title: 2000s

text: American television in the 2000s saw the sharp increase in popularity of reality television, with numerous competition shows such as "American Idol", "Dancing with the Stars", "Survivor" and "The Apprentice" attracting large audiences, as well as documentary or narrative style shows such as "Big Brother", "The Hills", "The Real Housewives", "Cheaters", among many others. "Keeping Up with the Kardashians" also aired during the decade, in 2007, and would run for 14 years and 20 seasons, thrusting the Kardashian family into the global pop-culture spotlight. Australian television in the 2000s also saw a sharp increase in popularity of reality television, with their own version of shows such as "Big Brother" and "Dancing With The Stars", other shows in the country also saw an increase with comedy such as Spicks and Specks and game show Bert's Family Feud. The decade has since seen a steady decline in the number of sitcoms and an increase in reality shows, crime and medical dramas, such as "", "House M.D.", and "Grey's Anatomy", paranormal/crime shows like "Medium" (2005–2011) and "Ghost Whisperer" (2005–2010), and action/drama shows, including "24" and "Lost". Comedy-dramas became more serious, dealing with such hot button issues, such as drugs, teenage pregnancy, and gay rights. Popular comedy-drama programs include "Desperate Housewives", "Ugly Betty", and "Glee". Adult-oriented animated programming also continued a sharp upturn in popularity with controversial cartoons like *"South Park" (1997–present), "Family Guy" (1999–present), and "Futurama" (1999–2003, 2008–2013, 2023–present) along with the longtime running cartoon "The Simpsons" (1989–present), while new animated adult series were also produced in that decade such as "American Dad!", "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", "Robot Chicken", "Archer", "Drawn Together", "The Cleveland Show", "Sealab 2021" and "Total Drama".


title: 2000s

text: The decade also saw the return of prime time soap operas, a genre that had been popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, including "Dawson's Creek" (1998–2003), "The O.C." (2003–2007) and "One Tree Hill" (2003–2012). "Desperate Housewives" (2004–2012) was perhaps the most popular television series of this genre since "Dallas" and "Dynasty" in the 1980s;


title: 2000s

text: The series was repeated in 2001 along with a new show. It tackled paedophilia and the moral panic in parts of the British media following the murder of Sarah Payne, focusing on the name-and-shame campaign conducted by the "News of the World" in its wake.


title: 2000s

text: The WWE made a split in 2002 for the brands Raw and Smackdown!, also known as the WWE Brand Extension. This resulted in the WWE's purchase of their two biggest competitors, WCW and ECW. The brand extension would last until 2011. It also saw the rise of popular wrestlers like John Cena, Randy Orton, Dave Bautista, Jeff Hardy, CM Punk, Chris Jericho, Edge and Brock Lesnar. The match between veteran wrestlers Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 24 in 2008 was named as the "match of the decade" by popular professional wrestling magazine Pro Wrestling Illustrated. Pro Wrestling Illustrated would also name veteran Triple H as the wrestler of the decade.


title: 2000s

text: The 2001 World Series between the New York Yankees and Arizona Diamondbacks became the first World Series to be played in the wake of the September 11 attacks. Super Bowl XXXVI between the New England Patriots and the St. Louis Rams became the first Super Bowl to be played in the wake of the September 11 attacks.


title: 2000s

text: The "X Factor" in the UK has been subject to much controversy and criticism since its launch in September 2004.


title: 2000s

text: Super Bowl XXXVIII, which was broadcast live on February 1, 2004, from Houston, Texas, on the CBS television network in the United States, was noted for a controversial halftime show in which singer Janet Jackson's breast, adorned with a nipple shield, was exposed by singer Justin Timberlake for about half a second, in what was later referred to as a "wardrobe malfunction". The incident, sometimes referred to as Nipplegate, was widely discussed. Along with the rest of the halftime show, it led to an immediate crackdown and widespread debate on perceived indecency in broadcasting.


title: 2000s

text: "Chappelle's Show" was one of the most popular shows of the decade. Upon its release in 2004, the first-season DVD set became the best-selling TV series set of all time.


title: 2000s

text: January 2005 – "" was the subject of controversy, when its UK television broadcast on BBC Two elicited 55,000 complaints. The most complained about television event ever.


title: 2000s

text: In May 2005, UK viewers inundated the Advertising Standards Authority with complaints regarding the continuous airing of the latest Crazy Frog advertisements. The intensity of the advertising was unprecedented in British television history. According to "The Guardian", Jamster bought 73,716 spots across all TV channels in May alone — an average of nearly 2,378 slots daily — at a cost of about £8 million, just under half of which was spent on ITV. 87% of the population saw the Crazy Frog adverts an average of 26 times, 15% of the adverts appeared twice during the same advertising break and 66% were in consecutive ad breaks. An estimated 10% of the population saw the advert more than 60 times. This led to many members of the population finding the crazy frog, as its original name suggests, immensely irritating.


title: 2000s

text: Blue Peter (the world's longest-running children's television programme) rigged a phone-in competition supporting the UNICEF "Shoe Biz Appeal" on November 27, 2006. The person who appeared to be calling in the competition was actually a "Blue Peter" Team Player who was visiting that day. The visitor pretended to be a caller from an outside line who had won the phone-in and the chance to select a prize. The competition was rigged due to a technical error with receiving the calls.


title: 2000s

text: In July 2007, "Blue Peter" was given a £50,000 fine, by the Office of Communications (OFCOM) as a result of rigging the competition.


title: 2000s

text: "I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!" is a reality television game show series, originally created in the United Kingdom, and licensed globally to other countries.


title: 2000s

text: In its 2009 series, celebrity chef Gino D'Acampo killed, cooked and ate a rat. The Australian RSPCA investigated the incident and sought to prosecute D'Acampo and actor Stuart Manning for animal cruelty after this episode of the show was aired. ITV was fined £1,600 and the two celebrities involved were not prosecuted for animal cruelty despite being charged with the offense by the New South Wales Police.


title: 2000s

text: Although there were less in this decade than there were in the 1990s, the 2000s still saw many popular and notable sitcoms, including "3rd Rock from the Sun", "Two Guys and a Girl", "Just Shoot Me!", "The Drew Carey Show", "Frasier", "Friends", "That '70s Show", "Becker", "Spin City", "Dharma & Greg", "Will & Grace", "Yes, Dear", "According to Jim", "8 Simple Rules", "Less than Perfect", "Still Standing", "George Lopez", "Grounded for Life", "Hope & Faith", "My Wife and Kids", "Sex and the City", "Everybody Loves Raymond", "Malcolm in the Middle", "Girlfriends", "The King of Queens", "Arrested Development", "How I Met Your Mother", "Scrubs", "Curb Your Enthusiasm", "What I Like About You", "Reba", "The Office", "Entourage", "My Name Is Earl", "Everybody Hates Chris", "The New Adventures of Old Christine", "Rules of Engagement", "Two and a Half Men", "'Til Death", "The Big Bang Theory", "Samantha Who?", "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia", and "30 Rock", among many others. A trend seen in several sitcoms of the late 2000s was the absence of a laugh track.


title: 2000s

text: The decade also saw the rise of premium cable dramas such as "The Sopranos", "The Wire", "Battlestar Galactica", "Deadwood", "Mad Men", and "Breaking Bad". The critic Daniel Mendelsohn wrote a critique of "Mad Men" in which he also claimed this last decade was a golden age for episodic television, citing "Battlestar Galactica", "The Wire", and the network series "Friday Night Lights" as especially deserving of critical and popular attention.


title: 2000s

text: The PBS series "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood" aired its final episode on August 31, 2001. Two years later, its host and creator, Fred Rogers, died from stomach cancer.


title: 2000s

text: "Law & Order" was a police procedural drama that premiered on NBC on September 13, 1990, and ran for 20 seasons. The show aired its series finale ("Rubber Room") on May 24, 2010.


title: 2000s

text: "Tomorrow's World" was a long-running BBC television series, showcasing new developments in the world of science and technology. First aired on July 7, 1965, on BBC1, it ran for 38 years until it was cancelled in early 2003.


title: 2000s

text: "That '70s Show" was an American television period sitcom based on the 1970s decade. The 1970s retro style permeated the 2000s decade. The show ended on May 18, 2006.


title: 2000s

text: "Brookside" is a British soap opera set in Liverpool, England. The series began on the launch night of Channel 4 on November 2, 1982, and ran for 21 years until November 4, 2003.


title: 2000s

text: In January 2004, the BBC cancelled the "Kilroy" show (which had run for 18 years), after an article entitled 'We owe Arabs nothing' written by its host Robert Kilroy-Silk was published in the Sunday Express tabloid newspaper.


title: 2000s

text: "Friends" is an American sitcom which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994, to May 6, 2004. Friends received positive reviews throughout its run, and its series finale ("The Last One") ranked as the fifth most watched overall television series finale as well as the most watched single television episode of the 2000s on U.S. television.


title: 2000s

text: "The X-Files" was a science fiction television series which aired for nine seasons on Fox that premiered on September 10, 1993. The show aired its series finale ("The Truth") on May 19, 2002.


title: 2000s

text: "Frasier", a spin-off TV series of "Cheers" (that ended in 1993), is an American sitcom that was broadcast on NBC for eleven seasons from September 16, 1993, to May 13, 2004, (only a week after the broadcast of the final episode of "Friends"). It was one of the most successful spin-off and popular series in television history, as well as one of the most critically acclaimed comedy series.


title: 2000s

text: On June 20, 2006, after 42 years, British music chart show "Top of the Pops" was formally cancelled and it was announced that the last edition would be broadcast on July 30, 2006.


title: 2000s

text: "Grandstand" is a British television sport program. Broadcast between 1958 and 2007, it was one of the BBC's longest running sports shows.


title: 2000s

text: After 30 years, British television drama series "Grange Hill" (originally made by the BBC) was cancelled and the last episode was shown on September 15, 2008.


title: 2000s

text: "ER" is a medical drama that premiered on NBC on September 19, 1994, and ran for 15 seasons. The show aired its series finale ("And in the End...") on April 2, 2009.


title: 2000s

text: The "Flower Pot Men" is a British children's programme, produced by BBC television, first transmitted in 1952, and repeated regularly for more than twenty years, which was produced in a new version in 2000.


