to the Mount Lazarev.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Novaya Zemlya is an extension of the northern part of the Ural Mountains, and the interior is mountainous throughout. It is separated from the mainland by the Kara Strait. Novaya Zemlya consists of two major islands, separated by the narrow Matochkin Strait, as well as a number of smaller islands. The two main islands are:


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The coast of Novaya Zemlya is very indented, and it is the area with the largest number of fjords in the Russian Federation. Novaya Zemlya separates the Barents Sea from the Kara Sea. The total area is about . The highest mountain is located on the Northern island and is 1,547 meters (5,075 ft) high.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Compared to other regions that were under large ice sheets during the last glacial period, Novaya Zemlya shows relatively little isostatic rebound. Possibly this is indebted to a counter-effect created by the growth of glaciers during the last few thousand years.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The geology of Novaya Zemlya is dominated by a large anticlinal structure that forms an extension of the Ural Mountains. The geology is primarily formed of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, including both carbonate and siliciclastic rocks spanning the Cambrian to Permian, ranging from deep marine turbidites and flysch to shallow marine and terrestrial sandstones and reef limestones. Small areas of late Neoproterozoic (~600 mya) granite and associated metasedimentary rocks are also exposed.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The ecology of Novaya Zemlya is influenced by its severe climate, but the region nevertheless supports a diversity of biota. One of the most notable species present is the polar bear, whose population in the Barents Sea region is genetically distinct from other polar bear subpopulations.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Novaya Zemlya has a maritime-influenced variety of a tundra climate (Köppen "ET"). Due to some effect from the Gulf Stream and its offshore position, winters are a lot less severe than in inland areas on a lot lower latitudes in Siberia, but instead last up to eight months a year. The milder waters to its west delays the onset of sea ice and causes vast seasonal lag in shoulder seasons. Due to latitudinal differences, the temperatures and daylight varies quite a bit throughout the archipelago, with the Malye Karmakuly station being located in the southern part. Novaya Zemlya is cloudy in general, but snowfall and rainfall is relatively scarce for being a maritime location. Even so, glaciers dominate the northern interior and there is strong snow accumulation each winter due to the length of the season.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Polar bears enter human-inhabited areas more frequently than previously, which has been attributed to climate change. Global warming reduces sea ice, forcing the bears to come inland to find food. In February 2019, a mass migration occurred in the northeastern portion of Novaya Zemlya. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes, public buildings, and inhabited areas, so Arkhangelsk region authorities declared a state of emergency on Saturday, February 16, 2019.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: Casualty (stylised as CASUALY) is a British medical drama series that airs weekly on BBC One. Created by Jeremy Brock and Paul Unwin, it was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 6 September 1986. The original producer was Geraint Morris. Having been broadcast weekly since 1986, "Casualty" is the longest-running primetime medical drama series in the world.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: The programme is set in the fictional Holby City Hospital and focuses on the staff and patients of the hospital's Accident and Emergency (A&E) Department. The show has strong ties to its sister programme "Holby City", which began as a spin-off series from "Casualty" in 1999, set in the same hospital. The final episode of "Holby City" was broadcast in March 2022.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: "Casualty"s exterior shots were mainly filmed outside the Ashley Down Centre in Bristol from 1986 until 2002, when they moved to the centre of Bristol. In 2011, "Casualty" celebrated its 25th anniversary and moved production to the Roath Lock Studios in Cardiff, where it is currently filmed. The 1,000th episode of "Casualty" aired on 25 June 2016. A feature-length 30th anniversary episode of "Casualty" aired on 27 August 2016, episode 1 of series 31. For the series 31 finale, creator Paul Unwin returned to write a special episode which was entirely recorded in one take using only one camera, five boom operators and forty microphones. On 17 March 2020, production on the series was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic along with all other BBC shows; filming resumed in September 2020. When "Casualty" returned, it had a shorter duration time of 40 minutes rather than its usual 50 minutes. It was later confirmed that "Casualty" would return on 2 January 2021.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: The series was created by Jeremy Brock and Paul Unwin. According to writer Susan Wilkins, it was meant to be a response to the Margaret Thatcher era, and Unwin said that as young socialists, they wanted to create a "television revolution" that would be feminist, anti-racist, pro-NHS and anti-Conservative.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: The creators discussed this again as part of YouTube and Podcast Creator David Hackett’s The Journey series.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: "Casualty" and "Holby City" are both set in Holby City Hospital, in the fictional county of Wyvern, in the south-west of England.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: From the show's inception to series 26, episode 16, the city exterior was represented by Bristol, including well-known landmarks such as the floating harbour and Clifton Suspension Bridge often visible in outdoor scenes. The City of Bristol College was used as the location for most exterior shots of the hospital from 1986 until 2002, when a new exterior set was built in Lawrence Hill Industrial Park in the city. Casualty has also filmed at Chavenage House back in 1997.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: Following plans to switch filming to Birmingham, it was confirmed on 26 March 2009 that filming of "Casualty" from 2011 would move to a purpose-built studio and backlot set at the BBC Roath Lock studios in Cardiff, South Wales. Episode 16 of series 26 marked the final episode filmed in Bristol, with a fire destroying the department. The first episode from Cardiff, broadcast on 7 January 2012, was an 80-minute episode. Most exterior shots of the city of Holby are now shot within the city of Cardiff and wider area of South Wales. Railway scenes are shot on location at various preserved railways, which from the start of shooting have centred around the West Somerset Railway, the Avon Valley Railway and more recently the Barry Tourist Railway. In May 2018, filming for the premier of series 33 was shot in Bristol and Yate.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: The programme has usually been transmitted on Saturday nights, although for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s it switched to Fridays. The first two series each consisted of 15 episodes; series 3 ran for 10 episodes (although one of those episodes was postponed following the death of its guest star, Roy Kinnear); series 4, 5 and 6 were 12, 13, and 15 episodes long respectively. The final episode of series 6, which focused on a plane crash, was postponed until February 1992, after being initially scheduled for transmission on 20 December 1991 – one day before the 3rd anniversary of the Lockerbie disaster.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: When the show moved back to Saturday nights in September 1992, the series length was extended to 24 episodes per year, and placed in a pre-watershed slot at approximately 8pm. This initially caused some controversy due to the graphic and controversial nature of some of the storylines. In 1997–8, the episode number was increased again, with 26 episodes (including two 75-minute specials) making up series 12. Subsequent series each saw an increase in episodes; series 13 ran for 28 episodes, series 14 ran for 30 episodes, series 15 ran for 36 episodes, series 16 and 17 ran for 40 episodes and series 18 ran for 46 episodes. Since 2004, popularity of the show resulted in a switch from a traditional seasonal format (which had progressed from three months in its early years to around seven months by 2001) to an almost year-round production and transmission — each series from series 19 (2004/5) to 25 (2010/11) has lasted for 48 episodes. However, this figure was dropped to 42 for series 26, with no summer break, which was related to production moving from Bristol to Cardiff. Series 27 consists of 44 episodesan increase of 2 episodes on the previous series and returned to 48 for series 28. In addition, from series 26, the show also began broadcasting in August of their respective years, rather than start in September with a two-week break in late December.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: "Casualty" usually runs for 50 minutes between 20:0022:00 slot on BBC One. Special events such as the Eurovision Song Contest and sporting events sometimes see the schedule moved around. On most of these occasions, "Casualty" is taken off-air for the night to make way for alternative shows. It has been known in the past that if an episode is in two parts, part one will be aired on the Saturday and part two on Sunday. It is broadcast across Europe via BBC Entertainment on the same date.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: "Casualty" follows the professional and personal lives of the medical and ancillary staff of Holby City Hospital's emergency department. It features an ensemble cast of regular characters, and began with ten main characters in its first series. The original characters are consultant Ewart Plimmer (Bernard Gallagher), senior house officer Baz Samuels (Julia Watson), charge nurse Charlie Fairhead (Derek Thompson), staff nurse Clive King (George Harris), state enrolled nurse Megan Roach (Brenda Fricker), student nurse Lisa "Duffy" Duffin (Cathy Shipton), paramedics Sandra Mute and Andrew Ponting (Lisa Bowerman and Robert Pugh), receptionist Susie Mercier (Debbie Roza) and porter Kuba Trzcinski (Christopher Rozycki).


