title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Michael Palin was regarded by the other members of the troupe as the one with the widest range, equally adept as a straight man or wildly over the top character. He portrayed many working-class northerners, often portrayed in a disgusting light: "The Funniest Joke in the World" sketch and the "Every Sperm Is Sacred" segment of "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life". In contrast, Palin also played weak-willed, put-upon men such as the husband in the "Marriage Guidance Counsellor" sketch, the boring accountant in the "Vocational Guidance Counsellor" sketch, and the hapless client in the "Argument Clinic". He was equally at home as the indefatigable Cardinal Ximinez of Spain in "The Spanish Inquisition" sketch. Another high-energy character that Palin portrays is the slick TV show host, constantly smacking his lips together and generally being over-enthusiastic ("Blackmail" sketch). In one sketch, he plays the role with an underlying hint of self-revulsion, where he wipes his oily palms on his jacket, makes a disgusted face, then continues. One of his most famous creations was the shopkeeper who attempts to sell useless goods by very weak attempts at being sly and crafty, which are invariably spotted by the customer (often played by Cleese), as in the "Dead Parrot" and "Cheese Shop" sketches. Palin is also well known for his leading role in "The Lumberjack Song".


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Palin also often plays heavy-accented foreigners, mostly French ("La marche futile") or German ("Hitler in Minehead"), usually alongside Cleese. In one of the last episodes, he delivers a full speech, first in English, then in French, then in heavily accented German.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Of all the Pythons, Palin played the fewest female roles. Among his portrayals of women are Queen Victoria in the "Michael Ellis" episode, Debbie Katzenberg the American in "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", a rural idiot's wife in the "Idiot in rural society" sketch, and an implausible English housewife who is married to Jean-Paul Sartre.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The first five episodes of the series were produced by John Howard Davies, with Davies serving as studio director, and Ian MacNaughton acting as location director. From the sixth episode onwards, MacNaughton became the producer and sole director on the series. Other regular team members included Hazel Pethig (costumes), Madelaine Gaffney (makeup) and John Horton (video effects designer). Maggie Weston, who worked on both makeup and design, married Gilliam in 1973 and they remain together. The series was primarily filmed in London studios and nearby locations, although location shooting to take in beaches and villages included filming in Somerset, Norwich and the island of Jersey.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Pre-production of the series had started by April 1969. Documents from the BBC showed that the viability of the show had been threatened around this time when Cleese reminded the BBC that he was still under contract from David Frost's David Paradine Productions, who wanted to co-produce the show. The BBC memos indicated the potential of holding off the show until 1971, when Cleese's contract with Paradine expired, but ultimately the situation was resolved, though the details of these negotiations have been lost.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The first episode aired on the BBC on Sunday, 5 October 1969, at 10:50 p.m. The BBC had to reassure some of its workers (who were considering going on strike and who thought the show was replacing a late-night, religious/devotional programme) by asserting that it was using the alternative programming to give clergymen time off on their busiest day. The first episode did not fare well in terms of audience, capturing only about 3% of the total UK population, roughly 1.5 million, compared to "Dad's Army" that had 22% on the Thursday of that same week. In addition to the lowest audience figures for shows during that week, the first episode has had the lowest Appreciation Index for any of the BBC's light entertainment programmes. While public reception improved over the course of the first series, certain BBC executives had already conceived a dislike for the show, with some BBC documents describing the show as "disgusting and nihilistic". Some within the BBC had been more upbeat on how the first series had turned out and had congratulated the group accordingly, but a more general dislike for the show had already made an impact on the troupe, with Cleese announcing that he would be unlikely to continue to participate after the making of the second series. Separately, the BBC had to re-edit several of the first series' episodes to remove the personal address and phone number for David Frost that the troupe had included in some sketches.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The second series, while more popular than the first, further strained relations between the troupe and the BBC. Two of the sketches from the series finale "Royal Episode 13" were called out by BBC executives in a December 1970 meeting: "The Queen Will be Watching" in which the troupe mocks the UK national anthem, and the "Undertakers sketch" which took a comedic turn on how to dispose of the body of a loved one. The BBC executives criticised producer MacNaughton for not alerting them to the content prior to airing. According to Palin, via his published diary, the BBC started to censor the programme within the third series following this.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Cleese remained for the third series but left afterwards. Cleese cited that he was no longer interested in the show, believing most of the material was rehashes of prior skits. He also found it more difficult to work with Chapman, who was struggling with alcoholism. The remaining Pythons, however, went on to produce a shortened fourth series, of which only six episodes were made prior to their decision to end the show prematurely, the final episode being broadcast on 5 December 1974.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The first cut that the BBC forced on the show was the removal of David Frost's phone number from re-airings of the second episode of the first season, "Sex and Violence", in the sketch "The Mouse Problem". The Pythons had slipped in a real contact number for David Frost to the initial airing, which resulted in numerous viewers bothering him.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Some material originally recorded went missing later, such as the use of the word "masturbating" in the "Summarize Proust" sketch (which was muted during the first airing, and later cut out entirely) or "What a silly bunt" in the Travel Agent sketch (which featured a character [Idle] who has a speech impediment that makes him pronounce "C"s as "B"s), which was cut before the sketch ever went to air. However, when this sketch was included in the album "Monty Python's Previous Record" and the "Live at the Hollywood Bowl" film, the line remained intact. Both sketches were included in the Danish DR K re-airing of all episodes ("Episode 31", aired 1 November 2018, 6:50 pm).


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Some sketches were deleted in their entirety and later recovered. One such sketch is the "Party Political Broadcast (Choreographed)", where a Conservative Party spokesman (Cleese) delivers a party political broadcast before getting up and dancing, being coached by a choreographer (Idle), and being joined by a chorus of spokesmen dancing behind him. The camera passes two Labour Party spokesmen practising ballet, and an animation featuring Edward Heath in a tutu. Once deemed lost, a home-recorded tape of this sketch, captured from a broadcast from Buffalo, New York PBS outlet WNED-TV, turned up on YouTube in 2008. Another high-quality recording of this sketch, broadcast on WTTW in Chicago, has also turned up on YouTube. The Buffalo version can be seen as an extra on the new Region 2/4 eight-disc "The Complete Monty Python's Flying Circus" DVD set. The Region 1 DVD of "Before The Flying Circus", which is included in "The Complete Monty Python's Flying Circus Collector's Edition Megaset" and "Monty Python: The Other British Invasion", also contains the Buffalo version as an extra.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Another lost sketch is the "Satan" animation following the "Crackpot Religion" piece and the "Cartoon Religion Ltd" animation, and preceding the "How Not To Be Seen" sketch: this had been edited out of the official tape. Six frames of the animation can be seen at the end of the episode, wherein that particular episode is repeated in fast-forward. A black and white 16 mm film print has since turned up (found by a private film collector in the US) showing the animation in its entirety.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: At least two references to cancer were censored, both during the second series. In the sixth episode ("It's A Living" or "School Prizes"), Carol Cleveland's narration of a Gilliam cartoon suddenly has a male voice dub 'gangrene' over the word cancer (although this word was used unedited when the animation appeared in the movie "And Now for Something Completely Different"; the 2006 special "Terry Gilliam's Personal Best" uses this audio to restore the censored line). Another reference was removed from the sketch "Conquistador Coffee Campaign", in the eleventh episode "How Not to Be Seen", although a reference to leprosy remained intact. This line has also been recovered from the same 16 mm film print as the above-mentioned "Satan" animation.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: A sketch from Episode 7 of Series 2 (subtitled 'The Attila the Hun Show') featured a parody of Michael Miles, the 1960s TV game show host (played by Cleese), and was introduced as 'Spot The Braincell'. This sketch was deleted shortly afterwards from a repeat broadcast as a mark of respect following Miles' death in February 1971. Also, the controversial "Undertaker" sketch from Episode 13 of the same series was removed by the BBC after negative reviewer response. Both of these sketches have been restored to the official tapes, although the only source for the Undertaker sketch was an NTSC copy of the episode, duplicated before the cut had been made.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Animation in episode 9 of series 3 was cut out following the initial broadcast. The animation was a parody of a German commercial, and the original owners complained about the music use, so the BBC simply removed part of the animation, and replaced the music with a song from a Python album. Terry Gilliam later complained about the cut, thinking it was because producer Ian McNaughton "just didn't get what it was and he cut it. That was a big mistake."


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Music copyright issues have resulted in at least two cuts. In episode 209, Graham Chapman as a Pepperpot sings "The Girl from Ipanema", but some versions use "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair", which is public domain. In the bus conductor sketch in episode 312, a brief parody of "Tonight" from "West Side Story" has been removed from recent releases. There have also been reports of substituting different performances of classical music in some uses, presumably because of performance royalties.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: A Region 2 DVD release of Series 1–4 was released by Sony in 2007. This included certain things which had been cut from the US A&E releases, including the "masturbation" line, but failed to reinstate most of the long-lost sketches and edits. A Blu-ray release of the series featuring every episode restored to its original uncut broadcast length was released by Network for the show's 50th anniversary in 2019.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Rediscovered sketch Ursula Hitler, once deemed impossible to find, was rereleased with the 50th issue in 2019.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: At the time of the original broadcasting of "Monty Python" in the United Kingdom, the BBC used Time-Life Television to distribute its shows in the United States. For "Monty Python", Time-Life had been concerned that the show was "too British" in its humour to reach American audiences, and did not opt to bring the programme across. However, the show became a fixture on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation beginning in the fall of 1970, and hence was also seen in some American markets.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The Python's first film, "And Now for Something Completely Different", a selection of skits from the show released in the UK in 1971 and in the United States in 1972, was not a hit in the USA. During their first North American tour in 1973, the Pythons performed twice on US television, firstly on "The Tonight Show", hosted by Joey Bishop, and then on "The Midnight Special". The group spoke of how badly the first appearance went down with the audience; Idle described "The Tonight Show" performance: "We did thirty minutes [thirty minutes' worth of material] in fifteen minutes to no laughs whatsoever. We ran out onto the green grass in Burbank and we lay down and laughed for 15 minutes because it was the funniest thing ever. In America they didn't know what on earth we were talking about."