title: 2000s

text: The show has had an extended and sporadic run. The first three series were broadcast on the BBC from 1992 to 1995, followed by a series finale in the form of a two-part television film entitled The Last Shout in 1996. Its creator Jennifer Saunders revived the show for a fourth series in 2001.


title: 2000s

text: "Gadget and the Gadgetinis" is a spinoff of the classic series "Inspector Gadget" (1983–1986), developed by DiC in cooperation with Haim Saban's SIP Animation and produced from 2001 to 2003. There are 52 episodes.


title: 2000s

text: Basil Brush is a fictional anthropomorphic red fox, best known for his appearances on daytime British children's television. He is primarily portrayed by a glove puppet.


title: 2000s

text: "Shooting Stars" is a British television comedy panel game broadcast on BBC Two as a pilot in 1993, then as 3 full series from 1995 to 1997, then on BBC Choice from January to December 2002 with 2 series before returning to BBC Two for another 3 series from 2008 until its cancellation in 2011.


title: 2000s

text: "Doctor Who" is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The show is a significant part of British popular culture.


title: 2000s

text: The programme originally ran from 1963 to 1989. After an unsuccessful attempt to revive regular production in 1996 with a backdoor pilot in the form of a television film, the programme was relaunched in 2005.


title: 2000s

text: "Family Fortunes" is a British game show, based on the American game show "Family Feud". The programme ran on ITV from January 6, 1980, to December 6, 2002, before being revived by the same channel in 2006 under the title of "All Star Family Fortunes". Revived episodes are currently being shown on ITV on Sunday evenings and have been presented by Vernon Kay since 2006.


title: 2000s

text: Gladiators is a British television entertainment series, produced by LWT for ITV, and broadcast between October 10, 1992, and January 1, 2000. It is an adaptation of the American format "American Gladiators". The success of the British series spawned further adaptations in Australia and Sweden. The series was revived in 2008, before again being cancelled in 2009.


title: 2000s

text: The first series began on September 27, 1990, and continued for seven more, ending on June 18, 1999, and returning with a one-off special on December 23, 2008.


title: 2000s

text: "Red Dwarf" is a British comedy franchise which primarily comprises ten series (including a ninth mini-series named "Back To Earth") of a television science fiction sitcom that aired on BBC Two between 1988 and 1993 and from 1997 to 1999 and on "Dave" in 2009.


title: 2000s

text: The world of video games reached the 6th generation of video game consoles including the PlayStation 2, the Xbox, and the GameCube, which started technically in 1998 with the release of Sega's Dreamcast, although some consider the true start in 2000 with the release of Sony's PlayStation 2. The 6th gen remained popular throughout the decade, but decreased somewhat in popularity after its 7th gen successors released technically starting in November 2005 with the release of Microsoft's Xbox 360, however, most people agree that 2006 is a 6th gen year since most games being released still released on 6th gen including the Xbox even though the 360 was already released, and the PlayStation 3 and the Wii didn't release until late 2006 which most people consider to be the true start of the 7th gen. It reached 7th Generation in the form of consoles like the Wii, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 by the mid-2000s. The number-one-selling game console of the decade, the PlayStation 2, was released in 2000 and remained popular up to the end of the decade, even after the PlayStation 3 was released. The PlayStation 2 was discontinued in January 2013. MMORPGs, originating in the mid-to-late 1990s, become a popular PC trend and virtual online worlds become a reality as games such as "RuneScape" (2001), "Final Fantasy XI" (2002), "Eve Online" (2003), "" (2003), "World of Warcraft" (2004), and "Everquest II" (2004), "" (2007) and "" (2008) are released. These worlds come complete with their own economies and social organization as directed by the players as a whole. The persistent online worlds allow the games to remain popular for many years. "World of Warcraft", premiered in 2004, remains one of the most popular games in PC gaming and is still being developed into the 2010s.


title: 2000s

text: The "Grand Theft Auto" series sparked a fad of Mature-rated video games based on including gang warfare, drug use, and perceived "senseless violence" into gameplay. Though violent video games date back to the early 1990s, they became much more common after 2000. Despite the controversy, the 2004 game "" became the best selling PlayStation 2 game of all time, with 17.33 million copies sold for that console alone, from a total of 21.5 million in all formats by 2009; as of 2011, 27.5 million copies of "San Andreas" were sold worldwide.


title: 2000s

text: The Nintendo DS launched in North America in 2004 and by 2005 was available globally. All Nintendo DS models combined have sold over 154.02 million units, thus making it the best selling handheld of all time and the second best selling video game console of all time behind the PlayStation 2.


title: 2000s

text: The Call of Duty series was extremely popular during the 2000s, the diverse shooter franchise released multiple games throughout the 2000s that were positively critically reviewed and commercially successful.


title: 2000s

text: "Gears of War" was a critically acclaimed and commercially successful third-person shooter franchise that released two games during the mid-late 2000s. Gears of War 1 was released in late 2006 and was the first installment to the franchise, it was universally critically acclaimed and went on to sell over 5 million copies. The second installment to the franchise "Gears of War 2" was released in 2008 and received widespread critical acclaim and also went on to sell over 5 million copies.


title: 2000s

text: "Manhunt 2", a controversial stealth-based psychological horror video game published by Rockstar Games, was suspended by Take-Two Interactive (Rockstar's parent company) when it was refused classification in the United Kingdom, Italy and Ireland, and given an Adults Only (AO) rating in the United States. As neither Sony, Microsoft or Nintendo allow AO titles on their systems, it made Rockstar bring the game down to a Mature (M) game and release in October 2007.


title: 2000s

text: The sixth generation sparked a rise in first person shooter games led by "", which changed the formula of the first person shooter. "Halo 2" started online console gaming and was on top of the Xbox Live charts until its successor, "Halo 3" (for Xbox 360), took over. Some other popular first-person shooters during the 2000s include the Medal of Honor series, with ""s release in 2002 bringing the first game in the series to 6th generation consoles.


title: 2000s

text: In the late 2000s, motion controlled video games grew in popularity, from the PlayStation 2's EyeToy to Nintendo's successful Wii console. During the decade 3D video games become the staple of the video-game industry, with 2D games nearly fading from the market. Partially 3D and fully 2D games were still common in the industry early in the decade, but these have now become rare as developers look almost exclusively for fully 3D games to satisfy the increasing demand for them in the market. An exception to this trend is the indie gaming community, which often produces games featuring 'old-school' or retro gaming elements, such as "Minecraft" and Shadow Complex. These games, which are not developed by the industry giants, are often available in the form of downloadable content from services such as Microsoft's Xbox Live or Apple's App Store and usually cost much less than more major releases.


title: 2000s

text: "Dance Dance Revolution" was released in Japan and later the United States, where it became immensely popular among teenagers. Another music game, "Guitar Hero", was released in North America in late 2005 and had a huge cultural impact on both the music and video games industries. It became a worldwide billion-dollar franchise within three years, spawning several sequels and leading to the creation of a competing franchise, "Rock Band".


title: 2000s

text: Japanese media giant Nintendo released 9 out of the 10 top selling games of the 2000s, further establishing the company's dominance over the market.


title: 2000s

text: Arcade video games had declined in popularity so much by the late 1990s, that revenues in the United States dropped to $1.33 billion in 1999, and reached a low of $866 million in 2004. Furthermore, by the early 2000s, networked gaming via computers and then consoles across the Internet had also appeared, replacing the venue of head-to-head competition and social atmosphere once provided solely by arcades.


title: 2000s

text: Cross-platform Game engines originating in the very late-1990s, became extremely popular in the 2000s, as they allowed development for indie games for digital distribution. Noteworthy software include GameMaker and Unity. Well-known indie games made in that decade include "I Wanna Be the Guy", "Spelunky", "Braid", "Clean Asia!", "Castle Crashers", "World of Goo", "Dino Run", "The Impossible Game" and "Alien Hominid".


title: 2000s

text: Worldwide, arcade game revenues gradually increased from $1.8 billion in 1998 to $3.2 billion in 2002, rivalling PC game sales of $3.2 billion that same year. In particular, arcade video games are a thriving industry in China, where arcades are widespread across the country. The US market has also experienced a slight resurgence, with the number of video game arcades across the nation increasing from 2,500 in 2003 to 3,500 in 2008, though this is significantly less than the 10,000 arcades in the early 1980s. As of 2009, a successful arcade game usually sells around 4000 to 6000 units worldwide.


title: 2000s

text: Sega Corporation, usually styled as SEGA, is a Japanese multinational video game software developer and an arcade software and hardware development company headquartered in Japan, with various offices around the world. Sega previously developed and manufactured its own brand of home video game consoles from 1983 to 2001, but a restructure was announced on January 31, 2001, that ceased continued production of its existing home console (Dreamcast), effectively exiting the company from the home console business. In spite of that, SEGA would go on to produce several videogames such as "Super Monkey Ball" franchise, the Sega Ages 2500 PlayStation 2 games, "", "Sonic Adventure 2", "Sonic Heroes", "Rez", "Shadow the Hedgehog", "Virtua Fighter 4", "After Burner Climax", "Valkyria Chronicles", "Sonic Pinball Party", "Bayonetta", "Jet Set Radio", "Puyo Pop Fever", "Thunder Force VI", "Shenmue II", "Phantasy Star Online", "Yakuza 2", "Gunstar Super Heroes", "", "" and "Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games".


title: 2000s

text: Neo Geo is a family of video game hardware developed by SNK. The brand originated in 1990 with the release of an arcade system, the Neo Geo MVS and its home console counterpart, the Neo Geo AES. The Neo Geo brand was officially discontinued in 2004.


title: 2000s

text: "from the Game Developers Choice Awards starting in 2001 (awards are given to games of the previous calendar year)."


title: 2000s

text: The Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics, followed the centennial anniversary of the modern era Olympic Games, held in Atlanta in 1996. The Athens 2004 Summer Olympics, were a strong symbol, for modern Olympic Games were inspired by the competitions organized in Ancient Greece. Finally, the Beijing Games saw the emergence of China as a major sports power, with the highest number of titles for the first time. The 2002 Salt Lake City and the 2006 Turin Winter Olympic Games were also major events, though slightly less popular.


title: 2000s

text: A number of concerns and controversies over the 2008 Summer Olympics surfaced before, during, and after the 2008 Summer Olympics, and which received major media coverage. Leading up to the Olympics, there were concerns about human rights in China, such that many high-profile individuals, such as politicians and celebrities, announced intentions to boycott the games to protest China's role in the Darfur conflict, and Myanmar, its stance towards Tibet, or other aspects of its human rights record.


