title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: From 1905 the prime minister received extensive powers, with the opportunity to pursue their own policies and reforms. Pyotr Stolypin (in office: 1906–1911) gained a reputation as one of the strongest prime ministers - during his premiership he made several major (though controversial) reforms.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Though the Russian Constitution of 1906 established the State Duma (a representative house of parliament), the Government was not responsible to it. Although Sergei Witte and Pyotr Stolypin (at the beginning of his Premiership) each tried to form a coalition government of the largest political organizations, they did not succeed. The State Duma nevertheless tried to gain influence over the government. Conflict between the State Duma and the government became particularly evident during the first Premiership of Ivan Goremykin in 1906.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The position of Chairperson of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire lasted 12 years; during this time seven people took this post (one twice). The position lapsed after the February Revolution of March 1917, following the abdication of Nicholas II from the throne on and the formation that same day of the Provisional Government.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: During the Russian Provisional Government, the prime minister de facto headed the Russian state and was officially called the “Minister-Chairperson of the Russian Provisional Government". This position was held by only two people, Georgy Lvov and Alexander Kerensky.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The position lasted about six months, and after the October Revolution, was replaced by Chairperson of the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: During the reign of Vladimir Lenin, the Chairperson of the Council of People's Commissars was the de facto leader of the RSFSR (from 1922 to 1991).


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In 1946, the post of head of government was renamed Chairperson of the Council of Ministers. People who held those positions are sometimes referred to as the prime ministers. They may have also been referred to as premier of ministers, or simply premier.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Currently, the formal title of the prime minister is "Chairperson of the Government of the Russian Federation".


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In modern Russia, the prime minister is appointed by the president, with the consent of the State Duma. The prime minister is responsible to the president and regularly reports to them, however, they only report to the State Duma once a year.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: After the election of Boris Yeltsin, President of Russia, the head of the government was Yeltsin himself. He headed the Russian SFSR Government (16 May 1992, the Government of the Russian Federation) for about six months. In fact, Yeltsin was the first Head of Government of Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; however, he was not the prime minister. After Yeltsin, Yegor Gaidar became acting prime minister, but the Russian Supreme Soviet refused to approve him as prime minister. On 14 December 1992, the prime minister appointed was Viktor Chernomyrdin.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The Russian political system is similar to the modern French system. For the appointment of the prime minister the president needs a majority in the state Duma. If the party president does not have the majority and fails to form a coalition, the president may need to appoint a loyalist to the position of prime minister. For example, this occurred in 1998 when the state Duma (which had most of the opposition to the president of the party) twice refused to appoint Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin, and Boris Yeltsin appointed Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov, who supported the left opposition.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In the mid-1990s in Russia there was a term "technical prime minister". This term refers to the prime minister, who is not an independent political figure, is only the nominal head of government, and in fact the activities of the government are headed by the president.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In general, the prime minister serves more of an administrative role, nominating members of the Cabinet and taking the lead in fully implementing domestic and foreign policy as formulated by the president. In accordance with the federal constitutional law "On the Government of the Russian Federation" the prime minister exercises the following duties:


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Initially, the prime minister was appointed by the Emperor of Russia, without the consent of the candidate to the State Duma.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In Soviet times, the prime minister of the Russian SFSR was appointed by the Supreme Council after each election.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Currently the prime minister is appointed by the president of Russia, subject to the consent of the State Duma (before 1993 the Supreme Soviet). Unlike most other "prime ministers", who are also elected members of the legislative body or parliament, the Chairperson of the Government of Russia can be any Russian citizen, as long as they do not also hold citizenship of another country.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Under law, the president shall nominate a new Chairperson of the Government within two weeks of the resignation of a previous government or inauguration ceremony of president. The State Duma is to discuss the matter within two weeks of the nomination and make a decision. The procedure of granting consent by the parliament is usually preceded by several days of comprehensive consultations and interviews of the candidate by the parliamentary factions. Should the State Duma decide to give the president its approval, the president may immediately sign the respective appointment decree. Should the State Duma refuse to give its approval, the president will have to nominate another (or the same) candidate within one week of the rejection of the previous candidate.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Should the State Duma reject candidates nominated by the president for three times consecutively, the president shall dissolve it and call a new election, while the prime minister shall be appointed by the president without participation of the Duma. The State Duma may not be dissolved on these grounds during the first year after parliamentary elections, the last six months of the incumbent president's term, as well as in time of emergency, or war and in the event that the State Duma has initiated the impeachment of the incumbent president.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The prime minister may be dismissed by the president at any time at the president's discretion. The prime minister may also tender their resignation to the president on their own initiative. The president may reject such resignation and oblige them to continue their work. The prime minister and the whole government are constitutionally obliged to resign after the inauguration of a newly elected president. At the same time, the president has the right to dismiss both the entire government together with the prime minister, and only prime minister, retaining the government.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Under certain circumstances, the president may also theoretically be forced to dismiss the chairperson and the whole government under the pressure of the State Duma. For that to happen, the State Duma has to pass a censure motion against the government "twice" within three months. Normally, in this case the president has the right to choose whether to sack the government or to dissolve the Duma (and if the Duma passes the censure motion just once, the president may also choose "not to agree" with the decision of the Duma, which technically means that neither the cabinet nor the Duma are dismissed).


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: However, within one year after parliamentary elections the dissolution of the State Duma is impossible on these grounds. That is why in this case the president does not have any other option but to dismiss the government (even if they totally support it).


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Initially, the term of office of the prime minister was not formally established. The head of the government served in their post for as long as the Emperor thought necessary.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In Soviet times, the term of the prime minister was also unlimited. The Chairperson Council of Ministers of the Russian SFSR served in the position until he was dismissed by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: A term limit was introduced after the creation of the post of the president of Russia. Government became subordinate to the president, so the prime minister must resign along with the president, but may be appointed again. From 1991 to 1996, the maximum term of office of the prime minister was 5 years. After the new Constitution of Russia was created, the term of office of the president, and therefore the term of office of the prime minister, was shortened to 4 years. In 2012, after amendments to the Constitution the term of the president and prime minister was increased to 6 years.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The Federal constitutional law "On the Government of the Russian Federation" says "in the case of "temporary" absence of the Chairperson of the Government of the Russian Federation, their duties are performed by one of the deputy chairmen of the Government of the Russian Federation in accordance with a written distribution of responsibilities". It's automatically and President's Executive Order is not required in that moment. The Federal constitutional law "On the Government of the Russian Federation" does not limit the term of "temporary absence" of the prime minister and the term of work of the acting prime minister.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: There can be more than one First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia, therefore written distribution of responsibilities is the most important document. The office of First Vice-Premier is not provisioned by Constitution and it is not separate office. The Chapter 6 of the Constitution of Russia says, that "The Government of the Russian Federation consists of the Chairperson of the Government of the Russian Federation, "Deputy Chairperson of the Government of the Russian Federation" and federal ministries".


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The prime minister can leave their post at their own request or if it is impossible for them to exercise their powers. The Federal constitutional law "On the Government of the Russian Federation" says that the dismissal of the prime minister entails the resignation of the entire government. If the prime minister resigns, the president has the right to delegate their duties to one of their Vice-premiers. This situation cannot continue for more than two months – this period is reserved for the head of state to select a candidate for a new prime minister and submit it to The state Duma.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: In case of the president's death, resignation or impeachment, the prime minister becomes a temporary president until new presidential elections which must take place within three months. The prime minister as acting president may not dissolve the State Duma, announce a referendum or propose amendments to the Constitution.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The Russian Constitution does not explicitly specify who should become acting president if the prime minister is not appointed or is unable to perform his or her duties. Some believe that in the case of incapacity of the president and prime minister, the chairman of the Federation Council should become acting head of state. However, nowhere in the legislation is this fixed.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: Approximately 99 people have been head of the Russian government since its establishment in 1726. The chairperson of government was a member of the Supreme Privy Council, which was created on 8 (19) February 1726 by Empress Catherine, and from 8 (20) September 1802 ministerial duties were allocated by the Committee of Ministers, which was established on in accordance with the proclamation of Emperor Alexander II. Beginning with Count Aleksandr Romanovich Vorontsov, the eldest of the officers was "de facto" chairperson of the committee. Eight years after the inauguration of the manifest, the first "de jure" office holder was Count Nikolay Rumyantsev. The Council of Ministers was unofficially formed in October 1857, as a result of Emperor Alexander II's reforms; its first session began on 19 (31) December 1857. Before the actual formation of that body on 12 (24) November 1861, the Emperor himself was in charge. The Council of Ministers consisted of chairperson of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, as well as high-ranking officers appointed by the Emperor. The first session ended on 11 (23) December 1882, after the number of files to the Council greatly decreased.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The Committee of Ministers functioned simultaneously with the second session of the Council of Ministers for six more months; Count Sergei Witte participated on both entities until the abolition of the committee on 23 April (5 May) 1906. Following that event, the duties of the committee were left to the Council of Ministers, until the formation of the Small Council in 1909, which also included deputy ministers. By the order of Emperor Nicholas II, the second session of the Council of Ministers began on 19 October (1 November) 1905, following the formation of the State Duma. Shortly after the February Revolution and the inception of the Russian Provisional Government on 2 (15) March 1917, Georgy Lvov from the Constitutional Democratic Party and Alexander Kerensky from the Socialist Revolutionary Party became joint Minister-Chairmen. The provisional Russian Republic was eventually replaced by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and the governmental body by the Council of People's Commissars, which was chaired from 1917 to 1924 by Vladimir Lenin. That body was renamed Council of Ministers following a decree of the Supreme Council on 23 March 1946.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: After the fall of the Soviet Union, Boris Yeltsin, as the President of the Russian Federation, was automatically appointed as the Head of Government of the Russian Federation in the first two years of his mandate. The latter body took the previous name "Council of Ministers", the chairperson of which became Viktor Chernomyrdin, replacing acting chairperson Yegor Gaidar. According to the new constitution ratified on 25 December 1993, those two entities were separated. Since then, the head of that office takes the formal title "Chairmen of the Government" or colloquially "Prime Minister" (the only actual prime minister was Valentin Pavlov). Chernomyrdin resumed chairing the government, followed up by non-partisans and acting office holders. On 8 May 2008, Vladimir Putin took the office for a second term, now as a member of United Russia. Current Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin took the office on 16 January 2020.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: The youngest head of government by his accession to office was Count Karl-Fridrikh Golshteyn-Gottorpsky, at age 26, and the oldest Count Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy, at age 81.