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Despite the poor reception on their live appearances on American television, the Pythons' American manager, Nancy Lewis, began to push the show herself into the States. In 1974, the PBS member station KERA in Dallas was the first television station in the United States to broadcast episodes of "Monty Python's Flying Circus", and is often credited with introducing the programme to American audiences. Many other PBS stations acquired the show, and by 1975, it was often the most popular show on these stations. "And Now for Something Completely Different" was re-released to American theaters in 1974 and had a much better box office take that time. That would also set the stage for the Pythons' next film, "Monty Python and the Holy Grail", released near simultaneously in the UK and the United States in April 1975, to also perform well in American theaters. The popularity of "Monty Python's Flying Circus" helped to open the door for other British television series to make their way into the United States via PBS and its member stations. One notable American fan of "Monty Python" was singer Elvis Presley. Billy Smith, Presley's cousin noted that during the last few months of Elvis' life in 1977, when Elvis was addicted to prescription drugs and mainly confined to his bedroom at his mansion Graceland, Elvis would sit at his room and chat with Smith for hours about various topics including among other things, Presley's favourite "Monty Python" sketches.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: With the rise in American popularity, the ABC network acquired rights to show select episodes of "Monty Python's Flying Circus" in their "Wide World of Entertainment" showcase in mid 1975. However, ABC re-edited the episodes, thus losing the continuity and flow intended in the originals. When ABC refused to stop treating the series in this way, the Pythons took them to court. Initially the court ruled that their artistic rights had indeed been violated, but it refused to stop the ABC broadcasts. However, on appeal the team gained control over all subsequent US broadcasts of its programmes. The case also led to their gaining the master tapes of the series from the BBC, once their original contracts ended at the end of 1980.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The show also aired on MTV in 1988. "Monty Python" was part of a two-hour comedy block on Sunday nights that also included another BBC series, "The Young Ones".


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: In April 2006, "Monty Python's Flying Circus" returned to non-cable American television directly through PBS. In connection with this, PBS commissioned "Monty Python's Personal Best", a six-episode series featuring each Python's favourite sketches, plus a tribute to Chapman, who died in 1989. BBC America has aired the series on a sporadic basis since the mid-2000s, in an extended 40-minute time slot in order to include commercials. IFC acquired the rights to the show in 2009, though not exclusive, as BBC America still airs occasional episodes of the show. IFC also presented a six-part documentary "", produced by Terry Jones's son Bill.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The members of Monty Python embarked on a series of stage shows during and after the television series. These mostly consisted of sketches from the series, though they also revived material which predated it. One such sketch was the Four Yorkshiremen sketch, written by Cleese and Chapman with Marty Feldman and Tim Brooke-Taylor, and originally performed for "At Last the 1948 Show"; the sketch subsequently became part of the live Python repertoire. The shows also included songs from collaborator Neil Innes.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Graham Chapman and Michael Palin also performed on stage at the Knebworth Festival in 1975 with Pink Floyd.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: In 2005, a troupe of actors headed by Rémy Renoux translated and "adapted" a stage version of "Monty Python's Flying Circus" into French. Usually the original actors defended their material very closely, but given in this case the "adaptation" and also the translation into French (with subtitles), the group supported this production. The adapted material largely adhered to the original text, primarily deviating when it came to ending a sketch, something the Python members themselves changed many times over the course of their stage performances.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Language differences also occur in the lyrics of several songs. For example, "Sit on My Face" (which translated into French would be "Asseyez-vous sur mon visage") becomes "cum in my mouth".


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: After the broadcast of the first episode, British newspapers printed brief reviews of the new program. Reviewers had mixed opinions. One wrote that the show was "absurd and frivolous", and that it did not "offer anything very new or exciting". Another described the show as "enjoyably Goonish", saying that not all of the material was "scintillating" but that "there was enough packed into the 30 minutes to raise a few laughs." The Reading Evening Post's columnist was more enthusiastic, calling the show "much-needed comedy" and noting that "The real laughs, for me, came from the crazy cartoon and photo-montage work".


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: As the series continued, reviews became more positive. After the third episode, the Guardian's television columnist described the show as "undoubtedly the high spot of a lot of viewers' weekend", saying the humour was "whacky rather than satiric." A week later, the Observer's reviewer gave the series a "strong recommendation", saying "The material, despite a tendency to prolong a good idea beyond its natural length, is of a high standard, but what lifts the show out of an honourable rut is its extraordinary use of animated cartoons." However this positive view was by no means unanimous. An Evening Standard reviewer complained that "last week it almost crushed my enthusiasm and loyalty forever by transmitting a number of dismal skits that were little more than broad, obvious slapstick."


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Recorded in 1998 as "Monty Python Live at Aspen", the group received the American Film Institute Star Award.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: "Monty Python's Flying Circus" placed fifth on a list of the BFI TV 100, drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, and voted for by industry professionals.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: In a list of the 50 Greatest British Sketches released by Channel 4 in 2005, five Monty Python sketches made the list:


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: In 2004 and 2007, "Monty Python's Flying Circus" was ranked #5 and #6 on TV Guide's Top Cult Shows Ever.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Douglas Adams, creator of "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" and co-writer of the "Patient Abuse" sketch, once said "I loved Monty Python's Flying Circus. For years I wanted to be John Cleese, I was most disappointed when I found out the job had been taken."


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: Lorne Michaels counts the show as a major influence on his "Saturday Night Live" sketches. Cleese and Palin re-enacted the Dead Parrot sketch on "SNL" in 1997.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: The show was a major influence on the Danish cult sketch show "Casper & Mandrilaftalen" (1999) and Cleese starred in its 50th episode.


title: Monty Python's Flying Circus

text: In computing, the term spam and the name of the Python programming language are both derived from the series.


title: Temple garment

text: A temple garment, also referred to as garments, the garment of the holy priesthood, or Mormon underwear, is a type of underwear worn by adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement after they have taken part in the endowment ceremony. Garments are required for any individual who previously participated in the endowment ceremony to enter a temple. The undergarments are viewed as a symbolic reminder of the covenants made in temple ceremonies and are seen as a symbolic and/or literal source of protection from the evils of the world.


title: Temple garment

text: The garment is given as part of the washing and anointing portion of the endowment. Today, the temple garment is worn primarily by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and by members of some Mormon fundamentalist churches. Adherents consider them to be sacred and not suitable for public display. Anti-Mormon activists have occasionally publicly displayed or defaced temple garments to express their opposition to the LDS Church.


title: Temple garment

text: Temple garments are sometimes derided as "magic underwear" by non-Mormons, but Mormons view this terminology to be both misleading and offensive.


title: Temple garment

text: According to the LDS Church, the temple garments serve a number of purposes. First, the garment provides the member "a constant reminder" of the covenants they made in the temple. Second, the garment "when properly worn ... provides protection against temptation and evil". Wearing the garment is also "an outward expression of an inward commitment" to follow Jesus Christ. General authority Carlos E. Asay adds that the garment "strengthens the wearer to resist temptation, fend off evil influences, and stand firmly for the right."


title: Temple garment

text: The nature of the protection believed to be afforded by temple garments is ambiguous and varies between adherents. Researchers who interviewed a sample of Latter-day Saints who wear the temple garment reported that virtually all wearers expressed a belief that wearing the garment provided "spiritual protection" and encouraged them to keep their covenants. Some of those interviewed "asserted that the garment also provided physical protection, while others seemed less certain of any "physical" aspect to protection." In Mormon folklore, tales are told of Latter-day Saints who credit their temple garments with helping them survive car wrecks, fires, and natural disasters.


title: Temple garment

text: In 2015, the LDS Church released an explanatory video online that showed photographs of both temple garments and the outer clothing used in temple worship. The video states that there "is nothing magical or mystical about temple garments."


title: Temple garment

text: To members of the LDS Church, the temple garment represents the sacred and personal aspects of their relationship with God. Church president Joseph F. Smith taught that the garment was to be held as "the most sacred of all things in the world, next to their own virtue, next to their own purity of life." For this reason, most church members feel uncomfortable discussing the garment in a casual or disrespectful manner. Some church leaders have compared the garment to the clerical vestments worn by clergy of other churches. Church leaders have publicly discussed the above principles and beliefs in general terms since the mid-1840s. Many Latter-day Saints view the garment associated with the temple rites as sacred. Some church members have criticized the sale of garments on online auction sites.


title: Temple garment

text: The garment as first described in the 1840s was a one-piece undergarment extending to the ankles and the wrists, resembling a union suit, with an open crotch and a collar. It was made of unbleached cotton and was held together with ties in a double knot. Most garments were home-made.


title: Temple garment

text: The original garment had four marks that were snipped into the cloth as part of the original Nauvoo endowment ceremony. These marks were a reverse-L-shaped symbol on the right breast, a V-shaped symbol on the left breast, and horizontal marks at the navel and over the right knee. These cuts were later replaced by embroidered or screen-printed symbols.


title: Temple garment

text: Thus, the V-shaped symbol on the left breast was referred to as "The Compasses", while the reverse-L-shaped symbol on the right breast was referred to by early church leaders as "The Square".


