title: Alex Karras

text: Karras also worked briefly as a football coach in 2007 and 2008. He worked for the SIL as an assistant coach to Bob Lombardi. He owned an ice cream parlor in Surfside Beach, South Carolina, called The Cow.


title: Alex Karras

text: Karras was married twice. In 1958, he married Joan Jurgensen, with whom he had five children. The marriage ended in divorce in 1975. He married actress Susan Clark on March 21, 1980, and they had a daughter together.


title: Alex Karras

text: In his later years, Karras suffered from serious health problems, including dementia, heart disease, and cancer.


title: Alex Karras

text: Karras was among 3,500 former NFL players who filed lawsuits against the NFL in early 2012, over the long-term damage caused by concussions and repeated hits to the head.


title: Alex Karras

text: On October 8, 2012, it was revealed by friend Tom McInerney that Karras had been diagnosed with kidney failure. He was treated at the Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California, before being released into hospice care. After returning to his Los Angeles home with family, Karras died in the morning hours of October 10.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Audi Q5 is a series of compact luxury crossover SUVs produced by the German luxury car manufacturer Audi from 2008. The original first-generation ("Typ 8R") model was the third member of the "B8" family to be released after the Audi A5 and fourth-generation A4, all being based on the Audi MLB platform. The second generation Q5 ("Typ 80A") debuted in 2016 and shares the Audi MLB Evo platform with the corresponding "B9" versions of the A4 and A5.


title: Audi Q5

text: A concept vehicle for the then upcoming Q5, this was a 2-door convertible with a 3.0 TDI engine rated at and torque, quattro permanent four wheel drive, 8-speed automatic transmission, Copper Sunset body, LED headlights, 21-inch wheels with 265/35R21 tyres, seats with White Stone leather upholstery, MMI, 505W Bang & Olufsen sound system and internet radio, CDC (continuous damping control) shock absorbers, electric ride height adjustment (40 mm), 380/356 mm front/rear ceramic brake discs with 6-piston monobloc aluminium front, and floating rear callipers, Audi Drive Select.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Q5 commenced shipments in October 2008 for Europe, and in the first quarter of 2009 for North America.


title: Audi Q5

text: The US model went on sale in March 2009 as a 2009 model year vehicle. Early models include 3.2 FSI quattro and the 2.0 TFSI quattro (211PS) was added in 2011 model year.


title: Audi Q5

text: Indian models went on sale in June 2009, and were initially built by Audi's Ingolstadt facility, but are now being built at its Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India plant. Launch models include 3.0 TDI, 2.0 TFSI (211 PS).


title: Audi Q5

text: It is a concept vehicle that includes an enhanced engine, 7-speed S tronic transmission, Quattro all wheel drive. The 3.0 TFSI V6 engine was rated at 6,000–7,000 rpm and at 3,000–5,500 rpm. Other features include ceramic brakes, active sound exhaust system, 90 millimetre wider track, 60 millimetre lower ride height, 21-inch Daytona Gray colour wheels of 7 twin-spoke design, modified air intake, cooling water strut brace in engine compartment, stainless steel-plated pedals, S line sport seats, panorama roof system, "Wörthersee 09" adhesive film, textile floor mats with "Wörthersee 09" print application, Audi drive select vehicle dynamics system, parking aid with rearview camera, voice control, Audi lane assist (lane departure warning), headlight range control with cornering lights.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Audi Q5 FCEV (2009) is a fuel cell based concept car that was demonstrated on 19 October 2009 at CEP Berlin. It sports an 85 Kw PEMFC, a 22 Kw lithium-ion battery and a 230 Nm asynchronous motor.


title: Audi Q5

text: Audi has originally reported that it would offer the Q5 hybrid as launch model, but it was later reported that Audi suspended the plan because of unsatisfactory crash test results for the nickel metal hydride batteries. In 2009, Audi announced it would resume the Q5 hybrid development. It included a 266V, 1.3kWh, battery pack. The Q5 has an all-electric range of about and maximum all-electric speed of .


title: Audi Q5

text: The production version would be on sale in 2012 for the Japanese market. The release in the U.S. market was scheduled for late 2011.


title: Audi Q5

text: German models include standard 7-speed S tronic transmission for all V6 models. 8-speed Tiptronic is an option for Q5 2.0 TFSI quattro (211 PS).


title: Audi Q5

text: US and Canadian Q5 3.2 FSI models include 6-speed Tiptronic as standard transmission. US and Canadian Q5 2.0 TFSI models include 8-speed Tiptronic as standard transmission.


title: Audi Q5

text: Harman/Becker Automotive Systems produced Audi's new updated Multi Media Interface (MMI) technology for Q5. The new system includes navigation, communication, and wide-screen entertainment. A three-dimensional orientation view with true-to-scale terrain and photo realistic depictions of key landmarks will also be generated. Included features in this new system are USB storage media (iPod or MP3), satellite radio, and an integral four-band GSM mobile/cell phone (SIM card ready) with Bluetooth connectivity.


title: Audi Q5

text: S line package includes 20-inch S line wheels, headlight washers, sport steering wheels with shift paddles, brushed aluminium inlays, S line aluminium door sills, and a black headliner. The Offroad exterior package includes front and rear underbody protection panels, along with flared fender and door sill protection.


title: Audi Q5

text: A sensor informs the ESP system if a roof rack has been mounted, which will cause the Audi Q5's centre of gravity to be shifted higher in keeping with the roof load of up to . If a roof rack is present, the ESP engages earlier in the handling limit. Without a roof load, the driver is free to tap the full dynamic potential of the Audi Q5.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Audi Q5 is capable of towing up to 2.0 tonnes; the standard hill descent control system makes it safe to navigate down steep inclines by regulating the preselected speed when driving at under . The Q5 is also fitted with an advanced Trailer Stability Program designed to combat any unwanted snaking when towing a large trailer or caravan.


title: Audi Q5

text: The new vehicle was expected to be built in Audi's home town of Ingolstadt. An investment of €300 million in production tooling and expansion was expected.


title: Audi Q5

text: In September 2016, Audi has opened a factory with a capacity of 150.000 Q5 in San José Chiapa (Mexico).


title: Audi Q5

text: Main changes include a redesigned set of front and rear light configuration, and a new set of engines that increase both output and efficiency. Most interior user controls have narrow chrome trim. Ergonomics changes include 4-button MMI navigation plus system, additional skip function for volume dial. Large fabric-upholstered surfaces are standard on the door trim panels; inlay options include three wood veneers and one aluminium version.


title: Audi Q5

text: The vehicles went on sale in summer 2012. Early models include 2.0 TFSI hybrid quattro, 2.0 TFSI quattro (225PS), 3.0 TFSI quattro (272PS), 2.0 TDI (143PS), 2.0 TDI quattro (177PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (245PS).


title: Audi Q5

text: In Germany, 2.0 TFSI quattro (180PS), 2.0 TDI (150PS), 2.0 TDI quattro (150PS) were added in 2013, with 2.0 TDI (150PS) replacing 2.0 TDI (143PS).


title: Audi Q5

text: The SQ5 performance crossover SUV is the first Audi S model vehicle to feature a diesel engine. The primary power plant is a , twin turbocharged V6 engine coupled to an 8-speed Tiptronic transmission, developing 313 PS at 3,900–4,500 rpm, and of torque at 1,450–2,800 rpm. It also features Audi's signature quattro permanent all-wheel drive system with torque vectoring transfer. Sport suspension lowers the vehicle body by and 20-inch 5 parallel-spoke wheels with 255/45 tires are fitted as standard, with the option of upgrading to 21-inch wheels. Other features of the SQ5 are black front brake callipers with Audi 'S' badges, an optional Audi drive select system, a platinum-grey single-frame grille with galvanized double bars, two SQ5 unique body colours (Estoril Blue or Panther Black), optional lunar silver headlining, Pearl Nappa leather/Alcantara power-adjustable sport seats with optional leather upholstery in a choice of four colours, brushed aluminium inlays with optional Carbon Atlas, Piano finish or Aluminium/Beaufort wood trim panels.<ref name="Audi AG/Audi Worldwide"></ref>


title: Audi Q5

text: The SQ5 TDI accelerates from 0– in 5.1 secs, and is electronically limited to 155 mph. This is comparable to rival range-topping performance SUVs with diesel engines, such as the Porsche Cayenne S Diesel (0–: 5.7 s) and BMW X5 M50d (0–: 5.4 s), and also to high-performance petrol-powered SUVs, such as the Mercedes-Benz ML63 AMG (0–: 4.8 s), Porsche Cayenne Turbo S (0–: 4.1 s). These listed rivals are all larger and heavier, falling into the mid-size SUV class, and, as such, command significantly higher asking prices. A more realistic comparison may be made with the BMW X3 xDrive35d, which delivers slightly better economy (46.3 mpg to the SQ5's 41.5), though slightly lower performance (0–: 5.8 s, max speed: ).


title: Audi Q5

text: It is a limited (50 units) version of the Audi SQ5 TDI with Aral Blue crystal effect body colour, black Fine Nappa leather upholstery with contrasting stitching in snow white, black sport seats covered in Fine Nappa leather, woven leather in the centre section of the seats, snow white Alcantara headlining, sunroof blind, inlays and applications shimmer.


title: Audi Q5

text: The vehicle was unveiled in the 2012 Paris Motor Show, and went on sale in the first quarter of 2013.


title: Audi Q5

text: In 2015 Audi introduced a 'plus' tdi model, with and , quilted nappa leather seats, external black details and 21-inch wheels as standard equipment.


title: Audi Q5

text: It is a petrol version of the SQ5 with 3.0 TFSI engine rated at 6,000–6,500 rpm and at 4,000–4,500 rpm, eight-speed tiptronic transmission, quattro permanent all-wheel drive with torque vectoring, 20-inch wheels with 255/45-series tires (optional 21-inch wheels), platinum grey radiator grille with horizontal double bars in aluminium look, choice of 2 crystal-effect body colours (Estoril Blue, Panther Black), instruments feature grey dials and white numerals, pedals and shift paddles in shiny aluminium-look finish, black interior with headlining optionally available in Moon Silver, power-adjustable sport seats upholstered in Pearl Nappa leather and Alcantara (option four different colours of leather), standard brushed aluminium inlays (optional Carbon Atlas, Piano finish or layered aluminium and wood in Beaufort black). The vehicle was unveiled in 2013 Detroit Auto Show.