title: Prime Minister of Russia

text: As of , eight former prime ministers remain alive. The most recent death of a former prime minister was that of Yevgeny Primakov (1998–1999) on 26 June 2015, aged 85.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: Choi Min-ho (; born December 9, 1991), better known by the mononym Minho, is a South Korean rapper, singer, actor, songwriter, and model. In May 2008, he debuted as a member of South Korean boy group Shinee which later became one of the best-selling Korean artists. Aside from group activities, he debuted as an actor in November 2010 in KBS2's drama special "Pianist". He has since landed roles in television series such as "Salamander Guru and The Shadows" (2012), "To the Beautiful You" (2012), "Medical Top Team" (2013), "My First Time" (2015), and "" (2016). He made his feature film debut in 2016 with "Canola". As a soloist, he has released the digital singles "I'm Home" (2019) and "Heartbreak" (2021). He released his debut solo EP, "Chase", in 2022.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: Choi was discovered at the SM Casting System in 2006 and modeled for Ha Sang-beg's Seoul Collection F/W 08–09 in March 2008. One month later, Choi was chosen as a member of the group Shinee. The five-member boy group debuted on May 25, 2008, on SBS' "Inkigayo". The group's first EP, "Replay", was released on May 22 and debuted on the Korean music charts MIAK at number ten, peaking at number eight. Choi began participating in the rap making of Shinee's songs with their first studio album "The Shinee World", under the guidance of rap instructor JQ. JQ praised Choi's writing ability and pointed out that he has many good ideas and "a few genius moments here and there". He was especially pleased with Choi's rap lyrics for Shinee's 2009 single "Juliette".


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2009 and 2010, Choi appeared in both the Korean and Japanese versions of Girls' Generation's music video "Gee". He was also featured in the music video of VNT's debut song "Sound" in 2010. In 2009, Choi joined the popular show "Let's Go! Dream Team" as a regular cast member.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2010, Choi joined the variety show "Oh! My School" as a cast member and began hosting the music program "Show! Music Core" alongside bandmate Onew, Miss A member Suzy and T-ara member Jiyeon. He made his acting debut in KBS2's drama special, entitled "Pianist", with actress Han Ji-hye. In 2011, Choi was cast in SBS' sitcom, "Salamander Guru and The Shadows". He played the role of a genius hacker.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2012, Choi was confirmed to take on the lead role, alongside f(x)'s Sulli and Lee Hyun-woo, in "To the Beautiful You", a Korean adaptation of the manga "Hana-Kimi".


title: Choi Min-ho

text: The drama started broadcasting on August 15, 2012, on SBS. In preparation for his role as a high jump gold medalist, Choi received personal training from coach Kim Tae-young, former national high jump athlete and a member of the Korea Association of Athletics Federations, for a month and a half. His personal record was 175 cm. In December 2012, Choi joined dance project group SM The Performance alongside labelmates from TVXQ, Super Junior, Shinee, and Exo.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: Choi began hosting the variety show "Mamma Mia" in April 2013, but departed after a month due to Shinee's touring schedule. He resumed his role as an MC on "Show! Music Core" after a two-year absence, this time hosting alongside Kim So-hyun and Noh Hong-chul. In July 2013, Choi returned to the small screen with MBC's "Medical Top Team". The drama received low ratings and was criticized for trying to tell too many stories at once and losing the main focal point of the story. However, Choi's acting performance received a positive response and was praised for his growth as an actor. In August, he participated in the reality series "Star Diving Show Splash", but it was cancelled after four episodes after several contestants were injured.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2015, Choi was cast as the lead in OnStyle's drama "My First Time" together with actress Park So-dam, which was broadcast in September. It was the first drama premiered by OnStyle, with a total of eight episodes.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In early 2016, Choi extended his popularity as an actor. He was cast in several projects, including a historical Korean drama entitled "", which began airing on December 19, 2016, on KBS2. His debut movie project titled "Canola", alongside Youn Yuh-jung and Kim Go-eun and directed by Yoon Hong-seung (pseudonym Chang), was filmed in 2015 and released on the big screen in May 2016. He was cast in a supporting role in a film entitled "The Princess and the Matchmaker", led by Lee Seung-gi and Shim Eun-kyung. The movie is the second installment in a planned trilogy by Jupiter Films after the 2013 box-office hit "The Face Reader".


title: Choi Min-ho

text: Choi was then cast in the movie "Derailed" alongside veteran actor Ma Dong-seok, which was directed by Lee Seong-tae and premiered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival. The movie had its world premiere screening at the 21st Busan International Film Festival in October 2016.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2017, Choi took part in the JTBC web drama entitled "Somehow 18" alongside Lee Yu-bi. As a result of high online viewer ratings of more than 870,000 views, the web drama was announced to be broadcast on television through JTBC on 8 October.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: After receiving a positive response for his acting performance in "Derailed", Choi was cast in science fiction action thriller "", the Korean adaptation of the Japanese anime "". Choi stated that he chose the role because he wanted to work with director Kim Jee-woon. The film released on July 25, 2018.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In September 2017, Choi received the Special Award at the due to his widespread popularity in the country as well as for his performances in various dramas. Choi was the first Korean artist to be presented an award at the show.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: Later that year, Choi was cast in a four episode mini drama "The Most Beautiful Goodbye", which is a remake of the 1996 drama of the same name.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2019, Choi held a fan meeting tour, Best Choi's Minho, covering four cities: Seoul on February 16, Tokyo on February 23–24, Bangkok on March 2 and Taipei on March 3, 2019. He concluded his tour with an additional fan meeting in Seoul on March 30. Choi released his debut solo single, "I'm Home", as part of SM Station on March 28. He joined the Marine Corps on April 15 for his mandatory military enlistment. The Republic of Korea Marine Corps recognized Choi as an "exemplary marine soldier" for forgoing early discharge to participate in defense drills. Choi completed his military service on November 15, 2020.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In January 2021, Choi resumed activities as part of Shinee. He also ramped up participation in various shows including a special appearance in web series "Lovestruck in the City" and main role in reality show "Law of the Jungle – Pioneers". In September 2021, Choi debuted as a radio host on Naver Now's broadcast of "Best Choice", a sports talk-variety where Minho, well known as an "athletic idol," delivers various sports news and talks with fans and various guests about "his favorite things." He made a special appearance in "Yumi's Cells" as Chae Woo-gi, the titular character's co-worker and crush. On December 21, 2021, Choi held the fan meeting Best Choi's Minho 2021 offline in Seoul and online through Beyond Live. Choi released the digital single "Heartbreak" on the same day.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In May 2022, Choi held a solo fan meeting, Shinee World J Presents "Best Choi's Minho" 2022, in Japan, in addition to performing two new songs. He appeared in the horror film "New Normal", directed by Jeong Beom-sik. It was selected as the closing film of the 26th Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival. His first Japanese songs, "Romeo and Juliet" and "Falling Free", were digitally released on August 24. Choi is set to star in the Netflix series "The Fabulous" alongside Chae Soo-bin. He released his debut solo EP, "Chase", on December 6, 2022.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: Choi graduated from Konkuk University's affiliated high school on February 10, 2010. After taking the college admissions test the previous year, he was admitted in 2010 to Konkuk's part-time admittance for the arts and culture film major and graduated in 2015. His father, Choi Yun-kyum, is a well-known South Korean soccer coach. Choi inherited his father's ability and showed his skills in shows like KBS2's "Our Town's Physical Variety" and won high praise from Lee Young-pyo, a retired member of the national team. Choi also led his team to victory at the Idol Futsal World Cup Competition. Originally, Choi wanted to become a professional football player like his father but he disapproved of his decision stating: "Frankly, I didn't want him to follow my path, [...] Back when I was playing, it was difficult to make it in that world, very abusive back in those days. I would stay home for a couple of hours and then be off to training camp. It pained me to see my son asking me to stay over for the night." His father also added that from the football manager's point of view, he didn't think his son had it in him to make it in that field, stating Minho is a strong-willed person, but has a small frame.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2011, he was named an Honorary Ambassador for Youth 2011. In 2014, Choi and Yoona were appointed as UNICEF Unihero Campaign Ambassadors "Giving Hope to the Children". In the same year, he was listed among the Top Korean Stars, receiving 300 million won as his annual advertising rate. In 2016, Choi was part of UNICEF's "#Imagine" campaign, which was first introduced in November 2014 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the United Nation's Convention on the Rights of the Child.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2015, Choi was selected as a model for NY luxury fashion brand Coach alongside Choi Soo-young and Victoria Song. He attended the Coach 2016 S/S fashion show in New York. Furthermore, he attended Gucci's 2017 F/W fashion show in Milan and Givenchy's 2018 fashion show in Paris, where he was listed among the best dressed celebrities.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In November 2017, Choi together with the First Lady of the United States Melania Trump attended the "Girls Play 2" campaign at the US embassy in Korea, an event organised to promote the 2018 Winter Olympics.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2018, Choi was chosen as the official face of the Korea Sale Festa, the largest shopping event in Korea, becoming the first-ever Korean idol to promote it.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In July 2021, the Korean Professional Football Federation appointed Choi as one of five K-League Ambassadors to help promote the league to the public.