title: 2000s

text: 'Leaders in power are more mindful of China's colossal clout in an increasingly shaky world economy, and therefore of the importance of keeping good relations with its government.'


title: 2000s

text: One of the most prominent events of the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing was the achievement of Michael Phelps the American swimmer, frequently cited as the greatest swimmer and one of the greatest Olympians of all time. He has won 14 career Olympic gold medals, the most by any Olympian. As of August 2, 2009, Phelps has broken thirty-seven world records in swimming. Phelps holds the record for the most gold medals won in a single Olympics, his eight at the 2008 Beijing Games surpassed American swimmer Mark Spitz's seven-gold performance at Munich in 1972.


title: 2000s

text: Usain Bolt of Jamaica dominated the male sprinting events at the Beijing Olympics, in which he broke three world records, allowing him to be the first man to ever accomplish this at a single Olympic game. He holds the world record for the 100 metres (despite slowing down before the finish line to celebrate), the 200 metres and, along with his teammates, the 4 × 100 metres relay.


title: 2000s

text: The Los Angeles Lakers won 3 NBA championships in a row from 2000 to 2002, also known as a Three-peat, led by Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal.


title: 2000s

text: In 2003, Michael Jordan retired from the NBA after 2 season with the Washington Wizards, the official NBA website reading in 2006: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time."


title: 2000s

text: Popular extreme sports athletes of the decade included Tony Hawk, Shaun White, Kelly Slater, Travis Pastrana, Matt Hoffman, Shaun Murray, Sarah Burke, and more.


title: 2000s

text: The expansion and rise of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) occurred after the airing of The Ultimate Fighter in 2005.


title: 2000s

text: Towards the middle of the decade, Michelle Kwan became the most decorated figure skater in U.S. history.


title: 2000s

text: In 2001, after the 9/11 attacks, both the National Football League and Major League Baseball canceled their upcoming games for a week. As a result, the World Series would be played in November for the first time and the Super Bowl would be played in February for the first time.


title: 2000s

text: The sport of fox hunting is controversial, particularly in the UK, where it was banned in Scotland in 2002, and in England and Wales in November 2004 (law enforced from February 2005), though shooting foxes as vermin remained legal.


title: 2000s

text: Ron Atkinson, is an English former football player and manager. In recent years he has become one of Britain's best-known football pundits.


title: 2000s

text: Ron Atkinson's media work came to an abrupt halt on April 21, 2004, when he was urged to resign from ITV by Brian Barwick after he broadcast a racial remark live on air about the black Chelsea player Marcel Desailly; believing the microphone to be switched off, he said, ""...he" [Desailly] "is what is known in some schools as a lazy nigger"".


title: 2000s

text: Association football's important events included two World Cups, one organized in South Korea and Japan, which saw Brazil win a record fifth title, and the other in Germany, which saw Italy win its fourth title. The regional competitions, the Copa América and UEFA European Championship, saw five nations rising the cup: Colombia (2001) and Brazil (2004, 2007) won the Copa América, while France (2000), Greece (2004) and Spain (2008) won the European Championship.


title: 2000s

text: Rugby increased in size and audience, as the Rugby World Cup became the third most watched sporting event in the world with the 2007 Rugby World Cup organized in France.


title: 2000s

text: Bloodgate is the nickname for a rugby union scandal involving the English team Harlequins in their Heineken Cup match against the Irish side Leinster on April 12, 2009. It was so called because of the use of fake blood capsules, and has been seen by some as one of the biggest scandals in rugby since professionalisation in the mid-1990s, indeed even as an argument against the professional ethos. The name is a pun on Watergate.


title: 2000s

text: The New York Yankees won the first Major League Baseball World Series of the decade in 2000, as well as the last World Series of the decade in 2009. The Boston Red Sox won their first World Series since 1918 in 2004 and then again in 2007.


title: 2000s

text: The Pittsburgh Steelers won a record sixth Super Bowl on February 1, 2009, against the Arizona Cardinals. Pittsburgh's Super Bowl win would remain the championship record for an NFL franchise until a decade later when the New England Patriots defeated the Los Angeles Rams to tie the Super Bowl championship record.


title: 2000s

text: In May 2004, Arsenal became the only top-tier team to go through an entire league season (2003/4) unbeaten when they won the English Premier League and became 'The Invincibles'. This feat had also been achieved in the 19th century, when the league was in its infancy and there were far fewer matches in a season, but not in the modern era. Arsenal's unbeaten run extended to 49 matches in total, and into the subsequent season.


title: 2000s

text: In September 2004, Chelsea footballer Adrian Mutu failed a drugs test for cocaine and was released on October 29, 2004. He also received a seven-month ban and a £20,000 fine from The Football Association.


title: 2000s

text: Michael Schumacher, the most titled F1 driver, won five F1 World Championships during the decade and finally retired in 2006, yet eventually confirming his come-back to F1 for 2010. Lance Armstrong won all the Tour de France between 1999 and 2005, also an all-time record, but was later stripped of all his titles when evidence emerged of his use of performance-enhancing drugs. Swiss tennis player Roger Federer won 16 Grand Slam titles to become the most titled player.


title: 2000s

text: The 2006 Italian football scandal, also known as ""Calciopoli"", involved Italy's top professional football leagues, Serie A and Serie B. The scandal was uncovered in May 2006 by Italian police, implicating league champions Juventus, and other major teams including A.C. Milan, Fiorentina, Lazio and Reggina when a number of telephone interceptions showed a thick network of relations between team managers and referee organisations. Juventus were the champions of Serie A at the time. The teams have been accused of rigging games by selecting favourable referees.


title: 2000s

text: The 2006 FIFA World Cup Final in Berlin, Zinedine Zidane widely considered by experts and fans as one of the greatest football players of all time, was sent off in the 110th minute of the game, which was to be the last match of his career. After headbutting Marco Materazzi in the chest, Zidane did not participate in the penalty shootout, which Italy won 5–3. It was later discovered through interviews that Materazzi had insulted Zidane's mother and sister that last moment which is what led to Zidane's heightened anger and reaction.


title: 2000s

text: January 11, 2007 – When English footballer David Beckham joined the Major League Soccer's Los Angeles Galaxy, he was given the highest player salary in the league's history; with his playing contract with the Galaxy over the next three years being worth US$6.5 million per year.


title: 2000s

text: October 2007 – US world champion track and field athlete Marion Jones admitted that she took performance-enhancing drugs as far back as the 2000 Summer Olympics, and that she had lied about it to a grand jury investigating performance-enhancer creations.


title: 2000s

text: November 29, 2007 – Portsmouth football manager Harry Redknapp angrily denied any wrongdoing after being arrested by police investigating alleged corruption in football: "If you are telling me this is how you treat anyone, it is not the society I grew up in."


title: 2000s

text: The 2008 Wimbledon final between Roger Federer of Switzerland and Rafael Nadal of Spain, has been lauded as the greatest match ever by many long-time tennis analysts.


title: 2000s

text: British Formula One racing driver Lewis Hamilton, was disqualified from the 2009 Australian Grand Prix for providing "misleading evidence" during the stewards' hearing. He later privately apologised to FIA race director Charlie Whiting for having lied to the stewards.


title: 2000s

text: In 2009, the World football transfer record was set by Spanish football club Real Madrid when it purchased Manchester United's Cristiano Ronaldo for £80 million (€93 million). Manchester United veteran Sir Bobby Charlton said the world-record offer shocked him:


title: 2000s

text: Steroids also spread the sports world throughout the decade, mainly used in Major League Baseball. Players involved included Barry Bonds, Mark McGwire, Sammy Sosa and Alex Rodriguez.


title: Good Newwz

text: Good Newwz is an Indian 2019 Hindi-language comedy-drama film directed by Raj Mehta and produced by Dharma Productions and Cape of Good Films. It stars Akshay Kumar, Kareena Kapoor Khan, Diljit Dosanjh and Kiara Advani and revolves around two couples' trust with in vitro fertilization.


title: Good Newwz

text: Principal photography commenced in November 2018 and wrapped up by April 2019. The film was released theatrically on 27 December 2019 and became one of the biggest blockbuster films of 2019, with a final worldwide gross of ; it is Kumar's highest-grossing film in India and the 40th highest grossing Indian film of all time. With this film, Kumar set a new record in 2019 by having three consecutive domestic 200 Crore Club net films alongside "Mission Mangal" and "Housefull 4".


title: Good Newwz

text: Varun Batra is the CEO of a Volkswagen showroom in Mumbai and his wife, Deepti "Deepu" Batra, is a celebrity journalist. The two are a happily married couple going on seven years, but struggle to conceive a baby. Varun's sister Richa suggests the couple meet reputed fertility specialist Dr. Anand Joshi, who suggests they do in vitro fertilisation (IVF), a fertility technique that will enhance their chances. They agree, Varun submits sperm samples, and Dr. Joshi seemingly places the embryo created in his lab by Varun's sperm in Deepti's ovary.


title: Good Newwz

text: 12 days later, Varun and Deepti are hastily summoned by Dr.Anand's wife, Dr. Sandhya Joshi. Here, the two run into another homonymous couple, Honey Batra and Monika "Moni" Batra, who have taken up IVF as well. Anand guiltily reveals that a sperm mix-up has occurred: Varun's sperm have been mixed with Monika's eggs, and Honey's sperm with Deepti's eggs. Shocked beyond belief, both couples attack the two doctors. The doctors suggest that the couples go for a minor procedure so there is no chance of pregnancy. Varun later learns from Honey that Monika is pregnant with Varun's child, and Deepti is pregnant with Honey's child, but his rudeness causes Honey to fear the loss of his own child as Deepti has also gotten pregnant. He vows to prevent an abortion on Deepti's part, and he and Monika rent out a flat just above Varun's and Deepti's, much to the couple's shock.


title: Good Newwz

text: Varun and Deepti initially project frustration against Honey and Monika the first six months of pregnancy for interfering in their lives. However, during a routine check-up in the seventh month of pregnancy, Sandhya advises Deepti to try talking to Monika, who is probably going through as much as she is emotionally distressed. Realizing that she needs to try understanding the situation, Deepti asks Monika out for a street food treat, during which they start getting to know each other. Deepti learns that Monika had suffered two miscarriages, making her sympathise, and the women bond. However, Varun still nurses a negative attitude, especially since Deepti is not carrying his child. She takes a stand in Honey's and Monika's favour for the first time, angrily telling Varun that he never cared to understand anything that happened post the mishap.