title: Temple garment

text: According to a description by church president John Taylor in 1883, the "Square" represents "the justice and fairness of our Heavenly Father, that we will receive all the good that is coming to us or all that we earn, on a square deal", and the "Compasses" represents "the North Star". In addition to the Square and Compasses, Taylor described the other symbols as follows: the collar represented the idea that the Lord's "yoke is easy and [his] burden is light", or the "Crown of the Priesthood"; the double-knotted strings represented "the Trinity" and "the marriage covenant"; the navel mark represents "strength in the navel and marrow in the bones"; and the knee mark represents "that every knee shall bow and every tongue confess that Jesus is the Christ".


title: Temple garment

text: In 1926, LDS Church apostle David O. McKay offered an updated description that was later incorporated into the church's endowment ceremony. According to McKay's explanation, the "mark of the Compass" represents "an undeviating course leading to eternal life; a constant reminder that desires, appetites, and passions are to be kept within the bounds the Lord has set; and that all truth may be circumscribed into one great whole"; the "mark of the Square" represents "exactness and honor" in keeping the commandments and covenants of God; the navel mark represents "the need of constant nourishment to body and spirit"; and the "knee mark" represents "that every knee shall bow and every tongue shall confess that Jesus is the Christ". Unlike Taylor, McKay did not describe the symbolism of the collar or the tie-strings because those elements of the garment had been eliminated in 1922.


title: Temple garment

text: In 1893, the church expressed an official preference for white garments, which has since become the standard color, with the exception of military garments. Members of the military may purchase desert sand-colored garments and can submit regulation military T-shirts of any color to the church for custom addition of the symbolic markings.


title: Temple garment

text: For several decades after its introduction in the 1840s, the original 19th-century union-suit style was accepted within Mormon doctrine as being unalterable. In 1906, church president Joseph F. Smith characterized as a "grievous sin" any attempt, in the name of changing fashion trends, to modify the 1840s garment pattern, which he characterized as "sacred, unchanged, and unaltered from the very pattern in which God gave them." However, while the original pattern of the garment is still in use by some Mormon fundamentalists, the LDS Church has updated the original pattern, which the fundamentalists denounce.


title: Temple garment

text: In 1923, a letter from church president Heber J. Grant to stake and temple presidents, stated that after careful and prayerful consideration the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of the LDS Church had unanimously decided that specific modifications would be permitted to the garments: sleeves could end at the elbow; legs could be shortened to just below the knee; and buttons could be used instead of strings. The collar was eliminated and the open crotch closed. Other changes were made after 1923 which shortened the sleeves and legs further and eliminated buttons.


title: Temple garment

text: In the 1930s, the LDS Church built Beehive Clothing Mills, which was responsible for manufacturing and selling garments. This led to a more standardized design. During this time women's garments were one-piece designs that ended just above the knees and had a cap sleeve. In the 1970s, the first two-piece garment became available and Mormons generally accepted the change. Today, garments are made in both styles with a variety of different fabrics. Feminine styles are sold with either a rounded or a sweetheart neckline with cap sleeves, with sweetheart necklines usually following the line of the bra. There are also two styles of necklines for men.


title: Temple garment

text: Endowed church members can purchase garments through church distribution centers worldwide, through the mail, and online. They are sold at a moderate price that is assumed to be near cost. To purchase temple garments, members must have received their temple endowment. To purchase garments online, they must provide their membership record number. Endowed members can find their membership record number on their temple recommend or by obtaining a copy of their Individual Ordinance Summary.


title: Temple garment

text: As late as 1977, church members were instructed they could make their own garments with the approval of their local leaders. As of 2010, the official documentation of church institutional policies known as "Handbook 2: Administering the Church" states that, of both garments and temple clothing in general, only temple aprons may be hand made, and only then using "the approved apron embroidery and sewing kit that is available through Church Distribution Services."


title: Temple garment

text: In the church's "General Handbook", leaders are instructed to tell members they should wear garments throughout their lives, and that they should not alter them. In the temple recommend interview, members are asked if they wear the garment as instructed in the temple. Members are told that they should not partially or completely remove any portion of the garment to participate in activities that can "reasonably be done with the garment worn properly beneath the clothing".


title: Temple garment

text: Garment wearers are also instructed that they should not adjust garments or wear them in a way that would accommodate the wearing certain styles of clothing. This includes uncovering areas of the body that would normally be covered by the garment, such as the shoulders and lower thighs. Prior to the disposal of old garments, members are instructed to cut out the markings on them.


title: Temple garment

text: The temple garment is usually identified by Mormon scholars with the sacred "linen breeches" (michnasayim/mikhnesei bahd) and the "coat of linen" (kuttoneth) that ancient Israelite priests were commanded to wear, as referenced in Exodus 28:39-43. The michnasayim were undergarments that reached from the hips to the thighs and served the purpose of hiding the wearer's "nakedness" and maintaining modesty. These garments symbolized the abolition of the distinction between the heavenly and mortal part of man, and, like the LDS temple garment, were worn by the Israelite priest even when he was not actually officiating in the temple. The kuttoneth was probably a white, tight-fitting, shirt-like undergarment worn in conjunction with the michnasayim. According to the Talmud, worn-out undergarments and priestly sashes were burned, being used as torch wicks in the temple.


title: Temple garment

text: Additionally, the temple garment has been compared to the modern tallit katan, a sacred undershirt of Orthodox and ultra-Orthodox Judaism. Both the temple garment and the tallit katan are meant to be worn all day under regular clothing as a constant reminder of the covenants, promises, and obligations the wearer is under.


title: Temple garment

text: Some church opponents have used public occasions, like the biannual church conferences, to publicly mock and parody the wearing of temple garments. During the October 2003 LDS Church General Conference, some anti-Mormon demonstrators outside the LDS Conference Center reportedly spat and stomped on garments in view of those attending the conference. One protester blew his nose into a garment he wore around his neck. A scuffle broke out between a protester and two members of the church who attempted to take the garments from him. To avoid a repeat of the conflict, the municipality of Salt Lake City planned new protest buffer zones for the April 2004 conference in Salt Lake City.


title: Anachronism

text: An anachronism (from the Greek , 'against' and , 'time') is a chronological inconsistency in some arrangement, especially a juxtaposition of people, events, objects, language terms and customs from different time periods. The most common type of anachronism is an object misplaced in time, but it may be a verbal expression, a technology, a philosophical idea, a musical style, a material, a plant or animal, a custom, or anything else associated with a particular period that is placed outside its proper temporal domain. (An example of that would be films including non-avian dinosaurs and prehistoric human beings living side by side, but they were, in reality, millions of years apart.)


title: Anachronism

text: An anachronism may be either intentional or unintentional. Intentional anachronisms may be introduced into a literary or artistic work to help a contemporary audience engage more readily with a historical period. Anachronism can also be used intentionally for purposes of rhetoric, propaganda, comedy, or shock. Unintentional anachronisms may occur when a writer, artist, or performer is unaware of differences in technology, terminology and language, customs and attitudes, or even fashions between different historical periods and eras.


title: Anachronism

text: A parachronism (from the Greek , "on the side", and , "time") is anything that appears in a time period in which it is not normally found (though not sufficiently out of place as to be impossible).


title: Anachronism

text: This may be an object, idiomatic expression, technology, philosophical idea, musical style, material, custom, or anything else so closely bound to a particular time period as to seem strange when encountered in a later era. They may be objects or ideas that were once common but are now considered rare or inappropriate. They can take the form of obsolete technology or outdated fashion or idioms.


title: Anachronism

text: Examples of parachronisms could include a suburban housewife in the United States around 1960 using a washboard for laundry (well after washing machines had become the norm), or a businessman in 2006 wearing late 19th century clothing. Often, a parachronism is identified when a work based on a particular era's state of knowledge is read within the context of a later era—with a different state of knowledge. Many scientific works that rely on theories that have later been discredited have become anachronistic with the removal of those underpinnings, and works of speculative fiction often find their speculations outstripped by real-world technological developments or scientific discoveries.


title: Anachronism

text: A prochronism (from the Greek , "before", and , "time") is an impossible anachronism which occurs when an object or idea has not yet been invented when the situation takes place, and therefore could not have possibly existed at the time. A prochronism may be an object not yet developed, a verbal expression that had not yet been coined, a philosophy not yet formulated, a breed of animal not yet evolved (or perhaps engineered), or use of a technology that had not yet been created.


title: Anachronism

text: The well-known stories of the "One Thousand and One Nights" contain a manifest prochronism: in the frame story, the tales are narrated to King Shahryār, presented as a member of the Persian Sassanid Dynasty, by his wife Scheherazade - yet many of the stories she tells relate to the historical Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, his Grand Vizier, Jafar al-Barmaki, and his contemporary the famous poet Abu Nuwas, all of whom lived some 200 years after the fall of the Sassanids.


title: Anachronism

text: The intentional use of older cultural artifacts may be regarded by some as anachronistic. For example, it could be considered anachronistic for a modern-day person to wear a top hat or write with a quill. Such choices may reflect an eccentricity or an aesthetic preference.


title: Anachronism

text: Works of art and literature promoting a political, nationalist or revolutionary cause may use anachronism to depict an institution or custom as being more ancient than it actually is, or otherwise intentionally blur the distinctions between past and present. For example, the 19th-century Romanian painter Constantin Lecca depicts the peace agreement between Ioan Bogdan Voievod and Radu Voievod—two leaders in Romania's 16th-century history—with the flags of Moldavia (blue-red) and of Wallachia (yellow-blue) seen in the background. These flags date only from the 1830s: anachronism promotes legitimacy for the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia into the Kingdom of Romania at the time the painting was made. The Russian artist Vasily Vereshchagin, in his painting "Suppression of the Indian Revolt by the English" (c.1884), depicts the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, when mutineers were executed by being blown from guns. In order to make the argument that the method of execution would again be utilized by the British if another rebellion broke out in India, Vereshchagin depicted the British soldiers conducting the executions in late 19th-century uniforms.