title: Choi Min-ho

text: In 2022, the Korea Creative Content Agency together with the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism unveiled the second part of their immersive cultural project "Age of Light" in which Choi is appeared as a virtual figure in the artificial intelligence experience booth, "Gwanghwa In". Pernod Ricard Korea announced in January of the same year that they selected Ju Ji-hoon and Choi as the new brand ambassadors of the modern classic scotch whisky brand Ballantine's and launched the new global campaign "Time Well Spent".


title: Choi Min-ho

text: All songwriting credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database and liner notes unless otherwise noted.


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: Nicholas Simon Lyndhurst (born 20 April 1961) is an English actor. He began his career as a child actor and became best known for his role as Rodney Trotter in the sitcom "Only Fools and Horses" (1981–2003). He also had major roles in other sitcoms including "Goodnight Sweetheart" (1993–1999, 2016) (as Gary Sparrow), "Going Straight" (1978), "Butterflies" (1978–1983), "The Two of Us" (1986–1990), "The Piglet Files" (1990–1992) and "After You've Gone" (2007–2008). He starred in the comedy-drama series "Rock & Chips" (2010–2011) and co-starred in the procedural crime drama series "New Tricks" (2013–2015).


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: Lyndhurst won two National Television Awards for his role in "Goodnight Sweetheart", as well as being nominated for a British Comedy Award and three British Academy Television Awards for his role in "Only Fools and Horses".


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: Lyndhurst was born on April 20, 1961, to parents Joe and Liz, and raised in Emsworth, Hampshire. He is the grandson of Francis Lyndhurst, a theatrical scenery painter and film director, who set up an early film studio at Shoreham Fort, Shoreham-by-Sea. He attended East Wittering Primary School. He also attended Corona Theatre School in Hammersmith, London.


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: Lyndhurst appeared in various television adverts and children's films in the 1970s, before winning the starring role of Tom Canty/Prince Edward in a BBC Television version of "The Prince and the Pauper", directed by Barry Letts and transmitted in January 1976. Lyndhurst gained increased national recognition two years later in two BBC sitcom roles, Raymond Fletcher, the teenage son of Ronnie Barker's Norman Stanley Fletcher in "Going Straight", and Adam Parkinson, a son of Wendy Craig and Geoffrey Palmer in Carla Lane's "Butterflies".


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: Lyndhurst achieved national stardom in another BBC sitcom, "Only Fools and Horses", in which he played Rodney Trotter, the younger brother of the main character Derek "Del Boy" Trotter, played by David Jason. "Only Fools and Horses" first aired in 1981 and increased in popularity until it reached its peak in 1996 with its Christmas Day show in the UK. In a BBC poll in 2004, it was voted "Britain's Best Sitcom" by television viewers. Lyndhurst appeared in the show from the very start, right up to its final airing at Christmas 2003.(see IMDb)


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: In 1986, Lyndhurst had a minor part in the film "Gunbus/SkyBandits". The film went straight to video and was never seen in British cinemas. During the mid-1980s and 1990s, Lyndhurst also played Ashley Phillips in ITV's "The Two of Us" which co-starred Janet Dibley and MI5 agent Peter "Piglet" Chapman in "The Piglet Files", as well as in a number of stage performances.


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: From 1993 to 1999, he played the lead character of Gary Sparrow in the time travelling sitcom "Goodnight Sweetheart". At around the same time, he was the face and voice on the TV and radio commercials for the telecommunications chain People's Phone. Lyndhurst also admits declining an opportunity to play the lead role of Gary in the 1997 British film "The Full Monty".


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: From 1997 to 1999, Lyndhurst was the public face of the stationery chain store WH Smith, starring in their adverts as all four members of one family. He won a BAFTA for his acting in the adverts. In 1999, he played the villainous Uriah Heep opposite Daniel Radcliffe and Dame Maggie Smith in "David Copperfield".


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: In 2013 he joined the cast as a regular in the BBC Police procedural series "New Tricks" alongside Dennis Waterman and Tamzin Outhwaite.


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: In 2016, Lyndhurst revived his "Goodnight Sweetheart" character Gary Sparrow in a one-off special episode, which aired on 2 September 2016.


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: In 2017, Lyndhurst played the role of Star Keeper in Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Carousel" at the English National Opera. In 2019 he played the Governor/Innkeeper in "Man of La Mancha" for English National Opera at the London Coliseum opposite Kelsey Grammer as Cervantes/Quixote, Danielle de Niese as Aldonza/Dulcinea and Peter Polycarpou as Sancho.


title: Nicholas Lyndhurst

text: Lyndhurst lives in West Wittering, West Sussex, with his wife Lucy, a former ballet dancer. The couple married in Chichester, West Sussex, in 1999. Their son, Archie Lyndhurst (Born October 4, 2000) was also an actor appearing in "So Awkward". On 22 September 2020, Archie died from acute lymphoblastic leukaemia at the age of 19. In a statement, Lyndhurst said he and his wife were "utterly grief stricken and respectfully request privacy".


title: Lennie James

text: Lennie Michael James (born 11 October 1965) is a British actor, screenwriter, and playwright. His work includes playing Morgan Jones in the television series, "The Walking Dead" and in its spin-off, "Fear the Walking Dead", and starring as DCI Tony Gates in "Line of Duty" series one.


title: Lennie James

text: Among James' more notable roles in television is Glen Boyle in the medical drama "Critical" on Sky 1. On American television, he portrayed the mysterious Robert Hawkins in the CBS series "Jericho" and Detective Joe Geddes in the AMC television series "Low Winter Sun".


title: Lennie James

text: James created and starred in Sky Atlantic drama series "Save Me" which was released in 2018 to critical acclaim. Its second season, titled "Save Me Too", won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Drama Series 2021.


title: Lennie James

text: James was born in Nottingham, the son of Afro-Trinidadian parents. He lived in South London and attended school at Ernest Bevin College. James' mother, Phyllis Mary James, died when he was 10, after which he and his brother, Kester, chose to live in a children's home instead of being sent to the United States to reside with a relative. James remained in foster care for eight years.


title: Lennie James

text: James aspired to be a professional rugby player as a teen, and was introduced to acting after following a girl he was interested in to an audition for a play. James attended the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, graduating in 1988. While there, he helped run a campaign against the school's plan to expel another student, which he has said is the bravest thing he's ever done. "That involved being taken in front of the head and threatening to boycott a big event for the Lord Mayor, even though the head said it would mean they would throw me out," James said in 2015. He was once employed by the British government's social security office.


title: Lennie James

text: James has appeared in more than 20 films, including "Les Misérables" (1998), "Snatch" (2000), "24 Hour Party People" (2002), "Sahara" (2005), and "Outlaw" (2007). He starred in the 2010 film "Tic" and appeared in the action film "Colombiana" (2011) and the sci-fi film "Lockout" (2012).


title: Lennie James

text: On television, James appeared in the short-lived Channel 4 prison drama "Buried" (2003), the BBC terrorism drama "The State Within" (2006), the BBC spy drama "Spooks" (2002–2011), and he starred as Robert Hawkins in the CBS post-apocalyptic drama series "Jericho" (2006). James appeared in a Channel 4 television drama "Fallout" (2008), playing the role of a detective alongside another detective solving a teen-related murder. He also appeared in an episode of "Lie to Me", as well as the 2009 AMC/ITV miniseries "The Prisoner, of" which he said, "It wasn’t necessarily the easiest gig I’ve ever been on, but it was always acting." He appeared in HBO's comedy series "Hung" as a pimp.