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: Currently, the regular cast consists of acting clinical lead Dylan Keogh (William Beck) and consultant Ethan Hardy (George Rainsford) and Stevie Nash (Elinor Lawless); foundation training doctor Rash Masum (Neet Mohan); clinical nurse manager, Jacob Masters (Charles Venn), senior charge nurse and emergency nurse practitioner Charlie Fairhead (Derek Thompson); advanced clinical practitioner Faith Cadogan (Kirsty Mitchell); staff nurses Robyn Miller (Amanda Henderson), David Hide (Jason Durr) and Marty Kirkby (Shaheen Jafargholi); operational duty manager Jan Jenning (Di Botcher), paramedics Iain Dean (Michael Stevenson), Teddy Jenning (Milo Clarke) and Sah (Arin Smethurst);.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: A survey published by "Radio Times" magazine in March 2004 found that "Casualty" has featured more future stars than any other UK soap or drama series. Actors who appeared in the show before wider success include Kate Winslet, Orlando Bloom, Minnie Driver, Alfred Molina, Christopher Eccleston, Tom Hiddleston, Ashley Artus, Parminder Nagra, Caryn Edwards, Sadie Frost, Ray Winstone, David Walliams, Jonny Lee Miller, Martin Freeman, Helen Baxendale, Robson Green and Brenda Fricker. Discussing her 1993 appearance in "Casualty", Winslet told the "Radio Times": "In England, it almost seems to be part of a jobbing actor's training [to appear in "Casualty"]. As far as I was concerned it was a great episode, a great part. Appearing in "Casualty" taught me a big lesson in how to be natural in front of the camera." In addition, the series has featured a variety of more established stars, including Marina Sirtis, Norman Wisdom, Amanda Redman, Anita Dobson, Jenny Seagrove, Rula Lenska, Prunella Scales, Celia Imrie, Toyah Willcox, Maureen Lipman, Frances Barber, Andrew Sachs, Russ Abbot, Stephanie Beacham, Honor Blackman and Michelle Collins in cameo roles.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: The first three series of "Casualty" were released on DVD "(Region 2, UK)" by 2 Entertain/Cinema Club. The third was released to coincide with the show's 20th anniversary celebrations. In Australia the first series was released by Umbrella Entertainment. There are no future DVD releases planned at present for the UK or Australia.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: "Holby City" began on 12 January 1999 as a spin-off from "Casualty" and is named after the fictional Holby City Hospital in which both series are set. The show follows the lives and careers of staff and patients on the surgical wards of the hospital, and deals with a range of clinical and ethical issues. Similarly to "Casualty", the regular characters are all surgeons, nurses and other medical and ancillary staff, with patients played by guest actors, including famous names such as Eric Sykes, Phill Jupitus, Michael Jayston, Michele Dotrice, Ronni Ancona, Emma Samms, Lee Ryan, Nikki Sanderson and Johnny Briggs. The show was created by Mal Young and Tony McHale, who became its executive producer between 2007 and 2010. He was succeeded by Casualty executive producer Belinda Campbell.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: Reflecting "Holby City" origins as a spin-off from "Casualty" and the closely related premises of the two programmes, the BBC has screened occasional crossover mini-dramas entitled "Casualty@Holby City", featuring a number of characters from each of the two casts. Mervyn Watson, former executive producer of "Casualty", has commented on the origins of the idea to fully cross the two shows over for the first time: "I think the idea came from somebody in the comedy department, who casually said to the Controller of Drama 'Wouldn't it be a good idea if ...' The Controller did think it was a good idea, spoke to myself and Holby's executive producer, got it commissioned by the Head of BBC One and the rest is history."


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: Filming of "Casualty@Holby City" episodes is usually divided between "Casualty"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Bristol set, and "Holby City" Elstree studios, although a large proportion of the Christmas 2005 crossover was also filmed on location in a road tunnel in Caernarfon, Wales. The theme tune used for crossover episodes consists of a shortened version of both the "Casualty" and "Holby City" theme tunes, played over one another in sync, criticized by the "Daily Mirror" for being "basically both theme tunes played at once."


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: Interviewed before the Christmas 2005 crossover was broadcast, Watson commented on the future of "Casualty@Holby City": "We can't guarantee any crossovers for next year, but the audience likes them. And as long as the Controller of BBC One wants them, then we'll be happy to oblige." In November 2007, "Holby City" producer Diana Kyle added: "We like to do crossovers whenever we can, but it's tricky because both "Holby City" and "Casualty" film for 52 weeks a year, so the actors on each show have to work flat-out on their own programmes. We are trying to create more opportunities where the two dramas can merge, though." Another crossover was broadcast in 2010, with "Casualty" producer Oliver Kent commenting that the production teams enjoy airing crossovers, and that the difficulty in producing them is "purely logistics".


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: In April 2006, the BBC announced that a spin-off drama from the show, to be named "HolbyBlue", was in early stages of production. The series focuses on the police service of Holby South, and aired for the duration of its first series on BBC One on Tuesday nights, with "Holby City" switching back to its former Thursday night slot at 8:00pm. Long running "Casualty" character Charlie Fairhead appeared in "HolbyBlue"'s first episode, and a full two-part crossover episode with "Holby City" aired at the beginning of the show's second series. On 6 August 2008, the BBC announced that "HolbyBlue" has been axed after two series.


title: Casualty (TV series)

text: In December 2006, the BBC broadcast a historical medical drama titled "Casualty 1906", reflecting life in the 'Receiving Room' (A+E was a concept not yet developed) of the Royal London Hospital 100 years previously, based on historical hospital records and news reports of the time. A three-episode miniseries, titled "Casualty 1907", was developed for broadcast in 2008. Although not a direct spin-off, nor set in the same fictional location, "The Times" has suggested "that this is BBC high-concept brand-extension at its very best", with the BBC using the popularity of and viewer familiarity with "Casualty" to launch a new historical drama — a conclusion The Guardian also asserted. A third series, "Casualty 1908", featuring Cherie Lunghi, was also commissioned. On 25 March 2009, it was announced that the BBC would be airing "Casualty 1909", a six-part series which aired in June and July 2009.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée Lyonnet ("née" Jacotey; born 21 August 1984), known professionally as Alizée, is a French singer, dancer and musician. She was born and raised in Ajaccio, Corsica.


title: Alizée

text: She first became known with her winning performance in the talent show "Graines de Star" in 1999. While collaborating with Mylène Farmer and Laurent Boutonnat, she followed it with a series of albums that attained popularity by pushing the boundaries of lyrical content in mainstream popular music and imagery in her music videos, which became a fixture on NRJ, Europe 1, MTV, Virgin Radio, and many others. Throughout her career, many of her songs have been in top 25 hit lists on the record charts, including "Moi... Lolita", "L'Alizé", "J'en ai marre!", "Gourmandises", "Mademoiselle Juliette", her cover version of "La Isla Bonita", "Parler Tout Bas", "Les collines" and "À cause de l'automne". According to the IFPI and SNEP, Alizée is one of the best-selling female French artists of the 21st century, and is also the singer with most exports out of France.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée entered the music business in 2000. She has since released six studio albums, the first two of which were composed by Laurent Boutonnat and written by Mylène Farmer. Her first album was "Gourmandises", which received Platinum certification within three months of release. After its international launch in 2001, "Gourmandises" was a success both in France and abroad, earning Alizée the distinction of being the highest selling female French singer in 2001. The album featured her most successful single "Moi... Lolita" which reached number one in several countries in Europe and East Asia, in the UK the song was acclaimed by the "New Musical Express" who recognized it with a "Single of the Week" award. It became a rare example of a foreign-language song to chart highly in the UK Singles Chart, peaking at number 9.


title: Alizée

text: "Gourmandises" was followed by a second studio album, "Mes courants électriques", in 2003. Following its release, Alizée toured during the autumn of 2003, performing in 43 concerts throughout France, Belgium and Switzerland. Her fourth album titled "Une enfant du siècle" was released on 29 March 2010. In early 2011 she recorded a duet with Alain Chamfort for his new album "Elle & lui". Alizée's fifth studio album, "5" (2013) spawned two singles: "À cause de l'automne" and "Je veux bien". She later collaborated on Olly Murs's single "Dear Darlin'". She participated in and won the TV dance contest "Danse avec les stars" (French version of "Strictly Come Dancing"). Following the success of "Danse avec les Stars", Alizée had released her sixth album, "Blonde" (2014), in collaboration with Pascal Obispo. The album received mixed reviews and was not successful in sales.


title: Alizée

text: Known to all her friends by her nickname "Lili", Alizée began dancing early in life, and by age four was already proficient. During 1988–2000 she studied in what was then called "Ecole de Danse Monique Mufraggi", a famous dance and theatre school in Ajaccio. In 1995, aged 11, she won a colouring competition with about 7,000 entrants organised by the (now defunct) French airline "Air Outre Mer". Her design was used to paint the exterior of one of their airliners, subsequently named after her, for which Alizée won a vacation trip with her family to the Maldives.


title: Alizée

text: In 1999, she appeared on the TV talent show "Graines de Star", broadcast on Métropole 6. She initially intended to sign up for the programme's dance contest, but that category was reserved for groups only. Alizée therefore joined the singing category instead, performing the song "Waiting for Tonight" by Jennifer Lopez and "Ma Prière" (a single released by Axelle Red in 1997). She went on to win the "Meilleure Graine" award for most promising young singing star of tomorrow.


title: Alizée

text: Her winning performance was seen by veteran songwriters Mylène Farmer and Laurent Boutonnat, who were looking for a young, fresh voice to partake in their new project. They approached Alizée, and she was selected after studio auditions. The duo arranged her debut with a meticulously orchestrated launch, controlling her image and public appearances. In 2000, they produced her maiden album, "Gourmandises" which was a great success in France, Belgium, Germany, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. The first single, "Moi... Lolita", resurrected the rich French musical tradition pioneered by Serge Gainsbourg in 1964 with the song , inspired by the celebrated novel "Lolita", creating the image which defined Alizée in the early years of her career. She won an M6 award in 2000 and returned with a follow-up album, "Mes Courants Électriques", in 2003. This second album was also quite successful, though less so than her first album. A video album shot during her European concert tour soon followed.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée made her debut with the single "Moi... Lolita", her most successful to date. It enjoyed success throughout most of Europe and parts of East Asia, reaching number one in several countries. The associated music video portrayed Alizée as an impoverished rustic teen visiting a dance club in the city with her little sister, pursued by a young man who had lent them the bus fare to get there, but whose romantic interest in her she never returned. The song was later used in the UK trailer of the 2006 film, "A Good Year", and was a part of the film's soundtrack.