title: Good Newwz

text: Varun, with Deepti's confrontation still fresh in his mind, makes an attempt to bond with Honey when they meet at a bar, and they almost strike a chord with each other, until Honey expresses concern over Deepti's work commitments, which he thinks will have a negative impact on the child. Varun, incensed, snubs Honey in a possessive manner, and all else fails. An argument between the two escalates until Varun storms out and Honey is arrested by the cops after the manager drops a call.


title: Good Newwz

text: That night, amidst heavy rains, Monika knocks on Deepti's door in desperation: she has gone into premature labour and Honey is nowhere to be found. Varun hurriedly drives Monika to the hospital and she gives birth to Varun's child. However, the newborn is shifted to a critical unit in grave condition, having been born with a respiratory defect, accelerated by Monika's history of miscarriages, with little chance of survival. As it dawns on him that the baby is in fact his, Varun begins crying and hugs Honey when he arrives after being let off with a warning. Even as Honey and Monika reunite, he goes home and breaks down in Deepti's arms, apologising for his past insensitivity.


title: Good Newwz

text: For a few weeks, both couples pray for the baby's recovery and Monika remains in the hospital as Deepti tends to her. The baby finally recovers and after 2 months, Deepti too has a successful delivery. Varun, now a changed man, invites Honey and Monika to meet the baby. Both couples finally bond and accept each other, holding each other's babies in their arms.


title: Good Newwz

text: This film's name was announced on Twitter. It is Dosanjh's first film under the banner of Dharma Productions.


title: Good Newwz

text: Filming commenced in December 2018, with Dosanjh and Advani filming their scenes. Kumar and Kapoor joined filming in January and announced it by posting on Instagram. During a recent interview and in a Twitter post, Kumar said about Kapoor, "We are extremely fond of each other. Bebo and Lolo tease me about the amount of money I’m making and I tease them about having a flat in every building in Bandra. That's our fun banter." Anjana Sukhani joined the cast, and his was revealed to be Kumar's sister. The filming was finished in the first week of April 2019.


title: Good Newwz

text: The film was slated to release on 6 September but was pushed to 29 November, and pushed again to release on 25 December 2019, on the festival of Christmas.


title: Good Newwz

text: The film's music is composed by Tanishk Bagchi, Rochak Kohli, Lauv, Lijo George (DJ Chetas), Manj Musik (Herbie Sahara), Sukhbir and Kshmr. The songs are written by Kumaar, Rashmi Virag, Tanishk Bagchi, Sukhbir, Gurpreet Saini, Ari Leff, Michael Pollock, Herbie Sahara and Vayu. The background score is composed by John Stewart Eduri.


title: Good Newwz

text: The song "Sauda Khara Khara" is a remake of Sukhbir's song, recreated by Lijo George-DJ Chetas, while the song "Laal Ghagraa" is a remake of Sahara's and Musik's song, and has been recreated by Bagchi, who added an interlude from Daler Mehndi's song "Ho Jayegi Balle Balle" to the recreated version.


title: Good Newwz

text: Taran Adarsh gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said, 'Excellent. This one's a sure-fire hit. Smart writing. Fantastic humour. Heartfelt emotions... Superb performances Akshay, Kareena, Diljit, Kiara. 2019 will conclude with a big winner, with "Good Newwz".' Rajeev Masand of News 18 gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and said, "If "Good Newwz" doesn't go off the rails when the tone shifts, it's because the actors stay sincere and committed as the narrative evolves. The heart of the film is its cast anyway."


title: Good Newwz

text: "Good Newwz" earned 17.56 crore at the domestic box office on its opening day. On the second day, the film earned 21.78 crore. On the third day, the film earned 25.65 crore, for a total opening weekend earning of 65.99 crore.


title: Good Newwz

text: , with a gross of 244.21 crore in India and 74.36 crore overseas, the film has a worldwide gross collection of 318.57 crore and is the sixth highest grossing Bollywood film of 2019.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Teen Wolf is a 1985 American coming-of-age romantic fantasy comedy film directed by Rod Daniel and written by Jeph Loeb and Matthew Weisman. Michael J. Fox stars as the title character, a high school student whose ordinary life is changed when he discovers that he is a werewolf. James Hampton, Scott Paulin, Susan Ursitti, Jerry Levine, Matt Adler, and Jay Tarses appear in supporting roles. Filming took place from November to December 1984.


title: Teen Wolf

text: "Teen Wolf" was released on August 23, 1985, by Atlantic Releasing Corporation. It received mixed reviews, but was a commercial success, grossing over $80 million on a $1.2 million budget. Due to its success, the film spawned an animated series adaptation in 1986 and a 1987 sequel that featured Hampton and Mark Holton as the only returning cast members. "Teen Wolf" also influenced a supernatural drama series of the same name that aired on MTV from 2011 to 2017.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Scott Howard, a 17-year-old high school student, is tired of just being average. Living in a small town in Nebraska, his only claim to popularity is playing on the Beavers, his school's unsuccessful basketball team. Scott fawns after Pamela Wells even though she is dating his rival Mick who plays for the Dragons, an opposing team that bullies him on the court. Completely oblivious to the affections of his best friend Boof, Scott constantly rebuffs her advances due to their history together.


title: Teen Wolf

text: After startling changes such as long hair suddenly sprouting on his hands, he decides to quit the team, but his coach, Finstock, changes his mind. Scoring a keg with his friend Stiles for a party, Scott and Boof end up alone in a closet and Scott gets rough when they begin making out, accidentally clawing her back. When he returns home, he undergoes a strange transformation, discovering he is a werewolf. His father Harold reveals he is one too, and that he had hoped Scott would not inherit the curse because 'sometimes it skips a generation'.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Scott reveals his secret to Stiles, who agrees to keep it a secret. But, when Scott becomes stressed on the court, he becomes the wolf and helps win their first game in three years. This has an unexpected result of fame and popularity as the high school is overwhelmed with 'Wolf Fever'. Scott is alienated from Boof and his teammates as he begins to hog the ball during games.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Stiles merchandises "Teen Wolf" paraphernalia and Pamela finally begins paying attention to Scott. After he gets a role as a "werewolf cavalryman" in the school play alongside her, she comes onto him in the dressing room and they have sex. Later, after a date set up to make Mick jealous, Pamela tells Scott that she is not interested in him as a boyfriend, much to his disappointment. Harold tells Scott he is responsible for vice principal Rusty Thorne breathing down his neck due to a scare he had given him when he was in high school. He advises Scott to be himself.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Boof agrees to go with Scott to the upcoming Spring Dance, but only if he goes as himself. Scott goes alone as the Wolf instead. She takes him into the hallway and they kiss, which turns Scott back into himself. When they return to the dance, Scott garners everyone's attention, including Pamela. A jealous Mick punches him in the face, then proceeds to insult Boof and taunt Scott until the Wolf angrily attacks. Scott runs out of the hall right into Thorne, who threatens expulsion. Harold defends his son before going on to intimidate Thorne by growling in his face, causing the vice principal to wet himself.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Scott renounces using the Wolf and quits the basketball team. During the championship game, he arrives to rally his teammates to play without the Wolf. Despite the odds, the team begins to work together and they make ground against the Dragons. During the final quarter, behind by one point, Scott is fouled by Mick at the buzzer. He makes both free throws, winning the championship. Brushing past Pamela, he kisses Boof as his father embraces them both. Mick tells Pamela that they should leave, but she tells him to "drop dead" and storms off while everyone else celebrates the victory.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Filming for "Teen Wolf" was one of the first scripts written by Jeph Loeb. Loeb was hired to write it because the studio, after the surprising success of the film "Valley Girl", wanted to make a comedy that would cost almost nothing (the production costs amounted to about $1 million) and take very little time to film. The project came together when Michael J. Fox accepted the lead role and his "Family Ties" co-star Meredith Baxter-Birney became pregnant, which created a delay in the sitcom's filming that allowed Fox time to complete filming and then return to his sitcom. Filming for "Teen Wolf" began in November 1984 and concluded the next month. James Hampton originally auditioned for the role of Coach Bobby Finstock but was later cast as Harold Howard.


title: Teen Wolf

text: The beaver mascot logo used in the film was the Oregon State University Beavers logo, in use by the university at that time.


title: Teen Wolf

text: Released August 23, 1985, "Teen Wolf" debuted at No. 2 in its opening weekend, behind "Back to the Future" (also starring Michael J. Fox). After its initial run, the film grossed $33,086,661 domestically, with a worldwide gross of about $80 million. "Teen Wolf" was first released on DVD via MGM in a "Double Feature" pack with its sequel "Teen Wolf Too" on August 27, 2002. The film was later released on Blu-ray on March 29, 2011. The only special feature available on any of the releases is the film's theatrical trailer. The film was reissued on Blu-ray Disc on August 8, 2017, by Scream! Factory, with a remastered transfer and a new "making of" featurette.


title: Teen Wolf

text: The film's critical reception was at best mixed. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 42% of 33 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.1 out of 10. The consensus summarizes: "Though Michael J. Fox is as charismatic as ever, "Teen Wolf"s coming-of-age themes can't help but feel a little stale and formulaic." On Metacritic, the film has a 25 out of 100 rating based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Teen Wolf

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" gave the film a negative review calling it "aggressively boring". He went on to say that "the film is overacted by everybody except Mr. Fox, who is seen to far better advantage in "Back to the Future"."


title: Teen Wolf

text: Colin Greenland reviewed "Teen Wolf" for "White Dwarf" #75, and stated that "Anxious that their movie should be perfectly wholesome, clean and bloodless, writers and director forgot Scott was supposed to be a werewolf, and made him a basketball star instead."


title: Teen Wolf

text: An animated series adaptation aired on CBS for two seasons from 1986 to 1987. Townsend Coleman voiced the lead role of Scott Howard, with James Hampton reprising his role as Harold Howard. The series retained the basic premise and most of the characters from the film, but made changes to the story, such as Scott attempting to keep his werewolf identity secret from the general public. It also featured new characters, including Scott's grandparents (voiced by Stacy Keach Sr. and June Foray) and younger sister Lupe.