title: Lennie James

text: James appeared in episodes of the 2010 TV series "Human Target" as the assassin Baptiste. In 2012, he received critical acclaim for his appearance as DCI Tony Gates in BBC Two's "Line of Duty", created by Jed Mercurio.


title: Lennie James

text: In 2010, he guest-starred as Morgan Jones in the pilot episode of the AMC series "The Walking Dead", titled "Days Gone Bye". In 2013, he reprised his role as Morgan Jones in an episode of the third season of "The Walking Dead" titled "Clear." On 12 October 2014, James made his return to the show in a post-credit scene at the end of the fifth-season premiere and appeared again in a single scene at the end of the mid-season finale on 30 November 2014. He returned for the fifth-season finale and played a significant role in the episode. Despite his few appearances on the show, James has received significant recognition for his portrayal of Morgan from critics and fans, including being stopped by a policeman who wanted to talk to him about the show. He returned as a main cast member in the show's sixth season until the eighth season. As of 15 April 2018, James appears as Morgan in the fourth season of Fear the Walking Dead as a series regular.


title: Lennie James

text: On 29 March 2015, James' character was featured throughout the fifth-season finale. The actor's post-show appearance on the "Talking Dead"—in which he did not speak with an American accent—caused the hashtag #morganisbritish to trend on Twitter.


title: Lennie James

text: James stars as Dr. Boyle on the medical drama "Critical", also created by Mercurio, which debuted on Sky 1 in February 2015. He spent nearly a year away from his home in Los Angeles to film the series. Each episode takes place in "real time," with the medical staff having to save a life in an hour. James spent a week shadowing doctors at a London hospital to prepare for the role.


title: Lennie James

text: James said his favorite television show of all time is the 1980s police drama "Hill Street Blues", telling the "Daily Express", "It’s the one that spawned every other show. It’s the Muhammad Ali or Pelé of television shows."


title: Lennie James

text: James wrote the autobiographical TV film, "Storm Damage" in 2000, which was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series. "Storm Damage" depicts a teacher who tries to go back to the foster home he left and help the teenagers there, as James did. He also wrote the play "The Sons of Charlie Paora", which opened at London's Royal Court Theatre in 2004.


title: Lennie James

text: James has also portrayed the "Destiny" and "Destiny 2" character Lord Shaxx who is the host of the in-game PVP (Player Versus Player) "The Crucible" in which he voices over matches and also has an in game vendor to purchase items, and bounties. In an interview with "GameSpot", Lennie stated his favorite line in the game, was in fact a line straight out of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet". The line in question is in game as "But soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and I--I am the Crucible."


title: Lennie James

text: James lives in Los Angeles, California with wife Giselle Glasman. They have three daughters together. He is the main cook for his family and has professed a fondness for Caribbean cuisine. He is a fan of Tottenham Hotspur FC and Valencia Club de Fútbol (from Spain).


title: Lennie James

text: James is among the celebrities who have penned an open "letter to my younger self" for "The Big Issue" magazine. In his letter in March 2015, he wrote about the pain of losing his mother at a young age. "It hit me quite strongly. It had just been the three of us: my brother, my mum and me. Everything changed when the terrible thing happened. It had a profound, fundamental effect on me. One disappointment is that I never knew my mum as an adult," he wrote.


title: Lennie James

text: James also works as a mentor to black inner-city children, and says he rejects the importance people attach to fame and celebrity. "Boys and men in our community need to be aware of the guy who gets up every morning and goes to the job that he doesn't necessarily love, in order to support his family. They are the heroes my community need to celebrate," he said.


title: E-40

text: Earl Tywone Stevens Sr. (born November 15, 1967), better known by his stage name E-40, is an American rapper. He is a founding member of the rap group The Click, and the founder of Sick Wid It Records. He has released 26 studio albums to date, appeared on numerous movie soundtracks, and has also done guest appearances on a host of other rap albums. Initially an underground artist, his 1995 solo album "In a Major Way" opened him up to a wider audience. Beginning in 1998, he began collaborating with mainstream rappers outside the San Francisco Bay Area. He rose to higher mainstream popularity in 2006 with his single "Tell Me When to Go", which was produced by Lil Jon.


title: E-40

text: Earl Tywone Stevens was born in Vallejo, California. He grew up with his siblings raised by a divorced mother who worked three jobs, and he became interested in hip hop after hearing "Rapper's Delight" by the Sugarhill Gang. Beginning in fourth grade, Stevens played the snare and bass drum. He graduated from James J. Hogan High School in Vallejo in 1985. Stevens played baseball in high school, recorded music with his siblings, and sold their recordings from the back of a car. After high school, Stevens enrolled at Grambling State University in 1986 with his cousin Brandt Jones and attended the school for one year.


title: E-40

text: Stevens made his rap debut as E-40 in 1986 with Jones (performing as B-Legit), sister Suga T, and brother D-Shot in the group Most Valuable Players. After impressing fellow students with a rap remix of the school song and a Grambling State talent show, Most Valuable Players released a single, "The King's Men". The group later became the Click and released the EP "Let's Side" in 1990. The EP was co-produced by Mike Mosley and Al Eaton and was released on Sick Wid It Records, an independent label founded by E-40. In 1992 they released a second album, "Down and Dirty", and in 1993 E-40 made his solo album debut. "Federal", a nine-track LP/14-track CD produced by Studio Ton and released by Sick Wid It Records in association with SMG (Solar Music Group), a regional distributor.


title: E-40

text: In 1993 the Click had mainstream hit, "Captain Save a Hoe" (radio edit "Captain Save Them Thoe"). They moved back to Vallejo and teamed up with D-Shot, E-40's brother, to form the group MVP or Most Valuable Players. E-40's gospel singing uncle (Saint Charles) helped them put out the record. Suga-T was then added to the group to form the Click. Synonymous with Bay Area rap, E-40 garnered a regional following, and eventually a national one, with his flamboyant raps, while his entrepreneurial spirit, embodied by his homegrown record label, Sick Wid It Records, did much to cultivate a flourishing rap scene to the east of San Francisco Bay, in communities such as Oakland and his native Vallejo. Along with Too Short, Spice 1, and Ant Banks, E-40 was among the first West Coast rappers to sign a major-label deal, penning a deal with Jive Records in 1994, after years of releasing music independently. Thus, six additional solo albums were to follow, beginning with "In a Major Way" in 1995 as well as remastered versions of E-40's independent Sick Wid It recordings from previous years. "In a Major Way" was regionally well-received, with guest spots by such rappers as Tupac Shakur and Mac Mall, as well as his son Droop-E.


title: E-40

text: Although having a large following on the West Coast, E-40 did not have a large mainstream audience, so only two of his songs released under Jive Records, "1-Luv" featuring Levitti and "Things'll Never Change" featuring Bo-Roc, charted on the "Billboard" Hot 100. He had been working nearly exclusively with rappers from the Bay Area until 1997, when he released the double disc compilation "Southwest Riders" featuring exclusively rap acts from the Bay Area and the south. His collaboration with southern rappers continued in 1998, when he was given guest appearances on albums by Southern rappers, including "Lost" by Eightball, and "MP Da Last Don" by Master P.


title: E-40

text: In 2003 E-40 began hosting "E-Feezy Radio", a weekly program on San Francisco hip-hop radio station KMEL that showcased Bay Area hip hop. KMEL regularly broadcast the program until 2008. After completing a deal with Jive Records he signed with Lil Jon's BME Recordings and Warner Bros. Records. After the signing, he appeared on Lil Jon's single "Snap Yo Fingers", also featuring Sean P of YoungBloodz, which became a hit reaching the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. Afterwards, his single "Tell Me When To Go", featuring Oakland rapper Keak Da Sneak, became popular throughout the United States, and E-40 appeared on MTV's "Direct Effect" and BET's "106 & Park". Publicity for E-40 was achieved through the MTV special "My Block: The Bay". He later released "U And Dat" in April 2006, featuring T-Pain and Kandi Girl and produced by Lil Jon. His album "My Ghetto Report Card" debuted at #1 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and #3 on the Billboard Hot 200 on March 14, 2006. Released through Sick Wid It/BME/Warner Bros. Records, the album was produced by Lil Jon, Rick Rock, and E-40's son, Droop-E. He was also featured on DJ Shadow's new album "The Outsider", on a track called "Dat's My Part". In 2006, he also appeared on Tech N9ne's "" CD on a track titled "Jellysickle". In that same year, he contributed a verse to the official remix of "It's Okay (One Blood)" by fellow West coast rapper the Game along with 24 other prominent MCs.


title: E-40

text: In 2008, E-40's new album "The Ball Street Journal" came out, with "Wake it Up" featuring Akon as the lead single. "Got Rich Twice" featuring Turf Talk followed. The album peaked at #42 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: E-40

text: In 2009, 40 was featured on the track "Santana DVX" on the album "Incredibad" from the comedy group the Lonely Island. E-40 is listed in the credits as one of the writers. In the song, E-40 assumes the identity of Carlos Santana and raps about his personalized brand of sparkling white wine. E-40 was featured on BrokeNCYDE's album "I'm Not a Fan, But the Kids Like It!" on the song "Booty Call". E-40 was also featured on the song "Kush Is My Cologne" (along with Bun B & Devin the Dude) on Gucci Mane's 2009 album "The State vs. Radric Davis".