title: Alizée

text: The single was from her debut album, "Gourmandises" ("Delicacies"), released in 2000. The album, written by Farmer and composed by Boutonnat, sold over 788,000 copies in France – it reached Platinum status in just three months. In 2001, the album was launched internationally and Alizée became the highest-selling female French singer ever. The album went on to sell over two million copies worldwide. Farmer and Boutonnat kept a tight rein how the album was marketed and controlled the image in which Alizée was portrayed. In the meantime, Alizée gave very few interviews, and even when she did, they did not stretch beyond 20 minutes per journalist. Neither did she agree to any photoshoots.


title: Alizée

text: Her second single "L'Alizé" (2000), also from the same album, followed soon. It also hit number one in France, and gained some international success. The video of the "sexily alliterative" song (compare its title to "Lola," a variant on "Lolita") shows a miraculously acrobatic (even airborne) Alizée frolicking amidst popping bubbles in front of a pink backdrop, erotically singing about her cautious search for a true love. The video was shot in a studio in Brussels, which had a 25-metre by 10-metre painted canvas to serve as the background, with real bubbles. This single was followed up with another single from the same album – the title song, "Gourmandises". The video, which shows a group of teenage boys and girls on a picnic, was shot in a day. The last single from the album was "Parler tout bas", about coming of age, and was illustrated with a surreal music video. In France, "Parler tout bas" was the third single, then followed by the release of "Gourmandises".


title: Alizée

text: In 2003, Alizée returned with her second album "Mes Courants Électriques" ("My Electric Currents"). With the release of this album, she changed her image from a "Lolita" to that of a more toned-down teenager. This album was also written by Farmer and Boutonnat and sold 400,000 copies in France.


title: Alizée

text: The first single from this album, "J'en ai marre!" (also known as "Mon bain de mousse" in Japan) was released in 2003. The music video for this shows Alizée in a glass cage, singing while having water splashed on her. The plexiglass cage, 3 by 3 meters in dimension, was constructed in a Parisian studio, and the shooting of the video took two days. The other singles from this album were "J'ai pas vingt ans" and "À contre-courant". The video for "J'ai pas vingt ans" ("I'm Not Twenty") resembles the ambience of a concert with Alizée dancing in the midst of several other dancers. "À contre-courant", the last single from this album, was shot in an abandoned coal factory.


title: Alizée

text: The albums features English versions of four tracks. The translations are artistic translations rather than literal, attempting to capture the rough feeling and concepts rather than the specific words and expressions. In some cases they are "dumbed down", lacking the clever French wordplays of the originals.


title: Alizée

text: Following the release of "Mes Courants Électriques", Alizée went on a countrywide tour of France, along with a performance each in Belgium and Switzerland, during the second half of 2003. The tour started off with a performance on 26 August 2003 in Paris. It concluded with her performance on the prestigious l'Olympia hall in Paris and eve of 17 January 2004 at the Le Zénith concert hall in the same city and had covered major cities including Lyon, Rouen, Lille, Grenoble and Dijon. A live CD and DVD, titled "Alizée En Concert", composed of selected performances from her tour, was launched a year later in the autumn of 2004. The audio CD contained tracks, taken from her two studio albums. The DVD featured video footage of the same performances as on the CD, along with bonus footage of her rehearsals.


title: Alizée

text: In 2005 after the success of her first tour and first live album release, Alizée first disappeared from the limelight, then reappeared in the media as it was revealed she was pregnant. She gave birth to a baby girl, Annily, 28 April 2005 (the child she had with Jérémy Chatelain) and put her career on hold. However, the tabloids devoted several articles, for the name Alizée appeared with others, including the false listings of the Clearstream affair.


title: Alizée

text: After several rumors of an imminent return, especially in collaboration with the band Indochine, Alizée left Universal Records to sign with RCA (Sony BMG) in August 2007 also revealing that the En Concert album and tour were her last collaboration with her mentors.


title: Alizée

text: Meanwhile, a compilation of the live album was re-released in early 2007 in Mexico by Universal Music as a CD+DVD release, following the featuring of the songs on local radio stations. With the re-release and renewed interest, the songs climbed up the music charts in the country. The album became a hit, peaking at number four in the International Chart on 28 May 2007, and number eight on the main albums chart. "En concert" has a Gold certification for shipments over 50,000 copies only in Mexico.


title: Alizée

text: After a three-year hiatus, a time spent out of the media spotlight, Alizée returned in December 2007 with a new album, "Psychédélices", the first one to be made without the creative supervision of her former mentor, Mylène Farmer. The album, which features 11 tracks, was made available for digital downloads 26 November 2007, with a full release on 3 December 2007 on the RCA label. The album includes collaborations with Bertrand Burgalat, Daniel Darc, Oxmo Puccino, Jérémy Chatelain, Michel-Yves Kochmann, and Jean Fauque.


title: Alizée

text: The first single from the album was "Mademoiselle Juliette", officially released on 30 September 2007. It was accidentally released early on the Virgin Megastore website on 23 September 2007, but was taken down later citing an error on the part of Virgin Music, France. The single was later made available in online music stores as well as on radio stations, and went on to capture the No. 13 spot on the legal music downloads charts. To promote the single, Alizée appeared on the French radio station, "NRJ", on 27 September 2007. The video for the single was released for broadcast on 19 November 2007, though it was made available on MSN France on 16 November 2007. It was released on physical media, both CD and vinyl, on 21 January 2008.


title: Alizée

text: Another track from the album, "Fifty-Sixty", was leaked two months before the album was released. Though the song was not mentioned by name, the leak was confirmed in a press release which revealed the title and release schedule of the album. "Fifty-Sixty" later launched as the second single from the album in February 2008. The lyric of "Fifty-Sixty" tells, in personal and metaphorical manner, of a young model under the guidance of Andy Warhol, possibly inspired by real-life story of Edie Sedgwick. The song ends with a reiteration of how she foolishly believed Andy thought her the most beautiful model of all. Three music videos were released for the single – one for the album version of the song and the other two for two remixes. An Alizée website, "Psychedeclips.com", was dedicated to the video series, the first of which was released on 5 May 2008.


title: Alizée

text: Coinciding with the new album, a new official website was created, which, despite being announced on 11 September 2007, was kept under wraps until 28 November 2007. The album was also promoted via an official artist profile at MySpace. Advertising and marketing campaigns for the album began 22 November 2007 with ad campaigns on NRJ Radio, TF1-TV, and the web.


title: Alizée

text: In March 2008 Alizée visited Mexico for the first time in a short promotional tour. On 5 March she was supposed to hold the second-ever public autograph session of her career but it was cancelled due to problems with the store's security. Alizée held an improvised press conference to apologise to all her Mexican fans and to explain that it was not her fault. Sony BMG Mexico also released a statement saying it was not Alizée's fault, that it was the store who had problems with the security, and that they did not expect so many people in attendance; fences had been broken and children were in danger. Alizée also promised to make amends by having another autograph session when she returned to the country on the following tour. She also stated that her tour would start on 18 May in Moscow, followed by concerts in Mexico and then France. She also commented that piracy in music has two sides "one good" and "one bad" saying that sometimes it's good because her music reaches places that she never thought to reach. After the success of Alizée's tour in Mexico, and in an attempt to mitigate the damage caused during her first promotional visit, Alizée announced an autograph session with fans on 26 June 2008 in Mexico City, over 300 CDs were signed and the record label executives of Sony BMG Mexico presented a Gold certification for shipments over 50,000 copies of "Psychédélices – Mexican Tour Edition". A new cover singing in Mexico was Madonna's cover, "La Isla Bonita"; it went on to become Alizée's first top ten on the airplay chart.


title: Alizée

text: Following the success of "Alizée En Concert" and "Psychédélices" in Mexico, Alizée's former music label, Universal Music released a compilation album, titled "Tout Alizée". The compilation, which is a Mexico-only release, consists of 15 tracks (with 4 remixes) from her first two studio albums. It is augmented with a bonus DVD featuring some of her music videos. The compilation debuted at No. 62 on the Mexican Top 100 Albums Chart and No. 20 on the Mexican International Top 20 Albums Chart.


title: Alizée

text: At the beginning of 2009, Alizée had to cancel a concert in France. She announced then that she was already working on her future album, which would sound very different from all of her previous recordings. The album was called "Une Enfant Du Siècle" and was released in France on 29 March 2010. A teaser can be seen on the Internet, called "Une enfant du siècle" (A child of the century).


title: Alizée

text: According to British website Popjustice, the first single is partially in English and it is called "Limelight". On 15 February 2010 they uploaded the full version of the song and a clip from the music video. The Special Collector Edition of the album was made available for pre-orders on 4 February 2010.