title: Teen Wolf

text: A sequel entitled "Teen Wolf Too" was released in 1987 and starred Jason Bateman as Todd Howard, Scott Howard's cousin. Only James Hampton and Mark Holton returned from the original film, with the sequel focusing mostly on new characters led by Todd. "Teen Wolf Too" received negative reviews and failed to match the success of its predecessor, grossing $7.9 million on a $3 million budget. A second sequel starring Alyssa Milano was planned, but never filmed. Another female version of "Teen Wolf" was in the works that later developed into 1989's "Teen Witch".


title: Teen Wolf

text: MTV greenlit a television series adaptation in 2009 that was developed by Jeff Davis. While also centered on a high school student who becomes a werewolf, the story was reimagined as a supernatural teen drama with elements of action and horror. Tyler Posey portrayed the title character, whose name was changed to Scott McCall for the series. It aired for six seasons from 2011 to 2017. A film continuation, "", is scheduled to be released on January 26, 2023.


title: Sextant

text: A sextant is a doubly reflecting navigation instrument that measures the angular distance between two visible objects. The primary use of a sextant is to measure the angle between an astronomical object and the horizon for the purposes of celestial navigation.


title: Sextant

text: The estimation of this angle, the altitude, is known as "sighting" or "shooting" the object, or "taking a sight". The angle, and the time when it was measured, can be used to calculate a position line on a nautical or aeronautical chart—for example, sighting the Sun at noon or Polaris at night (in the Northern Hemisphere) to estimate latitude (with sight reduction). Sighting the height of a landmark can give a measure of "distance off" and, held horizontally, a sextant can measure angles between objects for a position on a chart. A sextant can also be used to measure the lunar distance between the moon and another celestial object (such as a star or planet) in order to determine Greenwich Mean Time and hence longitude.


title: Sextant

text: The principle of the instrument was first implemented around 1731 by John Hadley (1682–1744) and Thomas Godfrey (1704–1749), but it was also found later in the unpublished writings of Isaac Newton (1643–1727).


title: Sextant

text: Like the Davis quadrant, the sextant allows celestial objects to be measured relative to the horizon, rather than relative to the instrument. This allows excellent precision. Also, unlike the backstaff, the sextant allows direct observations of stars. This permits the use of the sextant at night when a backstaff is difficult to use. For solar observations, filters allow direct observation of the sun.


title: Sextant

text: Since the measurement is relative to the horizon, the measuring pointer is a beam of light that reaches to the horizon. The measurement is thus limited by the angular accuracy of the instrument and not the sine error of the length of an alidade, as it is in a mariner's astrolabe or similar older instrument.


title: Sextant

text: A sextant does not require a completely steady aim, because it measures a relative angle. For example, when a sextant is used on a moving ship, the image of both horizon and celestial object will move around in the field of view. However, the relative position of the two images will remain steady, and as long as the user can determine when the celestial object touches the horizon, the accuracy of the measurement will remain high compared to the magnitude of the movement.


title: Sextant

text: The sextant is not dependent upon electricity (unlike many forms of modern navigation) or for that matter anything reliant on human-controlled signals (such as GPS satellites). For these reasons it is considered to be an eminently practical back-up navigation tool for ships.


title: Sextant

text: The frame of a sextant is in the shape of a sector which is approximately of a circle (60°), hence its name ("sextāns, sextantis" is the Latin word for "one sixth"). Both smaller and larger instruments are (or were) in use: the octant, quintant (or pentant) and the (doubly reflecting) quadrant span sectors of approximately of a circle (45°), of a circle (72°) and of a circle (90°), respectively. All of these instruments may be termed "sextants".


title: Sextant

text: Attached to the frame are the "horizon mirror", an "index arm" which moves the "index mirror", a sighting telescope, sun shades, a graduated scale and a micrometer drum gauge for accurate measurements. The scale must be graduated so that the marked degree divisions register twice the angle through which the index arm turns. The scales of the octant, sextant, quintant and quadrant are graduated from below zero to 90°, 120°, 140° and 180° respectively. For example, the sextant illustrated has a scale graduated from −10° to 142°, which is basically a quintant: the frame is a sector of a circle subtending an angle of 76° at the pivot of the index arm.


title: Sextant

text: The necessity for the doubled scale reading follows from consideration of the relations of the fixed ray (between the mirrors), the object ray (from the sighted object) and the direction of the normal perpendicular to the index mirror. When the index arm moves by an angle, say 20°, the angle between the fixed ray and the normal also increases by 20°. But the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection so the angle between the object ray and the normal must also increase by 20°. The angle between the fixed ray and the object ray must therefore increase by 40°. This is the case shown in the graphic.


title: Sextant

text: Traditional sextants have a half-horizon mirror, which divides the field of view in two. On one side, there is a view of the horizon; on the other side, a view of the celestial object. The advantage of this type is that both the horizon and celestial object are bright and as clear as possible. This is superior at night and in haze, when the horizon and/or a star being sighted can be difficult to see. However, one has to sweep the celestial object to ensure that the lowest limb of the celestial object touches the horizon.


title: Sextant

text: Whole-horizon sextants use a half-silvered horizon mirror to provide a full view of the horizon. This makes it easy to see when the bottom limb of a celestial object touches the horizon. Since most sights are of the sun or moon, and haze is rare without overcast, the low-light advantages of the half-horizon mirror are rarely important in practice.


title: Sextant

text: In both types, larger mirrors give a larger field of view, and thus make it easier to find a celestial object. Modern sextants often have 5 cm or larger mirrors, while 19th-century sextants rarely had a mirror larger than 2.5 cm (one inch). In large part, this is because precision flat mirrors have grown less expensive to manufacture and to silver.


title: Sextant

text: An artificial horizon is useful when the horizon is invisible, as occurs in fog, on moonless nights, in a calm, when sighting through a window or on land surrounded by trees or buildings. There are two common designs of artificial horizon. An artificial horizon can consist simply of a pool of water shielded from the wind, allowing the user to measure the distance between the body and its reflection, and divide by two. Another design allows the mounting of a fluid-filled tube with bubble directly to the sextant.


title: Sextant

text: Most sextants also have filters for use when viewing the sun and reducing the effects of haze. The filters usually consist of a series of progressively darker glasses that can be used singly or in combination to reduce haze and the sun's brightness. However, sextants with adjustable polarizing filters have also been manufactured, where the degree of darkness is adjusted by twisting the frame of the filter.


title: Sextant

text: Most sextants mount a 1 or 3-power monocular for viewing. Many users prefer a simple sighting tube, which has a wider, brighter field of view and is easier to use at night. Some navigators mount a light-amplifying monocular to help see the horizon on moonless nights. Others prefer to use a lit artificial horizon.


title: Sextant

text: Professional sextants use a click-stop degree measure and a worm adjustment that reads to a minute, 1/60 of a degree. Most sextants also include a vernier on the worm dial that reads to 0.1 minute. Since 1 minute of error is about a nautical mile, the best possible accuracy of celestial navigation is about . At sea, results within several nautical miles, well within visual range, are acceptable. A highly skilled and experienced navigator can determine position to an accuracy of about .


title: Sextant

text: A change in temperature can warp the arc, creating inaccuracies. Many navigators purchase weatherproof cases so that their sextant can be placed outside the cabin to come to equilibrium with outside temperatures. The standard frame designs (see illustration) are supposed to equalise differential angular error from temperature changes. The handle is separated from the arc and frame so that body heat does not warp the frame. Sextants for tropical use are often painted white to reflect sunlight and remain relatively cool. High-precision sextants have an invar (a special low-expansion steel) frame and arc. Some scientific sextants have been constructed of quartz or ceramics with even lower expansions. Many commercial sextants use low-expansion brass or aluminium. Brass is lower-expansion than aluminium, but aluminium sextants are lighter and less tiring to use. Some say they are more accurate because one's hand trembles less. Solid brass frame sextants are less susceptible to wobbling in high winds or when the vessel is working in heavy seas, but as noted are substantially heavier. Sextants with aluminum frames and brass arcs have also been manufactured. Essentially, a sextant is intensely personal to each navigator, and they will choose whichever model has the features which suit them best.


title: Sextant

text: Aircraft sextants are now out of production, but had special features. Most had artificial horizons to permit taking a sight through a flush overhead window. Some also had mechanical averagers to make hundreds of measurements per sight for compensation of random accelerations in the artificial horizon's fluid. Older aircraft sextants had two visual paths, one standard and the other designed for use in open-cockpit aircraft that let one view from directly over the sextant in one's lap. More modern aircraft sextants were periscopic with only a small projection above the fuselage. With these, the navigator pre-computed their sight and then noted the difference in observed versus predicted height of the body to determine their position.


title: Sextant

text: A "sight" (or "measure") of the angle between the sun, a star, or a planet, and the horizon is done with the 'star telescope' fitted to the sextant using a visible horizon. On a vessel at sea even on misty days a sight may be done from a low height above the water to give a more definite, better horizon. Navigators hold the sextant by its handle in the right hand, avoiding touching the arc with the fingers.


title: Sextant

text: For a sun sight, a filter is used to overcome the glare such as "shades" covering both index mirror and the horizon mirror designed to prevent eye damage. By setting the index bar to zero, the sun can be viewed through the telescope. Releasing the index bar (either by releasing a clamping screw, or on modern instruments, using the quick-release button), the image of the sun can be brought down to about the level of the horizon. It is necessary to flip back the horizon mirror shade to be able to see the horizon, and then the fine adjustment screw on the end of the index bar is turned until the bottom curve (the "lower limb") of the sun just touches the horizon. "Swinging" the sextant about the axis of the telescope ensures that the reading is being taken with the instrument held vertically. The angle of the sight is then read from the scale on the arc, making use of the micrometer or vernier scale provided. The exact time of the sight must also be noted simultaneously, and the height of the eye above sea-level recorded.


title: Sextant

text: An alternative method is to estimate the current altitude (angle) of the sun from navigation tables, then set the index bar to that angle on the arc, apply suitable shades only to the index mirror, and point the instrument directly at the horizon, sweeping it from side to side until a flash of the sun's rays are seen in the telescope. Fine adjustments are then made as above. This method is less likely to be successful for sighting stars and planets.


title: Sextant

text: Star and planet sights are normally taken during nautical twilight at dawn or dusk, while both the heavenly bodies and the sea horizon are visible. There is no need to use shades or to distinguish the lower limb as the body appears as a mere point in the telescope. The moon can be sighted, but it appears to move very fast, appears to have different sizes at different times, and sometimes only the lower or upper limb can be distinguished due to its phase.