title: E-40

text: On March 30, 2010, E-40 released two albums called "" and "". Both include guest appearances from Too Short, Snoop Dogg, Gucci Mane, Bobby V, and more. They debuted at numbers 47 & 49 respectively on the 200. The first single from the "Day Shift" album is "Bitch" featuring Too Short. On March 29, 2011, E-40 released two albums called "" and "". They include guest spots from Lil Jon, Bun B, Slim Thug, Tech N9ne & more. They both entered on the 200 chart at #'s 42 & 40. In November 2010, E-40 and Too Short announced that they would release two collaborative album in Summer 2012 entitled "" and "". E-40 also performed at the Gathering of the Juggalos.


title: E-40

text: In 2012, E-40 released three solo albums: "The Block Brochure: Welcome to the Soil" series , , and , and released a collaboration album with Too Short. The first single from the second "Block Brochure" album is "Function" featuring YG, Iamsu! & Problem. It peaked at #21 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, #62 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and #22 on the Rap Songs chart, becoming his most successful single in years. The volumes include Snoop Dogg, Too Short, Kendrick Lamar, Juicy J, Tech N9ne, Twista, Brotha Lynch, Andre Nickatina, 2 Chainz, & T-Pain as guests. They each debuted at #'s 58, 59 & 72 on the "Billboard" 200, respectively, and the triple album box set that contains all three "Block Brochure" volumes debuted at #44. "History: Function Music" debuted at #63 on the 200, while "Mob" debuted at #72. He made a cameo appearance in the music video for Young Jeezy's song "R.I.P." featuring 2 Chainz in March 2013, and was also featured on the song's official "G-Mix" also featuring Snoop Dogg and Too Short. It was revealed that the 4th, 5th and 6th editions of "The Block Brochure" would be released exactly one year after the release date of the first three volumes. However, there is no confirmed release date for the three albums, but the artwork for all three volumes and the triple album box set was released on June 12. On May 21, he released the first single from the three albums, "Ripped" featuring Lil Jon. On July 18, he premiered the second single "All My Niggaz" featuring Danny Brown and Schoolboy Q. The song was released to iTunes on August 20, 2013. On August 26, the video for "Off the Block" featuring Stressmatic and J. Banks was released and confirmed to be on the album. On Facebook E-40 announced that parts 4, 5 and 6 would be released on December 10, 2013.


title: E-40

text: On December 9, 2014, E-40 released "" and "". The single "Choices (Yup)" charted at number 125 on Billboard and number 43 on r&b/hip-hop chart late summer 2015 and was certified Gold by the RIAA May 9, 2016. E-40 collaborated with G-Eazy on the song "Nothing to Me", released in December 2015 on G-Eazy's album "When It's Dark Out". On Lecrae's album, "Church Clothes 3", E-40 is featured on the track "Can't Do You". On November 18, 2016, E-40 released "The D-Boy Diary" Parts 1 and 2.


title: E-40

text: In 2018, E-40 announced the "Definitions" album trilogy. He released his twenty-fifth studio album "The Gift of Gab" on August 23, which was followed by his twenty-sixth studio album "Practice Makes Paper" on July 26, 2019. The third album, "The Rule of Thumb", is yet to be released. In 2019, he made a guest appearance in the music video of "West Coast", performed by G-Eazy, Blueface, ALLBLACK and YG.


title: E-40

text: Along with former NFL player Chester McGlockton, E-40 opened a Fatburger franchise in Pleasant Hill, California, which has now been shut down. E-40 has promoted a forthcoming publication, "E-40's Book of Slang", since 1998, but the volume has not yet been released. He is also a spokesperson for Landy Cognac, and he opened the now-defunct Ambassador's Lounge, a nightclub in Downtown San Jose. On November 16, 2007 it was announced that Stevens signed a franchise agreement with Wingstop Restaurants, Inc. and will open one in Southampton shopping center located in Benicia, California. "I was introduced to Wingstop in Dallas and as soon as I tasted the wings I was hooked. I love the food," said Stevens. "I chose to open in the Bay Area because this is the soil where I was born and raised, and I still live here to this day. People here are going to love these things."


title: E-40

text: In late 2007, E-40 announced a new line of energy drinks called "40 Water." He also has a number of other ventures in the beverage industry, including the wine industry, where he has released three wines including a red blend called "Function," a moscato and high-alcohol fortified wine called "Mangoscato." The wines are branded using the rapper's real name, Earl Stevens. In December 2014, he released a premixed cocktail beverage called Sluricane Hurricane, inspired by the 1995 hit song "Hurricane" from his group the Click.


title: E-40

text: In December 2015, E-40 released a line of malt liquor called "E-40", available in 24 oz. cans and 40 oz. glass bottles.


title: E-40

text: E-40 lives in Danville, California, with his wife Tracey. They married in 1991 and have two children who grew up to become rappers: Earl Jr., who performs as Droop-E, and Emari (Issue).


title: E-40

text: E-40 is a longtime San Francisco Giants fan, and gave away 15,000 figures of himself to visitors at a Giants game on June 25, 2022, where he also made the first ceremonial pitch of the game.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The history of Nigeria can be traced to the earliest inhabitants whose remains date from at least 13,000 BC through early civilizations such as the Nok culture which began around 1500 BC. Numerous ancient African civilizations settled in the region that is known today as Nigeria, such as the Kingdom of Nri, the Benin Empire, and the Oyo Empire. Islam reached Nigeria through the Bornu Empire between (1068 AD) and Hausa States around (1385 AD) during the 11th century, while Christianity came to Nigeria in the 15th century through Augustinian and Capuchin monks from Portugal. The Songhai Empire also occupied part of the region. From the 15th century, European slave traders arrived in the region to purchase enslaved Africans as part of the Atlantic slave trade, which started in the region of modern-day Nigeria; the first Nigerian port used by European slave traders was Badagry, a coastal harbour. Local merchants provided them with slaves, escalating conflicts among the ethnic groups in the region and disrupting older trade patterns through the Trans-Saharan route.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Lagos was occupied by British forces in 1851 and formally annexed by Britain in the year 1865. Nigeria became a British protectorate in 1901. The period of British rule lasted until 1960, when an independence movement led to the country being granted independence. Nigeria first became a republic in 1963, but succumbed to military rule after a bloody coup d'état in 1966. A separatist movement later formed the Republic of Biafra in 1967, leading to the three-year Nigerian Civil War. Nigeria became a republic again after a new constitution was written in 1979. However, the republic was short-lived, as the military seized power again in 1983 and later ruled for ten years. A new republic was planned to be established in 1993, but was aborted by General Sani Abacha. Abacha died in 1998 and a fourth republic was later established the following year, which ended three decades of intermittent military rule.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Archaeological research, pioneered by Charles Thurstan Shaw, has shown a long history of human settlement in Nigeria. Excavations in Ugwuele, Afikpo and Nsukka show evidence of habitation as early as 6,000 BC. Shaw's excavations at Igbo-Ukwu revealed a 9th-century indigenous culture that created highly sophisticated work in bronze metalworking, independent of Arab or European influence and centuries before other sites that were better known at the time of discovery.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The earliest known example of a fossil human skeleton found anywhere in West Africa, which is 13,000 years old, was found at Iwo-Eleru in Isarun, western Nigeria, and attests to the antiquity of habitation in the region.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Dufuna canoe was discovered in 1987 not far from the Komadugu Gana River, in Yobe State. Radiocarbon dating of a sample of charcoal found near the site dates the canoe at 8,500 to 8,000 years old, linking the site to Lake Mega Chad. It is the oldest boat discovered in Africa, and the second oldest known worldwide.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Stone axe heads, imported in great quantities from the north and used in opening the forest for agricultural development, were venerated by the Yoruba descendants of Neolithic pioneers as "thunderbolts" hurled to earth by the gods.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Nok culture thrived from approximately 1,500 BC to about 200 AD on the Jos Plateau in north and central Nigeria and produced life-sized terracotta figures that include human heads, human figures, and animals. Iron smelting furnaces at Taruga, a Nok site, date from around 600 BC. The Nok culture is thought to have begun smelting iron by 600-500 BC and possibly some centuries earlier. Kainji Dam excavations revealed iron-working by the 2nd century BC. Evidence of iron smelting has also been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in what is now Igboland: dating to 2,000 BC at the site of Lejja and to 750 BC at the site of Opi. The transition from Neolithic times to the Iron Age apparently was achieved indigenously without intermediate bronze production. Others have suggested that the technology moved west from the Nile Valley, although the Iron Age in the Niger River valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years. The earliest iron technology in West Africa has also been found to be contemporary with or predate that of the Nile valley and North Africa, and some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was likely developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The early independent kingdoms and states that make up present-day state of Nigeria are (in alphabetical order): Benin Kingdom, Borgu Kingdom, Fulani Empire, Hausa Kingdoms, Kanem Bornu Empire, Kwararafa Kingdom, Ibibio Kingdom, Nri Kingdom, Nupe Kingdom, Oyo Empire, Songhai Empire, Warri Kingdom, Ile Ife Kingdom, and Yagba East Kingdom.