title: Alizée

text: However, it was later confirmed by Popjustice itself that "Limelight" was a teaser single, and the official single from Alizée's fourth album is "Les Collines (Never Leave You)".


title: Alizée

text: The full album leaked on to the Internet on 19 March 2010. The album was released in France on 29 March 2010. The album received mixed-to-positive reviews by critics, praising her radical change from her teen pop roots, but also criticizing her perceived lack of interest in the project, and the uncatchy nature of the melodies. On that day Alizée signed autographs at the Virgin Megastore in Paris. The album is inspired by and depicts the life of Edie Sedgwick.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée performed in Israel in a tribute to Serge Gainsbourg on 28 July 2010 in Tel Aviv in National Opéra. She covered a song called "Dis-lui toi que je t'aime" originally sung by Vanessa Paradis, accompanied by the national orchestra. She also performed a song with Israeli singer Harel Skaat. The music video of the first single "Les collines (Never leave you)" was released on 19 March 2010 on Alizée's official YouTube channel, which peaked the daily most-viewed musician's channel worldwide.


title: Alizée

text: Between 1 and 6 February 2012, Alizée appeared in several shows on French television. She announced that a new album was scheduled for spring 2012, marking a return to roots music which would be released on the Sony Music label; Sony subsequently announced that the album was to be delayed until the autumn of 2012. In April 2012, she was featured on the single "Clara veut la Lune" by Alain Chamfort. On 27 June 2012, Alizée announced on live chat that the first single, "À cause de l'automne", from the new album was to be released 28 June 2012. The first music video was shot on 15 July 2012 but this was only released in VidZone platform for PS3. Alizée also revealed that for the new album she was working with Jean-Jacques Goldman, BB Brunes and Thomas Boulard (singer and guitarist of French rock band "Luke"). 12 July, a limited Collector's Edition of the fifth album became available for pre-order. The original release date was changed from 1 October 2012 to March 2013. A "Collector's Box was released for " pre-order page states 23 January 2013 as for the release.


title: Alizée

text: In December 2012 the official video of À cause de l'automne was published on Alizée's VEVO channel, initially available only in France and made available for the rest of the world in February 2013. The first performance of her latest single was on RFM radio on 21 December 2012 where she sang the song in a live broadcast.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée promoted the album including the January/February 2013 issue of the French edition of Inked magazine.


title: Alizée

text: In January the name and the cover of the album were shown on a Star Academy, where Alizée made an appearance.


title: Alizée

text: She promoted the album with performances during Soccer Beach Show of Monaco, Alain Chamfort's "En Concert" at Le Grand Rex. also her new participation in Les Enfoirés 2013 concert at the Paris-Bercy hall and Le Tour de France 2013 opening ceremony performance in Porto-Vecchio, where she sang the second single from the album "Je veux bien".


title: Alizée

text: In August, Alizée was confirmed to be participating in the upcoming fourth season of the popular reality show "Danse avec les stars" (the French version of "Strictly Come Dancing") for the promotion of 5, about a month later she announced that she was again in the studio for a "surprise" and in September she revealed her collaboration with the singer Olly Murs in a new, French version of his single "Dear Darlin'". Alizée won the first place in "Danse avec les stars" in November 2013.


title: Alizée

text: As announced by MetroNews, the singer would perform during NRJ Music Awards on 14 December 2013. She performed "Scream & Shout" with will.i.am, singing the lines originally sung by Britney Spears, including the line "Alizée, bitch"; along with "Le tourbillion" with Tal.


title: Alizée

text: At the end of December 2013, the singer began recording her sixth studio album. Her new single "Blonde" was announced in March 2014 and released on 17 March as the first single from "Blonde", which was released on 23 June 2014. The album received mixed to positive reviews from critics and had mediocre success. Another song, "Alcaline", was released on 16 June as a single.


title: Alizée

text: On 6 December, Alizée announced on Instagram that she was in a studio for dubbing an animation film. The film is the French-language version of "Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast", titled "Clochette et la créature légendaire". The film was released on 8 April 2015.


title: Alizée

text: Though described as a very shy and reserved person, she likes performing in front of audiences. Although she is most famous as a singer, Alizée prefers dancing, and is quite proficient in classical dance, jazz, Italian style ballet, tap and flamenco.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée married fellow French singer Jérémy Chatelain in Las Vegas, Nevada on 6 November 2003. They have a daughter named Annily (born 28 April 2005). The public found out about their marriage in February 2004 when "Voici" magazine released a copy of their marriage certificate in an article. She was quiet about her private and family life and kept her baby out of the press to the best of her ability, but since 2011 has been much more open about her private life. Jérémy and Alizée divorced in early 2012. During "Danse avec les stars" in fall 2013, Alizée met and started to date Grégoire Lyonnet, whom she married on 18 June 2016.


title: Alizée

text: In an Instagram post dated 24 May 2019, Alizee announced that she was pregnant with her second child. Alizée gave birth to Maggy Lyonnet on 24 November 2019.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée has a mezzo-soprano vocal type and range. She started her musical career with songs she described as "soulful pop music". In 2000 she erupted in the musical world, becoming an international sensation because she was the most successful female French singer in a long while. Alizée is known for blending Electronic sounds with pop, such as psychedelic pop and most recently, mainstream Europop.


title: Alizée

text: At the time of her debut, NRJ Radio said about her, "The Queen of Europop is a French Lolita". In her debut album Alizée used Europop with mellow sounds, World Music and the classic French Chanson.


title: Alizée

text: The second album was primarily house sounds, instrumentals and electronic sounds mixed with the sounds from her last album. The third album marked a change, replacing her earlier styles with psychedelic sounds and a very rhythmic world music. The single "Fifty-Sixty" is dedicated to the memory of model Edie Sedgwick.


title: Alizée

text: For her fourth album she had another radical change in musical style with a new genre for her career: "Mainstream", with strong rhythms compared to her previous three albums. Alizée made clear that the renewal is a big part of her contribution to music.


title: Alizée

text: Even though early albums portrayed her in a sexy, Lolita-like manner, Alizée was modest, demure and family-oriented in public during her teenage years. For her second album she mostly kept a similar style but with more electronic influences. Her hairstyle was usually a simple bob and her make-up was designed to emphasize and enhance her natural beauty.


title: Alizée

text: For her third album she changed her style radically in terms of both music and image, with a more mature performance and more elaborate make-up, clothing and hairstyle. For the promotion of this album Alizée posed for a French magazine, "Technikart", in the "Like a Virgin" style of her idol Madonna.


title: Alizée

text: After a two-year hiatus, she returned with a fourth album whose style was more "psychedelic" and which saw her seeking a new and wider audience.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée is very fond of tattoos, of which she has many. The best known is the large Disney-style Tinkerbell on her back, which reflects the fact that she had regarded the character as a mascot since childhood, amassing a large collection of its statuettes. It was often shown during her promotion of the Psychédélices album, presumably because Psyche is something of an ancient forerunner of Tinkerbell.


title: Alizée

text: The anime superheroine Sailor Moon, who shares a few commonalities with Tinkerbell, is prominent on Alizée's right arm.


title: Alizée

text: Over the years Alizée has been declared a fashionista, appearing in various fashion magazines, beauty and culture.


title: Alizée

text: In the 2010 'Sexiest Women in the World' polls, run by the French edition of "FHM" magazine, readers voted Alizée as the second sexiest woman out of 100.


title: Alizée

text: Since 2012 Alizée has appeared in many magazines and publications including the January/February 2013 issue of the French edition of Inked magazine which featured a photo shoot, including on the cover, of her as a manacled and bloodied punk princess by the French photographer Julien Lachaussée and many more.


title: Alizée

text: In 2013, she was one of the guests of honour for her friend John Galliano in Paris Fashion Week 2013.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée was ranked fourth in a list of the most influential female artists in France by the amount of followers in social media in March 2014.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career. Media said she was one of the most controversial female vocalists of the 21st century, that she had broken into the music world at 17 years old with a worldwide success, that she spearheaded the rise of post-millennial Europop and became its queen, and that "Alizée early on cultivated a mixture of a sweet Lolita innocence and experience that broke the bank".


title: Alizée

text: Her debut album "Gourmandises" sold 700,000 in only three months in France, and 1,000,000 in Europe in 2001. In early 2001, she won the NRJ Music Awards for Francophone Revelation after she won an M6 Award in late 2000. It is also named in a similar category to the Victoires de la Musique,


title: Alizée

text: "Moi... Lolita" is one of the best-selling singles in France. Alizée also has two singles in the French Top 100 singles of the 2000s. In 2002, "Le Figaro" newspaper announced as Alizée's music was the top earning French music of the year thanks in part to Farmer and Boutonnat's collaboration, which earned 10.4 million €.


title: Alizée

text: The Mademoiselle Juliette video released on 19 November 2007 is listed at 138 in the countdown of 150 most important videos of the last 15 years of the MTV Latin America channel.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée is famous for her most successful single to date Moi... Lolita which became a worldwide sensation, with the singer becoming a phenomenon and a national obsession in France. The singer is known for her fast rise to fame, also in media is known as "The most famous of Lolita" also today as the French singer with most exports from France.