title: Sextant

text: After a sight is taken, it is reduced to a position by looking at several mathematical procedures. The simplest sight reduction is to draw the equal-altitude circle of the sighted celestial object on a globe. The intersection of that circle with a dead-reckoning track, or another sighting, gives a more precise location.


title: Sextant

text: Sextants can be used very accurately to measure other visible angles, for example between one heavenly body and another and between landmarks ashore. Used horizontally, a sextant can measure the apparent angle between two landmarks such as a lighthouse and a church spire, which can then be used to find the distance "off" or out to sea (provided the distance between the two landmarks is known). Used vertically, a measurement of the angle between the lantern of a lighthouse of known height and the sea level at its base can also be used for distance off.


title: Sextant

text: Due to the sensitivity of the instrument it is easy to knock the mirrors out of adjustment. For this reason a sextant should be checked frequently for errors and adjusted accordingly.


title: Sextant

text: There are four errors that can be adjusted by the navigator, and they should be removed in the following order.


title: Diplodocus

text: Diplodocus (, , or ) was a genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaurs, whose fossils were first discovered in 1877 by S. W. Williston. The generic name, coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878, is a neo-Latin term derived from Greek διπλός ("diplos") "double" and δοκός ("dokos") "beam", in reference to the double-beamed chevron bones located in the underside of the tail, which were then considered unique.


title: Diplodocus

text: The genus of dinosaurs lived in what is now mid-western North America, at the end of the Jurassic period. It is one of the more common dinosaur fossils found in the middle to upper Morrison Formation, between about 154 and 152 million years ago, during the late Kimmeridgian Age. The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs, such as "Apatosaurus", "Barosaurus", "Brachiosaurus", "Brontosaurus", and "Camarasaurus". Its great size may have been a deterrent to the predators "Allosaurus" and "Ceratosaurus": their remains have been found in the same strata, which suggests that they coexisted with "Diplodocus".


title: Diplodocus

text: "Diplodocus" is among the most easily identifiable dinosaurs, with its typical sauropod shape, long neck and tail, and four sturdy legs. For many years, it was the longest dinosaur known.


title: Diplodocus

text: Among the best-known sauropods, "Diplodocus" were very large, long-necked, quadrupedal animals, with long, whip-like tails. Their forelimbs were slightly shorter than their hind limbs, resulting in a largely horizontal posture. The skeletal structure of these long-necked, long-tailed animals supported by four sturdy legs have been compared with suspension bridges. In fact, "D. carnegii" is currently one of the longest dinosaurs known from a complete skeleton, with a total length of . Modern mass estimates for "D. carnegii" have tended to be in the range.


title: Diplodocus

text: "D. hallorum", known from partial remains, was even larger, and is estimated to have been the size of four elephants. When first described in 1991, discoverer David Gillette calculated it may have been up to 52 m (171 ft) long, making it the longest known dinosaur (excluding those known from exceedingly poor remains, such as "Amphicoelias" or "Maraapunisaurus"). Some weight estimates of the time ranged as high as . The estimated length was later revised downward to and later on to based on findings that show that Gillette had originally misplaced vertebrae 12–19 as vertebrae 20–27; according to Gregory S. Paul, a long "D. hallorum" weighs in body mass. The nearly complete "D. carnegii" skeleton at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on which size estimates of "D. hallorum" are mainly based, also was found to have had its 13th tail vertebra come from another dinosaur, throwing off size estimates for "D. hallorum" even further. While dinosaurs such as "Supersaurus" were probably longer, fossil remains of these animals are only fragmentary.


title: Diplodocus

text: "Diplodocus" had an extremely long tail, composed of about 80 caudal vertebrae, which are almost double the number some of the earlier sauropods had in their tails (such as "Shunosaurus" with 43), and far more than contemporaneous macronarians had (such as "Camarasaurus" with 53). Some speculation exists as to whether it may have had a defensive or noisemaking (by cracking it like a coachwhip) or, as more recently suggested, tactile function. The tail may have served as a counterbalance for the neck. The middle part of the tail had "double beams" (oddly shaped chevron bones on the underside, which gave "Diplodocus" its name). They may have provided support for the vertebrae, or perhaps prevented the blood vessels from being crushed if the animal's heavy tail pressed against the ground. These "double beams" are also seen in some related dinosaurs. Chevron bones of this particular form were initially believed to be unique to "Diplodocus"; since then they have been discovered in other members of the diplodocid family as well as in non-diplodocid sauropods, such as "Mamenchisaurus".


title: Diplodocus

text: Like other sauropods, the manus (front "feet") of "Diplodocus" were highly modified, with the finger and hand bones arranged into a vertical column, horseshoe-shaped in cross section. "Diplodocus" lacked claws on all but one digit of the front limb, and this claw was unusually large relative to other sauropods, flattened from side to side, and detached from the bones of the hand. The function of this unusually specialized claw is unknown.


title: Diplodocus

text: No skull has ever been found that can be confidently said to belong to "Diplodocus", though skulls of other diplodocids closely related to "Diplodocus" (such as "Galeamopus") are well known. The skulls of diplodocids were very small compared with the size of these animals. "Diplodocus" had small, 'peg'-like teeth that pointed forward and were only present in the anterior sections of the jaws. Its braincase was small. The neck was composed of at least 15 vertebrae and may have been held parallel to the ground and unable to be elevated much past horizontal.


title: Diplodocus

text: The discovery of partial diplodocid skin impressions in 1990 showed that some species had narrow, pointed, keratinous spines, much like those on an iguana. The spines could be up to long, on the "whiplash" portion of their tails, and possibly along the back and neck as well, similarly to hadrosaurids. The spines have been incorporated into many recent reconstructions of "Diplodocus", notably "Walking with Dinosaurs". The original description of the spines noted that the specimens in the Howe Quarry near Shell, Wyoming were associated with skeletal remains of an undescribed diplodocid "resembling "Diplodocus" and "Barosaurus"." Specimens from this quarry have since been referred to "Kaatedocus siberi" and "Barosaurus" sp., rather than "Diplodocus".


title: Diplodocus

text: Fossilized skin of "Diplodocus" sp., discovered at the Mother's Day Quarry, exhibits several different types of scale shapes including rectangular, polygonal, pebble, ovoid, dome, and globular. These scales range in size and shape depending upon their location on the integument, the smallest of which reach about 1mm while the largest 10 mm. Some of these scales show orientations that may indicate where they belonged on the body. For instance, the ovoid scales are closely clustered together and look similar to scales in modern reptiles that are located dorsally. Another orientation on the fossil consists of arching rows of square scales that interrupts nearby polygonal scale patterning. It is noted that the arching scale rows look similar to the scale orientations seen around crocodilian limbs, suggesting that this area may have also originated from around a limb on the "Diplodocus". The skin fossil itself is small in size, reaching less than 70 cm in length. Due to the vast amount of scale diversity seen within such a small area, as well as the scales being smaller in comparison to other diplodocid scale fossils, and the presence of small and potentially “juvenile” material at the Mother’s Day Quarry, it is hypothesized that the skin originated from a small or even “juvenile” "Diplodocus".


title: Diplodocus

text: The first record of "Diplodocus" comes from Marshall P. Felch’s quarry at Garden Park near Cañon City, Colorado, when several fossils were collected by Benjamin Mudge and Samuel Wendell Williston in 1877. The first specimen (YPM VP 1920) was very incomplete, consisting only of 2 complete caudal vertebrae, a chevron, and several other fragmentary caudal vertebrae. The specimen was sent to the Yale Peabody Museum and was named "Diplodocus longus" ('long double-beam') by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878. Marsh named "Diplodocus" during the Bone Wars, his competition with Philadelphian paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope to collect and describe as many fossil taxa as possible. Though several more complete specimens have been attributed to "D. longus", detailed analysis has discovered that this type specimen is actually dubious, which is not an ideal situation for the type species of a well-known genus like "Diplodocus". A petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was being considered which proposed to make "D. carnegii" the new type species. This proposal was rejected by the ICZN and "D. longus" has been maintained as the type species.


title: Diplodocus

text: Although the type specimen was very fragmentary, several additional diplodocid fossils were collected at Felch’s quarry from 1877 to 1884 and sent to Marsh, who then referred them to "D. longus". One specimen (USNM V 2672), an articulated complete skull, mandibles, and partial atlas was collected in 1883, and was the first complete Diplodocid skull to be reported. Tschopp "et al."’s analysis placed it as an indeterminate diplodocine in 2015 due to the lack of overlap with any diagnostic "Diplodocus" postcranial material, as was the fate with all skulls assigned to "Diplodocus".


title: Diplodocus

text: After the end of the Bone Wars, many major institutions in the eastern United States were inspired by the depictions and finds by Marsh and Cope to assemble their own dinosaur fossil collections. The competition to mount the first sauropod skeleton specifically was the most intense, with the American Museum of Natural History, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, and Field Museum of Natural History all sending expeditions to the west to find the most complete sauropod specimen, bring it back to the home institution, and mount it in their fossil halls. The American Museum of Natural History was the first to launch an expedition, finding a semi-articulated partial postcranial skeleton containing many vertebrae of "Diplodocus" in at Como Bluff in 1897. The skeleton (AMNH FR 223) was collected by Barnum Brown and Henry Osborn, who shipped the specimen to the AMNH and it was briefly described in 1899 by Osborn, who referred it to "D. longus". It was later mounted—the first "Diplodocus" mount made—and was the first well preserved individual skeleton of "Diplodocus" discovered. In Emmanuel Tschopp "et al".'s phylogenetic analysis of Diplodocidae, AMNH FR 223 was found to be not a skeleton of "D. longus", but the later named species "D. hallorum".