title: Audi Q5

text: The vehicle was designed for United States, Canada, Russia, China, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, South Africa, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Ukraine markets.


title: Audi Q5

text: US model was set to arrive at U.S. dealerships in the third quarter of 2013 as 2014 model year vehicle.


title: Audi Q5

text: Euro NCAP tested a 2009 Audi Q5, 5-door SUV with front airbags, side airbags, seatbelt pretensioners and load limiters as standard and scored it accordingly:


title: Audi Q5

text: The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety also crash-tested the Q5, and presented the following results (ratings from 'poor' to 'good'):


title: Audi Q5

text: On the 19th of August 2020 tagesschau.de reported that "turning the steering wheel changes exhaust emissions" significantly under test conditions.


title: Audi Q5

text: The First Generation 3.2L FSI engine is extremely prone to carbon buildup in the secondary air injection system, resulting in an extremely costly and necessary repair—which often rears its head following the warranty period.


title: Audi Q5

text: A long wheelbase version was unveiled at the Beijing Auto Show, with added to the car, resulting in 23 percent more legroom.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Q5 was launched in Thailand in August 2017, where a sole S line powered by a 2.0 TFSI engine (45 TFSI) and 2.0 TDI engine (40 TDI) with an Quattro all wheel drive system is available.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Q5 was launched in Malaysia in March 2019, where a sole Sport trim line powered by a 2.0 TFSI engine with an Quattro all wheel drive system is available.


title: Audi Q5

text: Fast forward to August 2021, the facelifted Q5 was launched in Malaysia. with the sportier S Line trim. It gets a 2.0 TFSI engine with mild-hybrid tech, Quattro AWD and the S Tronic dual-clutch transmission. Not long after, the Q5 Sportback also made its local debut here in Malaysia.


title: Audi Q5

text: The second generation Q5 was launched in North America in 2018. Production shifted from Germany to the new Audi México, S.A. de C.V. factory in San José Chiapa, Puebla, México. The Q5 was launched with a 2.0 TFSI petrol engine. Power output was and . Audi's Quattro all-wheel drive system is standard, however it uses ‘Quattro with Ultra Technology’. According to Audi, Ultra technology improves efficiency by decoupling the driveshaft to the rear wheels when all-wheel drive is not needed. Essentially the vehicle becomes front wheel drive when cruising, or in other driving situations where the vehicle's computers determine all-wheel traction is not needed. Audi claims the system is able to re-engage power to the rear wheels within milliseconds of the system detecting or predicting slip or the driver accelerating aggressively.


title: Audi Q5

text: Unlike in the previous 8R generation Q5, US vehicles are only offered with the 2.0T TFSI I-4 engine. The 2.0T ‘45 TFSI’ model offers acceleration similar to the previous generation's 3.0 TFSI Supercharged V6 (face-lifted Q5 8R, 2013–2017) while using less fuel and reduced emissions. No TDI version will be offered in North America due to the fallout from the diesel emissions scandal. Bucking an industry-wide trend of moving away from dual clutch transmissions for the latest generation of conventional torque converter automatics, Audi actually replaced the previous generation's ZF 8HP 8-speed automatic transmission for their own 7-speed S-Tronic dual clutch gearbox.


title: Audi Q5

text: The SQ5 is offered as a performance variant of the Q5. In North American spec, it uses a 3.0L DOHC direct-injected Miller Cycle-capable 90° V6 with a single mono-scroll turbocharger. This engine, dubbed EA839, is a substantially reworked version of the previous-generation supercharged V6 (EA837) that was used in the first generation Q5 3.0T and SQ5. Power output for the turbocharged engines remains at , however torque increases to at only 1370 rpm. Unlike the lesser powered Q5 ‘45 TFSI’ 2.0T, Audi retained ZF's 8HP transmission for the SQ5. Unlike the Q5, the SQ5 utilizes the full-time rear-biased quattro VI AWD system.


title: Audi Q5

text: For the 2019 model year, heated front seats, rear electric child locks, 7-inch infotainment screen, and roof crossbars became standard equipment. For the Premium Plus trim, rear USB charge ports and wireless charging became standard while for Prestige trims, park assist was made standard. The Convenience Package was expanded to include the Audi side assist and Audi pre sense rear safety systems. In addition, Audi introduced a "black optic" package for the Q5, featuring black exterior trim and unique wheels. The SQ5 also became available in the Premium trim.


title: Audi Q5

text: In 2020, Audi introduced the Q5 TFSI e plug-in hybrid variant. It featured a 14.1 kWh lithium-ion battery, giving an EPA estimated of range. A heat pump was implemented into the climate control system, providing for greater heating efficiency. The plug-in variant also received the Turbo Blue and Daytona Gray colors, available only on the plug-in variant and SQ5 models. It produced and of torque and had a time of 5.0 seconds, nearly a second faster than the standard Q5. For the 2022 model year, the battery size was increased to 17.9 kWh, increasing the EPA range to .


title: Audi Q5

text: The 2021 Model Year includes the Generation 3 infotainment technologies. This includes a digital marketplace in the myAudi app to add Audi Connect plans and SiriusXM with 360L. Exterior facelift revisions include updates to the grille, bumper side air intakes, side sill, and rear trim. In addition, District Green and Ultra Blue were new paint colors available on the PHEV and SQ5 variants.


title: Audi Q5

text: The 2021 Q5 was announced at the end of June 2020 and with expected first deliveries at the end of 2020. In January 2021, Audi expanded the Q5 lineup by introducing a Sportback variant of the Q5 and SQ5.


title: Audi Q5

text: The Q5 was launched in India on 23 November 2021 offering two variants - Premium Plus and Technology.


title: Jack Elam

text: William Scott "Jack" Elam (November 13, 1920 – October 20, 2003) was an American film and television actor best known for his numerous roles as villains in Western films and, later in his career, comedies (sometimes spoofing his villainous image). His most distinguishing physical quality was his misaligned eye. Before his career in acting, he took several jobs in finance and served two years in the United States Navy during World War II.


title: Jack Elam

text: Elam was born in Miami in Gila County in south-central Arizona, to Millard Elam and Alice Amelia Kirby. His mother died in September 1924, when Jack was only three. By 1930, he was living with his father, older sister Mildred, and their stepmother, Flossie Varney Elam. He grew up picking cotton. Elam lost the sight in his left eye when he was stabbed with a pencil during a boyhood altercation with a fellow Boy Scout. He was a student at both Miami High School in Gila County and Phoenix Union High School in Maricopa County, graduating from there in the late 1930s and subsequently attending Santa Monica Junior College in California.


title: Jack Elam

text: Before his acting career, Elam worked as a bookkeeper at the Bank of America in Los Angeles and as an auditor for the Standard Oil Company. He then served two years during World War II in the United States Navy and subsequently became an independent accountant in Hollywood, where one of his clients was movie mogul Samuel Goldwyn. For a time, he was also the manager of the Hotel Bel-Air in Los Angeles.


title: Jack Elam

text: Elam made his screen debut in 1949 in "She Shoulda Said No!," an exploitation film in which a chorus girl's habitual marijuana smoking ruins her career and then drives her brother to suicide. During this period, however, Elam appeared most often in Westerns and gangster films, usually in roles as a villain.


title: Jack Elam

text: On television in the 1950s and 1960s, he made multiple guest-star appearances on many popular Western series, including "Gunsmoke", "The Rifleman", "Lawman", "Bonanza", "Cheyenne", "Have Gun – Will Travel", "Zorro", "The Lone Ranger", "The Rebel", "F Troop", "Tales of Wells Fargo", "The Texan", and "Rawhide". In 1961, he played a slightly crazed bus passenger on "The Twilight Zone" episode "Will the Real Martian Please Stand Up?". That same year, he also portrayed the Mexican historical figure Juan Cortina in "The General Without a Cause", an episode of the anthology series "Death Valley Days". In 1962, Elam appeared as Paul Henry on "Lawman" in the episode titled "Clootey Hutter".


title: Jack Elam

text: In 1963, Elam received a rare chance to play the good guy, reformed gunfighter and Deputy U.S. Marshal J. D. Smith, in the ABC/Warner Bros. series "The Dakotas", a Western intended as the successor of "Cheyenne". "The Dakotas" ran for 19 episodes. He was then cast as George Taggart, a gunslinger-turned-marshal, in the 1963–1964 NBC/WB series "Temple Houston".


title: Jack Elam

text: In 1966 Jack Elam was given his first comedic role with Clint Walker in the Western film "The Night of the Grizzly". In 1968, Elam had a cameo in Sergio Leone's celebrated spaghetti Western "Once Upon a Time in the West". In that film, he played one of a trio of gunslingers who were sent to kill Charles Bronson's character. Elam spent a good part of the scene trying to trap an annoying fly in his gun barrel. In 1967, Elam appeared in "The Way West" with Robert Mitchum, Richard Widmark, and Kirk Douglas as the light-hearted Preacher Weatherby taking part in a wagon train on the Oregon Trail.


title: Jack Elam

text: In 1969, he played a comedy role in "Support Your Local Sheriff!", which was followed two years later by "Support Your Local Gunfighter", both opposite James Garner. After his performances in those two films, Elam found his villainous parts dwindling and his comic roles increasing. (Both films were also directed by Burt Kennedy, who had seen Elam's potential as a comedian and directed him a total of 15 times in features and television.) Between those two films, he also played a comically cranky old coot opposite John Wayne in Howard Hawks's "Rio Lobo" (1970). In 1974–1975, he was cast as Zack Wheeler in the short-lived comedy series, "The Texas Wheelers", in which he played the long-lost father returning home to raise his four children after their mother dies. In 1979, he was cast as the Frankenstein monster in the CBS sitcom "Struck by Lightning", but the show was cancelled after only three episodes (the remaining eight were unaired (and remain so) in the U.S., though all 11 were aired in the UK in 1980). He then appeared in the role of Hick Peterson in a first-season episode of "Home Improvement" alongside Ernest Borgnine (season one, episode 20, "Birds of a Feather Flock to Tim").


title: Jack Elam

text: Elam played Doctor Nikolas Van Helsing, an eccentric doctor in the 1981 movie "The Cannonball Run." Three years later, he returned in the same role in the film's sequel, "Cannonball Run II".