title: Alizée

text: Despite the marketing hype and commercial success, there were mixed critical responses to the launch of "Moi... Lolita", Alizée's first single. The critics felt that the similarity in style to that of Mylène Farmer was too striking. Some felt that her "Lolita" image overshadowed her singing prowess, describing her as "desperately trying to be sexy", and many were ready to write her off. Some of her songs have been described as "sweeping, atmospheric ballads" whose "melodies are so sparkling and beguiling", and from which Alizée manages to "squeeze more emotion than the usual pop package". Alizée's three albums include a wide range of songs, from catchy pop tunes to soulful ballads. Radio France Internationale featured "Gourmandises" as their CD of the week, stating:


title: Alizée

text: The ten songs on Alizée's debut album, Gourmandises (Goodies), have all been expertly manufactured by the Farmer hit-machine. Sweet syrupy pop ditties are wrapped in silky synths, violins and catchy techno beats and judging by the success of Alizée's sexily alliterative second single, L'Alizé, the Farmer team have hit upon a winning formula.


title: Alizée

text: ...Gourmandises the French word for sweets (or candies) is the appropriate title of French pop princess Alizée's debut album. Like an aniseed ball, the mix of pop tunes and ballads are pleasant and consistent throughout, but at the same time never too adventurous. The French lyrics may spoil the album for some but the catchy tunes and lyrics (even though they may mean little to the average English speaker) highlight the universal language of pop...


title: Alizée

text: ...Sixteen-year-old Alizée is France's answer to the teen queen phenomenon. With one notable exception: Alizée has real talent...


title: Alizée

text: In recent years, critics have commented upon the maturing of Alizée's image and style, and her being a growing artist full of "classy" sounds, and having a strong voice. They have observed how "Lolita", who had begun her career at the beginning of the new century, has transformed into a mature woman and accomplished singer throughout the years.


title: Alizée

text: Alizée was involved in charity work through "Les Enfoirés", a group of French celebrities who organise fundraising concerts every year. The proceeds from these concerts go to "Les Restaurants du Coeur". The organisation, set up by French comedian Coluche, helps feed the poor. Alizée participated in these concerts in 2001, 2002 and from 2008 to 2013.


title: Alizée

text: In 2011, the singer participated in the Collectif Paris-Africa to fight against famine in Africa (similar to USA for Africa). She recorded the song "Des ricochets" along with 60 artists, for the compilation album Collectif Paris-Africa pour l'UNICEF.


title: High-level programming language

text: In computer science, a high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer. In contrast to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language "elements", be easier to use, or may automate (or even hide entirely) significant areas of computing systems (e.g. memory management), making the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable than when using a lower-level language. The amount of abstraction provided defines how "high-level" a programming language is.


title: High-level programming language

text: The first high-level programming language designed for computers was Plankalkül, created by Konrad Zuse. However, it was not implemented in his time, and his original contributions were largely isolated from other developments due to World War II, aside from the language's influence on the "Superplan" language by Heinz Rutishauser and also to some degree ALGOL. The first significantly widespread high-level language was Fortran, a machine-independent development of IBM's earlier Autocode systems. The ALGOL family, with ALGOL 58 defined in 1958 and ALGOL 60 defined in 1960 by committees of European and American computer scientists, introduced recursion as well as nested functions under lexical scope. ALGOL 60 was also the first language with a clear distinction between value and name-parameters and their corresponding semantics. ALGOL also introduced several structured programming concepts, such as the codice_1 and codice_2 constructs and its syntax was the first to be described in formal notation – "Backus–Naur form" (BNF). During roughly the same period, COBOL introduced records (also called structs) and Lisp introduced a fully general lambda abstraction in a programming language for the first time.


title: High-level programming language

text: "High-level language" refers to the higher level of abstraction from machine language. Rather than dealing with registers, memory addresses, and call stacks, high-level languages deal with variables, arrays, objects, complex arithmetic or boolean expressions, subroutines and functions, loops, threads, locks, and other abstract computer science concepts, with a focus on usability over optimal program efficiency. Unlike low-level assembly languages, high-level languages have few, if any, language elements that translate directly into a machine's native opcodes. Other features, such as string handling routines, object-oriented language features, and file input/output, may also be present. One thing to note about high-level programming languages is that these languages allow the programmer to be detached and separated from the machine. That is, unlike low-level languages like assembly or machine language, high-level programming can amplify the programmer's instructions and trigger a lot of data movements in the background without their knowledge. The responsibility and power of executing instructions have been handed over to the machine from the programmer.


title: High-level programming language

text: High-level languages intend to provide features that standardize common tasks, permit rich debugging, and maintain architectural agnosticism; while low-level languages often produce more efficient code through optimization for a specific system architecture. "Abstraction penalty" is the cost that high-level programming techniques pay for being unable to optimize performance or use certain hardware because they don't take advantage of certain low-level architectural resources. High-level programming exhibits features like more generic data structures and operations, run-time interpretation, and intermediate code files; which often result in execution of far more operations than necessary, higher memory consumption, and larger binary program size. For this reason, code which needs to run particularly quickly and efficiently may require the use of a lower-level language, even if a higher-level language would make the coding easier. In many cases, critical portions of a program mostly in a high-level language can be hand-coded in assembly language, leading to a much faster, more efficient, or simply reliably functioning optimised program.


title: High-level programming language

text: However, with the growing complexity of modern microprocessor architectures, well-designed compilers for high-level languages frequently produce code comparable in efficiency to what most low-level programmers can produce by hand, and the higher abstraction may allow for more powerful techniques providing better overall results than their low-level counterparts in particular settings.


title: High-level programming language

text: High-level languages are designed independent of a specific computing system architecture. This facilitates executing a program written in such a language on any computing system with compatible support for the Interpreted or JIT program. High-level languages can be improved as their designers develop improvements. In other cases, new high-level languages evolve from one or more others with the goal of aggregating the most popular constructs with new or improved features. An example of this is Scala which maintains backward compatibility with Java which means that programs and libraries written in Java will continue to be usable even if a programming shop switches to Scala; this makes the transition easier and the lifespan of such high-level coding indefinite. In contrast, low-level programs rarely survive beyond the system architecture which they were written for without major revision. This is the engineering 'trade-off' for the 'Abstraction Penalty'.


title: High-level programming language

text: Examples of high-level programming languages in active use today include Python, JavaScript, Visual Basic, Delphi, Perl, PHP, ECMAScript, Ruby, C#, Java and many others.


title: High-level programming language

text: The terms "high-level" and "low-level" are inherently relative. Some decades ago, the C language, and similar languages, were most often considered "high-level", as it supported concepts such as expression evaluation, parameterised recursive functions, and data types and structures, while assembly language was considered "low-level". Today, many programmers might refer to C as low-level, as it lacks a large runtime-system (no garbage collection, etc.), basically supports only scalar operations, and provides direct memory addressing. It, therefore, readily blends with assembly language and the machine level of CPUs and microcontrollers. Also, in the introduction chapter of The C Programming Language (second edition) by K&R, C is considered as a relatively "low level" language.


title: High-level programming language

text: Assembly language may itself be regarded as a higher level (but often still one-to-one if used without macros) representation of machine code, as it supports concepts such as constants and (limited) expressions, sometimes even variables, procedures, and data structures. Machine code, in its turn, is inherently at a slightly higher level than the microcode or micro-operations used internally in many processors.


title: High-level programming language

text: Note that languages are not strictly "interpreted" languages or "compiled" languages. Rather, implementations of language behavior use interpreting or compiling. For example, ALGOL 60 and Fortran have both been interpreted (even though they were more typically compiled). Similarly, Java shows the difficulty of trying to apply these labels to languages, rather than to implementations; Java is compiled to bytecode which is then executed by either interpreting (in a Java virtual machine (JVM)) or compiling (typically with a just-in-time compiler such as HotSpot, again in a JVM). Moreover, compiling, transcompiling, and interpreting is not strictly limited to only a description of the compiler artifact (binary executable or IL assembly).


title: High-level programming language

text: Alternatively, it is possible for a high-level language to be directly implemented by a computer – the computer directly executes the HLL code. This is known as a "high-level language computer architecture" – the computer architecture itself is designed to be targeted by a specific high-level language. The Burroughs large systems were target machines for ALGOL 60, for example.


title: Austin St. John

text: Jason Lawrence Geiger (born September 17, 1974), professionally known as Austin St. John, is an American actor, martial artist, and paramedic best known for his portrayal of Jason Lee Scott in the "Power Rangers" franchise.


title: Austin St. John

text: Austin St. John was born on September 17, 1974, in Roswell, New Mexico, and is the son of U.S. Marine and martial artist Steve John and his wife, Sharon. He has one sibling, a brother named Stephen. With a parent in the armed forces, St. John lived all over the United States while growing up.


title: Austin St. John

text: Austin St. John's first acting role and most well-known role to date came to him when he was 19 years old, when he was cast as teen superhero Jason Lee Scott, the Red Power Ranger in "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers", the first installment of the "Power Rangers" franchise, which debuted on Fox Kids in 1993. For his role, he took the stage name Austin St. John, Austin coming from "The Six Million Dollar Man"'s Steve Austin and St. John being a name of his own choosing.