title: Diplodocus

text: The most notable "Diplodocus" find also came in 1899, when crew members from the Carnegie Museum of Natural History were collecting fossils in the Morrison Formation of Sheep Creek, Wyoming, with funding from Scottish-American steel tycoon Andrew Carnegie, they discovered a massive and well preserved skeleton of "Diplodocus." The skeleton was collected that year by Jacob L. Wortman and several other crewmen under his direction along with several specimens of "Stegosaurus", "Brontosaurus parvus," and "Camarasaurus" preserved alongside the skeleton. The skeleton (CM 84) was preserved in semi articulation and was very complete, including 41 well preserved vertebrae from the mid caudals to the anterior cervicals, 18 ribs, 2 sternal ribs, a partial pelvis, right scapulocoracoid, and right femur. In 1900, Carnegie crews returned to Sheep Creek, this expedition led by John Bell Hatcher, William Jacob Holland, and Charles Gilmore, and discovered another well preserved skeleton of "Diplodocus" adjacent to the specimen collected in 1899. The second skeleton (CM 94) was from a smaller individual and had preserved fewer vertebrae, but preserved more caudal vertebrae and appendicular remains than CM 84. Both of the skeletons were named and described in great detail by John Bell Hatcher in 1901, with Hatcher making CM 84 the type specimen of a new species of "Diplodocus", "Diplodocus carnegii" ("Andrew Carnegie's double beam"), with CM 94 becoming the paratype.It wasn't until 1907, that the Carnegie Museum of Natural History created a composite mount of "Diplodocus carnegii" that incorporated CM 84 and CM 94 along with several other specimens and even other taxa were used to complete the mount, including a skull molded based on USNM 2673, a skull assigned to "Galeamopus pabsti". The Carnegie Museum mount became very popular, being nicknamed "Dippy" by the populace, eventually being cast and sent to museums in London, Berlin, Paris, Vienna, Bologna, St. Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Madrid, and Mexico City from 1905 to 1928. The London cast specifically became very popular; its casting was requested by King Edward VII and it was the first sauropod mount put on display outside of the United States. The goal of Carnegie in sending these casts overseas was apparently to bring international unity and mutual interest around the discovery of the dinosaur.


title: Diplodocus

text: The Carnegie Museum of Natural History made another landmark discovery in 1909 when Earl Douglass unearthed several caudal vertebrae from "Apatosaurus" in what is now Dinosaur National Monument on the border region between Colorado and Utah, with the sandstone dating to the Kimmeridgian of the Morrison Formation. From 1909 to 1922, with the Carnegie Museum excavating the quarry, eventually unearthing over 120 dinosaur individuals and 1,600+ bones, many of the associated skeletons being very complete and are on display in several American museums. In 1912, Douglass found a semi articulated skull of a diplodocine with mandibles (CM 11161) in the Monument. Another skull (CM 3452) was found by Carnegie crews in 1915, bearing 6 articulated cervical vertebrae and mandibles, and another skull with mandibles (CM 1155) was found in 1923. All of the skulls found at Dinosaur National Monument were shipped back to Pittsburgh and described by William Jacob Holland in detail in 1924, who referred the specimens to "D. longus". This assignment was also questioned by Tschopp, who stated that all of the aforementioned skulls could not be referred to any specific diplodocine. Hundreds of assorted postcranial elements were found in the Monument that have been referred to "Diplodocus", but few have been properly described. A nearly complete skull of a juvenile "Diplodocus" was collected by Douglass in 1921, and it is the first known from a "Diplodocus".


title: Diplodocus

text: Another "Diplodocus" skeleton was collected at the Carnegie Quarry in Dinosaur National Monument, Utah, by the National Museum of Natural History in 1923. The skeleton (USNM V 10865) is one of the most complete known from "Diplodocus", consisting of a semi-articulated partial postcranial skeleton, including a well preserved dorsal column. The skeleton was briefly described by Charles Gilmore in 1932, who also referred it to "D. longus", and it was mounted in the fossil hall at the National Museum of Natural History the same year. In Emmanuel Tschopp "et al".'s phylogenetic analysis of Diplodocidae, USNM V 10865 was also found to be an individual of "D. hallorum".


title: Diplodocus

text: The Denver Museum of Nature and Science also collected a "Diplodocus" specimen in Dinosaur National Monument, a partial postcranial skeleton including cervical vertebrae, that was later mounted in the museum. Although not described in detail, Tschopp and colleagues determined that this skeleton also belonged to "D. hallorum".


title: Diplodocus

text: Few "Diplodocus" finds came for many years until 1979, when three hikers came across several vertebrae stuck in elevated stone next to several petroglyphs in a canyon west of San Ysidro, New Mexico. The find was reported to the New Mexican Museum of Natural History, who dispatched an expedition led by David D. Gillette in 1985, that collected the specimen after several visits from 1985 to 1990. The specimen was preserved in semi-articulation, including 230 gastroliths, with several vertebrae, partial pelvis, and right femur and was prepared and deposited at the New Mexican Museum of Natural History under NMMNH P-3690. The specimen was not described until 1991 in the Journal of Paleontology, where Gillette named it "Seismosaurus halli" (Jim and Ruth Hall's seismic lizard)"," though in 1994, Gillette published an amendment changing the name to "S. hallorum." In 2004 and later 2006, "Seismosaurus" was synonymized with "Diplodocus" and even suggested to be synonymous with the dubious "D. longus" and later Tschopp "et al."'s phylogenetic analysis in 2015 supported the idea that many specimens referred to "D. longus" actually belonged to "D. hallorum".


title: Diplodocus

text: In 1994, the Museum of the Rockies discovered a very productive fossil site at Mother's Day Quarry in Carbon County, Montana from the Salt Wash member of the Morrison Formation that was later excavated by the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History and Science in 1996, and after that the Bighorn Basin Paleontological Institute in 2017. The quarry was very productive, having mostly isolated "Diplodocus" bones from juveniles to adults in pristine preservation. The quarry notably had a great disparity between the amount of juveniles and adults in the quarry, as well as the frequent preservation of skin impressions, pathologies, and some articulated specimens from "Diplodocus." One specimen, a nearly complete skull of a juvenile "Diplodocus", was found at the quarry and is one of few known and highlighted ontogenetic dietary changes in the genus.


title: Diplodocus

text: "Diplodocus" is both the type genus of, and gives its name to, the Diplodocidae, the family in which it belongs. Members of this family, while still massive, have a markedly more slender build than other sauropods, such as the titanosaurs and brachiosaurs. All are characterised by long necks and tails and a horizontal posture, with forelimbs shorter than hind limbs. Diplodocids flourished in the Late Jurassic of North America and possibly Africa.


title: Diplodocus

text: A subfamily, the Diplodocinae, was erected to include "Diplodocus" and its closest relatives, including "Barosaurus". More distantly related is the contemporaneous "Apatosaurus", which is still considered a diplodocid, although not a diplodocine, as it is a member of the sister subfamily Apatosaurinae. The Portuguese "Dinheirosaurus" and the African "Tornieria" have also been identified as close relatives of "Diplodocus" by some authors. Diplodocoidea comprises the diplodocids, as well as the dicraeosaurids, rebbachisaurids, "Suuwassea", "Amphicoelias" possibly "Haplocanthosaurus", and/or the nemegtosaurids. The clade is the sister group to Macronaria (camarasaurids, brachiosaurids and titanosaurians).


title: Diplodocus

text: Due to a wealth of skeletal remains, "Diplodocus" is one of the best-studied dinosaurs. Many aspects of its lifestyle have been subjects of various theories over the years. Comparisons between the scleral rings of diplodocines and modern birds and reptiles suggest that they may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day at short intervals.


title: Diplodocus

text: Marsh and then Hatcher assumed that the animal was aquatic, because of the position of its nasal openings at the apex of the cranium. Similar aquatic behavior was commonly depicted for other large sauropods, such as "Brachiosaurus" and "Apatosaurus". A 1951 study by Kenneth A. Kermack indicates that sauropods probably could not have breathed through their nostrils when the rest of the body was submerged, as the water pressure on the chest wall would be too great. Since the 1970s, general consensus has the sauropods as firmly terrestrial animals, browsing on trees, ferns, and bushes.


title: Diplodocus

text: Scientists have debated as to how sauropods were able to breathe with their large body sizes and long necks, which would have increased the amount of dead space. They likely had an avian respiratory system, which is more efficient than a mammalian and reptilian system. Reconstructions of the neck and thorax of "Diplodocus" show great pneumaticity, which could have played a role in respiration as it does in birds.


title: Diplodocus

text: The depiction of "Diplodocus" posture has changed considerably over the years. For instance, a classic 1910 reconstruction by Oliver P. Hay depicts two "Diplodocus" with splayed lizard-like limbs on the banks of a river. Hay argued that "Diplodocus" had a sprawling, lizard-like gait with widely splayed legs, and was supported by Gustav Tornier. This hypothesis was contested by William Jacob Holland, who demonstrated that a sprawling "Diplodocus" would have needed a trench through which to pull its belly. Finds of sauropod footprints in the 1930s eventually put Hay's theory to rest.


title: Diplodocus

text: Later, diplodocids were often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to graze from tall trees. Studies looking at the morphology of sauropod necks have concluded that the neutral posture of "Diplodocus" neck was close to horizontal, rather than vertical, and scientists such as Kent Stevens have used this to argue that sauropods including "Diplodocus" did not raise their heads much above shoulder level. A nuchal ligament may have held the neck in this position. A 2009 study found that all tetrapods appear to hold the base of their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal, alert posture, and argued that the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown, unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from other animals. The study found faults with Stevens' assumptions regarding the potential range of motion in sauropod necks, and based on comparing skeletons to living animals the study also argued that soft tissues could have increased flexibility more than the bones alone suggest. For these reasons they argued that "Diplodocus" would have held its neck at a more elevated angle than previous studies have concluded.


title: Diplodocus

text: As with the related genus "Barosaurus", the very long neck of "Diplodocus" is the source of much controversy among scientists. A 1992 Columbia University study of diplodocid neck structure indicated that the longest necks would have required a 1.6-ton heart – a tenth of the animal's body weight. The study proposed that animals like these would have had rudimentary auxiliary "hearts" in their necks, whose only purpose was to pump blood up to the next "heart". Some argue that the near-horizontal posture of the head and neck would have eliminated the problem of supplying blood to the brain, as it would not be elevated.


title: Diplodocus

text: Diplodocines have highly unusual teeth compared to other sauropods. The crowns are long and slender, and elliptical in cross-section, while the apex forms a blunt, triangular point. The most prominent wear facet is on the apex, though unlike all other wear patterns observed within sauropods, diplodocine wear patterns are on the labial (cheek) side of both the upper and lower teeth. This implies that the feeding mechanism of "Diplodocus" and other diplodocids was radically different from that of other sauropods. Unilateral branch stripping is the most likely feeding behavior of "Diplodocus", as it explains the unusual wear patterns of the teeth (coming from tooth–food contact). In unilateral branch stripping, one tooth row would have been used to strip foliage from the stem, while the other would act as a guide and stabilizer. With the elongated preorbital (in front of the eyes) region of the skull, longer portions of stems could be stripped in a single action. Also, the palinal (backwards) motion of the lower jaws could have contributed two significant roles to feeding behavior: (1) an increased gape, and (2) allowed fine adjustments of the relative positions of the tooth rows, creating a smooth stripping action.


title: Diplodocus

text: Young "et al." (2012) used biomechanical modelling to examine the performance of the diplodocine skull. It was concluded that the proposal that its dentition was used for bark-stripping was not supported by the data, which showed that under that scenario, the skull and teeth would undergo extreme stresses. The hypotheses of branch-stripping and/or precision biting were both shown to be biomechanically plausible feeding behaviors. Diplodocine teeth were also continually replaced throughout their lives, usually in less than 35 days, as was discovered by Michael D'Emic "et al." Within each tooth socket, as many as five replacement teeth were developing to replace the next one. Studies of the teeth also reveal that it preferred different vegetation from the other sauropods of the Morrison, such as "Camarasaurus". This may have better allowed the various species of sauropods to exist without competition.


title: Diplodocus

text: The flexibility of "Diplodocus" neck is debated but it should have been able to browse from low levels to about 4 m (13 ft) when on all fours. However, studies have shown that the center of mass of "Diplodocus" was very close to the hip socket; this means that "Diplodocus" could rear up into a bipedal posture with relatively little effort. It also had the advantage of using its large tail as a 'prop' which would allow for a very stable tripodal posture. In a tripodal posture "Diplodocus" could potentially increase its feeding height up to about .


title: Diplodocus

text: The neck's range of movement would have also allowed the head to graze below the level of the body, leading some scientists to speculate on whether "Diplodocus" grazed on submerged water plants, from riverbanks. This concept of the feeding posture is supported by the relative lengths of front and hind limbs. Furthermore, its peg-like teeth may have been used for eating soft water plants. Matthew Cobley "et al". (2013) disputed this, finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited neck movements. They state that the feeding ranges for sauropods like "Diplodocus" were smaller than previously believed and the animals may have had to move their whole bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation. As such, they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimum energy needs. The conclusions of Cobley "et al". were disputed in 2013 and 2014 by Mike Taylor, who analysed the amount and positioning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of "Diplodocus" and "Apatosaurus". Taylor found that the neck of "Diplodocus" was very flexible, and that Cobley " et al." was incorrect, in that flexibility as implied by bones is less than in reality.


title: Diplodocus

text: In 2010, Whitlock "et al." described a juvenile skull at the time referred to "Diplodocus" (CM 11255) that differed greatly from adult skulls of the same genus: its snout was not blunt, and the teeth were not confined to the front of the snout. These differences suggest that adults and juveniles were feeding differently. Such an ecological difference between adults and juveniles had not been previously observed in sauropodomorphs.


title: Diplodocus

text: While the long neck has traditionally been interpreted as a feeding adaptation, it was also suggested that the oversized neck of "Diplodocus" and its relatives may have been primarily a sexual display, with any other feeding benefits coming second. A 2011 study refuted this idea in detail.


title: Diplodocus

text: While no evidence indicates "Diplodocus" nesting habits, other sauropods, such as the titanosaurian "Saltasaurus", have been associated with nesting sites. The titanosaurian nesting sites indicate that they may have laid their eggs communally over a large area in many shallow pits, each covered with vegetation. "Diplodocus" may have done the same. The documentary "Walking with Dinosaurs" portrayed a mother "Diplodocus" using an ovipositor to lay eggs, but it was pure speculation on the part of the documentary author. For "Diplodocus" and other sauropods, the size of clutches and individual eggs were surprisingly small for such large animals. This appears to have been an adaptation to predation pressures, as large eggs would require greater incubation time and thus would be at greater risk.


title: Diplodocus

text: Based on a number of bone histology studies, "Diplodocus", along with other sauropods, grew at a very fast rate, reaching sexual maturity at just over a decade, and continuing to grow throughout their lives.


title: Diplodocus

text: The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3 million years old (Ma) at its base, and 146.8 million years old at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as a semi-arid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin, where many dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Lourinha Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania.


title: Diplodocus

text: The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods "Ceratosaurus", "Koparion", "Stokesosaurus", "Ornitholestes", "Allosaurus" and "Torvosaurus", the sauropods "Apatosaurus", "Brachiosaurus", "Camarasaurus", and "Diplodocus", and the ornithischians "Camptosaurus", "Dryosaurus", "Othnielia", "Gargoyleosaurus" and "Stegosaurus". "Diplodocus" is commonly found at the same sites as "Apatosaurus", "Allosaurus", "Camarasaurus", and "Stegosaurus". "Allosaurus" accounted for 70 to 75% of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinha Formation (mainly "Allosaurus", "Ceratosaurus", "Torvosaurus", and "Stegosaurus"), or have a close counterpart ("Brachiosaurus" and "Lusotitan;" "Camptosaurus" and "Draconyx"). Other vertebrates that shared the same paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles like "Dorsetochelys", sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans such as "Hoplosuchus", and several species of pterosaur like "Harpactognathus" and "Mesadactylus". Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period was green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the "Araucaria"-like conifer "Brachyphyllum".


title: Diplodocus

text: "Diplodocus" has been a famous and much-depicted dinosaur as it has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur.


title: Diplodocus

text: Much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and former status as the longest dinosaur.


title: Diplodocus

text: The donation of many mounted skeletal casts of "Dippy" by industrialist Andrew Carnegie to potentates around the world at the beginning of the 20th century did much to familiarize it to people worldwide. Casts of "Diplodocus" skeletons are still displayed in many museums worldwide, including "D. carnegii" in a number of institutions.


title: Diplodocus

text: The project, along with its association with 'big science', philanthropism, and capitalism, drew much public attention in Europe. The German satirical weekly "Kladderadatsch" devoted a poem to the dinosaur:


title: Diplodocus

text: "D. longus" is displayed the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt (a skeleton made up of several specimens, donated in 1907 by the American Museum of Natural History), Germany. A mounted and more complete skeleton of "D. longus" is at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC, while a mounted skeleton of "D. hallorum" (formerly "Seismosaurus"), which may be the same as "D. longus", can be found at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.


title: Diplodocus

text: A war machine (landship) from WW1 named Boirault machine was designed in 1915, later deemed impractical and hence given a nickname ""Diplodocus militaris"".


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: Sharon Katharine Van Etten (born February 26, 1981) is an American singer-songwriter. She has released six studio albums, the latest of which is "We've Been Going About This All Wrong" (2022).


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: Van Etten was born in Belleville, New Jersey, the middle child of five. She lived in Nutley, New Jersey, then moved to Clinton, New Jersey as a pre-teen. She attended North Hunterdon High School, at which she participated in the chorus and performed in stage musicals.


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: Later, she moved to Murfreesboro, Tennessee to attend Middle Tennessee State University and studied recording, but dropped out after a year. She ended up working at the Red Rose, a coffee and record shop and music venue in Murfreesboro for about five years. She fell into an abusive relationship with a rock musician who discouraged her from writing songs. After five years, she left in the middle of the night with whatever she could carry.


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: Van Etten self-released handmade CDs until 2009, when her debut studio recording was released. Before her studio debut, she worked at Astor Wines and as a publicist at Ba Da Bing Records.


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: Van Etten's debut, "Because I Was in Love", was released on May 26, 2009, on Language of Stone, and was manufactured and distributed by Drag City. "Because I Was in Love" was produced by Greg Weeks at Hexham Head studio in Philadelphia.


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: On September 21, 2010, Van Etten released her second album, "epic," on Ba Da Bing Records. With no set band at the time, Van Etten called on friends Jeffrey Kish, Dave Hartley, Jessica Larrabee, and Andy LaPlant of She Keeps Bees, Cat Martino, Meg Baird, Jim Callan, and Brian Christinzio. The first song recorded for the album was "Love More", recorded in December 2009 by producer Brian McTear for Weathervane Music's Shaking Through documentary video series. The remainder of the album was produced by Brian McTear with engineer Amy Morrissey in May 2010 at Miner Street Recordings in Philadelphia. NPR described it as possessing "a fuller sound compared to the super-spare arrangements on her first two self-produced albums, but "epic" still feels incredibly intimate, with lots of room to breathe and unfold."


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: Van Etten's third studio album, "Tramp", was released on February 7, 2012, on Jagjaguwar. "Tramp" was produced by The National's Aaron Dessner and recorded in his home studio in Brooklyn, New York. Additional recording took place at Miner Street Recordings in Philadelphia, where the album was also mixed with Engineers and Mixers Brian McTear and Jonathan Low. The album features musicians Doug Keith, Thomas Bartlett, Bryan Devendorf, Bryce Dessner, Matt Barrick, Rob Moose, Julianna Barwick, Peter Silberman, Logan Coale, Clarice Jensen, Ben Lanz, Zach Condon, and Jenn Wasner.


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: May 2014 brought about the release of Van Etten's fourth studio album, titled "Are We There," on Jagjaguwar. Van Etten produced the record with Stewart Lerman, with the guidance of bandmate and manager Zeke Hutchins. Most of the recording was done at Hobo Sound Studios in Weehawken, New Jersey, with piano tracks being recorded at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. The record features musicians Zeke Hutchins, Doug Keith, Heather Woods Broderick, Dave Hartley, Adam Granduciel, Marisa Anderson, Stuart D. Bogie, Mickey Free, Mary Lattimore, Little Isidor, Jacob Morris, Torres' Mackenzie Scott, Shearwater's Jonathan Meiburg, Lower Dens' Jana Hunter, and Efterklang touring member Peter Broderick. The EP "I Don't Want to Let You Down," a compilation of songs that were not included on "Are We There," was released on Jagjaguwar in 2015.


title: Sharon Van Etten

text: After the release of "Are We There", Van Etten took some time away from music. She pursued acting, had a child, and applied to Brooklyn College to study psychology and mental health counseling. Van Etten composed the score for the film "Strange Weather", working on the music in a practice space she shared with Michael Cera. In between working on the music for the film she recorded dozens of demos for new songs, which would form the basis for her next album.