title: Jack Elam

text: In 1985, Elam played Charlie in the "Weird Western" film "The Aurora Encounter". During production, Elam developed what would become a lifelong relationship with an 11-year-old boy named Mickey Hays, who suffered from progeria. The documentary "I Am Not a Freak" portrays the close friendship between Elam and Hays. Elam said, "You know I've met a lot of people, but I've never met anybody that got next to me like Mickey."


title: Jack Elam

text: In 1986, Elam also co-starred on the short-lived comedy series "Easy Street" as Alvin "Bully" Stevenson, the down-on-his-luck uncle of Loni Anderson's character, L. K. McGuire. In 1988, Elam co-starred with Willie Nelson in the movie "Where The Hell's That Gold?"


title: Jack Elam

text: In 1994, Elam was inducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum.


title: Jack Elam

text: Elam was married twice, first to Jean Hodgert from 1937 until her death in 1961, and then to Margaret Jennison from 1961 until his own death.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The fourth-generation fighter is a class of jet fighters in service from around 1980 to the present, and represents design concepts of the 1970s. Fourth-generation designs are heavily influenced by lessons learned from the previous generation of combat aircraft. Third-generation fighters were often designed primarily as interceptors, being built around speed and air-to-air missiles. While exceptionally fast in a straight line, many third-generation fighters severely lacked in manoeuvrability, as doctrine held that traditional dogfighting would be impossible at supersonic speeds. In practice, air-to-air missiles of the time, despite being responsible for the vast majority of air-to-air victories, were relatively unreliable, and combat would quickly become subsonic and close-range. This would leave third-generation fighters vulnerable and ill-equipped, renewing an interest in manoeuvrability for the fourth generation of fighters. Meanwhile, the growing costs of military aircraft in general and the demonstrated success of aircraft such as the F-4 Phantom II gave rise to the popularity of multirole combat aircraft in parallel with the advances marking the so-called fourth generation.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: During this period, maneuverability was enhanced by relaxed static stability, made possible by introduction of the fly-by-wire (FBW) flight-control system, which in turn was possible due to advances in digital computers and system-integration techniques. Replacement of analog avionics, required to enable FBW operations, became a fundamental requirement as legacy analog computer systems began to be replaced by digital flight-control systems in the latter half of the 1980s. The further advance of microcomputers in the 1980s and 1990s permitted rapid upgrades to the avionics over the lifetimes of these fighters, incorporating system upgrades such as active electronically scanned array (AESA), digital avionics buses, and infra-red search and track.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Due to the dramatic enhancement of capabilities in these upgraded fighters and in new designs of the 1990s that reflected these new capabilities, they have come to be known as 4.5 generation. This is intended to reflect a class of fighters that are evolutionary upgrades of the fourth generation incorporating integrated avionics suites, advanced weapons efforts to make the (mostly) conventionally designed aircraft nonetheless less easily detectable and trackable as a response to advancing missile and radar technology (see stealth technology). Inherent airframe design features exist and include masking of turbine blades and application of advanced sometimes radar-absorbent materials, but not the distinctive low-observable configurations of the latest aircraft, referred to as fifth-generation fighters or aircraft such as the Lockheed-Martin F-22 Raptor.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The United States defines 4.5-generation fighter aircraft as fourth-generation jet fighters that have been upgraded with AESA radar, high-capacity data-link, enhanced avionics, and "the ability to deploy current and reasonably foreseeable advanced armaments". Contemporary examples of 4.5-generation fighters are the Sukhoi Su-30SM/Su-34/Su-35, the J-15B/J-16 claimed to have AESA, the Chengdu J-10C, the Mikoyan MiG-35, the Eurofighter Typhoon, the Dassault Rafale, the Saab JAS 39 Gripen, the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, the Lockheed Martin F-16E/F/V Block 70/72, McDonnell Douglas F-15E/EX Strike Eagle/Eagle II, HAL Tejas MK1A, JF-17 block III and the Mitsubishi F-2.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Whereas the premier third-generation jet fighters (e.g., the F-4 and MiG-23) were designed as interceptors with only a secondary emphasis on maneuverability, interception has been relegated to a secondary role in the fourth generation, with a renewed emphasis on close-range dogfighting and maneuverability. While the trade-offs involved in combat aircraft design are again shifting towards beyond visual range (BVR) engagement, the management of the advancing environment of numerous information flows in the modern battlespace, and low-observability, arguably at the expense of maneuvering ability in close combat, the application of thrust vectoring provides a way to maintain it, especially at low speed.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Key advances contributing to enhanced maneuverability in the fourth generation include high engine thrust, powerful control surfaces, and relaxed static stability (RSS), this last enabled via "fly-by-wire" computer-controlled stability augmentation. Air combat manoeuvring also involves a great deal of energy management to maintain speed and altitude under rapidly changing flight conditions.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Early fourth-generation fighters like the F-15 Eagle and F-14 Tomcat retained electromechanical flight hydraulics. One of the innovations on fourth-generation jet fighters is FBW, while generation 4.5 introduced AESA radar.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The General Dynamics YF-16, eventually developed into the F-16 Fighting Falcon, was the world's first aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable. This technique, called RSS, was incorporated to further enhance the aircraft's performance. Most aircraft are designed with "positive" static stability, which induces an aircraft to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. However, positive static stability, the tendency to remain in its current attitude, opposes the pilot's efforts to maneuver. An aircraft with "negative" static stability, though, in the absence of control input, will readily deviate from level and controlled flight. An unstable aircraft can therefore be made more maneuverable. Such a 4th generation aircraft requires a computerised FBW flight control system (FLCS) to maintain its desired flight path.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Some late derivatives of the early types, such as the F-15SA Strike Eagle for Saudi Arabia, have included upgrading to FBW.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Thrust vectoring was originally introduced in the Hawker Siddeley Harrier for vertical takeoff and landing, and pilots soon developed the technique of "viffing", or vectoring in forward flight, to enhance manoeuverability. The first fixed-wing type to display enhanced manoeuvrability in this way was the Sukhoi Su-27, the first aircraft to publicly display thrust vectoring in pitch. Combined with a thrust-to-weight ratio above unity, this enabled it to maintain near-zero airspeed at high angles of attack without stalling, and perform novel aerobatics such as Pugachev's Cobra. The three-dimensional TVC nozzles of the Sukhoi Su-30MKI are mounted 32° outward to longitudinal engine axis (i.e. in the horizontal plane) and can be deflected ±15° in the vertical plane. This produces a corkscrew effect, further enhancing the turning capability of the aircraft. The MiG-35 with its RD-33OVT engines with the vectored thrust nozzles allows it to be the first twin-engined aircraft with vectoring nozzles that can move in two directions (that is, 3D TVC). Other existing thrust-vectoring aircraft, like the F-22, have nozzles that vector in one direction. The technology has been fitted to the Sukhoi Su-47 Berkut and later derivatives. The U.S. explored fitting the technology to the F-16 and the F-15, but did not introduce it until the fifth generation arrived.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Supercruise is the ability of a jet aircraft to cruise at supersonic speeds without using an afterburner.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Maintaining supersonic speed without afterburner use saves large quantities of fuel, greatly increasing range and endurance, but the engine power available is limited and drag rises sharply in the transonic region, so drag-creating equipment such as external stores and their attachment points must be minimised, preferably with the use of internal storage.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The Eurofighter Typhoon can cruise around Mach 1.2 without afterburner, with the maximum level speed without reheat is Mach 1.5. An EF T1 DA (Development Aircraft trainer version) demonstrated supercruise (1.21 M) with 2 SRAAM, 4 MRAAM and drop tank (plus 1-tonne flight-test equipment, plus 700 kg more weight for the trainer version) during the Singapore evaluation.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: Avionics can often be swapped out as new technologies become available; they are often upgraded over the lifetime of an aircraft. For example, the F-15C Eagle, first produced in 1978, has received upgrades in 2007 such as AESA radar and joint helmet-mounted cueing system, and is scheduled to receive a 2040C upgrade to keep it in service until 2040.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The primary sensor for all modern fighters is radar. The U.S. fielded its first modified F-15Cs equipped with AN/APG-63(V)2 AESA radars, which have no moving parts and are capable of projecting a much tighter beam and quicker scans. Later on, it was introduced to the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the block 60 (export) F-16 also, and will be used for future American fighters. France introduced its first indigenous AESA radar, the RBE2-AESA built by Thales in February 2012 for use on the Rafale. The RBE2-AESA can also be retrofitted on the Mirage 2000. A European consortium GTDAR is developing an AESA Euroradar CAPTOR radar for future use on the Typhoon. For the next-generation F-22 and F-35, the U.S. will use low probability of intercept capacity. This will spread the energy of a radar pulse over several frequencies, so as not to trip the radar warning receivers that all aircraft carry.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: In response to the increasing American emphasis on radar-evading stealth designs, Russia turned to alternate sensors, with emphasis on IRST sensors, first introduced on the American F-101 Voodoo and F-102 Delta Dagger fighters in the 1960s, for detection and tracking of airborne targets. These measure IR radiation from targets. As a passive sensor, it has limited range, and contains no inherent data about position and direction of targets—these must be inferred from the images captured. To offset this, IRST systems can incorporate a laser rangefinder in order to provide full fire-control solutions for cannon fire or for launching missiles. Using this method, German MiG-29 using helmet-displayed IRST systems were able to acquire a missile lock with greater efficiency than USAF F-16 in wargame exercises. IRST sensors have now become standard on Russian aircraft. With the exception of the F-14D (officially retired as of September 2006), no 4th-generation Western fighters carry built-in IRST sensors for air-to-air detection, though the similar FLIR is often used to acquire ground targets.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: A computing feature of significant tactical importance is the datalink. All modern European and American aircraft are capable of sharing targeting data with allied fighters and AWACS planes (see JTIDS). The Russian MiG-31 interceptor also has some datalink capability. The sharing of targeting and sensor data allows pilots to put radiating, highly visible sensors further from enemy forces, while using those data to vector silent fighters toward the enemy.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: While the basic principles of shaping aircraft to avoid radar detection were known since the 1960s, the advent of radar-absorbent materials allowed aircraft of drastically reduced radar cross-section to become practicable. During the 1970s, early stealth technology led to the faceted airframe of the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk ground-attack aircraft. The faceting reflected radar beams highly directionally, leading to brief "twinkles", which detector systems of the day typically registered as noise, but even with digital FBW stability and control enhancement, the aerodynamic performance penalties were severe and the F-117 found use principally in the night ground-attack role. Stealth technologies also seek to decrease the infrared signature, visual signature, and acoustic signature of the aircraft.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The term 4.5 generation is often used to refer to new or enhanced fighters, which appeared beginning in the 1990s, and incorporated some features regarded as fifth generation, but lacked others. The 4.5-generation fighters are therefore generally less expensive, less complex, and have a shorter development time than true fifth-generation aircraft, while maintaining capabilities significantly in advance of those of the original fourth generation. Such capabilities may include advanced sensor integration, AESA radar, supercruise capability, supermaneuverability, broad multi-role capability, and reduced radar cross-section.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: The 4.5-generation fighters have introduced integrated IRST systems, such as the Dassault Rafale featuring the "optronique secteur frontal" integrated IRST. The Eurofighter Typhoon introduced the PIRATE-IRST, which was also retrofitted to earlier production models. The Super Hornet was also fitted with IRST although not integrated but rather as a pod that needs to attached on one of the hardpoints.