title: Austin St. John

text: Like St. John, his character had a background in martial arts. Though the series was hugely successful and brought St. John international recognition as an actor, long hours on set combined with low pay and no union recognition presented real challenges for him. As a result, St. John, along with all of his other co-stars including Jason David Frank agreed to leave the show during its second season if their employers rejected their pay demands and unionization attempts, but when time came, only Walter Emanuel Jones and Thuy Trang joined him in the ultimatum and ultimately left the show. St. John was replaced by Steve Cardenas as the Red Ranger.


title: Austin St. John

text: St. John went onto reprise the role of Jason several times over, in both film and television, including a permanent role in "Power Rangers Zeo", and making an appearance as the character in 2002, in an episode of "Power Rangers Wild Force" entitled “Forever Red”. He also appeared alongside Jones, as himself, in the Power Rangers special The Lost Episode in 1999, which focused on the history of the franchise up to that point and showed the original pilot episode for the series, which had never before been aired.


title: Austin St. John

text: In 2017, he made a cameo in the movie "Surge of Power: Revenge of the Sequel". In 2018, he was acting in the television movie "Monsters At Large" and had a major role in the 2019 dramatic movie "A Walk with Grace".


title: Austin St. John

text: In 2020, St. John reprised the role of Jason in a second season episode of "Power Rangers Beast Morphers" titled "Grid Connection".


title: Austin St. John

text: In 2022, he had the lead role in the film "Tres Leches", directed by John Schneider. The film is available for free on the official Youtube channel of John Schneider. Tres Leches film official on Youtube.com


title: Austin St. John

text: Austin St. John began as a proficient martial artist, holding a second-degree black belt in Taekwondo, a first-degree black belt in Judo and a first-degree black belt in Kenpo and for a time, he worked as a martial arts instructor. Additionally, he published a book on the subject, "Karate Warrior: A Beginner's Guide to Martial Arts", in 1996.


title: Austin St. John

text: Austin St. John attended Robert Frost Middle School and W.T. Woodson High School in Fairfax, VA, before moving to Fullerton, California where he attended Sunny Hills High School, but did not graduate. As an adult, he went on to earn his G.E.D. and ultimately obtained his undergraduate degree from Concordia University. For over a decade, he worked as a paramedic in the Washington, D.C. area. He also worked with the U.S. military as a healthcare provider in the Middle East for several years, though he was not actually a member of any branch of the armed forces. He has two sons and a daughter.


title: Austin St. John

text: In May 2022, he was indicted on federal fraud charges related to the CARES Act. He allegedly conspired in a $3.5 million scheme to create businesses or use an existing business to submit applications to fraudulently obtain Paycheck Protection Program funding. Prosecutors said participants in the conspiracy would file false supporting documentation and misrepresent key details, including the number of their employees and the amount of their payroll, causing the Small Business Administration and financial institutions to issue loans. Prosecutors allege St. John and co-defendants paid the ringleaders of the scheme, and spent the money on personal purchases. If convicted, he could face up to 20 years in prison.


title: Austin St. John

text: Since the incident, St. John agreed to be put on probation and his movements were restricted within his home state of Texas. However as his occupation requires him to travel across the country, the court granted him permission to do so under legal supervision within his submitted itinerary, which included his previously scheduled convention appearances. On May 25, 2022, St. John released a video confirming these recent events as true and reiterated his legal inability to discuss said events at his entertainment-based public appearances.


title: Joe Piscopo

text: Joseph Charles John Piscopo ( ; born June 17, 1951) is an American actor, comedian and conservative radio talk show host. He was a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" from 1980 to 1984, where he played a variety of recurring characters. His film roles include Danny Vermin in "Johnny Dangerously" (1984), Moe Dickstein in "Wise Guys" (1986), Doug Bigelow in "Dead Heat" (1988) and Kelly Stone in "Sidekicks" (1992).


title: Joe Piscopo

text: Born in Passaic, New Jersey, Piscopo grew up in North Caldwell and attended West Essex High School and was a member of the drama club "The Masquers." He developed a reputation for never playing a part the way it was written. After graduating in 1969, Piscopo attended Jones College in Jacksonville, Florida, where he received a degree in broadcast management.


title: Joe Piscopo

text: In the summer of 1980, Piscopo was hired as a contract player for "Saturday Night Live". The show had gone through a major upheaval when all the writers, major producers, and cast members left that spring. The all-new cast bombed with critics and fans, with the exception of Piscopo and Eddie Murphy; thus they were the only two cast members to be kept when Dick Ebersol took over the show the following spring. With the success of "SNL", Piscopo moved to the wealthy borough of Alpine, New Jersey.


title: Joe Piscopo

text: Piscopo was best known for his impressions of celebrities such as Frank Sinatra. Piscopo rewrote the lyrics for a Sinatra sketch with the help of Sinatra lyricist Sammy Cahn and recalled that "by the grace of God, the old man loved it." Piscopo had an occasional spot on the "Weekend Update" segment as a bombastic sports commentator who would pose a series of questions and usually follow them up with a loud, “Who cares?”. Piscopo and Robin Duke also played The Whiners.


title: Joe Piscopo

text: Piscopo left "Saturday Night Live" at the end of the 1983–1984 season. In 1984, he starred with Michael Keaton in the movie "Johnny Dangerously", to mixed reviews, as well as a special for HBO and wrote a book for Pocket Books called "The Piscopo Tapes". An album, "New Jersey", for Columbia Records, followed in 1985 and an ABC special called "The Joe Piscopo New Jersey Special" in May 1986. In 1987, Piscopo was mentioned in Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers' No. 1 rock single "Jammin' Me".


title: Joe Piscopo

text: In the mid-to-late 1980s, Piscopo developed an interest in bodybuilding. He first got involved with the sport when he was doing impressions of Bruce Springsteen on SNL. He appeared on the cover of "Muscle & Fitness" magazine in April 1988 and June 1990. In the latter issue, he said, "Some people in Hollywood think I'm nuts with this bodybuilding stuff. They'll say, 'You're getting too big. You'll hurt your career.' But they don't understand that high that comes from a workout, the challenge, and the personal victory."


title: Joe Piscopo

text: Since January 2014 he has hosted the "Piscopo in the Morning" radio show from 6:00 to 10:00 am, Monday through Friday on AM 970 The Answer (WNYM) in New York City. Starting on December 13, 2020, Piscopo also began to host the Ramsey Mazda Sunday Nights with Sinatra on 770 AM WABC in New York and WABC's sister station 107.1 FM WLIR in Hampton Bays.


title: Joe Piscopo

text: Piscopo considered running as an independent for governor of New Jersey in 2017 based in part on the political success of Donald Trump, for whom he had campaigned in 2016. He got encouragement from a number of political figures, including former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani. However, in May 2017 he decided not to run. Piscopo has been active in a band and performed stand up and music at a political rally hosted by businessman Mike Lindell in May 2021.


title: Joe Piscopo

text: He was diagnosed Thyroid cancer in 1990. In 1973, Piscopo married Nancy Jones. They had one child and divorced in 1988. In 1997, he married Kimberly Driscoll, who was his son's nanny when Piscopo had been married to Jones. They had three children and divorced in 2006. Piscopo is a resident of Lebanon Township, New Jersey, and has lived in Tewksbury Township, New Jersey. In 2013, Piscopo was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame. Piscopo is also an avid New Jersey Devils fan and was the emcee for the 2003 Stanley Cup Championship Celebration.


title: Linked list

text: In computer science, a linked list is a linear collection of data elements whose order is not given by their physical placement in memory. Instead, each element points to the next. It is a data structure consisting of a collection of nodes which together represent a sequence. In its most basic form, each node contains: data, and a reference (in other words, a "link") to the next node in the sequence. This structure allows for efficient insertion or removal of elements from any position in the sequence during iteration. More complex variants add additional links, allowing more efficient insertion or removal of nodes at arbitrary positions. A drawback of linked lists is that access time is linear (and difficult to pipeline). Faster access, such as random access, is not feasible. Arrays have better cache locality compared to linked lists.


title: Linked list

text: Linked lists are among the simplest and most common data structures. They can be used to implement several other common abstract data types, including lists, stacks, queues, associative arrays, and S-expressions, though it is not uncommon to implement those data structures directly without using a linked list as the basis.


title: Linked list

text: The principal benefit of a linked list over a conventional array is that the list elements can be easily inserted or removed without reallocation or reorganization of the entire structure because the data items need not be stored contiguously in memory or on disk, while restructuring an array at run-time is a much more expensive operation. Linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list, and allow doing so with a constant number of operations by keeping the link previous to the link being added or removed in memory during list traversal.


title: Linked list

text: On the other hand, since simple linked lists by themselves do not allow random access to the data or any form of efficient indexing, many basic operations—such as obtaining the last node of the list, finding a node that contains a given datum, or locating the place where a new node should be inserted—may require iterating through most or all of the list elements.


title: Linked list

text: Linked lists were developed in 1955–1956, by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw and Herbert A. Simon at RAND Corporation as the primary data structure for their Information Processing Language. IPL was used by the authors to develop several early artificial intelligence programs, including the Logic Theory Machine, the General Problem Solver, and a computer chess program. Reports on their work appeared in IRE Transactions on Information Theory in 1956, and several conference proceedings from 1957 to 1959, including Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference in 1957 and 1958, and Information Processing (Proceedings of the first UNESCO International Conference on Information Processing) in 1959. The now-classic diagram consisting of blocks representing list nodes with arrows pointing to successive list nodes appears in "Programming the Logic Theory Machine" by Newell and Shaw in Proc. WJCC, February 1957. Newell and Simon were recognized with the ACM Turing Award in 1975 for having "made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing".