title: Anachronism

text: Anachronism is used especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical basis. Anachronisms may be introduced in many ways: for example, in the disregard of the different modes of life and thought that characterize different periods, or in ignorance of the progress of the arts and sciences and other facts of history. They vary from glaring inconsistencies to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. Anachronisms may be the unintentional result of ignorance, or may be a deliberate aesthetic choice.


title: Anachronism

text: Sir Walter Scott justified the use of anachronism in historical literature: "It is necessary, for exciting interest of any kind, that the subject assumed should be, as it were, translated into the manners as well as the language of the age we live in." However, as fashions, conventions and technologies move on, such attempts to use anachronisms to engage an audience may have quite the reverse effect, as the details in question are increasingly recognized as belonging neither to the historical era being represented, nor to the present, but to the intervening period in which the artwork was created. "Nothing becomes obsolete like a period vision of an older period", writes Anthony Grafton; "Hearing a mother in a historical movie of the 1940s call out 'Ludwig! Ludwig van Beethoven! Come in and practice your piano now!' we are jerked from our suspension of disbelief by what was intended as a means of reinforcing it, and plunged directly into the American bourgeois world of the filmmaker."


title: Anachronism

text: It is only since the beginning of the 19th century that anachronistic deviations from historical reality have jarred on a general audience. C. S. Lewis wrote:


title: Anachronism

text: Anachronisms abound in the works of Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of less celebrated painters and playwrights of earlier times. Carol Meyers says that anachronisms in ancient texts can be used to better understand the stories by asking what the anachronism represents. Repeated anachronisms and historical errors can become an accepted part of popular culture, such as the belief that Roman legionaries wore leather armor.


title: Anachronism

text: Comedy fiction set in the past may use anachronism for humorous effect. Comedic anachronism can be used to make serious points about both historical and modern society, such as drawing parallels to political or social conventions. "The Flintstones", "Hagar the Horrible", "Histeria!", "Time Squad", "Mr. Peabody and Sherman" (the movie and TV series), The Peabody's Improbable History segments from "The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends", "Dinosaur Train", "Dave the Barbarian", "VeggieTales", "History of the World, Part I", "", "Blazing Saddles", Disney's "Aladdin", Disney's "Hercules", Disney's "The Emperor's New Groove", Disney's "", "The Roman Holidays", the "Shrek" film series, "Early Man", the Shake and Flick cartoon "Raw Deal in Rome" and "Murdoch Mysteries" are some of the movies and TV shows set in the past to include many anachronisms.


title: Anachronism

text: Even with careful research, science fiction writers risk anachronism as their works age because they cannot predict all political, social, and technological change.


title: Anachronism

text: For example, many books, television shows, radio productions and films nominally set in the mid-21st century or later refer to the Soviet Union, to Saint Petersburg in Russia as Leningrad, to the continuing struggle between the Eastern and Western Blocs and to divided Germany and divided Berlin. "Star Trek" has suffered from future anachronisms; instead of "retconning" these errors, the 2009 film retained them for consistency with older franchises.


title: Anachronism

text: Buildings or natural features, such as the World Trade Center in New York City, can become out of place once they disappear, with some works having been edited to remove the World Trade Center to avoid this situation.


title: Anachronism

text: Futuristic technology may appear alongside technology which would be obsolete by the time in which the story is set. For example, in the stories of Robert A. Heinlein, interplanetary space travel coexists with calculation using slide rules.


title: Anachronism

text: Language anachronisms in novels and films are quite common, both intentional and unintentional. Intentional anachronisms inform the audience more readily about a film set in the past. In this regard, language and pronunciation change so fast that most modern people (even many scholars) would find it difficult, or even impossible, to understand a film with dialogue in 15th-century English; thus, we willingly accept characters speaking an updated language, and modern slang and figures of speech are often used in these films.


title: Anachronism

text: Unintentional anachronisms may occur even in what are intended as wholly objective and accurate records or representations of historic artifacts and artworks, because the perspectives of historical recorders are conditioned by the assumptions and practices of their own times, in a form of cultural bias. One example is the attribution of historically inaccurate beards to various medieval tomb effigies and figures in stained glass in records made by English antiquaries of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Working in an age in which beards were in fashion and widespread, the antiquaries seem to have subconsciously projected the fashion back into an era in which they were rare.


title: Anachronism

text: The extensive science fiction subgenre depicting time travel in effect consists of deliberate, consciously created anachronisms, letting people of one time meet and interact with those of another time. Covers of time-travel books often depict deliberate anachronisms of this kind. For example, the cover of Harry Turtledove's "The Guns of the South" (1992) features a portrait of Confederate General Robert E. Lee holding an AK-47 rifle.


title: Anachronism

text: In historical writing, the most common type of anachronism is the adoption of the political, social or cultural concerns and assumptions of one era to interpret or evaluate the events and actions of another. The anachronistic application of present-day perspectives to comment on the historical past is sometimes described as presentism. Empiricist historians, working in the traditions established by Leopold von Ranke in the 19th century, regard this as a great error, and a trap to be avoided. Arthur Marwick has argued that "a grasp of the fact that past societies are very different from our own, and ... very difficult to get to know" is an essential and fundamental skill of the professional historian; and that "anachronism is still one of the most obvious faults when the unqualified (those expert in other disciplines, perhaps) attempt to do history". Anachronism in academic writing is considered at best embarrassing, as in early-20th-century scholarship's use of "translatio imperii", first formulated in the 12th century, to interpret 10th-century literature.


title: Anachronism

text: The use of anachronism in a rhetorical or hyperbolic sense is more complex. To refer to the Holy Roman Empire as the First Reich, for example, is technically inaccurate but may be a useful comparative exercise; the application of theory to works which predate Marxist, Feminist or Freudian subjectivities is considered an essential part of theoretical practice. In most cases, however, the practitioner will acknowledge or justify the use or context.


title: Anachronism

text: The ability to identify anachronisms may be employed as a critical and forensic tool to demonstrate the fraudulence of a document or artifact purporting to be from an earlier time. Anthony Grafton discusses, for example, the work of the 3rd-century philosopher Porphyry, of Isaac Casaubon (1559–1614), and of Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931), all of whom succeeded in exposing literary forgeries and plagiarisms, such as those included in the "Hermetic Corpus", through – among other techniques – the recognition of anachronisms. The detection of anachronisms is an important element within the scholarly discipline of diplomatics, the critical analysis of the forms and language of documents, developed by the Maurist scholar Jean Mabillon (1632–1707) and his successors René-Prosper Tassin (1697–1777) and Charles-François Toustain (1700–1754). The philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham wrote at the beginning of the 19th century:


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Sonic Team began developing "Sonic Adventure" in 1997, after the cancellation of the Sega Saturn game "Sonic X-treme". Led by director Takashi Iizuka and producer Yuji Naka, the team strove to reinvent "Sonic" for the 3D era of video games. "Adventure" features a stronger emphasis on storytelling and role-playing elements in contrast to previous "Sonic" games, while Yuji Uekawa redesigned the series' characters for their transition to 3D. Sonic Team attempted to demonstrate the technical prowess of the Dreamcast with realistic graphics and drew inspiration from locations in Peru and Guatemala. The soundtrack was primarily composed by Jun Senoue, who preferred rock music over the electropop of previous "Sonic" games.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Following its reveal at the Tokyo International Forum in August 1998, "Sonic Adventure" was highly anticipated and was released in Japan in December 1998 and worldwide in September 1999. It received critical acclaim and became the Dreamcast's bestseller, with 2.5 million copies sold by August 2006. Reviewers considered "Adventure" a major technical advancement and praised the visuals and gameplay. Though critics noted glitches and camera problems, and reactions to the audio were mixed, they considered "Sonic Adventure" an exceptional game; some speculated that it could help re-establish Sega as the dominant console manufacturer after the unsuccessful Saturn.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Journalists have retrospectively ranked "Sonic Adventure" among the best "Sonic" games, and it is recognized as an important release in both the series and the platform genre. Many characters and concepts introduced in "Adventure" recur in later "Sonic" games. A sequel, "Sonic Adventure 2", was released in 2001. "Adventure" was ported to the GameCube and Windows in 2003 with altered graphics and more challenges, while a high-definition version was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2010 and for Windows in 2011. Reviews for these releases were less positive; critics felt the game had not aged well and ran at an inconsistent frame rate.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: "Sonic Adventure" is a 3D platform game with action and role-playing elements. Players control one of six anthropomorphic protagonists as they venture to defeat Doctor Robotnik and his robot army, who seek the seven magical Chaos Emeralds and the evil entity Chaos. Six player characters are unlocked as the game progresses, each with their own story and attributes. Sonic the Hedgehog performs a spin dash, homing attack, and light-speed dash; Miles "Tails" Prower flies, swims, and attacks robots using his tails; Knuckles the Echidna glides, climbs walls, and punches; Amy Rose can defeat enemies using her hammer; Big the Cat is slow and carries a fishing rod he can cast; and E-102 Gamma can shoot laser beams.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: At the start of the game, the player is placed in one of three Adventure Fields, open-ended hub worlds inhabited by advice-giving non-player characters. The player character is guided and instructed by the voice of Tikal the Echidna. Through exploration, the player discovers entrances to levels called Action Stages, some of which must be opened using keys hidden in the Adventure Field. Once the player accesses an Action Stage, they are tasked with a specific objective, which is different for each character. Sonic must reach the level's end like in prior "Sonic the Hedgehog" games; Tails must reach the end before Sonic; Knuckles must find three hidden shards of the Master Emerald; Amy must solve puzzles and avoid being caught by a robot; Big must fish for his pet frog; and Gamma must fight his way through stages using projectiles as a defense.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Some levels include minigames separate from the main story. These feature different styles of gameplay, among them rail shooting, racing, and sandboarding. Some minigames can only be accessed with particular characters. Fulfilling certain objectives allows the player to obtain bonus items. Unlocked minigames and stages the player has completed can be accessed from a Trial Mode on the title screen.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Like previous "Sonic the Hedgehog" games, players collect golden rings as a form of health: if the player character is in possession of rings when they are hit by an enemy or other hazard, they will survive, but their rings will scatter and blink before disappearing. Canisters containing power-ups, such as speed shoes, additional rings, invincibility, and protective shields, are also hidden in levels. In several stages, the player engages Robotnik or Chaos in a boss fight and must deplete the boss's health meter to proceed. Each character starts with a limited number of lives, and the player loses a life if the character drowns, gets crushed, or is hit without any rings in their possession. The game ends when the player runs out of lives. Lives can be replenished by collecting 100 rings or a 1-up.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Players may also discover Chao Gardens, hidden, protective environments inhabited by Chao, a virtual pet. Players can hatch, name, and interact with multiple Chao, and they can raise the status of their Chao by giving them small animals, which can be collected by defeating enemies within the Action Stages. The Dreamcast's handheld Visual Memory Unit (VMU) allows the player to download the minigame "Chao Adventure", in which their Chao walks through a course to evolve and improve its skills. Evolving one's Chao improves its performance in competitions called Chao Races. Eggs that can produce special types of Chao are hidden throughout the Adventure Fields. Players can earn emblems by playing through Action Stages, searching through the Adventure Fields, or winning Chao Races. Each Action Stage has three emblems that can be earned by replaying the stages and fulfilling objectives, such as beating the level within a time limit.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Doctor Robotnik seeks a new way to defeat his longtime nemesis Sonic and conquer the world. During his research, he learns about an entity called Chaos—a creature that, thousands of years ago, helped to protect the Chao and the all-powerful Master Emerald, which balances the power of the seven Chaos Emeralds. When a tribe of echidnas sought to steal the power of the Emeralds, breaking the harmony they had with the Chao, Chaos retaliated by using the Emeralds' power to transform into a monstrous beast, Perfect Chaos, and wipe them out. Tikal, a young echidna who befriended Chaos, imprisoned it in the Master Emerald along with herself. Robotnik shatters the Master Emerald to release Chaos and tests the creature's natural form on the city of Station Square.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: When Sonic sees local police fail to defeat Chaos, he and Tails work to stop Robotnik from empowering it with the Chaos Emeralds. Knuckles, the only remaining echidna, sets out to find the shards of the Master Emerald and repair it. Robotnik activates a new series of robots, including one named Gamma, and orders them to find Froggy, an amphibian who ate a Chaos Emerald. Froggy's owner, Big, seeks to find him as well. In Station Square, Sonic's friend Amy finds a Flicky being pursued for a Chaos Emerald in its possession and decides to protect it. When both are captured, Amy convinces Gamma not to work for Robotnik; Gamma helps her to escape before seeking out and destroying the other robots in his series, sacrificing himself in the process. Tails, meanwhile, foils Robotnik's contingency plan to destroy Station Square via a missile strike.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Although Sonic disrupts Robotnik's plans, Chaos manages to absorb all the Chaos Emeralds and transforms into Perfect Chaos; it rebels against Robotnik and destroys Station Square. Through flashbacks from Tikal (who was also released from the Master Emerald), Sonic realizes that Chaos has been in constant torment and sorrow and that imprisoning it again will not stop it. He uses the Chaos Emeralds to transform into Super Sonic and defeats Perfect Chaos. Chaos calms down when it sees the Chao living peacefully in Station Square, and Tikal takes it somewhere safe to live in peace. Afterward, Sonic pursues a fleeing Robotnik.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: During the early 1990s, Sega was one of the most successful video game companies due to the rise of its Genesis console. Genesis sales were driven by the popularity of Sega's flagship franchise of 2D platform games, "Sonic the Hedgehog". During this time, series co-creator Yuji Naka worked with Sega Technical Institute (STI) in the United States to develop "Sonic" games. After the completion of "Sonic & Knuckles" in 1994, Naka returned to Japan to work with Sonic Team. STI began developing "Sonic X-treme" for the Sega Saturn"," planned as the first "Sonic the Hedgehog" game to feature full 3D gameplay. "X-treme" suffered a series of setbacks and was canceled in 1996. The cancellation is an important factor in the Saturn's commercial failure, leaving it with no original "Sonic" platform game. Meanwhile, Naka and Sonic Team developed original Saturn games, such as "Nights into Dreams" (1996).


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Naka wanted a 3D "Sonic" game, but felt that only Sonic Team should undertake the endeavor; his refusal to let STI use the "Nights" game engine was instrumental in "X-treme" cancellation. Due to the lack of "Sonic" games on the Saturn, according to "Retro Gamer", Sonic became part of the "background" by mid-1997, so "it was astonishing to see that, just six years after his debut, Sonic was already retro." "Nights into Dreams" designer Takashi Iizuka felt that "Sonic" fans had been let down because Sonic Team was not focusing on the series. Additionally, Kazuyuki Hoshino, who would serve as art director on "Sonic Adventure", said he thought during the Saturn era Sonic had become outdated.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: In August 1996, shortly after the completion of "Nights into Dreams", Iizuka proposed "Sonic Adventure" as a role-playing-style "Sonic" game with a greater emphasis on storytelling. Sonic Team started to work on it in April 1997 on the Saturn with a 20-strong team. Sonic Team created the first prototype using the "Nights" engine, but the Saturn's limited capabilities made development difficult. Sega president Hayao Nakayama informed Naka of the Saturn's successor, the Dreamcast, and he believed the new console would allow Sonic Team to create the ultimate "Sonic" game. When the team learned the Dreamcast was nearing completion, they moved development to take advantage of its greater quantity of RAM, stronger CPU, and the VMU. Not wanting to waste their completed work, they placed it as a bonus in the compilation game "Sonic Jam", the final "Sonic" game for the Saturn. Development on the Dreamcast began in July 1997.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Iizuka served as director on "Sonic Adventure", while Naka produced. One of the largest video games created at the time, the team had grown to 60 after 10 months, and over 100 developers worked on the game in total. Sonic Team undertook development in conjunction with the Dreamcast, aiming to release the game in December 1998, even if it meant making improvements after release. Developing "Sonic Adventure" at the same time as the system, which was not completed until two months before the game's release, gave Iizuka influence over the console's development; for example, he was able to request more RAM for the console specifically for "Sonic Adventure". According to former Sega of America producer Mark Subotnick, Naka canceled "Geist Force", an on-rails shooter that was planned as a Dreamcast launch game, so he could use its proprietary software for "Sonic Adventure".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Sonic Team felt challenged by the new hardware to recreate Sonic and his world in a new way. They began development using the character designs from the Genesis games, but quickly discovered the characters' bodies were too short and their heads too big, making them difficult to see. Retro game characters, such as Pac-Man, were also being reborn in a more "urban" fashion around the same time, something that made Sonic Team jealous and feel the original character designs were dated. As such, Yuji Uekawa redesigned each character to suit the transition to 3D and to give them "new, edgy, more Western" design. Looking to the animation of Walt Disney and "Looney Tunes" for inspiration, he made Sonic more mature, taller and slimmer, and gave him longer quills. He darkened his blue color and gave him green irises in reference to Green Hill Zone. Uekawa tried to make Sonic look like a comic book character and compared the style to graffiti. After redesigning Sonic, he made the other characters fit this new art style. Hoshino noted that the characters' longer limbs made it easier to recreate their 2D poses in 3D.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: "Sonic Adventure" features two new playable characters, Big and Gamma. Sonic Team had already implemented an in-game fishing rod with no context or use, leading to the creation of Big. Big was designed to be giant and relaxed so the player would not expect something more intense. Gamma and his playstyle were created in response to fans who wanted elements of a shoot 'em up in "Sonic" and because of Iizuka's desire to include "some type of satisfying gameplay that couldn't be done with Sonic". Neither Big nor Gamma were intended to play a large role, thus both of their campaigns were short. Iizuka also wanted to create a villain who would have been impossible to make on older hardware. He settled on something liquid and transparent and created Chaos. Iizuka presented the concept to Naka, who was impressed. Chaos was originally intended to have realistic blue scales in his final form, but this was abandoned because of the technological constraints of the Dreamcast.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: While some "Sonic" games, such as 1993's "Sonic CD", contained limited voice work, "Sonic Adventure" was the first "Sonic" game to feature extensive voice acting. The decision was made early in development as the game was more story-focused than previous "Sonic" games. Sonic Team's staff had differing opinions about how Sonic should sound. Iizuka recalled that the only element they agreed on was to avoid using an anime voice actor, favoring a film actor with an "over-the-top" voice. Sonic Team cast Jun'ichi Kanemaru as Sonic. In an interview celebrating his 30th anniversary as a voice actor, Kanemaru said one reason he was cast was because of his ability to speak English. After Sonic Team USA was formed, they hired American actors to translate the Japanese script. The English-language voice cast consists of Ryan Drummond as Sonic, Corey Bringas as Tails, Michael McGaharn as Knuckles, Jennifer Douillard as Amy, Jon St. John as Big and E-102 Gamma, and Deem Bristow as Robotnik. Iizuka used "Sonic Adventure" to introduce Robotnik's Japanese name, "Dr. Eggman", to western audiences; he accomplished this by having Sonic insult Robotnik when they meet for the first time in-game. Similarly, he avoided referring to Tails as "Miles", which he was commonly called in Japan.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Because "Sonic Adventure" was a Dreamcast launch game, the team strove to demonstrate the console's capabilities with realistic graphics. To achieve a more realistic feel for the environments, the core members of Sonic Team visited temples, jungles, and ancient ruins in Mesoamerican landscapes, including Cancún, Guatemala, and Peru. While Sonic Team members had to draw artwork by hand for games in the past, for "Sonic Adventure" they were able to use photographs taken during their visits as textures. The greatest influences were the Tikal ruin in Guatemala and Machu Picchu in Peru. The character Tikal was inspired by Peru and took her name from the Guatemalan ruins. The 3D visuals were created using a Voodoo2 graphics chip.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The levels were designed to feature gameplay similar to the original Genesis games and to take at least five minutes to complete. One of the biggest challenges the "Adventure" designers faced was transitioning "Sonic" 2D style to 3D. In the Genesis "Sonic" games, the player simply had to go right to reach the end of a level, but in "Sonic Adventure" they could move in every direction. The designers created models for the stages before testing it as the player character, resulting in trial and error. This made Iizuka realize the importance of the game's camera. Some levels, such as the Lost World, were rebuilt dozens of times. Sonic Team split levels into parts to save memory. One particular difficulty was defeating enemies; in the 2D games, enemies were beaten simply by jumping on them, but this was harder to achieve in a 3D game. Therefore, Sonic was given the ability to target enemies in mid-air.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Iizuka said the cinematic sequences were conceived to take advantage of the environments, "giving the player an element of discovery in addition to the platforming". The team also wanted to add elements unexpected in a platform game; for example, the level in which Tails sandboards was inspired by a group of sandboarders in Ica, Peru. Some levels reference past Sega games, such as Ice Cap (1994's "Sonic the Hedgehog 3") and the Tornado levels (1995's "Panzer Dragoon"). When seeing the completed level designs, Iizuka and Naka decided to re-purpose them for other player characters. Iizuka said they felt it would be "a waste if Sonic just quickly ran through the levels that we spent so much time creating". The first characters besides Sonic added to the game were Tails and Knuckles; Tails' stages turned portions of Sonic's levels into races, while Knuckles' treasure-hunting missions were designed as a contrast to the others' straightforward ones. "Sonic Adventure" was the first time Amy was playable in a "Sonic" platformer, and Iizuka aimed to use her to add tension, such as hiding from pursuers, that Sonic's gameplay could not offer.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Because "Sonic Adventure" had a stronger emphasis on storytelling than previous games in the series, the team implemented hub worlds to "draw the players deeper into the world." The hub worlds' emphasis on exploring to find new areas and power-ups was inspired by "The Legend of Zelda". When seeing the completed level designs, Iizuka and Naka decided to re-purpose them for other player characters. According to Iizuka, the team tried to include as much content as possible. One addition was the Chao-raising system, which Iizuka conceived to take advantage of the VMU. Sonic Team had used a similar virtual pet system, the "A-Life", in "Nights into Dreams"; Iizuka used the A-Life as a base, while improving it with the VMU and the option to improve its skills. Iizuka hoped it would be made into a character players could touch and raise. It was also designed to appeal to casual gamers not familiar with games like "Sonic", and to add replay value. The design took considerable time to finalize and had to be made as simple as possible because the virtual pet's look changes form as it evolves.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: "Sonic Adventure"s score was primarily composed by Jun Senoue, with additional music by Fumie Kumatani, Kenichi Tokoi, and Masaru Setsumaru. "Adventure" was Senoue's first project as sound director and its scope meant he had many more responsibilities, including schedule management, compared to his previous games. Despite this, Senoue said he did not feel much pressure, as he was a "Sonic" fan and had contributed to previous games' soundtracks.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: In contrast to previous "Sonic" games, which featured electropop soundtracks, the "Adventure" sound team preferred "hot, funky, and rock 'n' roll" music. Iizuka noted that Sonic Team's primary goal with "Adventure" was "to evoke the essence of Sonic by going from 2D to 3D", and felt the music needed to exceed fan expectations due to previous "Sonic" soundtracks' popularity. He stated a new style was adopted because the Dreamcast's sound was a significant advance from that of the Genesis; Senoue added he felt more comfortable composing rock music and wanted to create music everyone could enjoy. Despite the different styles, Senoue did retain some music from the Genesis "Sonic" games: the music for the Windy Valley and Twinkle Park levels were rearranged from "Sonic 3D Blast" (1996), while the level clear jingle was taken from "Sonic 3". He chose to reuse his "3D Blast" tracks because he felt they were strong enough to be more widely heard, as they were only used the Genesis version (which was not released in Japan).


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Senoue composed several songs with English lyrics to highlight the various characters' personalities, and collaborated with Tokoi and Kumatani to polish them. The main theme, "Open Your Heart", was performed by Hardline's Johnny Gioeli; other songs were performed by Gioeli, Marlon Saunders, Dred Foxx, Ted Poley, Nikki Gregoroff, and Tony Harnell. "Sonic Adventure" marked Senoue's first collaboration with Gioeli; the two later formed the band Crush 40 (originally known as Sons of Angels), and continue to make music together. Iizuka was inspired to use "Open Your Heart" as the final boss music by films, which he noted often use main themes during dramatic events. Iizuka also felt that the songs helped define Knuckles and Amy's personalities, as they had not received much character development in "Sonic" games until "Adventure".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: A two-disc soundtrack, "Sonic Adventure "Digi-LOG Conversation" Original Sound Track", was released in Japan in January 1999. In May 2011, the soundtrack was rereleased to commemorate the "Sonic" franchise's 20th anniversary. A two-volume digital soundtrack was also released on iTunes and Spotify in September 2014 and January 2017, respectively. Brave Wave Productions released a vinyl LP version of the soundtrack including interviews with Senoue and Iizuka in 2018.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: "Sonic Adventure" was kept a secret during production, though screenshots were leaked in mid-1998 and plans for a 3D "Sonic" game had long been rumored. It was unveiled by Naka and the rest of Sonic Team on August 22, 1998, at the Tokyo International Forum. The team showed off several dynamic elements, such as a chase sequence from the first level and Tails' sandboarding sequence. The presentation ended with a live performance of "Open Your Heart" alongside a RealVideo clip montage. Naka described the debut as intense, having "[given his] all" to make it fit for release.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: On December 23, 1998, "Sonic Adventure" was released in Japan. The Japanese version shipped with many glitches; according to Iizuka, this was because the game was produced on a tight schedule, so Sonic Team did not have time to fix them. Several members of Sonic Team flew to Sega of America to establish Sonic Team USA and patch and translate the game. Prior to the launch of the Dreamcast in the United States, Sega made an exclusive deal with Hollywood Video to allow customers to rent the Dreamcast console along with a non-retail version of the game, "Sonic Adventure: Limited Edition". The promotion began on July 15, 1999, and took place at 1,055 Hollywood Video stores across the country.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The localized version was released in North America on September 9, 1999, as a launch title, and in Europe on September 23, 1999. It includes Japanese and English-language audio tracks, as well as Japanese, English, Spanish, French and German subtitles. Online features—including Chao daycare and downloadable content (DLC) such as minigames and new level assets—were also added. The American release of Studio Pierrot's "Sonic the Hedgehog" (1996) original video animation coincided with the Western release of "Sonic Adventure", while DIC Entertainment's "Sonic Underground" (1999) was commissioned to help promote the game. The localized version was later released in Japan as "Sonic Adventure International".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Before release, Sega projected to sell a million copies of "Sonic Adventure". "Sonic Adventure" is the bestselling Dreamcast game; by August 4, 2006, it had sold 2.5 million copies, including 440,000 in Japan and 1.27 million in the US. In Europe, it sold 86,000 copies during its first five days on sale. In the UK, it was the top selling Dreamcast launch game. After the North American release, there were complaints of a number of "Sonic Adventure" discs failing to load. Sega of America determined that this was a software problem due to errors at one manufacturing facility and tracked the faulty software. Most copies were unaffected, and customers with defective copies could trade for working ones at retailers.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: As the first fully 3D "Sonic" platform game, "Sonic Adventure" was highly anticipated. It received critical acclaim, and "Computer and Video Games" ("CVG") called it one of the greatest video games of all time. "Sonic Adventure" won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award in the "Favorite Sega Dreamcast Game" category, and it was a runner-up for "GameSpot"s annual "Best Console Platform Game" award, which went to "" (1999).


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The visuals and presentation attracted wide acclaim. "Arcade" magazine described it as a "quantum leap forward" in aesthetics and visual detail in video games, and "Hyper" estimated they even exceeded what was possible on high-end personal computers. "IGN" called it the most graphically impressive platform game released up to that date, praising its cinematic sequences and describing it as "engrossing, demanding, and utterly awe-inspiring". "GameSpot" agreed and said only "Soulcalibur"s graphical quality surpassed that of "Sonic Adventure". "Edge" felt the graphical features showed off the Dreamcast's potential to the fullest and that the game was "perfect" as a showcase for the system.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The audio received mixed responses. "GameSpot" and "Game Revolution" called the full-motion video (FMV) cutscenes and voice acting well-produced and fitting, though "GameSpot" noted poor lip-synching. "IGN" thought the cutscenes were repetitive and voiced strong disapproval of the voice acting, declaring it "a complete joke" and "downright awful". "IGN" had a particular distaste for Tails' voice, and retrospectively called it among the most annoying to feature in a video game. "AllGame" was conflicted; they appreciated Tails' portrayal but found Sonic's and Knuckles' voices unfitting. "GameSpot" and "AllGame" praised the rock-style music, but "Game Revolution" described the score as "absolutely horrible".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The gameplay was generally praised. "GameSpot" admired the straightforward, linear approach to the 3D platform genre and particularly praised it for keeping the basic gameplay of the original Genesis games. "IGN" said the game would keep players busy even after completion, noting its internet connectivity and other extras. On the other hand, "Game Revolution" said apart from being quicker, it did not advance the platform genre's design. Retrospectively, "1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die" called its environments vast and twisted, stating it "brilliantly" captured traditional "Sonic" elements. The Chao minigame was noted as a major departure from the gameplay of the series. "GameSpot" wrote that "while really just a diversion", the Chao were an interesting, fun addition, singling out their internet functions as a highlight. "AllGame" said the Chao helped increase the replay value, although it was "strange", required patience, and did not provide bonuses in the main game. "Game Revolution" called the Chao "a neat addition" and praised its use of the VMU.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Some critics compared "Sonic Adventure" to "Super Mario 64"—Nintendo's "groundbreaking" 1996 game that propelled the Nintendo 64 and the 3D platform genre. "Edge" said "Sonic Adventure" was a worthy rival to "Super Mario 64", but "AllGame" wrote that "Sonic Adventure" was not as ambitious and that those looking for exploration would be disappointed with its linear gameplay. They compared it to the similarly linear "Crash Bandicoot" but felt "Sonic Adventure" was more confined. Still, they praised the gameplay as varied and said its replay value was strong. Game journalists Rusel DeMaria and Johnny L. Wilson retrospectively wrote "Sonic Adventure" was not as strong as "Super Mario 64" and "failed to catch on with players in nearly the way that ["Mario"] had done", though it had fascinating features, such as "the use of the Tamagotchi-like memory card to incubate eggs for little pet creatures" and "some good action segments".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The camera system and glitches were criticized by many reviewers. "IGN" called the camera "incredibly" frustrating and inconsistent, and "GameSpot" noted it caused problems with collision detection. "Edge" complained the camera sometimes goes behind walls. Authors from "GamesRadar" retrospectively wrote that "Sonic Adventure" was "horrendously buggy", singling out falling through floors and getting stuck, but also said the sheer amount of content made up for this.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: "GameSpot" thought "Sonic Adventure" redefined the possibilities of the platform genre, and according to "CVG", "many things you thought were impossible to see and experience in computer games are now here". According to "Next Generation", "Expert gamers may beat the game in only a day or two but, even then, the ride is worth the price of admission." "AllGame" wrote that the game was an impressive showing of the Dreamcast's potential and that it was among the best of the series. "Edge" said its criticisms such as scenery pop-up and instances of poor collision detection are "minor flaws in an otherwise very fine piece of work". "Arcade" and "CVG" speculated the game could save the Dreamcast, which had not sold well by the end of 1998. "CVG" also thought it could re-establish Sega as the dominant console manufacturer after the relatively unsuccessful Saturn.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: In 2001, Sega announced it would transition from a first-party to a third-party software publisher, in response to the international failures of the Saturn and Dreamcast. Wanting to reach new players by creating an enhanced version of one of its older games, in June 2003 Sega released "Sonic Adventure DX: Director's Cut", a port of "Sonic Adventure" for the GameCube and Windows. While mostly identical to the original release, "Sonic Adventure DX" features updated graphics, including updated textures and more detailed character models, aims for a frame rate of 60 instead of 30, and sports a redesigned Chao-raising system that uses connectivity with the Game Boy Advance (GBA). It includes 60 new missions and the option to unlock emulations of all 12 "Sonic" games released for the Game Gear. Additionally, Metal Sonic can be unlocked as a playable character if all 130 emblems are collected. These features were added to appeal to players of the original game.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: "Sonic Adventure DX" received mixed reviews. "GameSpot" was disappointed the rerelease did not address the problems of the original version, irritated the graphics were only marginally different, and dissatisfied with its collision detection. "GameSpot" offered some praise for the extra features, such as the missions, but concluded players were better off playing the Dreamcast version. "IGN" agreed, calling it "a sloppy port of a game that has long been undeserving of its high praise." "IGN" noted its frequent frame rate drops and described its camera one of the worst in a video game. "IGN" said the connectivity to the GBA "Sonic" games added depth but concluded this was not enough to compensate for the port's problems. "Nintendo World Report" was more positive, praising the Game Gear games for retaining their multiplayer support and finding Sonic and Tails’ gameplay enjoyable.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: In September 2010, Sega rereleased "Sonic Adventure" as a downloadable game for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, followed by a Windows release in March 2011 via Steam. This version is based on "Sonic Adventure DX" and supports high-definition visuals at a 4:3 aspect ratio. "Sonic Adventure DX"'s additional content was removed, but the mission mode and Metal Sonic can be reimplemented by purchasing additional DLC. The game was also included in the "Dreamcast Collection" compilation in 2011 and is backwards-compatible with the Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Reviews of the 2010 rerelease were generally unfavorable, with criticism directed at the perceived lack of effort put into the port. "IGN" called it "so fundamentally flawed that it borders on unplayable," observing that the sections that worked best required the least input from the player. "IGN" criticized the lack of widescreen support but offered minor praise for its steady frame rate. "1UP.com" lambasted the port for what they called its slapdash quality, criticizing its display, controls, and dated design, and saying it "feels like it wasn't even tuned for the Xbox 360 controller and its analog sticks." "Destructoid" was less harsh, writing that fans of the franchise would be able to enjoy the game but warned casual players that "all you'll find is a relic that was once considered greatness."


title: Sonic Adventure

text: With most contemporary 3D platform games focusing on exploration and collecting items, "Sonic Adventure" stood out with its linear gameplay. According to "GamesRadar", as one of the first sixth-generation console games, it changed the industry "forever". "Joystiq" wrote that both "Adventure" and the original "Sonic the Hedgehog" had innovated—in 3D and 2D games, respectively—through effective linear level design and by feeling "good to play". In 2009, "GamePro" listed "Sonic Adventure" as the seventh-best platform game of all time, saying it had not aged well in certain aspects but its core gameplay remained among the best of the "Sonic" series. Several journalists ranked the game among the series' best, but "Kotaku" argued the addition of voice acting and greater focus on plot changed Sonic into "a flat, lifeless husk of a character, who spits out slogans and generally has only one personality mode, the radical attitude dude, the sad recycled image of vague '90s cultural concept".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Many of "Sonic Adventure"s designs and concepts were reused in later "Sonic" games. The direction, basic gameplay, and Uekawa's modernized character designs became series staples. The first level in the 2006 "Sonic the Hedgehog" reboot heavily references "Sonic Adventure"s Emerald Coast stage. To celebrate the "Sonic" series' 20th anniversary in 2011, Sega released "Sonic Generations", which reused aspects from past games in the franchise. The Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Windows versions contain reimagined versions of the Speed Highway level and the Perfect Chaos boss fight, and the Nintendo 3DS version contains a remake of Emerald Coast.


title: Sonic Adventure

text: Several characters that first appeared in "Sonic Adventure" appeared in later games. As well as appearing in "Sonic Generations", Chaos is an antagonist in the 2017 entry "Sonic Forces"; it and Gamma are playable characters in the 2004 fighting game "Sonic Battle"; and a recreation of its boss fight appears in "Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games". The Chao creatures also feature predominantly in later games. One of the characters introduced in "Adventure", Big the Cat, became infamous for his negative reception. "Game Informer" considered his gameplay painful and boring, while "Destructoid" decried his portrayal as a "mentally handicapped imbecile" and his voice actor's incoherent performance. Big is widely considered by video game journalists the worst character in the "Sonic" franchise, and was named one of the worst game characters in a poll conducted by "1UP.com".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: On October 4, 1999, Sega announced that a sequel to "Sonic Adventure" was in development. "Sonic Adventure 2" made its debut at E3 2000 and was released in June 2001. The sequel was designed to be more action-oriented than the slower-paced, story-centric "Adventure" and to give all the characters equal playtime. Like its predecessor, "Sonic Adventure 2" received positive reviews. A concept for "Sonic Adventure 3" was reworked into the 2008 game "Sonic Unleashed". In 2017, Iizuka stated there were no plans for a third "Sonic Adventure" game, saying it would not advance the series' design. He did not rule out the idea, saying "If we can get the gameplay to evolve and get to a place where "Adventure 3" makes sense, then you might see an "Adventure 3" come out". In December 2018, Iizuka expressed interest in remaking "Sonic Adventure".


title: Sonic Adventure

text: The plot of "Sonic Adventure" was adapted in the second season of the 2003 "Sonic the Hedgehog" anime series "Sonic X". American licensing corporation 4Kids Entertainment hired a new voice cast for the English-language dub but the Japanese cast from the games reprised their roles in the original version of the show. Archie Comics also adapted the game in its "Sonic the Hedgehog" comic book series. The comic offered an explanation for the altered character designs and established that Station Square was hidden beneath Sonic's planet, Mobius.


title: Southeast Europe

text: Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a geographical subregion of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkans. Sovereign states and territories that are included in the region are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia (alternatively placed in Central Europe), Cyprus (alternatively placed in West Asia), Greece (alternatively placed in Southern Europe), Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey (alternatively placed in Southern Europe or West Asia). Sometimes, Moldova (alternatively placed in Eastern Europe) and Slovenia (alternatively placed in Central Europe) are also included. The largest city of the region is Istanbul, followed by Bucharest, Sofia, Belgrade, and Athens.


title: Southeast Europe

text: There are overlapping and conflicting definitions of the region, due to political, economic, historical, cultural, and geographical considerations.


title: Southeast Europe

text: The first known use of the term "Southeast Europe" was by Austrian researcher Johann Georg von Hahn (1811–1869) as a broader term than the traditional Balkans, a concept based on the boundaries of the Balkan Peninsula (the countries that have been described as being entirely within the Balkan region are: Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and North Macedonia).


title: Southeast Europe

text: Countries that are geographically, at least partially, described to be within the region are as follows:


title: Southeast Europe

text: In the "CIA World Factbook", the description of each country includes information about "Location" under the heading "Geography", where the country is classified into a region. The following countries are included in their classification "Southeast Europe":


title: Southeast Europe

text: In this classification, Slovenia is included in Central Europe, Greece in Southern Europe, and Moldova in Eastern Europe.


title: Order of chivalry

text: An order of chivalry, order of knighthood, chivalric order, or equestrian order is an order of knights, typically founded during or inspired by the original Catholic military orders of the Crusades ( 1099–1291) and paired with medieval concepts of ideals of chivalry.


title: Order of chivalry

text: Since the 15th century, orders of chivalry, often as dynastic orders, began to be established in a more courtly fashion that could be created "ad hoc". These orders would often retain the notion of being a confraternity, society or other association of members, but some of them were ultimately purely honorific and consisted of a medal decoration. In fact, these decorations themselves often came to be known informally as "orders". These institutions in turn gave rise to the modern-day orders of merit of sovereign states.


title: Order of chivalry

text: An order of knights is a community of knights composed by order rules with the main purpose of an ideal or charitable task. The original ideal lay in monachus et miles (monk and knight), who in the order (, ) is dedicated to a Christian purpose. The first orders of knights were religious orders that were founded to protect and guide pilgrims to the Holy Land. The knightly orders were characterized by an order-like community life in poverty, obedience and chastity, which was linked with charitable tasks, armed pilgrimage protection and military action against external and occasionally internal enemies of Christianity. Examples are the Knights Templar, Knights of the Holy Sepulchre officially called The Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, founded in 1090, the Order of St. John and the Order of Malta. These communities only became orders in the sense of canon law through papal recognition of their own binding rules of order and through the dissolution of ecclesiastical diocesan organizations.


title: Order of chivalry

text: In addition to the religious orders of knights, courtly orders of knights emerged in many European royal houses from the middle of the 14th century. This enabled the monarchs and princes to create a reliable household power independent of the church and to combine their court life with knightly virtues. During this time, the Burgundian court culture was leading and so the Order of the Golden Fleece, founded there in 1430, was for many a model in the sense of a princely order based on the ideals of Christian chivalry.


title: Order of chivalry

text: In the course of time, many orders of knights have been dissolved due to a lack of people or the field of activity has changed. So in many areas the charitable aspect and nursing came to the fore. There were also dissolutions for political reasons, such as the Knights Templar in 1312 or many orders of knights as opposition by Nazi Germany. While the Knights Templar was not re-established, some orders were reactivated after the end of World War II and the fall of the Iron Curtain.


title: Order of chivalry

text: There are repeated attempts to revive or restore old orders of knights. Often old, old knight orders are used today to honor personalities. For example, the British Queen Elizabeth II regularly appointed new members to the Order of the British Empire in the 21st century. In Central Europe, for example, the Order of St. George, whose roots also go back to the so-called "last knight" Emperor Maximilian I, was reactivated by the House of Habsburg after its dissolution by Nazi Germany. Meanwhile, to this day, deserved personalities in republican France are highlighted by being awarded the Knight of the Legion of Honour. In contrast, the knights of the ecclesiastical orders of knights such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Order of St. John mainly devote themselves to social tasks, nursing and care.


title: Order of chivalry

text: The Secretariat of the State of the Holy See – medieval pioneer of the original military orders – distinguishes orders in the following manner:


title: Order of chivalry

text: In "Dell'origine dei Cavalieri" (1566), the Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino (1521–1586) distinguished knights and their respective societies in three main categories:


title: Order of chivalry

text: Over time, the above division became no longer sufficient, and heraldic science distinguished orders into: hereditary, military, religious and fees.


title: Order of chivalry

text: In a more generous distribution proposed in "The Knights in the Crown: The Monarchical Orders of Knighthood in Late Medieval Europe" (1987), the Canadian heraldist D'Arcy Boulton classifies chivalric orders as follows:


title: Order of chivalry

text: Votive orders are orders of chivalry, temporarily formed on the basis of a vow. These were courtly chivalric games rather than actual pledges as in the case of the fraternal orders. Three are known from their statutes:


title: Order of chivalry

text: Cliental pseudo-orders are not orders of chivalry and were princes' retinues fashionably termed orders. They are without statutes or restricted memberships:


title: Order of chivalry

text: Together with the monarchical chivalric orders (see above) these honorific orders are the prime ancestors of the modern-day orders of knighthood (see below) which are orders of merit in character.


title: Order of chivalry

text: The distinction between these orders and decorations is somewhat vague, except that these honorific orders still implied membership in a group. Decorations have no such limitations and are awarded purely to recognize the merit or accomplishments of the recipient. Both orders and decorations often come in multiple classes.


title: Order of chivalry

text: The orders have influenced organizations which are completely separate and distinct from them. Since at least the 18th century, Freemasonry has incorporated symbols and rituals of several medieval military orders in a number of Masonic bodies, most notably, in the "Red Cross of Constantine" (derived from the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George), the "Order of Malta" (derived from the Sovereign Military Order of Malta), and the "Order of the Temple" (derived from the historical Knights Templar), the latter two featuring prominently in the York Rite.


title: Order of chivalry

text: Most orders created since the late 17th century were no longer societies and fellowships of knights who followed a common mission but were established by monarchs or governments with the specific purpose of bestowing honours on deserving individuals. In most European monarchies, these new orders retained some outward forms from the medieval orders of chivalry (such as rituals and structure) but were in essence orders of merit, mainly distinguished from their republican counterparts by the fact that members were entitled to a title of nobility. While some orders required noble birth (such as the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary, established in 1764), others would confer a title upon appointment (such as the Military Order of Max Joseph, established in 1806) while in yet other orders only the top classes were considered knights (such as in the Order of St Michael and St George, established in 1818). Orders of merit which still confer privileges of knighthood are sometimes referred to as orders of knighthood. As a consequence of being not an order of chivalry but orders of merit or decorations, some republican honours have thus avoided the traditional structure found in medieval orders of chivalry and created new ones instead, e.g. the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria, or the Legion of Merit of the United States.


title: Order of chivalry

text: Following the example set by the French Legion of Honour, founded by Napoleon, most multi-level European orders comprise five ranks or classes. The highest is usually called the Grand Cross, then descending with varying titles. Alternatively, the ranks are referred to by number (for example "1st class" instead of "Grand Cross"). Typical rankings are:


title: Order of chivalry

text: Each of these ranks wear insignia, usually badge (often enamelled) on a ribbon. Typically these insignia are worn from a sash in the case of the senior ranks, around the neck for the middle ranks (see also neck decorations), and on the left chest for the lower grades. Many orders use insignia in the form of a cross, but there may also be stars, and military awards may have crossed swords added onto the insignias. Ladies may wear the badge on a bow on the left chest. In orders following the example set by the French Legion of Honour, the two highest classes also wear a star (or plaque) on the chest. In special cases the senior class may wear the badge on a collar, which is an elaborate chain around the neck.


title: Order of chivalry

text: In certain countries with feudal heritage the higher ranks (usually at least the Grand Cross) may have vestments proper to them, including a robe or mantle and a hat. An example of such a modern-day order is the Order of the British Empire.


title: Order of chivalry

text: The French Legion of Honour democratised the honour systems of orders of chivalry and merit in the sense of formally omitting both the expectations of nobility on admittees while also no further implying the same status on previously non-noble conferees. Yet some orders may still expect noble ancestry on the part of recipients, such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and those of the Alliance of the Orders of Saint John of Jerusalem. Others may continue to imply conferral of nobility on any admittee, whether hereditary or personal, such as in some of the cases of dynastic orders conferred by the House of Bavaria or the House of Imperial Russia.


title: Order of chivalry

text: Some organisations claim to be chivalric orders but are actually private membership organisations that have not been created by a state or a reigning monarch. The answer to the question of whether an order is legitimate or not varies from nation to nation, François Velde wrote an "order of knighthood is legitimate if it is defined as legal, recognized and acknowledged as such by a sovereign authority. Within its borders, a sovereign state does as it pleases. Most, if not all, modern states have honorific orders and decorations of some kind, and those are sometimes called orders of knighthood." Exactly what makes one order legitimate and another self-styled or false is a matter of debate with some arguing that any monarch (reigning or not) or even the descendants of such can create an order while others assert that only a government with actual internationally recognized authority has such power (regardless of whether that government is republican or monarchical in nature). Historically, nobility and knights have also formed Orders of Knighthood. The Noble Order of Saint George of Rougemont is a Baronial Order and the Ordre de la Pomme d'Or was founded by 14 knights in Auvergne in 1394.


title: John Dolmayan

text: John Dolmayan (; born July 15, 1972) is a Lebanese-born Armenian-American musician, best known as the drummer of System of a Down. He is also the drummer for the band Indicator and former drummer for Scars on Broadway. Dolmayan ranked number 33 on "Loudwire"s list of "Top 200 Hard Rock + Metal Drummers of All Time".


title: John Dolmayan

text: John Dolmayan was born in Beirut, Lebanon, to Armenian parents. During the Lebanese Civil War, his family moved to California.


title: John Dolmayan

text: Dolmayan first became interested in drums at the age of two. His father was a saxophone player and when his mother would take him to watch his father play, he would mimic his father's drummer. He learned to play the drums by putting on records and practicing for hours a day, and continued said practice for years. Dolmayan describes his musical style as one influenced by whatever he could get his hands on, including the jazz albums belonging to his father and the rock albums he shared with his friends.


title: John Dolmayan

text: Dolmayan is a fan of The Who and cites Who drummer Keith Moon as his biggest influence. Other drummers that he cites as major influences include Led Zeppelin's John Bonham, Stewart Copeland from The Police, and Rush's Neil Peart.