title: Fourth-generation fighter

text: As advances in stealthy materials and design methods enabled smoother airframes, such technologies began to be retrospectively applied to existing fighter aircraft. Many 4.5 generation fighters incorporate some low-observable features. Low-observable radar technology emerged as an important development. The Pakistani/Chinese JF-17 (block-3 variant) and China's Chengdu J-10B/C use a diverterless supersonic inlet, while India's HAL Tejas uses carbon-fiber composite in manufacturing. The IAI Lavi used an S-duct air intake to prevent radar waves from reflecting off the engine compressor blades, an important aspect of fifth-generation fighter aircraft to reduce frontal RCS. These are a few of the preferred methods employed in some fifth-generation fighters to reduce RCS.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (; ), also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī (), was the founder of the Durrani Empire and is regarded as the founder of the modern Afghanistan. In July 1747, Ahmad Shah was appointed as King of the Afghans by a "loya jirga" in Kandahar, where he set up his capital. Primarily with the support of the Pashtun tribes, Ahmad Shah pushed east towards the Mughal and Maratha Empires of India, west towards the disintegrating Afsharid Empire of Iran, and north towards the Khanate of Bukhara of Turkestan. Within a few years, he extended his control from Khorasan in the west to North India in the east, and from the Amu Darya in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Soon after accession, Ahmad Shah adopted the epithet "Shāh Durr-i-Durrān", "King, Pearl of Pearls", and changed the name of his Abdali tribe to "Durrani" after himself. The Tomb of Ahmad Shah Durrani is located in the center of Kandahar, adjacent to Kirka Sharif (Shrine of the Cloak), which contains a cloak believed to have been worn by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Afghans often refer to Ahmad Shah as "Ahmad Shāh Bābā", "Ahmad Shah the Father."


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Ahmad's father, Mohammad Zaman Khan, was the Governor of Herat and chief of the Pashtun Abdali tribe, while his mother, Zarghona Anaa, was daughter of Khalu Khan Alakozai and belonged to the Alakozai tribe. Ahmad was born in Herat (then Sadozai Sultanate of Herat, present-day Afghanistan), or Multan (then Mughal Empire, present-day Pakistan) in 1720–1722 around the time of his father's death, when the Abdali leadership still controlled the Herat region.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: In June 1729, the Abdali forces under Zulfiqar had surrendered to Nader Shah Afshar, the rising new ruler of Persia. However, they soon began a rebellion and took over Herat as well as Mashad. In July 1730, he defeated Ibrahim Khan, a military commander and brother of Nader Shah. This prompted Nader Shah to retake Mashad and also intervene in the power struggle of Harat. By July 1731, Zulfiqar returned to his capital Farah where he had been serving as the governor since 1726. A year later Nadir's brother Ibrahim Khan took control of Farah. During this time Zulfiqar and the young Durrani fled to Kandahar where they took refuge with the Ghiljis. They were later made political prisoners by Hussain Hotak, the Ghilji ruler of the Kandahar region.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Nader Shah had been enlisting the Abdalis in his army since around 1729. After conquering Kandahar in 1738, Durrani and his brother Zulfiqar were freed and provided with leading careers in Nader Shah's administration. Zulfiqar was made Governor of Mazandaran while Durrani remained working as Nader Shah's personal attendant. The Ghiljis, who are originally from the territories east of the Kandahar region, were expelled from Kandahar in order to resettle the Abdalis along with some Qizilbash and other Persians.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Durrani proved himself in Nader Shah's service and was promoted from a personal attendant ("yasāwal") to command the Abdali Regiment, a cavalry of four thousand soldiers and officers. The Abdali Regiment was part of Nader Shah's military during his invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1738.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Popular history has it that the Shah could see the talent in his young commander. Later on, according to Pashtun legend, it is said that in Delhi Nader Shah summoned Durrani, and said, "Come forward Ahmad Abdali. Remember Ahmad Khan Abdali, that after me the Kingship will pass on to you. Nader Shah recruited him because of his "impressive personality and valour" also because of his "loyalty to the Persian monarch".


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Nader Shah's rule abruptly ended in June 1747 when he was assassinated by his own guards. The guards involved in the assassination did so secretly so as to prevent the Abdalis from coming to their King's rescue. However, Durrani was told that the Shah had been killed by one of his wives. Despite the danger of being attacked, the Abdali contingent led by Durrani rushed either to save the Shah or to confirm what happened. Upon reaching the Shah's tent, they were only to see his body and severed head. Having served him so loyally, the Abdalis wept at having failed their leader, and headed back to Kandahar. Before the retreat to Kandahar, he had "removed" the royal seal from Nader Shah's finger and the Koh-i-Noor diamond tied "around the arm of his deceased master". On their way back to Kandahar, the Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Durrani as their new leader. Hence he "assumed the insignia of royalty" as the "sovereign ruler of Afghanistan".


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: One of Durrani's first acts as chief was to adopt the epithet "Shāh Durr-i-Durrān", "King, Pearl of Pearls."


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Although Ahmad Shah appointed his fellow Durrani (Abdali) clansmen for most senior military posts, his army was otherwise ethnically diverse with soldiers also from various other ethnic and tribal groups, including non-Durrani Pashtun tribes like the Ghilji, and non-Pashtun groups such as Qizilbash, Hazaras, Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Baloch. He began his military conquest by capturing Qalati Ghilji from its governor Ashraf Tokhi and installed his own governor in Ghazni. He then wrestled Kabul and Peshawar from Mughal-appointed governor Nasir Khan, and conquered the area up to the Indus River. On 15 July 1747, Ahmad Shah appointed Muhammad Hashim Afridi as chief of the Afridi of Peshawar. Ahmad Shah conquered Herat in 1750, Balkh and Badakhshan in 1751, and Kashmir in 1752.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: He also made two campaigns into Khorasan (1750–51 and 1754–55). During the first campaign he besieged Mashhad in July 1750 but retreated after four months and on November 10 moved onto Nishapur. His forces suffered heavy casualties and were forced to retreat in early 1751. In 1754 he invaded again. In June 1754 he took Tun and on July 23 had besieged Mashhad. Mashhad fell on December 2 and although Shahrokh Shah was re-appointed as leader of Khorasan in May 1755 he was forced to cede Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari to the Afghans. He invaded Nishapur again and after a 7-day siege the city fell on June 24, 1755, and was utterly destroyed.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Peshawar served as a convenient point for Ahmad Shah for his military conquests in Hindustan. From 1748 to 1767, he invaded Hindustan eight times. He first crossed the Indus River in 1748, the year after his ascension – his forces sacked and absorbed Lahore. In 1749, Ahmad Shah captured the area of Punjab around Lahore. In the same year, the Mughal ruler was induced to cede Sindh and all of the Punjab including the vital trans-Indus River to him, in order to save his capital from being attacked by the forces of the Durrani Empire Having thus gained substantial territories to the east without a fight, Ahmad Shah and his forces turned westward to take possession of Herat, which was ruled by Nader Shah's grandson, Shah Rukh. The city fell to the Afghans in 1750, after almost a year of siege and bloody conflict; the Afghan forces then pushed on into present-day Iran, capturing Nishapur and Mashhad in 1751. Following the recapture of Mashhad in 1754, Ahmad Shah visited the eighth Imam's sepulchre and ordered repairs to be made. Ahmad Shah then pardoned Shah Rukh and reconstituted Khorasan, but a tributary of the Durrani Empire. This marked the westernmost border of the Afghan Empire as set by the Pul-i-Abrisham, on the Mashhad-Tehran road.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: The Mughal power in northern India had been declining since the reign of Aurangzeb, who died in 1707. In 1751–52, the "Ahamdiya" treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled large parts of India from their capital at Pune and Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Durrani sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought northwest of India up to Peshawar under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Durrani chose to return to India and confront the Maratha forces to regain northwestern part of the subcontinent.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: In 1761, Durrani set out on his campaign to win back lost territories. The early skirmishes ended in victory for the Afghans against the Maratha garrisons in northwest India. By 1759, Durrani and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a battle for control of northern India. The Third battle of Panipat was fought between Durrani's Afghan forces and the Maratha forces in January 1761, and resulted in a decisive Durrani victory.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: The historical area of what is modern day Xinjiang consisted of the distinct areas of the Tarim Basin and Dzungaria, and was originally populated by Indo-European Tocharian and Eastern Iranian Saka peoples who practiced the Buddhist religion. The area was subjected to Turkification and Islamification at the hands of invading Turkic Muslims. Both the Buddhist Turkic Uyghurs and Muslim Turkic Karluks participated in the Turkification and conquest of the native Buddhist Indo-European inhabitants of the Tarim Basin. The Turkic Muslims then proceeded to conquer the Turkic Buddhists in Islamic holy wars and converted them to Islam. The mixture between the invading Turkic peoples and the native Caucasian Indo-European inhabitants resulted in the modern day Turkic speaking hybrid Europoid-East Asian inhabitants of Xinjiang. The Turkification was carried out in the 9th and 10th centuries by two different Turkic Kingdoms, the Buddhist Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho and the Muslim Karluk Kara-Khanid Khanate. Halfway in the 10th century the Saka Iranic Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan came under attack by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanid ruler Musa, and in what proved to be a pivotal moment in the Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin, the Karakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: The Turkic Muslim sedentary people of the Tarim Basin of Altishahr were originally ruled by the Chagatai Khanate while the nomadic Buddhist Dzungar Oirats in Dzungaria ruled over the Dzungar Khanate. The Naqshbandi Sufi Khojas, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as the ruling authority of the Tarim Basin in the early 17th century. There was a struggle between two factions of Khojas, the Afaqi (White Mountain) faction and the Ishaqi (Black Mountain) faction. The Ishaqi defeated the Afaqi, which resulted in the Afaqi Khoja inviting the 5th Dalai Lama, the leader of the Tibetan Buddhists, to intervene on his behalf in 1677. The 5th Dalai Lama then called upon his Dzungar Buddhist followers in the Zunghar Khanate to act on this invitation. The Dzungar Khanate then conquered the Tarim Basin in 1680, setting up the Afaqi Khoja as their puppet ruler.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Khoja Afaq asked the 5th Dalai Lama when he fled to Lhasa to help his Afaqi faction take control of the Tarim Basin (Kashgaria). The Dzungar leader Galdan was then asked by the Dalai Lama to restore Khoja Afaq as ruler of Kashgararia. Khoja Afaq collaborated with Galdan's Dzungars when the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin from 1678 to 1680 and set up the Afaqi Khojas as puppet client rulers. The Dalai Lama blessed Galdan's conquest of the Tarim Basin and Turfan Basin.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Since 1680 the Dzungars had ruled as suzerain masters over the Tarim, for 16 more years using the Chagatai as their puppet rulers. The Dzungars used a hostage arrangement to rule over the Tarim Basin, keeping as hostages in Ili either the sons of the leaders like the Khojas and Khans or the leaders themselves. Although the Uighur's culture and religion was left alone, the Dzungars substantially exploited them economically . The Uighurs were forced with multiple taxes by the Dzungars which were burdensome and set by a determined amount, and which they did not even have the ability to pay. They included water conservancy tax, draught animal tax, fruit tax, poll tax, land tax, tress and grass tax, gold and silver tax, and trade tax. Annually the Dzungars extracted a tax of 67,000 tangas of silver from the Kashgar people in Galdan Tseren's reign, a five percent tax was imposed on foreign traders and a ten percent tax imposed on Muslim merchants, people had to pay a fruit tax if they owned orchards and merchants had to pay a copper and silver tax. Annually the Dzungars extracted 100,000 silver tangas in tax from Yarkand and slapped livestock, stain, commerce, and a gold tax on them. The Dzungars extracted 700 taels of gold, and also extracted cotton, copper, and cloth, from the six regions of Keriya, Kashgar, Khotan, Kucha, Yarkand, and Aksu as stated by Russian topographer Yakoff Filisoff. The Dzungars extracted over 50% of the wheat harvests of Muslims according to Qi-yi-shi (Chun Yuan), 30–40% of the wheat harvests of Muslims according to the Xiyu tuzhi, which labelled the tax as "plunder" of the Muslims. The Dzungars also extorted extra taxes on cotton, silver, gold, and traded goods from the Muslims besides making them pay the official tax. "Wine, meat, and women" and "a parting gift" were forcibly extracted from the Uighurs daily by the Dzungars who went to physically gather the taxes from the Uighur Muslims, and if they dissatisfied with what they received, they would rape women, and loot and steal property and livestock. Gold necklaces, diamonds, pearls, and precious stones from India were extracted from the Uighurs under Dāniyāl Khoja by Tsewang Rabtan when his daughter was getting married.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: 67,000 patman (each patman is 4 piculs and 5 pecks) of grain 48,000 silver ounces were forced to be paid yearly by Kashgar to the Dzungars and cash was also paid by the rest of the cities to the Dzungars. Trade, milling, and distilling taxes, corvée labor, saffron, cotton, and grain were also extracted by the Dzungars from the Tarim Basin. Every harvest season, women and food had to be provided to Dzungars when they came to extract the taxes from them.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: When the Dzungars levied the traditional nomadic Alban poll tax upon the Muslims of Altishahr, the Muslims viewed it as the payment of jizyah (a tax traditionally taken from non-Muslims by Muslim conquerors).