title: Linked list

text: The problem of machine translation for natural language processing led Victor Yngve at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to use linked lists as data structures in his COMIT programming language for computer research in the field of linguistics. A report on this language entitled "A programming language for mechanical translation" appeared in Mechanical Translation in 1958.


title: Linked list

text: Another early appearance of linked lists was by Hans Peter Luhn who wrote an internal IBM memorandum in January 1953 that suggested the use of linked lists in chained hash tables.


title: Linked list

text: LISP, standing for list processor, was created by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at MIT and in 1960 he published its design in a paper in the Communications of the ACM, entitled "Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Part I". One of LISP's major data structures is the linked list.


title: Linked list

text: By the early 1960s, the utility of both linked lists and languages which use these structures as their primary data representation was well established. Bert Green of the MIT Lincoln Laboratory published a review article entitled "Computer languages for symbol manipulation" in IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics in March 1961 which summarized the advantages of the linked list approach. A later review article, "A Comparison of list-processing computer languages" by Bobrow and Raphael, appeared in Communications of the ACM in April 1964.


title: Linked list

text: Several operating systems developed by Technical Systems Consultants (originally of West Lafayette Indiana, and later of Chapel Hill, North Carolina) used singly linked lists as file structures. A directory entry pointed to the first sector of a file, and succeeding portions of the file were located by traversing pointers. Systems using this technique included Flex (for the Motorola 6800 CPU), mini-Flex (same CPU), and Flex9 (for the Motorola 6809 CPU). A variant developed by TSC for and marketed by Smoke Signal Broadcasting in California, used doubly linked lists in the same manner.


title: Linked list

text: The TSS/360 operating system, developed by IBM for the System 360/370 machines, used a double linked list for their file system catalog. The directory structure was similar to Unix, where a directory could contain files and other directories and extend to any depth.


title: Linked list

text: The field of each node that contains the address of the next node is usually called the 'next link' or 'next pointer'. The remaining fields are known as the 'data', 'information', 'value', 'cargo', or 'payload' fields.


title: Linked list

text: The 'head' of a list is its first node. The 'tail' of a list may refer either to the rest of the list after the head, or to the last node in the list. In Lisp and some derived languages, the next node may be called the 'cdr' (pronounced "could-er") of the list, while the payload of the head node may be called the 'car'.


title: Linked list

text: Singly linked lists contain nodes which have a 'value' field as well as 'next' field, which points to the next node in line of nodes. Operations that can be performed on singly linked lists include insertion, deletion and traversal.


title: Linked list

text: The following code demonstrates how to add a new node with the "value" to the end of a singly linked list:


title: Linked list

text: In a 'doubly linked list', each node contains, besides the next-node link, a second link field pointing to the 'previous' node in the sequence. The two links may be called 'forward('s') and 'backwards', or 'next' and 'prev'('previous').


title: Linked list

text: A technique known as XOR-linking allows a doubly linked list to be implemented using a single link field in each node. However, this technique requires the ability to do bit operations on addresses, and therefore may not be available in some high-level languages.


title: Linked list

text: Many modern operating systems use doubly linked lists to maintain references to active processes, threads, and other dynamic objects. A common strategy for rootkits to evade detection is to unlink themselves from these lists.


title: Linked list

text: In a 'multiply linked list', each node contains two or more link fields, each field being used to connect the same set of data records in a different order of same set (e.g., by name, by department, by date of birth, etc.). While doubly linked lists can be seen as special cases of multiply linked list, the fact that the two and more orders are opposite to each other leads to simpler and more efficient algorithms, so they are usually treated as a separate case.


title: Linked list

text: In the last node of a list, the link field often contains a null reference, a special value is used to indicate the lack of further nodes. A less common convention is to make it point to the first node of the list; in that case, the list is said to be 'circular' or 'circularly linked'; otherwise, it is said to be 'open' or 'linear'. It is a list where the last pointer points to the first node.


title: Linked list

text: In the case of a circular doubly linked list, the first node also points to the last node of the list.


title: Linked list

text: In some implementations an extra 'sentinel' or 'dummy' node may be added before the first data record or after the last one. This convention simplifies and accelerates some list-handling algorithms, by ensuring that all links can be safely dereferenced and that every list (even one that contains no data elements) always has a "first" and "last" node.


title: Linked list

text: An empty list is a list that contains no data records. This is usually the same as saying that it has zero nodes. If sentinel nodes are being used, the list is usually said to be empty when it has only sentinel nodes.


title: Linked list

text: The link fields need not be physically part of the nodes. If the data records are stored in an array and referenced by their indices, the link field may be stored in a separate array with the same indices as the data records.


title: Linked list

text: Since a reference to the first node gives access to the whole list, that reference is often called the 'address', 'pointer', or 'handle' of the list. Algorithms that manipulate linked lists usually get such handles to the input lists and return the handles to the resulting lists. In fact, in the context of such algorithms, the word "list" often means "list handle". In some situations, however, it may be convenient to refer to a list by a handle that consists of two links, pointing to its first and last nodes.


title: Linked list

text: The alternatives listed above may be arbitrarily combined in almost every way, so one may have circular doubly linked lists without sentinels, circular singly linked lists with sentinels, etc.


title: Linked list

text: As with most choices in computer programming and design, no method is well suited to all circumstances. A linked list data structure might work well in one case, but cause problems in another. This is a list of some of the common tradeoffs involving linked list structures.


title: Linked list

text: A "dynamic array" is a data structure that allocates all elements contiguously in memory, and keeps a count of the current number of elements. If the space reserved for the dynamic array is exceeded, it is reallocated and (possibly) copied, which is an expensive operation.


title: Linked list

text: Linked lists have several advantages over dynamic arrays. Insertion or deletion of an element at a specific point of a list, assuming that we have indexed a pointer to the node (before the one to be removed, or before the insertion point) already, is a constant-time operation (otherwise without this reference it is O(n)), whereas insertion in a dynamic array at random locations will require moving half of the elements on average, and all the elements in the worst case. While one can "delete" an element from an array in constant time by somehow marking its slot as "vacant", this causes fragmentation that impedes the performance of iteration.


title: Linked list

text: Moreover, arbitrarily many elements may be inserted into a linked list, limited only by the total memory available; while a dynamic array will eventually fill up its underlying array data structure and will have to reallocate—an expensive operation, one that may not even be possible if memory is fragmented, although the cost of reallocation can be averaged over insertions, and the cost of an insertion due to reallocation would still be amortized O(1). This helps with appending elements at the array's end, but inserting into (or removing from) middle positions still carries prohibitive costs due to data moving to maintain contiguity. An array from which many elements are removed may also have to be resized in order to avoid wasting too much space.


title: Linked list

text: On the other hand, dynamic arrays (as well as fixed-size array data structures) allow constant-time random access, while linked lists allow only sequential access to elements. Singly linked lists, in fact, can be easily traversed in only one direction. This makes linked lists unsuitable for applications where it's useful to look up an element by its index quickly, such as heapsort. Sequential access on arrays and dynamic arrays is also faster than on linked lists on many machines, because they have optimal locality of reference and thus make good use of data caching.


title: Linked list

text: Another disadvantage of linked lists is the extra storage needed for references, which often makes them impractical for lists of small data items such as characters or boolean values, because the storage overhead for the links may exceed by a factor of two or more the size of the data. In contrast, a dynamic array requires only the space for the data itself (and a very small amount of control data). It can also be slow, and with a naïve allocator, wasteful, to allocate memory separately for each new element, a problem generally solved using memory pools.


title: Linked list

text: Some hybrid solutions try to combine the advantages of the two representations. Unrolled linked lists store several elements in each list node, increasing cache performance while decreasing memory overhead for references. CDR coding does both these as well, by replacing references with the actual data referenced, which extends off the end of the referencing record.


title: Linked list

text: A good example that highlights the pros and cons of using dynamic arrays vs. linked lists is by implementing a program that resolves the Josephus problem. The Josephus problem is an election method that works by having a group of people stand in a circle. Starting at a predetermined person, one may count around the circle "n" times. Once the "n"th person is reached, one should remove them from the circle and have the members close the circle. The process is repeated until only one person is left. That person wins the election. This shows the strengths and weaknesses of a linked list vs. a dynamic array, because if the people are viewed as connected nodes in a circular linked list, then it shows how easily the linked list is able to delete nodes (as it only has to rearrange the links to the different nodes). However, the linked list will be poor at finding the next person to remove and will need to search through the list until it finds that person. A dynamic array, on the other hand, will be poor at deleting nodes (or elements) as it cannot remove one node without individually shifting all the elements up the list by one. However, it is exceptionally easy to find the "n"th person in the circle by directly referencing them by their position in the array.


title: Linked list

text: The list ranking problem concerns the efficient conversion of a linked list representation into an array. Although trivial for a conventional computer, solving this problem by a parallel algorithm is complicated and has been the subject of much research.