title: History of Nigeria

text: During the 15th century Oyo and Benin surpassed Ife as political and economic powers, although Ife preserved its status as a religious center. Respect for the priestly functions of the "oni" of Ife was a crucial factor in the evolution of Yoruba culture. The Ife model of government was adapted at Oyo, where a member of its ruling dynasty controlled several smaller city-states. A state council (the "Oyo Mesi") named the "Alaafin" (king) and acted as a check on his authority. Their capital city was situated about 100 km north of present-day Oyo. Unlike the forest-bound Yoruba kingdoms, Oyo was in the savanna and drew its military strength from its cavalry forces, which established hegemony over the adjacent Nupe and the Borgu kingdoms and thereby developed trade routes farther to the north.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Benin Empire (1440–1897; called "Bini" by locals) was a pre-colonial African state in what is now modern Nigeria. It should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Igala are an ethnic group of Nigeria. Their homeland, the former Igala Kingdom, is an approximately triangular area of about 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) in the angle formed by the Benue and Niger rivers. The area was formerly the Igala Division of Kabba province, and is now part of Kogi State. The capital is Idah in Kogi state. Igala people are majorly found in Kogi state. They can be found in Idah, Igalamela/Odolu, Ajaka, Ofu, Olamaboro, Dekina, Bassa, Ankpa, omala, Lokoja, Ibaji, Ajaokuta, Lokoja and kotonkarfe Local government all in Kogi state. Other states where Igalas can be found are Anambra, Delta and Benue states.


title: History of Nigeria

text: During the 16th century, the Songhai Empire reached its peak, stretching from the Senegal and Gambia rivers and incorporating part of Hausaland in the east. Concurrently the Saifawa Dynasty of Borno conquered Kanem and extended control west to Hausa cities not under Songhai authority. Largely because of Songhai's influence, there was a blossoming of Islamic learning and culture. Songhai collapsed in 1591 when a Moroccan army conquered Gao and Timbuktu. Morocco was unable to control the empire and the various provinces, including the Hausa states, became independent. The collapse undermined Songhai's hegemony over the Hausa states and abruptly altered the course of regional history.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Borno reached its pinnacle under "mai" Idris Aloma (ca. 1569–1600) during whose reign Kanem was reconquered. The destruction of Songhai left Borno uncontested and until the 18th-century Borno dominated northern Nigeria. Despite Borno's hegemony the Hausa states continued to wrestle for ascendancy. Gradually Borno's position weakened; its inability to check political rivalries between competing Hausa cities was one example of this decline. Another factor was the military threat of the Tuareg centred at Agades who penetrated the northern districts of Borno. The major cause of Borno's decline was a severe drought that struck the Sahel and savanna from in the middle of the 18th century. As a consequence, Borno lost many northern territories to the Tuareg whose mobility allowed them to endure the famine more effectively. Borno regained some of its former might in the succeeding decades, but another drought occurred in the 1790s, again weakening the state.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Ecological and political instability provided the background for the jihad of Usman dan Fodio. The military rivalries of the Hausa states strained the region's economic resources at a time when drought and famine undermined farmers and herders. Many Fulani moved into Hausaland and Borno, and their arrival increased tensions because they had no loyalty to the political authorities, who saw them as a source of increased taxation. By the end of the 18th century, some Muslim ulema began articulating the grievances of the common people. Efforts to eliminate or control these religious leaders only heightened the tensions, setting the stage for jihad.


title: History of Nigeria

text: According to the "Encyclopedia of African History", "It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture."


title: History of Nigeria

text: Trade is the key to the emergence of organised communities in the sahelian portions of Nigeria. Prehistoric inhabitants adjusting to the encroaching desert were widely scattered by the third millennium BC, when the desiccation of the Sahara began. Trans-Saharan trade routes linked the western Sudan with the Mediterranean since the time of Carthage and with the Upper Nile from a much earlier date, establishing avenues of communication and cultural influence that remained open until the end of the 19th century. By these same routes, Islam made its way south into West Africa after the 9th century.


title: History of Nigeria

text: By then a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched into western and central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and Kanem, which were not within the boundaries of modern Nigeria but which influenced the history of the Nigerian savanna. Ghana declined in the 11th century but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Djenné in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Muhammad Ture (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship, to Gao.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Although these western empires had little political influence on the Nigerian savanna before 1500 they had a strong cultural and economic impact that became more pronounced in the 16th century, especially because these states became associated with the spread of Islam and trade. Throughout the 16th-century much of northern Nigeria paid homage to Songhai in the west or to Borno, a rival empire in the east.


title: History of Nigeria

text: During the 14th and 16th centuries, the demand for gold increased due to European and Islamic states wanting to change their currencies to gold. This led to an increase in trans-Saharan Trade.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Borno's history is closely associated with Kanem, which had achieved imperial status in the Lake Chad basin by the 13th century. Kanem expanded westward to include the area that became Borno. The mai (king) of Kanem and his court accepted Islam in the 11th century, as the western empires also had done. Islam was used to reinforce the political and social structures of the state although many established customs were maintained. Women, for example, continued to exercise considerable political influence.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The "mai" employed his mounted bodyguard and an inchoate army of nobles to extend Kanem's authority into Borno. By tradition, the territory was conferred on the heir to the throne to govern during his apprenticeship. In the 14th century, however, dynastic conflict forced the then-ruling group and its followers to relocate in Borno, as a result the Kanuri emerged as an ethnic group in the late 14th and 15th centuries. The civil war that disrupted Kanem in the second half of the 14th century resulted in the independence of Borno.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Borno's prosperity depended on the trans-Sudanic slave trade and the desert trade in salt and livestock. The need to protect its commercial interests compelled Borno to intervene in Kanem, which continued to be a theatre of war throughout the 15th century and into the 16th century. Despite its relative political weakness in this period, Borno's court and mosques under the patronage of a line of scholarly kings earned fame as centres of Islamic culture and learning.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Hausa Kingdoms were a collection of states started by the Hausa people, situated between the Niger River and Lake Chad. Their history is reflected in the Bayajidda legend, which describes the adventures of the Baghdadi hero Bayajidda culminating in the killing of the snake in the well of Daura and the marriage with the local queen magajiya Daurama. While the hero had a child with the queen, Bawo, and another child with the queen's maid-servant, Karbagari.


title: History of Nigeria

text: According to the Bayajidda legend, the Hausa states were founded by the sons of Bayajidda, a prince whose origin differs by tradition, but official canon records him as the person who married the last Kabara of Daura and heralded the end of the matriarchal monarchs that had erstwhile ruled the Hausa people. Contemporary historical scholarship views this legend as an allegory similar to many in that region of Africa that probably referenced a major event, such as a shift in ruling dynasties.


title: History of Nigeria

text: According to the Bayajidda legend, the Banza Bakwai states were founded by the seven sons of Karbagari ("Town-seizer"), the unique son of Bayajidda and the slave-maid, Bagwariya. They are called the Banza Bakwai meaning Bastard or Bogus Seven on account of their ancestress' slave status.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded according to the Bayajidda legend by the six sons of Bawo, the unique son of the hero and the queen Magajiya Daurama in addition to the hero's son, Biram or Ibrahim, of an earlier marriage.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Since the beginning of Hausa history, the seven states of Hausaland divided up production and labor activities in accordance with their location and natural resources. Kano and Rano were known as the "Chiefs of Indigo." Cotton grew readily in the great plains of these states, and they became the primary producers of cloth, weaving and dying it before sending it off in caravans to the other states within Hausaland and to extensive regions beyond. Biram was the original seat of government, while Zaria supplied labor and was known as the "Chief of Slaves." Katsina and Daura were the "Chiefs of the Market," as their geographical location accorded them direct access to the caravans coming across the desert from the north. Gobir, located in the west, was the "Chief of War" and was mainly responsible for protecting the empire from the invasive Kingdoms of Ghana and Songhai.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Islam arrived at Hausaland along the caravan routes. The famous "Kano Chronicle" records the conversion of Kano's ruling dynasty by clerics from Mali, demonstrating that the imperial influence of Mali extended far to the east. Acceptance of Islam was gradual and was often nominal in the countryside where folk religion continued to exert a strong influence. Nonetheless, Kano and Katsina, with their famous mosques and schools, came to participate fully in the cultural and intellectual life of the Islamic world. The Fulani began to enter the Hausa country in the 13th century and by the 15th century, they were tending cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani came from the Senegal River valley, where their ancestors had developed a method of livestock management based on transhumance. Gradually they moved eastward, first into the centers of the Mali and Songhai empires and eventually into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulbe converted to Islam as early as the 11th century and settled among the Hausa, from whom they became racially indistinguishable. There they constituted a devoutly religious, educated elite who made themselves indispensable to the Hausa kings as government advisers, Islamic judges, and teachers.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Hausa Kingdoms were first mentioned by Ya'qubi in the 9th century and they were by the 15th-century vibrant trading centers competing with Kanem–Bornu and the Mali Empire. The primary exports were slaves, leather, gold, cloth, salt, kola nuts, and henna. At various moments in their history, the Hausa managed to establish central control over their states, but such unity has always proven short. In the 11th-century, the conquests initiated by Gijimasu of Kano culminated in the birth of the first united Hausa Nation under Queen Amina, the Sultana of Zazzau but severe rivalries between the states led to periods of domination by major powers like the Songhai, Kanem and the Fulani.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Despite relatively constant growth, the Hausa states were vulnerable to aggression and, although the vast majority of its inhabitants were Muslim by the 16th century, they were attacked by Fulani jihadists from 1804 to 1808. In 1808 the Hausa Nation was finally conquered by Usman dan Fodio and incorporated into the Hausa-Fulani Sokoto Caliphate.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Historically, the Yoruba people have been the dominant group on the west bank of the Niger. Their nearest linguistic relatives are the Igala who live on the opposite side of the Niger's divergence from the Benue, and from whom they are believed to have split about 2,000 years ago. The Yoruba were organized in mostly patrilineal groups that occupied village communities and subsisted on agriculture. From approximately the 8th century, adjacent village compounds called "ile" coalesced into numerous territorial city-states in which clan loyalties became subordinate to dynastic chieftains. Urbanisation was accompanied by high levels of artistic achievement, particularly in terracotta and ivory sculpture and in the sophisticated metal casting produced at Ife.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Yoruba are especially known for the Oyo Empire that dominated the region. The Oyo Empire held supremacy over other Yoruba nations like the Egba Kingdom, Awori Kingdom, and the Egbado. In its prime, they also dominated the Kingdom of Dahomey (now located in the modern day Republic of Benin).


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Yoruba pay tribute to a pantheon composed of a Supreme Deity, Olorun and the Orisha. The Olorun is now called God in the Yoruba language. There are 400 deities called Orisha who perform various tasks. According to the Yoruba, Oduduwa is regarded as the ancestor of the Yoruba kings. According to one of the various myths about him, he founded Ife and dispatched his sons and daughters to establish similar kingdoms in other parts of what is today known as Yorubaland. The Yorubaland now consists of different tribes from different states which are located in the Southwestern part of the country, states like Lagos State, Oyo State, Ondo State, Osun State, Ekiti State and Ogun State, among others.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Kingdom of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture and the oldest Kingdom in Nigeria. Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umueri clan, who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure, Eri. Eri's origins are unclear, though he has been described as a "sky being" sent by Chukwu (God). He has been characterized as having first given societal order to the people of Anambra.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Archaeological evidence suggests that Nri hegemony in Igboland may go back as far as the 9th century, and royal burials have been unearthed dating to at least the 10th century. Eri, the god-like founder of Nri, is believed to have settled in the region around 948 with other related Igbo cultures following in the 13th century. The first Eze Nri (King of Nri), Ìfikuánim, followed directly after him. According to Igbo oral tradition, his reign started in 1043. At least one historian puts Ìfikuánim's reign much later, around 1225.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Kingdom of Nri was a religio-polity, a sort of theocratic state, that developed in the central heartland of the Igbo region. The Nri had a taboo symbolic code with six types. These included human (such as the birth of twins), animal (such as killing or eating of pythons), object, temporal, behavioral, speech and place taboos. The rules regarding these taboos were used to educate and govern Nri's subjects. This meant that, while certain Igbo may have lived under different formal administrations, all followers of the Igbo religion had to abide by the rules of the faith and obey its representative on earth, the Eze Nri.


title: History of Nigeria

text: With the decline of Nri kingdom in the 15th to 17th centuries, several states once under their influence, became powerful economic oracular oligarchies and large commercial states that dominated Igboland. The neighboring Awka city-state rose in power as a result of their powerful Agbala oracle and metalworking expertise. The Onitsha Kingdom, which was originally inhabited by Igbos from east of the Niger, was founded in the 16th century by migrants from Anioma (Western Igboland). Later groups like the Igala traders from the hinterland settled in Onitsha in the 18th century. Kingdoms west of the River Niger like Aboh (Abo), which was significantly populated by Igbos among other tribes, dominated trade along the lower River Niger area from the 17th century until European explorations into the Niger delta. The Umunoha state in the Owerri area used the "Igwe ka Ala" oracle at their advantage. However, the Cross River Igbo state like the Aro had the greatest influence in Igboland and adjacent areas after the decline of Nri.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Arochukwu kingdom emerged after the Aro-Ibibio Wars from 1630 to 1720, and went on to form the Aro Confederacy which economically dominated Eastern Nigerian hinterland. The source of the Aro Confederacy's economic dominance was based on the judicial oracle of Ibini Ukpabi ("Long Juju") and their military forces which included powerful allies such as Ohafia, Abam, Ezza, and other related neighboring states. The Abiriba and Aro are Brothers whose migration is traced to the Ekpa Kingdom, East of Cross River, their exact take of location was at Ekpa (Mkpa) east of the Cross River. They crossed the river to Urupkam (Usukpam) west of the Cross River and founded two settlements: Ena Uda and Ena Ofia in present-day Erai. Aro and Abiriba cooperated to become a powerful economic force.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Igbo gods, like those of the Yoruba, were numerous, but their relationship to one another and human beings was essentially egalitarian, reflecting Igbo society as a whole. A number of oracles and local cults attracted devotees while the central deity, the earth mother and fertility figure Ala, was venerated at shrines throughout Igboland.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The weakness of a popular theory that Igbos were stateless rests on the paucity of historical evidence of pre-colonial Igbo society. There is a huge gap between the archaeological finds of Igbo Ukwu, which reveal a rich material culture in the heart of the Igbo region in the 8th century, and the oral traditions of the 20th century. Benin exercised considerable influence on the western Igbo, who adopted many of the political structures familiar to the Yoruba-Benin region, but Asaba and its immediate neighbours, such as Ibusa, Ogwashi-Ukwu, Okpanam, Issele-Azagba and Issele-Ukwu, were much closer to the Kingdom of Nri. Ofega was the queen for the Onitsha Igbo.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The modern city of Calabar was founded in 1786 by Efik families who had left Creek Town, farther up the Calabar river, settling on the east bank in a position where they were able to dominate traffic with European vessels that anchored in the river, and soon becoming the most powerful in the region extending from now Calabar down to Bakkasi in the East and Oron Nation in the West. Akwa Akpa (named Calabar by the Spanish) became a center of the Atlantic slave trade, where African slaves were sold in exchange for European manufactured goods. Igbo people formed the majority of enslaved Africans which were sold as slaves from Calabar, despite forming a minority among the ethnic groups in the region. From 1725 until 1750, roughly 17,000 enslaved Africans were sold from Calabar to European slave traders; from 1772 to 1775, the number soared to over 62,000.


title: History of Nigeria

text: With the suppression of the slave trade, palm oil and palm kernels became the main exports. The chiefs of Akwa Akpa placed themselves under British protection in 1884. From 1884 until 1906 Old Calabar was the headquarters of the Niger Coast Protectorate, after which Lagos became the main center.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Now called Calabar, the city remained an important port shipping ivory, timber, beeswax, and palm produce until 1916, when the railway terminus was opened at Port Harcourt, 145 km to the west.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition; and in the following year, the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. On the 31st of December 1899 the charter for the Royal Niger Company was revoked by the British government, and the sum of £865,000 was paid to the company as compensation. The entire territory of the Royal Niger Company came into the hands of the British government. On 1 January 1900, the British Empire created the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In 1914, the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the Northern and Southern Provinces and Lagos Colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. On 1 October 1954, the colony became the autonomous Federation of Nigeria. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. On 27 October 1958 Britain agreed that Nigeria would become an independent state on 1 October 1960.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Federation of Nigeria was granted full independence on 1 October 1960 under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary government and a substantial measure of self-government for the country's three regions. From 1959 to 1960, Jaja Wachuku was the First Nigerian Speaker of the Nigerian Parliament, also called the "House of Representatives." Jaja Wachuku replaced Sir Frederick Metcalfe of Britain. Notably, as First Speaker of the House, Jaja Wachuku received Nigeria's Instrument of Independence, also known as Freedom Charter, on 1 October 1960, from Princess Alexandra of Kent, the Queen's representative at the Nigerian independence ceremonies. Queen Elizabeth II was monarch of Nigeria and head of state, and Nigeria was a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. The Federal government was given exclusive powers in defence, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policy. The monarch of Nigeria was still head of state but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet, and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court. Political parties, however, tended to reflect the makeup of the three main ethnic groups. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa and Fulani interests that dominated the northern region of the country, consisting of three-quarters of the land area and more than half the population of Nigeria. Thus the North dominated the federation government from the beginning of independence. In the 1959 elections held in preparation for independence, the NPC captured 134 seats in the 312-seat parliament.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Capturing 89 seats in the federal parliament was the second-largest party in the newly independent country the National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC). The NCNC represented the interests of the Igbo- and Christian-dominated people of the Eastern Region of Nigeria. and the Action Group (AG) was a left-leaning party that represented the interests of the Yoruba people in the West. In the 1959 elections, the AG obtained 73 seats.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The first post-independence national government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC. Upon independence, it was widely expected that Ahmadu Bello the Sardauna of Sokoto, the undisputed strong man in Nigeria who controlled the North, would become Prime Minister of the new Federation Government. However, Bello chose to remain as premier of the North and as party boss of the NPC, selected Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, to become Nigeria's first Prime Minister.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Yoruba-dominated AG became the opposition under its charismatic leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo. However, in 1962, a faction arose within the AG under the leadership of Ladoke Akintola who had been selected as premier of the West. The Akintola faction argued that the Yoruba peoples were losing their pre-eminent position in business in Nigeria to people of the Igbo tribe because the Igbo-dominated NCNC was part of the governing coalition and the AG was not. The federal government Prime Minister, Balewa agreed with the Akintola faction and sought to have the AG join the government. The party leadership under Awolowo disagreed and replaced Akintola as premier of the West with one of their own supporters.


title: History of Nigeria

text: However, when the Western Region parliament met to approve this change, Akintola supporters in the parliament started a riot in the chambers of the parliament. Fighting between the members broke out. Chairs were thrown and one member grabbed the parliamentary Mace and wielded it like a weapon to attack the Speaker and other members. Eventually, the police with tear gas were required to quell the riot. In subsequent attempts to reconvene the Western parliament, similar disturbances broke out. Unrest continued in the West and contributed to the Western Region's reputation for, violence, anarchy and rigged elections. Federal Government Prime Minister Balewa declared martial law in the Western Region and arrested Awolowo and other members of his faction charged them with treason. Akintola was appointed to head a coalition government in the Western Region. Thus, the AG was reduced to an opposition role in their own stronghold.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In October 1963, Nigeria proclaimed itself the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and former Governor-General Nnamdi Azikiwe became the country's first President. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic and religious tensions were magnified by the disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north. The AG was manoeuvred out of control of the Western Region by the Federal Government and a new pro-government Yoruba party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), took over. Shortly afterwards the AG opposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was imprisoned to be without foundation. The 1965 national election produced a major realignment of politics and a disputed result that set the country on the path to civil war. The dominant northern NPC went into a conservative alliance with the new Yoruba NNDP, leaving the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a progressive alliance. In the vote, widespread electoral fraud was alleged and riots erupted in the Yoruba West where heartlands of the AG discovered they had apparently elected pro-government NNDP representatives.


title: History of Nigeria

text: On 15 January 1966, a group of army officers (the Young Majors) mostly south-eastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. However, the bloody nature of the Young Majors coup caused another coup to be carried out by General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. The Young Majors went into hiding. Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna fled to Kwame Nkrumah's Ghana where he was welcomed as a hero. Some of the Young Majors were arrested and detained by the Ironsi government. Among the Igbo people of the Eastern Region, these detainees were heroes. In the Northern Region, however, the Hausa and Fulani people demanded that the detainees be placed on trial for murder.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The federal military government that assumed power under General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions on the issue or other issues. Additionally, the Ironsi government was unable to produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. Most fateful for the Ironsi government was the decision to issue Decree No. 34 which sought to unify the nation. Decree No. 34 sought to do away with the whole federal structure under which the Nigerian government had been organised since independence. Rioting broke out in the North. The Ironsi government's efforts to abolish the federal structure and the renaming the country the Republic of Nigeria on 24 May 1966 raised tensions and led to another coup by largely northern officers in July 1966, which established the leadership of Major General Yakubu Gowon. The name Federal Republic of Nigeria was restored on 31 August 1966. However, the subsequent massacre of thousands of Ibo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the south-east where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In a move towards greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, the military divided the four regions into 12 states. However, the Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The situation is uncertain, with Nigeria, ..is sliding downhill faster and faster, with less and less chance unity and stability. Unless present army leaders and contending tribal elements soon reach agreement on a new basis for the association and take some effective measures to halt a seriously deteriorating security situation, there will be increasing internal turmoil, possibly including civil war.


title: History of Nigeria

text: On 29 May 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the Republic of Biafra on 30 May 1967. The ensuing Nigerian Civil War resulted in an estimated 3.5 million deaths (mostly from starving children) before the war ended with Gowon's famous "No victor, no vanquished" speech in 1970.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Following the civil war, the country turned to the task of economic development. The U.S. intelligence community concluded in November 1970 that "...The Nigerian Civil War ended with relatively little rancour. The Igbos were accepted as fellow citizens in many parts of Nigeria, but not in some areas of former Biafra where they were once dominant. Iboland is an overpopulated, economically depressed area where massive unemployment is likely to continue for many years.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The U.S. analysts said that "...Nigeria is still very much a tribal society..." where local and tribal alliances count more than "national attachment. General Yakubu Gowon, head of the Federal Military Government (FMG) is the accepted national leader and his popularity has grown since the end of the war. The FMG is neither very efficient nor dynamic, but the recent announcement that it intends to retain power for six more years has generated little opposition so far. The Nigerian Army, vastly expanded during the war, is both the main support to the FMG and the chief threat to it. The troops are poorly trained and disciplined and some of the officers are turning to conspiracies and plotting. We think Gowon will have great difficulty in staying in office through the period which he said is necessary before the turnover of power to civilians. His sudden removal would dim the prospects for Nigerian stability."


title: History of Nigeria

text: "Nigeria's economy came through the war in better shape than expected." Problems exist with inflation, internal debt, and a huge military budget, competing with popular demands for government services. "The petroleum industry is expanding faster than expected and oil revenues will help defray military and social service expenditures... "Nigeria emerged from the war with a heightened sense of national pride mixed with an anti-foreign sentiment, and an intention to play a larger role in African and world affairs." British cultural influence is strong but its political influence is declining. The Soviet Union benefits from Nigerian appreciation of its help during the war, but is not trying for control. Nigerian relations with the US, cool during the war, are improving, but France may be seen as the future patron. "Nigeria is likely to take a more active role in funding liberation movements in southern Africa." Lagos, however, is not perceived as the "spiritual and bureaucratic capital of Africa"; Addis Ababa has that role..."


title: History of Nigeria

text: Foreign exchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of 1973–74. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing Gen. Yakubu Gowon of corruption and delaying the promised return to civilian rule. General Mohammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by 1 October 1979. He was assassinated on 13 February 1976 in an abortive coup and his chief of staff Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo became head of state.


title: History of Nigeria

text: A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on 21 September 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly.


title: History of Nigeria

text: During the 1950s prior to independence, oil was discovered off the coast of Nigeria. Almost immediately, the revenues from oil began to make Nigeria a wealthy nation. However, the spike in oil prices from $3 per barrel to $12 per barrel, following the Yom Kippur War in 1973 brought a sudden rush of money to Nigeria. Another sudden rise in the price of oil in 1979 to $19 per barrel occurred as a result of the lead up to the Iran–Iraq War. All of this meant that by 1979, Nigeria was the sixth largest producer of oil in the world with revenues from oil of $24 billion per year.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In 1982 the ruling National Party of Nigeria, a conservative alliance led by Shegu Shagari, had hoped to retain power through patronage and control over the Federal Election Commission. In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread voter fraud included missing returns, polling places failing to open, and obvious rigging of results. There was a fierce legal battle over the results, with the legitimacy of the victory at stake.


title: History of Nigeria

text: On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member General Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985. Babangida (IBB) cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover. During his first days in office, President Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency plan, he announced pay cuts for the military, police, civil servants and the private sector. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in decision making by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recession.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Head of State Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989 a constituent assembly completed a constitution and in the spring of 1989 political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two parties, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP); other parties were not allowed to register.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after secret trials before military tribunals. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite the low turnout, there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August. These were cancelled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were cancelled. All announced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on 12 June 1993, with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place 27 August 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In the historic 12 June 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M. K. O. Abiola won a decisive victory. However, on 23 June, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretence, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an interim government on 27 August 1993. He later attempted to renege on this decision, but without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension.


title: History of Nigeria

text: With the country sliding into chaos Defense Minister Sani Abacha assumed power and forced Shonekan's resignation on 17 November 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration of civilian rule he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria including travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Although Abacha was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly. Opposition leaders formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. On 11 June 1994 Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding until his arrest on 23 June. In response, petroleum workers called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringing economic life around Lagos and the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened strike in July the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August after the government imposed conditions on Abiola's release. On 17 August 1994, the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his deputy, retired General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal, most of the accused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down. In 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four Ogoni politicians. The tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death and they were executed on 10 November 1995.


title: History of Nigeria

text: On 1 October 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a three-year transition to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was under 10%. On 20 December 1997, the government arrested General Oladipo Diya, ten officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. The accused were tried before a Gen Victor Malu military tribunal in which Diya and five others- Late Gen AK Adisa, Gen Tajudeen Olnrewaju, Late Col OO Akiyode, Major Seun Fadipe and a civilian Engr Bola Adebanjo were sentenced to death to die by firing squad. Abacha enforced authority through the federal security system which is accused of numerous human rights abuses, including infringements on freedom of speech, assembly, association, travel, and violence against women.