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: The Qing defeat of the Dzungars went hand in hand with the anti-Dzungar resistance of the ordinary Uighurs, "many of them, unable to bear their misery, which was like living in a sea of fire, fled but were not able to find a place to settle peacefully." The Uighurs carried out "acts of resistance" like hiding the goods which were collected as taxes or violently resisting the Dzungar Oirat tax collectors, but these incidents were infrequent and widespread anti-Dzungar opposition failed to materialize. Many opponents of Dzungar rule like Uighurs and some dissident Dzungars escaped and defected to Qing China during 1737–1754 and provided the Qing with intelligence on the Dzungars and voiced their grievances. Abdullāh Tarkhān Beg and his Hami Uighurs defected and submitted to Qing China after the Qing inflicted a devastating defeat at Chao-mo-do on the Dzungar leader Galdan in September 1696. The Uighur leader Emin Khoja (Amīn Khoja) of Turfan revolted against the Dzungars in 1720 while the Dzungars under Tsewang Rabtan were being attacked by the Qing, and then he also defected and submitted to the Qing. The Uighurs in Kashgar under Yūsuf and his older brother Jahān Khoja of Yarkand revolted in 1754 against the Dzungars, but Jahān was taken prisoner by the Dzungars after he was betrayed by the Uch-Turfan Uighur Xi-bo-ke Khoja and Aksu Uighur Ayyūb Khoja. Kashgar and Yarkand were assaulted by 7,000 Khotan Uighurs under Sādiq, the son of Jahān Khoja. The Uighurs supported the 1755 Qing assault against the Dzungars in Ili, which occurred at the same time as the Uighur revolts against the Dzungars. Uighurs like Emin Khoja, 'Abdu'l Mu'min and Yūsuf Beg supported the Qing attack against Dawachi, the Dzungar Khan. The Uch-Turfan UighurnBeg Khojis (Huojisi) supported the Qing General Ban-di against in tricking Davachi and taking him prisoner. The Qing and Amin Khoja and his sons worked together to defeat the Dzungars under Amursana.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: From the 17th century to the middle of the 18th century, between China proper and Transoxania, all the land was under the sway of the Dzungars. In Semirechye the Kyrgyz and Kazakahs were forcibly driven out by the Dzungars and the Kashgar Khanate was conquered. However, the Dzungar Empire was annihilated by Qing China from 1755 to 1758 in a formidable assault, ending the Central Asian states danger from the Dzungar menace. Uighur Muslims like Emin Khoja from Turfan revolted against their Dzungar Buddhist rulers and pledged allegiance to Qing China to deliver them from Dzungar Buddhist rule. The Qing crushed and annihilated the Dzungars in the Dzungar genocide.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: The Dzungar Buddhists brought back the Aqtaghliq Afaqi Khoja Burhan-ud-din and his brother Khan Khoja and installed them as puppet rulers in Kashgar. During the Qing's war against the Dzungars, Burhan-ud-din and his brother Khan Khoja then pledged allegiance to Qing China in exchange for delivering them from Dzungar rule. However, after the Qing defeated the Dzungars, the Afaqi Khoja brothers Burhan-ud-din and Khan Khoja reneged on the deal with the Qing, declared independence and revolted against the Qing. The Qing and loyal Uighurs like Emin Khoja crushed the revolt and drove Burhan-ud-din and Khan Khoja to Badakhshan. The Qing armies reached far in Central Asia and came to the outskirts of Tashkent while the Kazakh rulers made their submissions as vassals to the Qing. The Afaqi brothers died in Badakhshan and the ruler Sultan Shah delivered their bodies to the Qing. Ahmad Shah Durrani accused Sultan Shah of having caused the Afaqi brothers to die.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Durrani dispatched troops to Kokand after rumours that the Qing dynasty planned to launch an expedition to Samarkand, but the alleged expedition never happened and Ahmad Shah subsequently withdrew his forces when his attempt at an anti-Qing alliance among Central Asian states failed. Durrani then sent envoys to Beijing to discuss the situation regarding the Afaqi Khojas.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Ahmad Shah may have suffered a wound on his nose during a horse-riding accident in Kabul in 1768, or he may have developed the ingury due to a flaying brick when the Harimandar Sahib was destroyed with gunpowder, which gradually worsened and spread to other parts of his face, including his left eye. Following the advise of his physicians, he would spend part of the summer in the cooler climate of the Margha plain in the Toba Achakzai range during the last few years of his life. He died of his illness on 4 June 1772 (2 Rabi' al-Awwal 1186) in Maruf, Toba Achakzai, east of Kandahar.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: He was buried in the city of Kandahar adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak, where a large mausoleum was built. It has been described in the following way:


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Durrani's victory over the Marathas influenced the history of the subcontinent and, in particular, the policies of the East India Company in the region. His refusal to continue his campaigns deeper into India prevented a clash with the company and allowed them to continue to acquire power and influence after they established complete control over the former Mughal province of Bengal in 1793. However, fear of another Afghan invasion would influence Company policy-makers for almost half a century after the Battle of Panipat. The acknowledgment of Durrani's military accomplishments is reflected in an intelligence report made by Company officials on the Battle of Panipat, which referred to Ahmad Shah as the 'King of Kings'. This fear led in 1798 to a Company envoy being sent to the Persian court in part to instigate the Persians in their claims on Herat to forestall a possible Afghan invasion of India that might have halted Company expansion. Mountstuart Elphinstone wrote of Ahmad Shah:


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: His successors, beginning with his son Timur Shah and ending with Shuja Shah Durrani, proved largely incapable of governing the last Afghan empire and faced with advancing enemies on all sides. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah fell to others by the end of the 19th century. Timur Shah would consolidate the holdings of the Durrani Empire, and fight off civil war and rebellion throughout his reign, he would also lead multiple campaigns into Punjab to try and repeat his fathers success. After the death of Timur Shah, his son, Zaman Shah Durrani ascended to the throne, throughout his reign he would lose the outlying territories but also alienated some Pashtun tribes and those of other Durrani lineages. Zaman Shah would lead campaigns into Punjab, capturing Lahore, however due to internal strife, he was forced to withdraw on all attempts. Zaman Shah would later be deposed by Mahmud Shah Durrani, his brother, and the Durrani Realm would continue to disintegrate in the following years from progressive succession crises, usually between Timur Shah's sons, with Mahmud Shah Durrani, Zaman Shah Durrani, and Shah Shuja Durrani. Afghanistan would remain disunited Until Dost Mohammad Khan's ascendancy in 1826, chaos reigned in Afghanistan, which effectively ceased to exist as a single entity, disintegrating into a fragmented collection of small countries or units. Dost Mohammad throughout his reign had focused on re-uniting Afghanistan and had succeeded in doing so, with the Herat Campaign of 1862-63 in the recapture of Herat, and the eventual conquest of the Principality of Qandahar.


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: Durrani wrote a collection of odes in his native Pashto. He was also the author of several poems in Persian. One of his most famous Pashto poems was "Love of a Nation":


title: Ahmad Shah Durrani

text: During Nader Shah's invasion of India in 1739, Ahmad Shah also accompanied him and stayed some days in the Red Fort of Delhi. When he was standing "outside the Jali gate near Diwan-i-Am", Asaf Jah I saw him. He was "an expert in physiognomy" and predicted that Ahmad Shah was "destined to become a king". When Nader Shah learned of it, he "purportedly clipped" his ears with his dagger and made the remark "When you become a king, this will remind you of me". According to other sources, Nader Shah did not believe in it and asked him to be kind to his descendants "on the attaintment of royalty".


title: Lightweight (MMA)

text: For the sake of uniformity, most American mixed martial arts media outlets consider Lightweight competitors to be between 146 and 155 lb (66 and 70 kg). This encompasses The Shooto Welterweight division (154 lb / 70 kg).


title: Lightweight (MMA)

text: The UFC's lightweight division was reinstated at "UFC 58" after falling into disuse following "UFC 49". Sean Sherk, a former welterweight contender, defeated Kenny Florian at "UFC 64", becoming the first UFC lightweight champion since 2002.


title: Lightweight (MMA)

text: The lightweight limit, as defined by the Nevada State Athletic Commission and the Association of Boxing Commissions is 155 lb (70 kg).


title: Space Sweepers

text: Space Sweepers () is a 2021 South Korean space Western film directed by Jo Sung-hee, starring Song Joong-ki, Kim Tae-ri, Jin Seon-kyu and Yoo Hae-jin. Regarded as the first Korean space blockbuster, it was released on Netflix on February 5, 2021.


title: Space Sweepers

text: In the year 2092, Earth has become nearly uninhabitable. The UTS Corporation builds a new orbiting home for humanity that mimics the ecosystem on Earth; however, only an elite few are permitted to ascend and become UTS citizens, while those remaining on Earth breathe polluted air. Many non-citizens from all across the globe survive as space sweepers, collecting space debris floating in Earth's orbit and selling it to the company factory. The film follows a crew of space sweepers and their ship, the Victory.


title: Space Sweepers

text: Victory's crew includes Kim Tae-ho, Tiger Park and Bubs (an android), all led by Captain Jang. Mechanic Tiger Park was a drug baron on Earth, while Bubs, once a soldier, now helps repair the ship and cast the net for space junk while saving up to get a complete skin graft. Jang was one of the child geniuses sponsored by UTS and created several hi-tech inventions for the company but, after discovering how the company works, became a pirate and tried to assassinate James Sullivan, the CEO of UTS. Her crew was killed and Sullivan survived, so she changed identities and had an eye transplant. Tae-ho, once a child soldier, is on a search for his daughter Su-ni, who was ejected into space after debris collided with their station. His sole aim is to pay the authorities' recovery team to locate her body tracker before she drifts out of orbit and is lost in space forever.


title: Space Sweepers

text: After picking up a car floating in orbit, they discover a child in it, a robot named Dorothy, who contains a weapon of mass destruction created by the terrorist group Black Fox. The crew also finds a smartphone in Dorothy's bag with several missed calls from someone named Kang Hyeon-u. They call back and, assuming the other party belongs to Black Fox, negotiate two million dollars for returning Dorothy. Tae-ho and Tiger carry Dorothy to a night club to collect the ransom, but she wanders off. UTS soldiers stage a massacre at the club. Tiger and Tae-ho locate Dorothy when Soldier 01 zeroes in and shoots at them. Dorothy's eyes change color and the trio is protected from the blast by a sort of force field around them. Jang, watching through a feed on the ship, notices the man who came to collect Dorothy calling her Kot-Nim. The trio makes it back to the ship, where Dorothy admits that Kot-Nim is her Korean name. Tae-ho ignores her, while Tiger becomes friendly with her and suggests keeping her. Tae-ho dismisses the idea and goes to set up another call with Kang Hyeon-u to rearrange the exchange.


title: Space Sweepers

text: Jang finds papers in Dorothy's backpack and goes through them. Bubs puts makeup on Dorothy and tells her the story of Tae-ho: as a child soldier, he attacked and boarded a ship that carried several fleeing non-citizens, killing them all. He noticed a baby still alive in the arms of a dead woman and adopted the girl. She rekindled his humanity and Tae-ho found himself unable to hurt others - as a result, he was dismissed from the force, made homeless and reduced to a non-citizen. After a year of homelessness, Tae-ho became desperate and gambled, neglecting Su-ni. She wandered away to find a snack and was blown into space by a debris impact.


title: Space Sweepers

text: A masked man follows Kot-Nim to the toilet in the factory. Her screams alert Tae-ho and Tiger, who rush to save her but are ambushed by a group of masked people. Tiger beats them all and Jang intervenes, discovering they are other space junk collectors working with Black Fox. Their leader, Karum, explains that Black Fox is an environmental group rather than a terrorist organization and that Kot-Nim is not an android but a human child. Born with a congenital disease, her father Kang Hyeon-u injected her with nanobots found in space debris, which not only saved Kot-Nim but also gave her a unique power: she could communicate with other nanobots to heal and protect. Sullivan used Kot-Nim to terraform Mars. He now plans to kill Dorothy in a hydrogen bomb explosion since nanobots can only be destroyed by extreme high temperatures. Given the Earth's proximity, the explosion would cause the factory to fall onto the planet, destroying the Earth and making Mars the only viable option for humanity.


title: Space Sweepers

text: The crew decides to unite Kot-Nim with her father and disable the bomb with the help of the Black Foxes, who will locate and bring Dr. Kang to the meeting point. Soldiers attack them, but Tae-ho and Kot-nim manage to flee on the Victory. They enter a space debris field, where nanobots begin to consume their ship. Kot-nim communicates with them and the nanobots disperse. They enter the factory where the meet-up is scheduled, only to be ambushed. The UTS soldiers kill all the Black Foxes and Dr. Kang before kidnapping Kot-Nim. Sullivan gives Tae-ho four million dollars in return for abandoning Kot-Nim. Tae-ho takes the money, but the rest decide to save Kot-Nim. Tae-ho gives the money to the UTS officers, and they hand over Su-ni's clothes, crayons and writing book. In it, Su-ni had written that she wanted to be a good person like her father. This reminds Tae-ho of the promise he made to Su-ni, to be the best man she had ever known. He takes back the money and returns to the ship before they all go to save Kot-Nim.


title: Space Sweepers

text: Sullivan announces the colonization of Mars. Kot-Nim is strapped to the bomb, but the team frees her; however, Jang discovers that the bomb cannot be defused. It will not only destroy anything in its blast radius but also any nanobots within 5,000 kilometers. The only way Kot-Nim's nanobots (and her life) can be saved is if she is out of range. The team sets off to fly 5,000 km away, but are interrupted by Soldier 01; Tiger fights her and ejects her from the factory. The team send out a message to the rest of the Space Sweepers, who come to their aid, fighting the attacking troops. While the battle rages, the population of Earth and UTS colonies are shocked to learn of Sullivan's true goals when they hear a recording of him recounting his plan. The Victory is intercepted by Sullivan himself, who tries to fight the crew to get back Kot-Nim. When it seems they have lost the battle, Tiger and Tae-ho manage a final boost that puts the ship out of the blast range. The crew reveals that Kot-Nim was left safely behind with other Space Sweepers. The Victory had removed the bomb from the core and carried it away, ready to sacrifice their lives to save Earth and Kot-Nim. The bomb explodes, but Kot-Nim summons the nanobots to protect the Victory, saving the lives of the crew.


title: Space Sweepers

text: In the aftermath of the battle, with Sullivan dead, UTS publicly apologizes for the cover-up and promises to help make the Earth more habitable. Kot-Nim is adopted by the crew and, using her powers, enables Tae-Ho to say goodbye to Su-ni; Bubs gets her skin graft, Tiger and Tae-Ho take Kot-Nim down to Earth to help grow trees and they all continue space sweeping.


title: Space Sweepers

text: The film criticises capitalism. The process of the colonization of Mars in the film has been compared to billionaires prepping for an apocalypse. Avery Kaplan of ComicsBeat noted that "while capitalism may make the members of the Victory crew more likely to go for each others’ throats, it can't completely eradicate their intrinsic morality" and pointed to Bubs' arc as showcasing the barriers to trans healthcare that exist under capitalism. Kambole Campbell of Polygon notes that "one of the film’s most striking elements is its casual multiculturalism. Characters from presumably dissolved nations speak to each other in a mix of their native languages, while English mostly appears as the language of power and of the film’s white antagonists."


title: Space Sweepers

text: Jo Sung-hee started writing the story 10 years prior to the film's release, after a friend talked to him about the dangers of space junk. He said that "It started with the idea of space travelers collecting space junk. I heard about how these fast-moving fragments of space debris are growing and leading to in-space collisions. I realized that this subject has already been dealt with in animations and games, but never in a film. I started writing the script wondering how Koreans, who possess a tenacious mentality, would approach this problem."


title: Space Sweepers

text: In May 2019, the Chinese multinational entertainment company Huayi Tencent invested $4.2 million in the film. The visual effects company Dexter Studios, which was behind the production of the films "", "Ashfall" and "Wandering Earth", was hired for "Space Sweepers".


title: Space Sweepers

text: In June 2018, it was reported that Song Joong-ki agreed to star in Jo Sung-hee's next film, making it their second collaboration after "A Werewolf Boy" (2012). Kim Tae-ri was offered the role of the spaceship captain in January 2019, followed by Jin Seon-kyu for the role of the keeper in April. The final lineup was confirmed in June 2019, with Yoo Hae-jin joining the main cast in the form of robotic motion capture and voice acting. English actor Richard Armitage also revealed through his Instagram account that he would start filming in July 2019, making "Space Sweepers" his first Korean film.


title: Space Sweepers

text: In June 2020, it was announced that the release was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic with a plan for the film to premiere during the Chuseok holiday. In August 2020, the release was once again postponed due to the increase of COVID-19 cases in South Korea.


title: Space Sweepers

text: In November 2020, it was announced that the film would be released exclusively on Netflix. "Space Sweepers" was released on February 5, 2021.


title: Space Sweepers

text: The film debuted at No. 1 on Netflix in at least 16 countries including France, Malaysia, Croatia, South Korea and Philippines. The movie also dominated Netflix's daily top 10 rankings in 80 countries upon its premiere. Space Sweepers also gathered more than 26 million household viewers on Netflix during the first 28 days of its release.


title: Space Sweepers

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads, "As a story, "Space Sweepers" isn't as adventurous as its star-navigating protagonists -- but relatable characters and impressive effects keep it from drifting out of orbit." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100, based on reviews from 4 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Space Sweepers

text: Zaki Hasan of IGN argued that "even as [the film is] a concoction of various familiar sci-fi tropes, they’ve been reassembled with verve and passion enough to sand down any cynicism when taking it all in." Dais Johnston of Inverse argued that the film "proves that Netflix's big bet on international audiences is paying off." Gavia Baker-Whitelaw of The Daily Dot compared the film to Cowboy Bebop and Guardians of the Galaxy, arguing that the film was "hardly groundbreaking stuff" but that "there’s always something fun to look at on-screen," and praising the diversity of the characters, stating that the film "feels far more international than most Hollywood blockbusters." Karen Han of Slate stated that the film was "one of the rare space operas that doesn’t posit that English has somehow become a universal language" and that Bubs' arc "feels like one small step for transgender representation and, arguably, a giant one for blockbuster filmmaking from any nation."


title: Space Sweepers

text: A webtoon based on the film premiered on May 26, 2020, on Daum and KakaoPage. It premiered globally on February 8, 2021.


title: Southern Africa

text: Southern Africa is the southernmost subregion of the African continent, south of the Congo and Tanzania. The physical location is the large part of Africa to the south of the extensive Congo River basin. Southern Africa is home to a number of river systems; the Zambezi River being the most prominent. The Zambezi flows from the northwest corner of Zambia and western Angola to the Indian Ocean on the coast of Mozambique. Along the way, the Zambezi River flows over the mighty Victoria Falls on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Victoria Falls is one of the largest waterfalls in the world and a major tourist attraction for the region.


title: Southern Africa

text: Southern Africa includes both subtropical and temperate climates, with the Tropic of Capricorn running through the middle of the region, dividing it into its subtropical and temperate halves. Countries commonly included in Southern Africa include Angola, Botswana, the Comoros, Eswatini, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In cultural geography, the island country of Madagascar is often not included due to its distinct language and cultural heritage.


title: Southern Africa

text: In political geography, the term "Southern Africa" generally includes Angola, Botswana, the Comoros, Eswatini (formerly known as Swaziland), Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte (France), Mozambique, Namibia, Réunion (France), Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom), the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean (France), South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. However, the United Nations geoscheme for Africa includes the Comoros, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Réunion, the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean (as a part of the French Southern Territories), Zambia, and Zimbabwe in Eastern Africa, Angola in Middle Africa (aka Central Africa), and Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (under the name Saint Helena) in Western Africa instead. Some atlases include Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe in Central Africa instead of Southern or Eastern Africa.


title: Southern Africa

text: Occasionally, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Seychelles, and Tanzania have also been included in Southern Africa.


title: Southern Africa

text: In physical geography, the geographical delineation for the subregion is the portion of Africa south of the Cunene and Zambezi rivers: Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and the part of Mozambique which lies south of the Zambezi River. That definition is most often used in South Africa for natural sciences and particularly in guide books such as Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa, the Southern African Bird Atlas Project and Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. It is not used in political, economic or human geography contexts because the definition cuts Mozambique in two.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Southern African Customs Union (SACU), created in 1969, also comprises the five states in the UN subregion of Southern Africa.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Southern African Development Community (SADC) was established in 1980 to facilitate co-operation in the region. It includes:


title: Southern Africa

text: The Democratic Republic of the Congo is generally included in Central Africa while Seychelles and Tanzania are more commonly associated with Eastern Africa, but these three countries have occasionally been included in Southern Africa, as they are the SADC members.


title: Southern Africa

text: The terrain of Southern Africa is varied, ranging from forest and grasslands to deserts. The region has both low-lying coastal areas, and mountains.


title: Southern Africa

text: In terms of natural resources, the region has the world's largest resources of platinum and the platinum group elements, chromium, vanadium, and cobalt, as well as uranium, gold, copper, titanium, iron, manganese, silver, beryllium, and diamonds.


title: Southern Africa

text: Southern Africa is set apart from other Sub-Saharan African regions because of its mineral resources, including copper, diamonds, gold, zinc, chromium, platinum, manganese, iron ore, and coal. Countries in Southern Africa are larger in geographic area, except three smaller landlocked states: Lesotho, Swaziland, and Malawi. The larger states- South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Namibia, and Angola—all have extensive mineral deposits.


title: Southern Africa

text: These widespread mineral resources make this one of the wealthiest regions of Africa with the greatest potential for economic growth. A chain of mineral resources in Southern Africa stretches from the rich oil fields in northwest Angola, east through the central diamond-mining region in Huambo Province, and into the Copper Belt region of Zambia and Congo. A region of rich mineral deposits continues to the south called the Great Dyke in central Zimbabwe, through the Bushveld basin into South Africa. This extends southwest through the Witwatersrand and Northern Cape of South Africa toward the southern coast. Mining activity exists across the eastern region. Diamond mining is found in parts of Botswana and along the Namibian coast. Coal can also be found in central Mozambique, Zimbabwe and northeast South Africa.


title: Southern Africa

text: The climate of the region is broadly divided into subtropical and temperate regions in the north and south respectively, but also includes humid subtropical, a Mediterranean climate, highland subtropical, oceanic, desert and semi-arid regions. Except for lower regions of Zambia and interior regions of Namibia and Botswana, the region rarely suffers from extreme heat. In addition to that, the winter presents mostly mild and dry, except in the southwest. Cool southeasterly winds and high humidity bring cool conditions in the winter. Also the Namib Desert is the driest area in the region.


title: Southern Africa

text: Altitude plays an outsize role in moderating the temperatures of the South African Highveld, Lesotho and much of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The prairie region of central and northeast South Africa, Zimbabwe and parts of Zambia is known are known as the veldt, divided into the Bushveld and Highveld regions.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Western Cape has a Mediterranean vegetation and climate, including the unique fynbos, grading eastward into an oceanic climate along the Garden Route to Gqeberha and East London. The Namib and Kalahari deserts form are arid lands in the centre-west separating the highlands, woodlands, croplands and pastures of wetter and higher East from the Atlantic Ocean. In addition, the Drakensberg and Eastern Highlands separate the highland areas and coastal plains centered on Mozambique in the north and KwaZulu-Natal to the south, the latter of which are often prone to flooding every few years. In the east the river systems of the Zambezi and Limpopo basin form natural barriers and sea-lanes between Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe.


title: Southern Africa

text: East and southern Africa are among the earliest regions where modern humans (Homo sapiens) and their predecessors are believed to have lived. In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans, representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East and South Africa.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c. 1075–c. 1220) was one of the earliest state in the South African region. It was located at between the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers. The name is derived from either TjiKalanga and Tshivenda. The kingdom is thought to have existed as the first class-based social system within the region. Society was mainly centered around family and farming. The kingdom would culminate to the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century. And at its height the capital's population was about 5000 people. There are no written records from the kingdom and what historians and archeologists know of the state is from the remains of buildings.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Kingdom of Zimbabwe (c. 1220–1450) was a Shona (Karanga) kingdom in what is today Zimbabwe. The capital, which sits near present-day Masvingo, is located at Great Zimbabwe, which are the largest stone structure in precolonial Southern Africa. This kingdom came after the collapse of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe. During the decline of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, two powers emerged, one in the north (Kingdom of Mutapa from 1430–1760) which had improved on Zimbabwe's administrative structure; and the other in the south (Kingdom of Butua from 1450–1683) which was a smaller entity than the former two, the kingdom was governed by the Torwa dynasty and its capital was situated at Khami. Both states would eventually be absorbed by the powerful Shona state, the Rozwi Empire by 1683. The economy was based on cattle herding, farming, and gold mining. The empire lasted until 1866, which came after droughts and instability.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Mthethwa Paramountcy was an African state that emerged in the late 18th-century in the region of present-day KwaZulu-Natal. The state was consolidated and extended under the rule of Dingiswayo who produced a disciplined and highly organised army for the first time in the region.


title: Southern Africa

text: The Zulu Kingdom rose under the leadership of Shaka and covered most of present-day KwaZulu-Natal in the 19th century. Internal conflict arose in the 1820s between Shaka's half-brothers Dingane and Mhlangana due to a succession dispute. Boer settlers began arriving northwards of the Orange River in the 1830s, this led to conflicts between the two peoples and resulted in the Battle of Blood River in 1838. The kingdom fell during the Anglo-Zulu War of the late 19th-century.


title: Southern Africa

text: In the aftermath of World War II, the colonial powers came under international pressure to decolonize. The transfer to an African majority, however, was complicated by the settlement of white peoples. After an initial phase from 1945 to 1958, as a consolidation of white power, decolonization succeeded in its achievement when High Commission territories and overseas departments such as Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho, Mauritius, Swaziland, Madagascar and the Comoros became independent states from British and French rule. The brutal struggle for independence in the colonial territories led to the independence of new states of Angola and Mozambique as well as Southern Rhodesia, which declared independence as Zimbabwe in 1980. The denouement of South West Africa achieved independence as Namibia in 1990 and the black majority in South Africa took power after the democratic elections in 1994, therefore ending the Apartheid regime. From the end of the period of colonial rule, imperial interests controlled the economies of the region and South Africa became


title: Southern Africa

text: the dominant economic power in the late 20th century. The 21st century has seen attempts to create unity among nations in Southern Africa. In spite of democracy, violence, inequality and poverty still persist throughout the region.


title: Southern Africa

text: The region is distinct from the rest of Africa, with a robust mining sector and comparatively developed secondary and tertiary sectors. Additionally many countries (with the exception of Mozambique and Malawi in particular) have relatively well developed infrastructure. Some of its main exports including platinum, diamonds, gold, copper, cobalt, chromium and uranium, Southern Africa still faces some of the problems that the rest of the continent does. Despite this, diamond production has fueled the economies of Botswana and Namibia, for example.


title: Southern Africa

text: Over the 20th century, the region developed a robust manufacturing sector, focused on South Africa and Zimbabwe, which allowed greater prosperity and investments into infrastructure, education and healthcare that elevated both nations into middle income economies and captured growing markets across Africa. However, since the 1990s these industries have struggled in the face of globalization and cheaper imports from China, leading to job losses particularly in heavy industry, gold mining and textiles. Zimbabwe in particular has seen significant deindustrialization as a result of factors both domestic and foreign. While colonialism has left its mark on the development over the course of history, today poverty, corruption, and HIV/AIDS are some of the biggest factors impeding economic growth. In addition, South Africa and Zimbabwe in particular, face high emigration among their skilled workers leading to a significant brain drain to western economies and billions lost in human capital flight. The pursuit of economic and political stability is an important part of the region's goals, as demonstrated by the SADC, however complete regional integration remains an elusive target.


title: Southern Africa

text: In terms of economic strength, South Africa is the dominant economy of the region. Generally, mining, agriculture, the public sector and tourism dominate the economies of Southern African countries, apart from South Africa which has mature and flourishing financial, retail, and construction sectors. Zimbabwe maintains a smaller banking and real estate sector along with what remains of its manufacturing industry, despite a protracted economic crisis. Most global banks have their regional offices for Southern Africa based in Johannesburg. Over the years, some the other Southern African nations have invested in economic diversification, and invested public funds into rail, road and air transportation as part of a concerted effort through SADC to boost regional trade and improve communication and transportation. The countries in this region also belong to the Southern Africa Power Pool, which facilitates the development of a competitive electricity market within the SADC region and ensures sustainable energy developments through sound economic, environmental and social practices. The main objective of the power pool is to develop a world class, robust and safe interconnected electrical system across the Southern African Region. According to a report by Southern Africa Power Pool, the three largest producers of electricity in Southern Africa as at 2017, include Eskom in South Africa with an estimated 46,963MW, Zesco in Zambia with 2,877MW and SNL of Angola with 2,442MW. Whilst moderately successful by African standards, the region largely lags behind their Asian counterparts in innovation, foreign direct investment, STEM sciences and research and development.


title: Southern Africa

text: Southern Africa has a wide diversity of ecoregions including grassland, bushveld, karoo, savannah and riparian zones. Even though considerable disturbance has occurred in some regions from habitat loss due to human population density or export-focused development, there remain significant numbers of various wildlife species, including white rhino, lion, African leopard, impala, kudu, blue wildebeest, vervet monkey and elephant. It has complex Plateaus that create massive mountain structures along the South African border.


title: Southern Africa

text: There are numerous environmental issues in Southern Africa, including air pollution and desertification.


title: Southern Africa

text: Southern Africa is home to many people. It was initially populated by indigenous or native Africans San, Khoikhoi and Pygmies in widely dispersed concentrations. Due to the Bantu expansion which edged the previous native African peoples to the more remote areas of the region, the majority of African ethnic groups in this region, including the Xhosa, Zulu, Tsonga, Swazi, Northern Ndebele, Southern Ndebele, Tswana, Sotho, Northern Sotho, Shona people, Mbundu, Ovimbundu, Shona, Chaga and Sukuma, speak Bantu languages. The process of colonization and settling resulted in a significant population of native European (Afrikaner, British, Portuguese Africans, etc.) and Asian descent (Cape Malays, Indian South Africans, etc.) in many southern African countries.


title: Southern Africa

text: Some key factors affecting the food security within the regions including political instability, poor governance, droughts, population growth, urbanisation, poverty, low economic growth, inadequate agricultural policies, trade terms and regimes, resource degradation and the recent increase in HIV/AIDS.


title: Southern Africa

text: These factors vary from country to country. For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has favourable climatic and physical conditions, but performs far below its capacity in food provision due to political instability and poor governance. In contrast, semi-arid countries such as Botswana and Namibia, produce insufficient food, but successfully achieve food security through food imports due to economic growth, political stability and good governance. The Republic of South Africa is a major food producer and exporter in the region.


title: Southern Africa

text: Data on agricultural production trends and food insecurity especially in term of food availability for Southern Africa is readily available through the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) and Southern African Development Community (SADC) - Food, Agriculture and Nature Resource Directorate (FARN). However, this data might not fully capture the reality of a region with large urban populations and where food insecurity goes beyond per-capita availability to issues of access and dietary adequacy.


title: Southern Africa

text: Urban food security has been noted as an emerging area of concern in the region, with recent data showing high levels of food insecurity amongst low-income households. In a study of eleven cities in nine countries: Blantyre, Cape Town, Gaborone, Harare, Johannesburg, Lusaka, Maputo, Manzini, Maseru, Durban, and Windhoek, only 17% of households were categorized as ‘food-secure’ while more than half (57%) of all households surveyed were found to be ‘severely food-insecure’.


title: Southern Africa

text: Some factors affecting urban food insecurity include climate change with potential impact on agricultural productivity, the expansion of supermarkets in the region, which is changing the way people obtain food in the city, rural-to-urban migration, unemployment, and poverty. The issue of food insecurity in general and urban food insecurity in particular in the region is also characterized by an increased consumption of caloric junk food and processed foods leading to potential increase in the co-existence of undernutrition and dietary-related chronic diseases such as obesity and hypertension. In South Africa for example, while over 50% experience hunger, 61% are overweight or morbidly obese. There is only limited data on the other Southern African countries.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Paul Joseph Watson (born 24 May 1982) is a British far-right YouTuber, radio host, and conspiracy theorist. Until July 2016, Watson embraced the label "alt-right", but he now identifies as part of the new right. In May 2019, Facebook and Instagram permanently banned Watson for violation of hate speech policies.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Watson's career emerged through his work for conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones. As editor-at-large of Jones' website "InfoWars", he helped promote fake news and advocated for 9/11, chemtrail, and New World Order conspiracy theories. Subsequently, reaching a significant audience, both Watson and Jones altered their focus. They now mainly focus on criticizing feminism, Islam, and left-wing politics. Watson also contributes to "InfoWars"s talk radio program "The Alex Jones Show", which he occasionally hosts or co-hosts. Watson has been working at "InfoWars" since October 2002.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Since 2011, Watson has hosted his own YouTube channel, "prisonplanetlive", on which he expresses his views on topics such as contemporary society, politics, and modern liberalism in an often mocking manner. He rose to prominence on his YouTube channel by criticizing and mocking the "woke mob", social justice warriors, feminism and anti-racist movements. As of January 2021, his channel has over 1.9 million subscribers.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: In a 2016 interview for a student newspaper in his native Sheffield, UK, Watson said he grew up on a council estate with little financial resources, and that by 18, he was teetotal and exercising 3 hours per day. However, a 2018 article for "The Daily Beast" said his birth certificate indicated the family lived in a house in Grenoside, a semi-rural district in the north of the city, which the Sheffield City Council stated they never owned. From just before the age of ten, Watson and his family lived in Loxley, another area of Sheffield.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Watson described his formative moment as when, at the age of 18, he watched "The Secret Rulers of the World", a documentary in which journalist Jon Ronson accompanied Alex Jones in infiltrating Bohemian Grove in California, a place where some conspiracy theorists believe global elites plot the New World Order. He has described British conspiracy theorist David Icke, whom he first read as a teenager, as the person who woke him up. Following the Ronson documentary, according to Watson, he started his own website Propaganda Matrix. He registered Global Propaganda Matrix, the company behind his website, in 2004. Watson has said he was first asked to contribute by Alex Jones in 2002, quickly becoming highly paid for his "InfoWars" work, according to the ex-wife of the site's founder.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Watson, along with Jones and "InfoWars" as a whole, has shifted from mainly commenting on conspiracy theories such as chemtrails, the New World Order and the Illuminati, to increasingly criticising feminism, Islam, and left-wing politics. Watson has been described as a member of "the new far-right" by "The New York Times", which wrote in August 2017 that his "videos are straightforward nativist polemics, with a particular focus on Europe" and convey his opposition to modernist architecture and modern art. Iman Abou Atta, director of the anti-Islamophobia group Tell MAMA, has said that Watson "has become 'the' nexus for anti-Muslim accounts that we have mapped... He has become an influencer in promoting information—much of it bizarre and untrue—which has been regurgitated by anti-Muslim and anti-migrant accounts time and time again."


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Watson previously described himself as a libertarian and supported Ron Paul in the 2012 presidential election. In a 2016 tweet, he said he no longer considered himself a libertarian because Gary Johnson "made the term an embarrassment." Watson has also called himself a conservative and considers modern-day conservatism a countercultural movement. In a November 2016 Facebook post, he differentiated between the New Right and the alt-right. He claimed that the alt-right "likes to fester in dark corners of subreddits and obsess about Jews, racial superiority and Adolf Hitler." He and Mike Cernovich have feuded with figures such as Richard B. Spencer and David Duke, who see white nationalism as necessary for the alt-right.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: Although he endorsed Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, Watson declared in a tweet on 6 April 2017, he was "officially OFF the Trump train" after Trump's decision to launch missile strikes on Syria in response to a Khan Shaykhun chemical attack several days earlier, believing Trump had reneged on his promise not to intervene in Syria. He said Trump was "just another deep state/Neo-con puppet". After a decrease in Twitter followers occurred, he denied he had "turned on Trump", saying he was only "off the Trump train in terms of Syria" and blaming the media for "fake news". He declared in a separate tweet he would shift his focus to ensuring French presidential candidate Marine Le Pen of the National Front would be elected in the 2017 election, which she lost. Donald Trump Jr. retweeted Watson's reference to French celebrities leaving France if Le Pen was elected and referred dismissively to similar reputed claims in the U.S. before Trump Sr. was elected.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: On 16 June 2018, Watson announced that he had joined the UK Independence Party along with Mark Meechan and Carl Benjamin.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: In 2016, Watson was an early proponent of allegations that Hillary Clinton suffers from numerous serious medical conditions, though he was unable to provide any evidence. Watson's part in the manufacture and dissemination of the rumour was taken up by the "National Enquirer" and mentioned in the mainstream media as part of a discussion of the role of rumour and conspiracy theory in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.


title: Paul Joseph Watson

text: In February 2017, Watson tweeted an offer to pay for a journalist to visit Sweden and stay in the "crime ridden migrant suburbs" of Malmö, if they think it would be safe. Many journalists took him up on the offer, and Watson chose New York journalist and videographer Tim Pool, who was already planning a similar investigation. Watson gave Pool $2,000 for the trip. Pool's findings contradicted Watson's claims.