title: Linked list

text: A balanced tree has similar memory access patterns and space overhead to a linked list while permitting much more efficient indexing, taking O(log n) time instead of O(n) for a random access. However, insertion and deletion operations are more expensive due to the overhead of tree manipulations to maintain balance. Schemes exist for trees to automatically maintain themselves in a balanced state: AVL trees or red–black trees.


title: Linked list

text: While doubly linked and circular lists have advantages over singly linked linear lists, linear lists offer some advantages that make them preferable in some situations.


title: Linked list

text: A singly linked linear list is a recursive data structure, because it contains a pointer to a "smaller" object of the same type. For that reason, many operations on singly linked linear lists (such as merging two lists, or enumerating the elements in reverse order) often have very simple recursive algorithms, much simpler than any solution using iterative commands. While those recursive solutions can be adapted for doubly linked and circularly linked lists, the procedures generally need extra arguments and more complicated base cases.


title: Linked list

text: Linear singly linked lists also allow tail-sharing, the use of a common final portion of sub-list as the terminal portion of two different lists. In particular, if a new node is added at the beginning of a list, the former list remains available as the tail of the new one—a simple example of a persistent data structure. Again, this is not true with the other variants: a node may never belong to two different circular or doubly linked lists.


title: Linked list

text: In particular, end-sentinel nodes can be shared among singly linked non-circular lists. The same end-sentinel node may be used for "every" such list. In Lisp, for example, every proper list ends with a link to a special node, denoted by codice_1 or codice_2, whose codice_3 and codice_4 links point to itself. Thus a Lisp procedure can safely take the codice_3 or codice_4 of "any" list.


title: Linked list

text: The advantages of the fancy variants are often limited to the complexity of the algorithms, not in their efficiency. A circular list, in particular, can usually be emulated by a linear list together with two variables that point to the first and last nodes, at no extra cost.


title: Linked list

text: Double-linked lists require more space per node (unless one uses XOR-linking), and their elementary operations are more expensive; but they are often easier to manipulate because they allow fast and easy sequential access to the list in both directions. In a doubly linked list, one can insert or delete a node in a constant number of operations given only that node's address. To do the same in a singly linked list, one must have the "address of the pointer" to that node, which is either the handle for the whole list (in case of the first node) or the link field in the "previous" node. Some algorithms require access in both directions. On the other hand, doubly linked lists do not allow tail-sharing and cannot be used as persistent data structures.


title: Linked list

text: A circularly linked list may be a natural option to represent arrays that are naturally circular, e.g. the corners of a polygon, a pool of buffers that are used and released in FIFO ("first in, first out") order, or a set of processes that should be time-shared in round-robin order. In these applications, a pointer to any node serves as a handle to the whole list.


title: Linked list

text: With a circular list, a pointer to the last node gives easy access also to the first node, by following one link. Thus, in applications that require access to both ends of the list (e.g., in the implementation of a queue), a circular structure allows one to handle the structure by a single pointer, instead of two.


title: Linked list

text: A circular list can be split into two circular lists, in constant time, by giving the addresses of the last node of each piece. The operation consists in swapping the contents of the link fields of those two nodes. Applying the same operation to any two nodes in two distinct lists joins the two list into one. This property greatly simplifies some algorithms and data structures, such as the quad-edge and face-edge.


title: Linked list

text: The simplest representation for an empty "circular" list (when such a thing makes sense) is a null pointer, indicating that the list has no nodes. Without this choice, many algorithms have to test for this special case, and handle it separately. By contrast, the use of null to denote an empty "linear" list is more natural and often creates fewer special cases.


title: Linked list

text: For some applications, it can be useful to use singly linked lists that can vary between being circular and being linear, or even circular with a linear initial segment. Algorithms for searching or otherwise operating on these have to take precautions to avoid accidentally entering an endless loop. One well-known method is to have a second pointer walking the list at half or double the speed, and if both pointers meet at the same node, you know you found a cycle.


title: Linked list

text: Sentinel node may simplify certain list operations, by ensuring that the next or previous nodes exist for every element, and that even empty lists have at least one node. One may also use a sentinel node at the end of the list, with an appropriate data field, to eliminate some end-of-list tests. For example, when scanning the list looking for a node with a given value "x", setting the sentinel's data field to "x" makes it unnecessary to test for end-of-list inside the loop. Another example is the merging two sorted lists: if their sentinels have data fields set to +∞, the choice of the next output node does not need special handling for empty lists.


title: Linked list

text: However, sentinel nodes use up extra space (especially in applications that use many short lists), and they may complicate other operations (such as the creation of a new empty list).


title: Linked list

text: However, if the circular list is used merely to simulate a linear list, one may avoid some of this complexity by adding a single sentinel node to every list, between the last and the first data nodes. With this convention, an empty list consists of the sentinel node alone, pointing to itself via the next-node link. The list handle should then be a pointer to the last data node, before the sentinel, if the list is not empty; or to the sentinel itself, if the list is empty.


title: Linked list

text: The same trick can be used to simplify the handling of a doubly linked linear list, by turning it into a circular doubly linked list with a single sentinel node. However, in this case, the handle should be a single pointer to the dummy node itself.


title: Linked list

text: When manipulating linked lists in-place, care must be taken to not use values that you have invalidated in previous assignments. This makes algorithms for inserting or deleting linked list nodes somewhat subtle. This section gives pseudocode for adding or removing nodes from singly, doubly, and circularly linked lists in-place. Throughout we will use "null" to refer to an end-of-list marker or sentinel, which may be implemented in a number of ways.


title: Linked list

text: Our node data structure will have two fields. We also keep a variable "firstNode" which always points to the first node in the list, or is "null" for an empty list.


title: Linked list

text: Traversal of a singly linked list is simple, beginning at the first node and following each "next" link until we come to the end:


title: Linked list

text: The following code inserts a node after an existing node in a singly linked list. The diagram shows how it works. Inserting a node before an existing one cannot be done directly; instead, one must keep track of the previous node and insert a node after it.


title: Linked list

text: Inserting at the beginning of the list requires a separate function. This requires updating "firstNode".


title: Linked list

text: Similarly, we have functions for removing the node "after" a given node, and for removing a node from the beginning of the list. The diagram demonstrates the former. To find and remove a particular node, one must again keep track of the previous element.


title: Linked list

text: Since we can't iterate backwards, efficient codice_10 or codice_11 operations are not possible. Inserting to a list before a specific node requires traversing the list, which would have a worst case running time of O(n).


title: Linked list

text: Appending one linked list to another can be inefficient unless a reference to the tail is kept as part of the List structure, because we must traverse the entire first list in order to find the tail, and then append the second list to this. Thus, if two linearly linked lists are each of length formula_1, list appending has asymptotic time complexity of formula_2. In the Lisp family of languages, list appending is provided by the codice_12 procedure.


title: Linked list

text: Many of the special cases of linked list operations can be eliminated by including a dummy element at the front of the list. This ensures that there are no special cases for the beginning of the list and renders both codice_13 and codice_7 unnecessary. In this case, the first useful data in the list will be found at codice_15.


title: Linked list

text: In a circularly linked list, all nodes are linked in a continuous circle, without using "null." For lists with a front and a back (such as a queue), one stores a reference to the last node in the list. The "next" node after the last node is the first node. Elements can be added to the back of the list and removed from the front in constant time.


title: Linked list

text: Both types of circularly linked lists benefit from the ability to traverse the full list beginning at any given node. This often allows us to avoid storing "firstNode" and "lastNode", although if the list may be empty we need a special representation for the empty list, such as a "lastNode" variable which points to some node in the list or is "null" if it's empty; we use such a "lastNode" here. This representation significantly simplifies adding and removing nodes with a non-empty list, but empty lists are then a special case.


title: Linked list

text: Assuming that "someNode" is some node in a non-empty circular singly linked list, this code iterates through that list starting with "someNode":


title: Linked list

text: Notice that the test "while node ≠ someNode" must be at the end of the loop. If the test was moved to the beginning of the loop, the procedure would fail whenever the list had only one node.


title: Linked list

text: This function inserts a node "newNode" into a circular linked list after a given node "node". If "node" is null, it assumes that the list is empty.


title: Linked list

text: Suppose that "L" is a variable pointing to the last node of a circular linked list (or null if the list is empty). To append "newNode" to the "end" of the list, one may do


title: Linked list

text: This function inserts a value "newVal" before a given node "node" in O(1) time. We create a new node between "node" and the next node, and then put the value of "node" into that new node, and put "newVal" in "node". Thus, a singly linked circularly linked list with only a "firstNode" variable can both insert to the front and back in O(1) time.


title: Linked list

text: This function removes a non-null node from a list of size greater than 1 in O(1) time. It copies data from the next node into the node, and then sets the node's "next" pointer to skip over the next node.


title: Linked list

text: Languages that do not support any type of reference can still create links by replacing pointers with array indices. The approach is to keep an array of records, where each record has integer fields indicating the index of the next (and possibly previous) node in the array. Not all nodes in the array need be used. If records are also not supported, parallel arrays can often be used instead.


title: Linked list

text: A linked list can be built by creating an array of these structures, and an integer variable to store the index of the first element.


title: Linked list

text: Links between elements are formed by placing the array index of the next (or previous) cell into the Next or Prev field within a given element. For example: