title: History of Nigeria

text: Abacha died of heart failure on 8 June 1998 and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almost all known civilian political detainees. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In August 1998 Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. The NEC successfully held elections on 5 December 1998, 9 January 1999, 20 February, and 27 February 1999, respectively. For local elections, nine parties were granted provisional registration with three fulfilling the requirements to contest the following elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All People's Party (APP), and the predominantly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD). The former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. The PRC promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the 29 May 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The emergence of democracy in Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo inherited a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration of most democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in 1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The new president took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers holding political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rights violations, released scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded numerous questionable licenses and contracts left by the previous regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars in funds secreted to overseas accounts.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Most civil society leaders and Nigerians witnessed marked improvements in human rights and freedom of the press under Obasanjo. As Nigeria works out representational democracy, conflicts persist between the Executive and Legislative branches over appropriations and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the state capitals over resource allocation.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Communal violence has plagued the Obasanjo government since its inception. In May 1999 violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi, Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February–May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the State. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in south-eastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On 1 October 2001 Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. Obasanjo was reelected in 2003.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The new president faces the daunting task of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through corruption and mismanagement. Additionally, the Obasanjo administration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religious tensions if it hopes to build a foundation for economic growth and political stabilityCurrently, there is conflict in the Niger Delta over the environmental destruction caused by oil drilling and the ongoing poverty in the oil-rich region..


title: History of Nigeria

text: A further major problem created by the oil industry is the drilling of pipelines by the local population in an attempt to drain off the petroleum for personal use or as a source of income. This often leads to major explosions and high death tolls. Particularly notable disasters in this area have been: 1) October 1998, Jesse, 1100 deaths, 2) July 2000, Jesse, 250 deaths, 3) September 2004, near Lagos, 60 deaths, 4) May 2006, Ilado, approx. 150–200 deaths (current estimate).


title: History of Nigeria

text: Two militants of an unknown faction shot and killed Ustaz Ja'afar Adam, a northern Muslim religious leader and Kano State official, along with one of his disciples in a mosque in Kano during dawn prayers on 13 April 2007. Obasanjo had recently stated on national radio that he would "deal firmly" with election fraud and violence advocated by "highly placed individuals." His comments were interpreted by some analysts as a warning to his vice president and 2007 presidential candidate Atiku Abubakar.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In the 2007 general election, Umaru Yar'Adua and Goodluck Jonathan, both of the People's Democratic Party, were elected president and Vice President, respectively. The election was marred by electoral fraud, and denounced by other candidates and international observers.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Yar'Adua's presidency was fraught with uncertainty as media reports said he suffered from kidney and heart disease. In November 2009, he fell ill and was flown out of the country to Saudi Arabia for medical attention. He remained incommunicado for 50 days, by which time rumours were rife that he had died. This continued until the BBC aired an interview that was allegedly done via telephone from the president's sick bed in Saudi Arabia. As of January 2010, he was still abroad.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In February 2010, Goodluck Jonathan began serving as acting president in the absence of Yaradua. In May 2010, the Nigerian government learned of Yar'Adua's death after a long battle with existing health problems and an undisclosed illness. This lack of communication left the new acting President Jonathan with no knowledge of his predecessor's plans. Yar'Adua's Hausa-Fulani background gave him a political base in the northern regions of Nigeria, while Goodluck does not have the same ethnic and religious affiliations. This lack of primary ethnic support makes Jonathan a target for militaristic overthrow or regional uprisings in the area. With the increase of resource spending and oil exportation, Nigerian GDP and HDI (Human Development Index) have risen phenomenally since the economically stagnant rule of Sani Abacha, but the primary population still survives on less than US$2 per day. Goodluck Jonathan called for new elections and stood for re-election in April 2011, which he won. However, his re-election bid in 2015 was truncated with the emergence of former military ruler General Muhammadu Buhari, mainly on his inability to quell the rising insecurity in the country. General Muhammadu Buhari was declared the winner of the 2015 presidential elections. General Muhammadu Buhari took over the helm of affairs in May 2015 after a peaceful transfer of power from the Jonathan led administration. On 29 May 2015, Buhari was sworn in as President of Nigeria, becoming the first opposition figure to win a presidential election since independence in 1960. On 29 May 2019, Muhammadu Buhari was sworn in for a second term as Nigeria's president, after winning the presidential election in February 2019.


title: History of Nigeria

text: Nigeria's Democracy day was originally celebrated on May 29, every year since General Olusegun Obasanjo emerged President in 1999.


title: History of Nigeria

text: However, on June 12, 2018, General Muhammadu Buhari, as president, announced a shift in this date from May 29 to June 12, as from the year 2019. This was to commemorate the June 12th election of 1993, and the events that surrounded it.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Ibadan School dominated the academic study of Nigerian history until the 1970s. It arose at the University of Ibadan in the 1950s and remained dominant until the 1970s. The University of Ibadan was the first university to open in Nigeria, and its scholars set up the history departments at most of Nigeria's other universities, spreading the Ibadan historiography. Its scholars also wrote the textbooks that were used at all levels of the Nigerian education system for many years. The school's output appears in the "Ibadan History Series."


title: History of Nigeria

text: The leading scholars of the Ibadan School include Saburi Biobaku, Kenneth Dike, J. F. A. Ajayi, Adiele Afigbo, E. A. Ayandele, O. Ikime and Tekena Tamuno. Foreign scholars often associated with the school include Michael Crowder, Abdullahi Amith, J. B. Webster, R. J. Gavin, Robert Smith, and John D. Omer-Cooper. The school was characterised by its overt Nigerian nationalism and it was geared towards forging a Nigerian identity through publicizing the glories of pre-colonial history. The school was quite traditional in its subject matter, being largely confined to the political history that colleagues in Europe and North America were then rejecting. It was very modern, however, in the sources used. Much use was made of oral history and throughout the school took a strongly interdisciplinary approach to gather information. This was especially true after the founding of the Institute for African Studies that brought together experts from many disciplines.


title: History of Nigeria

text: The Ibadan School began to decline in importance in the 1970s. The Nigerian Civil War led some to question whether Nigeria was, in fact, a unified nation with a national history. At the same time, rival schools developed. At Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, Nigeria, the Islamic Legitimist school arose that rejected Western models in favour of the scholarly tradition of the Sokoto Caliphate and the Islamic world. From other parts of Africa, the Neo-Marxist school arrived and gained a number of supporters. Social, economic, and cultural history also began to grow in prominence.


title: History of Nigeria

text: In the 1980s Nigerian scholarship, in general, began to decline, and the Ibadan School was hugely affected. The military rulers looked upon the universities with deep suspicion and they were poorly funded. Many top minds were co-opted with plum jobs in the administration and left academia. Others left the country entirely for jobs at universities in the West. The economic collapse of the 1980s also greatly hurt the scholarly community, especially the sharp devaluation of the Nigerian currency. This made inviting foreign scholars, subscribing to journals, and attending conferences vastly more expensive. Many of the domestic journals, including the "Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria", faltered and were only published rarely, if at all.


title: Slapstick

text: Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity that exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. Slapstick may involve both intentional violence and violence by mishap, often resulting from inept use of props such as saws and ladders.


title: Slapstick

text: The term arises from a device developed for use in the broad, physical comedy style known as "commedia dell'arte" in 16th-century Italy. The "slap stick" consists of two thin slats of wood, which make a "slap" when striking another actor, with little force needed to make a loud—and comical—sound. The physical slap stick remains a key component of the plot in the traditional and popular Punch and Judy puppet show. Other examples of slapstick humor include "The Naked Gun" and Mr. Bean.


title: Slapstick

text: The name "slapstick" originates from the Italian "Batacchio" or "Bataccio" – called the "slap stick" in English – a club-like object composed of two wooden slats used in "commedia dell'arte". When struck, the Batacchio produces a loud smacking noise, though it is only a little force that is transferred from the object to the person being struck. Actors may thus hit one another repeatedly with great audible effect while causing no damage and only very minor, if any, pain. Along with the inflatable bladder (of which the whoopee cushion is a modern variant), it was among the earliest special effects.


title: Slapstick

text: Slapstick comedy's history is measured in centuries. Shakespeare incorporated many chase scenes and beatings into his comedies, such as in his play "The Comedy of Errors".


title: Slapstick

text: In early 19th-century England, pantomime acquired its present form which includes slapstick comedy: its most famous performer, Joseph Grimaldi—the father of modern clowning—would partake in slapstick, with the Smithsonian stating he "fought himself in hilarious fisticuffs that had audiences rolling in the aisles". Comedy routines also featured heavily in British music hall theatre which became popular in the 1850s.


title: Slapstick

text: In Punch and Judy shows, which first appeared in England on 9 May 1662, a large slapstick is wielded by Punch against the other characters.


title: Slapstick

text: British comedians who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby, and Dan Leno. The influential English music hall comedian and theatre impresario Fred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the young comedians who worked for him as part of "Fred Karno's Army". Chaplin's fifteen-year music hall career inspired the comedy in all his later film work, especially as pantomimicry. In a biography of Karno, Laurel stated: "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it". American film producer Hal Roach described Karno as "not only a genius, he is the man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him."


title: Slapstick

text: Building on its later popularity in the 19th and early 20th-century ethnic routines of the American vaudeville house, the style was explored extensively during the "golden era" of black and white movies directed by Hal Roach and Mack Sennett that featured such notables as Charlie Chaplin, Mabel Normand, Marx Brothers, Laurel and Hardy, Abbott & Costello, and Three Stooges. Silent slapstick comedy was also popular in early French films and included films by Max Linder, Charles Prince, and Sarah Duhamel.


title: Slapstick

text: Slapstick also became a common element in animated cartoons starting in the 1930; examples include Disney's Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck shorts, Walter Lantz's Woody Woodpecker and The Beary Family, MGM's "Tom and Jerry", the unrelated Tom and Jerry cartoons of Van Beuren Studios, Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies", MGM's "Barney Bear", and Tex Avery's "Screwy Squirrel". Slapstick was later used in Japanese Tokusatsu TV "Kamen Rider Drive", by Benny Hill in "The Benny Hill Show" in the UK, and in the US used in the three 1960s TV series, "Gilligan's Island", "Batman" and "The Flying Nun".


title: Slapstick

text: The slapstick, so long indispensable to low comedy, found a new use among the crowds . . . they used the slapstick to the extreme embarrassment of many women. The carnival spirit, for the most part tempered by high good humor, at times verged on rowdyism. Girls used a stick ripped with feathers to tickle the faces of young men, and they retaliated vigorously with the slapstick.


title: Coffee bean

text: A coffee bean is a seed of the "Coffea" plant and the source for coffee. It is the pip inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a coffee cherry. Just like ordinary cherries, the coffee fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to true beans. The fruits; cherries or berries, most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a "peaberry". The peaberry occurs only between 10% and 15% of the time, and it is a fairly common (yet scientifically unproven) belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans. Like Brazil nuts (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of endosperm.


title: Coffee bean

text: The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the Arabica and the Robusta; approximately 60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta. Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% caffeine and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine. As coffee is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major cash crop and an important export product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings. This has made coffee very important in culture and food around the world. In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.


title: Coffee bean

text: Brazil produces about 45% of the world's total coffee exports, with most grown in Brazil. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.


title: Coffee bean

text: Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt.


title: Coffee bean

text: The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the European languages generally appear to have gotten the name from Turkish "kahveh", about 1600, perhaps through Italian "caffè". Arab "qahwah", in Turkish pronounced "kahveh", the name of the infusion or beverage; said by Arab lexicographers to have originally meant "wine" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a verb-root "qahiya" "to have no appetite". Another common theory is that the name derives from Kaffa Province, Ethiopia, where the species may have originated.


title: Coffee bean

text: The coffee tree averages from in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance.


title: Coffee bean

text: Coffee plants are often grown in rows metres/feet apart (depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer). Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between and Robusta between and receive between of rainfall per year. More rain is needed at the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.


title: Coffee bean

text: When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.


title: Coffee bean

text: The Asian palm civet eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a niche product. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called "kopi luwak", and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.


title: Coffee bean

text: Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.


title: Coffee bean

text: The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.


title: Coffee bean

text: The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and mucilage and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as caffeine, deter many insects and animals from eating them. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile nitrogenous compounds (including alkaloids, trigonelline, proteins, and free amino acids) and carbohydrates are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid-2000s, green coffee extract has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its chlorogenic acid content and for its lipolytic and weight-loss properties.


title: Coffee bean

text: Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans. Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine, liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at , whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed. The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, or tartaric acid, all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, of caffeine dissolves in of water at room temperature, and at . The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.


title: Coffee bean

text: Trigonelline ("N"-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of vitamin B that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of , 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to nicotinic acid, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.


title: Coffee bean

text: Proteins account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of Maillard reaction products. High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight peptides and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include enzymes, such as catalase and polyphenol oxidase, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In "Coffea arabica", alanine is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in "C. robusta", alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g. The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: isoleucine 81 mg/kg, leucine 100 mg/kg, valine 93 mg/kg, tyrosine 81 mg/kg, phenylalanine 133 mg/kg. The concentration of gamma-aminobutyric acid (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from Tanzania. Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, diketopiperazines, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee. The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its bitterness.


title: Coffee bean

text: Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by polysaccharides, such as arabinogalactan, galactomannan, and cellulose, contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked galactan main chains, with frequent members of arabinose (pentose) and galactose (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water. The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight. Free monosaccharides are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains sucrose (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100g; free galactose 35 mg/100g and mannitol 50 mg/100g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for hydroxyl radicals, which are generated during the peroxidation of lipids in biological membranes.


title: Coffee bean

text: The lipids found in green coffee include: linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, diterpenes, triglycerides, unsaturated long-chain fatty acids, esters, and amides. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 and 14 g/100 g. Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 to 300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure. Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5 to 17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8 to 10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include cafestol, kahweol and 16-O-methylcafestol. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in "in vitro" experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation. In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are esterified with saturated long chain fatty acids.


title: Coffee bean

text: Chlorogenic acids belong to a group of compounds known as phenolic acids, which are antioxidants. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting. At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising caffeic acid, ferulic acid and 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid, which are connected by an ester bond to the hydroxyl groups of quinic acid. The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger. Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/L water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/L water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.


title: Coffee bean

text: Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, aldehydes, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of pyrazines (green-herbeaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans. Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract. The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.


title: Coffee bean

text: When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including acetic acid (pungent, unpleasant odor), propionic acid (odor of sour milk, or butter), butanoic acid (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100g coffee beans), pentanoic acid (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), hexanoic acid (fatty-rancid odor), heptanoic acid (fatty odor), octanoic acid (repulsive oily rancid odor); nonanoic acid (mild nut-like fatty odor); decanoic acid (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – 3-methyl-valeric acid (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), acetaldehyde (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), propanal (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), butanal (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2 to 7 mg/kg), or pentanal (very repulsive nauseating effect).


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of several methods for parenteral administration of medications. Intramuscular injection may be preferred because muscles have larger and more numerous blood vessels than subcutaneous tissue, leading to faster absorption than subcutaneous or intradermal injections. Medication administered via intramuscular injection is not subject to the first-pass metabolism effect which affects oral medications.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Common sites for intramuscular injections include the deltoid muscle of the upper arm and the gluteal muscle of the buttock. In infants, the vastus lateralis muscle of the thigh is commonly used. The injection site must be cleaned before administering the injection, and the injection is then administered in a fast, darting motion to decrease the discomfort to the individual. The volume to be injected in the muscle is usually limited to 2–5 milliliters, depending on injection site. A site with signs of infection or muscle atrophy should not be chosen. Intramuscular injections should not be used in people with myopathies or those with trouble clotting.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Intramuscular injections commonly result in pain, redness, and swelling or inflammation around the injection site. These side effects are generally mild and last no more than a few days at most. Rarely, nerves or blood vessels around the injection site can be damaged, resulting in severe pain or paralysis. If proper technique is not followed, intramuscular injections can result in localized infections such as abscesses and gangrene. While historically aspiration, or pulling back on the syringe before injection, was recommended to prevent inadvertent administration into a vein, it is no longer recommended for most injection sites by some countries.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Intramuscular injection is commonly used for medication administration. Medication administered in the muscle is generally quickly absorbed in the bloodstream, and avoids the first pass metabolism which occurs with oral administration. The medication may not be considered 100% bioavailable as it must still be absorbed from the muscle, which occurs over time. An intramuscular injection is less invasive than an intravenous injection and also generally takes less time, as the site of injection (a muscle versus a vein) is much larger. Medications administered in the muscle may also be administered as depot injections, which provide slow, continuous release of medicine over a longer period of time. Certain substances, including ketamine, may be injected intramuscularly for recreational purposes. Disadvantages of intramuscular administration include skill and technique required, pain from injection, anxiety or fear (especially in children), and difficulty in self-administration which limits its use in outpatient medicine.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Vaccines, especially inactivated vaccines, are commonly administered via intramuscular injection. However, it has been estimated that for every vaccine injected intramuscularly, 20 injections are given to administer drugs or other therapy. This can include medications such as antibiotics, immunoglobulin, and hormones such as testosterone and medroxyprogesterone. In a case of severe allergic reaction, or anaphylaxis, a person may use an epinephrine autoinjector to self-administer epinephrine in the muscle.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Because an intramuscular injection can be used to administer many types of medications, specific contraindications depend in large part on the medication being administered. Injections of medications are necessarily more invasive than other forms of administration such as by mouth or topical and require training to perform appropriately, without which complications can arise regardless of the medication being administered. For this reason, unless there are desired differences in rate of absorption, time to onset, or other pharmacokinetic parameters in the specific situation, a less invasive form of drug administration (usually by mouth) is preferred.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Intramuscular injections are generally avoided in people with low platelet count or clotting problems, to prevent harm due to potential damage to blood vessels during the injection. They are also not recommended in people who are in hypovolemic shock, or have myopathy or muscle atrophy, as these conditions may alter the absorption of the medication. The damage to the muscle caused by an intramuscular injections may interfere with the accuracy of certain cardiac tests for people with suspected myocardial infarction and for this reason other methods of administration are preferred in such instances. In people with an active myocardial infarction, the decrease in circulation may result in slower absorption from an IM injection. Specific sites of administration may also be contraindicated if the desired injection site has an infection, swelling, or inflammation. Within a specific site of administration, the injection should not be given directly over irritation or redness, birthmarks or moles, or areas with scar tissue.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: As an injection necessitates piercing the skin, there is a risk of infection from bacteria or other organisms present in the environment or on the skin before the injection. This risk is minimized by using proper aseptic technique in preparing the injection and sanitizing the injection site before administration. Intramuscular injections may also cause an abscess or gangrene at the injection site, depending on the specific medication and amount administered. There is also a risk of nerve or vascular injury if a nerve or blood vessel is inadvertently hit during injection. If single-use or sterilized equipment is not used, there is the risk of transmission of infectious disease between users, or to a practitioner who inadvertently injures themselves with a used needle, termed a needlestick injury.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Injections into the deltoid site in the arm can result in unintentional damage to the radial and axillary nerves. In rare cases when not performed properly, the injection may result in shoulder dysfunction. The most frequent complications of a deltoid injection include pain, redness, and inflammation around the injection site, which are almost always mild and last only a few days at most.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The dorsogluteal site of injection is associated with a higher risk of skin and tissue trauma, muscle fibrosis or contracture, hematoma, nerve palsy, paralysis, and infections such as abscesses and gangrene. Furthermore, injection in the gluteal muscle poses a risk for damage to the sciatic nerve, which may cause shooting pain or a sensation of burning. Sciatic nerve damage can also affect a person's ability to move their foot on the affected side, and other parts of the body controlled by the nerve. Damage to the sciatic nerve can be prevented by using the ventrogluteal site instead, and by selecting an appropriate size and length of needle for the injection.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: An intramuscular injection can be administered in multiple different muscles of the body. Common sites for intramuscular injection include: deltoid, dorsogluteal, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis and ventrogluteal muscles. Sites that are bruised, tender, red, swollen, inflamed or scarred are generally avoided. The specific medication and amount being administered will influence the decision of the specific muscle chosen for injection.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The injection site is first cleaned using an antimicrobial and allowed to dry. The injection is performed in a quick, darting motion perpendicular to the skin, at an angle between 72 and 90 degrees. The practitioner will stabilize the needle with one hand while using their other hand to depress the plunger to slowly inject the medication – a rapid injection causes more discomfort. The needle is withdrawn at the same angle inserted. Gentle pressure may be applied with gauze if bleeding occurs. Pressure or gentle massage of the muscle following injection may reduce the risk of pain.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Aspirating for blood to rule out injecting into a blood vessel is not recommended by the US CDC, Public Health Agency of Canada, or Norway Institute of Public Health, as the injection sites do not contain large blood vessels and aspiration results in greater pain. There is no evidence that aspiration is useful to increase safety of intramuscular injections when injecting in a site other than the dorsogluteal site.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: However, aspiration is recommended by the Danish Health Authority for COVID-19 vaccines to reduce the potential rare risk of blot clotting and bleeding.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The Z-track method is a method of administrating an IM injection that prevents the medication being tracked through the subcutaneous tissue, sealing the medication in the muscle, and minimizing irritation from the medication. Using the Z-track technique, the skin is pulled laterally, away from the injection site, before the injection; then the medication is injected, the needle is withdrawn, and the skin is released. This method can be used if the overlying tissue can be displaced.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The deltoid muscle in the outer portion of the upper arm is used for injections of small volume, usually equal to or less than 2 ml. This includes most intramuscular vaccinations. It is not recommended to use the deltoid for repeated injections due to its small area, which makes it difficult to space out injections from each other. The deltoid site is located by locating the lower edge of the acromion process, and injecting in the area which forms an upside down triangle with its base at the acromion process and its midpoint in line with the armpit. An injection into the deltoid muscle is commonly administered using a 1-inch long needle, but may use a -inch long needle for younger people or very frail elderly people.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The ventrogluteal site on the hip is used for injections which require a larger volume to be administered, greater than 1 ml, and for medications which are known to be irritating, viscous, or oily. It is also used to administer narcotic medications, antibiotics, sedatives and anti-emetics. The ventrogluteal site is located in a triangle formed by the anterior superior iliac spine and the iliac crest, and may be located using a hand as a guide. The ventrogluteal site is less painful for injection than other sites such as the deltoid site.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The vastus lateralis site is used for infants less than 7 months old and people who are unable to walk or who have loss of muscular tone. The site is located by dividing the front thigh into thirds vertically and horizontally to form nine squares; the injection is administered in the outer middle square. This site is also the usual site of administration for epinephrine autoinjectors, which are used in the outer thigh, corresponding to the location of the vastus lateralis muscle.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: The dorsogluteal site of the buttock site is not routinely used due to its location near major blood vessels and nerves, as well as having inconsistent depth of adipose tissue. Many injections in this site do not penetrate deep enough under the skin to be correctly administered in the muscle. While current evidence-based practice recommends against using this site, many healthcare providers still use this site, often due to a lack of knowledge about alternative sites for injection. This site is located by dividing the buttock into four using a cross shape, and administering the injection in the upper outer quadrant. This is the only intramuscular injection site for which aspiration is recommended of the syringe before injection, due to higher likelihood of accidental intravenous administration in this area. However, aspiration is not recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which considers it outdated for any intramuscular injection.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: In some populations, a change in injection site, needle length, or technique is necessary. For example, in very young people or frail elderly people, a normal length needle may be too long to safely inject in the desired muscle. For this reason, in these people, a shorter needle is recommended to decrease the risk of injecting too deep. It is also recommended to consider using the anterolateral thigh as an injection site in infants under one year old.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: To help infants and children cooperate with injection administration, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices in the United States recommends using distractions, giving something sweet, and rocking the baby side to side. In people who are overweight, a 1.5-inch needle may be used to ensure the injection is given below the subcutaneous layer of skin, while a -inch needle may be used for people who weigh under . In any case, the skin does not need to be pinched up before injecting when the appropriate length needle is used.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Injections into muscular tissue may have taken place as early as the year 500 AD. Beginning in the late 1800s, the procedure began to be described in more detail and techniques began to be developed by physicians. In the early days of intramuscular injections, the procedure was performed almost exclusively by physicians. After the introduction of antibiotics in the middle of the 20th century, nurses began preparing equipment for intramuscular injections as part of their delegated duties from physicians, and by 1961 they had "essentially taken over the procedure". Until this delegation became virtually universal, there were no uniform procedures or education for nurses in proper administration of intramuscular injections, and complications from improper injection were common.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: Intramuscular injections began to be used for administration of vaccines for diphtheria in 1923, whooping cough in 1926, and tetanus in 1927. By the 1970s, researchers and instructors began forming guidance on injection site and technique to reduce the risk of injection complications and side effects such as pain. Also in the early 1970s, botulinum toxin began to be injected into muscles to intentionally paralyze them for therapeutic reasons, and later for cosmetic reasons. Until the 2000s, aspiration after inserting the needle was recommended as a safety measure, to ensure the injection was being administered in a muscle and not inadvertently in a vein. However, this is no longer recommended as evidence shows no safety benefit and it lengthens the time taken for injection, which causes more pain.


title: Intramuscular injection

text: In animals common sites for intramuscular injection include the quadriceps, the lumbodorsal muscles, and the triceps muscle.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Their enrollment was followed by the Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas. They then attended after the intervention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: The U.S. Supreme Court issued its historic "Brown v. Board of Education", 347 U.S. 483, on May 17, 1954. Tied to the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation. After the decision, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South. In Little Rock, Arkansas, the school board agreed to comply with the high court's ruling. Virgil Blossom, the Superintendent of Schools, submitted a plan of gradual integration to the school board on May 24, 1955, which the board unanimously approved. The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year, which would begin in September 1957.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: By 1957, the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High, selected on the criteria of excellent grades and attendance. Called the "Little Rock Nine", they were Ernest Green (b. 1941), Elizabeth Eckford (b. 1941), Jefferson Thomas (1942–2010), Terrence Roberts (b. 1941), Carlotta Walls LaNier (b. 1942), Minnijean Brown (b. 1941), Gloria Ray Karlmark (b. 1942), Thelma Mothershed (b. 1940), and Melba Pattillo Beals (b. 1941). Ernest Green was the first African American to graduate from Central High School.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: When integration began on September 4, 1957, the Arkansas National Guard was called in to "preserve the peace". Originally at orders of the governor, they were meant to prevent the black students from entering due to claims that there was "imminent danger of tumult, riot and breach of peace" at the integration. However, President Eisenhower issued , which federalized the Arkansas National Guard and ordered them to support the integration on September 23 of that year, after which they protected the African American students.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: One of the plans created during attempts to desegregate the schools of Little Rock was by school superintendent Virgil Blossom. The initial approach proposed substantial integration beginning quickly and extending to all grades within a matter of many years. This original proposal was scrapped and replaced with one that more closely met a set of minimum standards worked out in attorney Richard B. McCulloch's brief. This finalized plan would start in September 1957 and would integrate one high school: Little Rock Central. The second phase of the plan would take place in 1960 and would open up a few junior high schools to a few black children. The final stage would involve limited desegregation of the city's grade schools at an unspecified time, possibly as late as 1963.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: This plan was met with varied reactions from the NAACP branch of Little Rock. Militant members like the Bateses opposed the plan on the grounds that it was "vague, indefinite, slow-moving and indicative of an intent to stall further on public integration." Despite this view, the majority accepted the plan; most felt that Blossom and the school board should have the chance to prove themselves, that the plan was reasonable, and that the white community would accept it.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: This view was short-lived, however. Changes were made to the plan, the most detrimental being a new transfer system that would allow students to move out of the attendance zone to which they were assigned. The altered Blossom Plan had gerrymandered school districts to guarantee a black majority at Horace Mann High and a white majority at Hall High. This meant that, even though black students lived closer to Central, they would be placed in Horace Mann, thus confirming the intention of the school board to limit the impact of desegregation. The altered plan gave white students the choice of not attending Horace Mann, but did not give black students the option of attending Hall. This new Blossom Plan did not sit well with the NAACP and, after failed negotiations with the school board, the NAACP filed a lawsuit on February 8, 1956.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: This lawsuit, along with a number of other factors, contributed to the Little Rock School Crisis of 1957.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Faubus's opposition to desegregation was likely both politically and racially motivated. Although Faubus had indicated that he would consider bringing Arkansas into compliance with the high court's decision in 1956, desegregation was opposed by his own southern Democratic Party, which dominated all Southern politics at the time. Faubus risked losing political support in the upcoming 1958 Democratic gubernatorial primary if he showed support for integration.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Most histories of the crisis conclude that Faubus, facing pressure as he campaigned for a third term, decided to appease racist elements in the state by calling out the National Guard to prevent the black students from entering Central High. Former associate justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court James D. Johnson claimed to have hoaxed Governor Faubus into calling out the National Guard, supposedly to prevent a white mob from stopping the integration of Little Rock Central High School: "There wasn't any caravan. But we made Orval believe it. We said. 'They're lining up. They're coming in droves.' ... The only weapon we had was to leave the impression that the sky was going to fall." He later claimed that Faubus asked him to raise a mob to justify his actions.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Harry Ashmore, the editor of the "Arkansas Gazette", won a 1958 Pulitzer Prize for his editorials on the crisis. Ashmore portrayed the fight over Central High as a crisis manufactured by Faubus; in his interpretation, Faubus used the Arkansas National Guard to keep black children out of Central High School because he was frustrated by the success his political opponents were having in using segregationist rhetoric to stir white voters.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Congressman Brooks Hays, who tried to mediate between the federal government and Faubus, was later defeated by a last minute write-in candidate, Dale Alford, a member of the Little Rock School Board who had the backing of Faubus's allies. A few years later, despite the incident with the "Little Rock Nine", Faubus ran as a moderate segregationist against Dale Alford, who was challenging Faubus for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1962.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Several segregationist councils threatened to hold protests at Central High and physically block the black students from entering the school. Governor Orval Faubus deployed the Arkansas National Guard to support the segregationists on September 4, 1957. The sight of a line of soldiers blocking out the students made national headlines and polarized the nation. Regarding the accompanying crowd, one of the nine students, Elizabeth Eckford, recalled:


title: Little Rock Nine

text: On September 9, the Little Rock School District issued a statement condemning the governor's deployment of soldiers to the school, and called for a citywide prayer service on September 12. Even President Dwight Eisenhower attempted to de-escalate the situation by summoning Faubus for a meeting, warning him not to defy the Supreme Court's ruling.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Woodrow Wilson Mann, the mayor of Little Rock, asked President Eisenhower to send federal troops to enforce integration and protect the nine students. On September 24, Eisenhower invoked the Insurrection Act of 1807 to enable troops to perform domestic law enforcement. The president ordered the 101st Airborne Division of the United States Army—without its black soldiers, who rejoined the division a month later—to Little Rock and federalized the entire 10,000-member Arkansas National Guard, taking it out of Faubus's control.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: By the end of September 1957, the nine were admitted to Little Rock Central High under the protection of the 101st Airborne Division (and later the Arkansas National Guard), but they were still subjected to a year of physical and verbal abuse by many of the white students. Melba Pattillo had acid thrown into her eyes and also recalled in her book, "Warriors Don't Cry", an incident in which a group of white girls trapped her in a stall in the girls' washroom and attempted to burn her by dropping pieces of flaming paper on her from above. Another one of the students, Minnijean Brown, was verbally confronted and abused. She said


title: Little Rock Nine

text: I was one of the kids 'approved' by the school officials. We were told we would have to take a lot and were warned not to fight back if anything happened. One girl ran up to me and said, 'I'm so glad you're here. Won't you go to lunch with me today?' I never saw her again.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Minnijean Brown was also taunted by members of a group of white male students in December 1957 in the school cafeteria during lunch. She dropped her lunch, a bowl of chili, onto the boys and was suspended for six days. Two months later, after more confrontation, Brown was suspended for the rest of the school year. She transferred to the New Lincoln School in New York City. As depicted in the 1981 made-for-TV docudrama "Crisis at Central High", and as mentioned by Melba Pattillo Beals in "Warriors Don't Cry", white students were punished only when their offense was "both egregious and witnessed by an adult". The drama was based on a book by Elizabeth Huckaby, a vice-principal during the crisis.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: In the summer of 1958, as the school year was drawing to a close, Faubus decided to petition the decision by the Federal District Court in order to postpone the desegregation of public high schools in Little Rock. In the "Cooper v. Aaron" case, the Little Rock School District, under the leadership of Orval Faubus, fought for a two and a half year delay on de-segregation, which would have meant that black students would only be permitted into public high schools in January 1961. Faubus argued that if the schools remained integrated there would be an increase in violence. However, in August 1958, the Federal Courts ruled against the delay of de-segregation, which incited Faubus to call together an Extraordinary Session of the State Legislature on August 26 in order to enact his segregation bills.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Claiming that Little Rock had to assert their rights and freedom against the federal decision, in September 1958, Faubus signed acts that enabled him and the Little Rock School District to close all public schools. Thus, with this bill signed, on Monday September 15, Faubus ordered the closure of all four public high schools, preventing both black and white students from attending school. Despite Faubus's decree, the city's population had the chance of refuting the bill since the school-closing law necessitated a referendum. The referendum, which would either condone or condemn Faubus's law, was to take place within thirty days. A week before the referendum, which was scheduled to take place on September 27, Faubus addressed the citizens of Little Rock in an attempt to secure their votes. Faubus urged the population to vote against integration since he was planning on leasing the public school buildings to private schools, and, in doing so, would educate the white and black students separately. Faubus was successful in his appeal and won the referendum. This year came to be known as the "Lost Year."


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Faubus's victory led to a series of consequences that affected Little Rock society. Faubus and the school board's intention to open private schools was blocked by an injunction by the 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, which caused some citizens of Little Rock to turn on the black community. The black community became a target for hate crimes since people blamed them for the closing of the schools. Daisy Bates, head of the NAACP chapter in Little Rock, was a primary victim of these crimes, in addition to the black students enrolled at Little Rock Central High School and their families.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: The city's teachers were also placed in a difficult position. They were forced to swear loyalty to Faubus's bills. Even though Faubus's idea of private schools never played out, the teachers were still bound by their contracts and expected to attend school every day.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: In May 1959, after the firing of forty-four teachers and administrative staff from the four high schools, three segregationist board members were replaced with three moderate ones. The new board members reinstated the forty-four staff members to their positions. The new board of directors then began an attempt to reopen the schools, much to Faubus's dismay. In order to avoid any further complications, the public high schools were scheduled to open earlier than usual, on August 12, 1959.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Although the Lost Year had come to a close, the black students who returned to the high schools were not welcomed by the other students. Rather, the black students had a difficult time getting past mobs to enter the school, and, once inside, they were often subject to physical and emotional abuse. The students were back at school and everything would eventually resume normal function, but the Lost Year would be a pretext for new hatred toward the black students in the public high school.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Little Rock Central High School still functions as part of the Little Rock School District, and is now a National Historic Site that houses a Civil Rights Museum, administered in partnership with the National Park Service, to commemorate the events of 1957. The Daisy Bates House, home to Daisy Bates, then the president of the Arkansas NAACP and a focal point for the students, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2001 for its role in the episode.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: In 1958, Cuban poet Nicolás Guillén published "Little Rock", a bilingual composition in English and Spanish denouncing the racial segregation in the United States.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: Two made-for-television movies have depicted the events of the crisis: the 1981 CBS movie "Crisis at Central High", and the 1993 Disney Channel movie "The Ernest Green Story".


title: Little Rock Nine

text: In 1996, seven of the Little Rock Nine appeared on "The Oprah Winfrey Show". They came face to face with a few of the white students who had tormented them as well as one student who had befriended them.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: In February 1999, members created the Little Rock Nine Foundation which established a scholarship program which had funded, by 2013, 60 university students. In 2013, the foundation decided to exclusively fund students attending the Clinton School of Public Service at the University of Arkansas.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: President Bill Clinton honored the Little Rock Nine in November 1999 when he presented them each with a Congressional Gold Medal. The medal is the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress. It is given to those who have provided outstanding service to the country. To receive the Congressional Gold Medal, recipients must be co-sponsored by two-thirds of both the House and Senate.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: In 2007, the United States Mint made available a commemorative silver dollar to "recognize and pay tribute to the strength, the determination and the courage displayed by African-American high school students in the fall of 1957." The obverse depicts students accompanied by a soldier, with nine stars symbolizing the Little Rock Nine. The reverse depicts an image of Little Rock Central High School, c. 1957. Proceeds from the coin sales are to be used to improve the National Historic Site.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: On December 9, 2008, the Little Rock Nine were invited to attend the inauguration of President-elect Barack Obama, the first African-American to be elected President of the United States.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: On February 9, 2010, Marquette University honored the group by presenting them with the Père Marquette Discovery Award, the university's highest honor, one that had previously been given to Mother Teresa, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Karl Rahner, and the Apollo 11 astronauts.


title: Little Rock Nine

text: On November 19, 2022, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Carlotta Walls LaNier and Thelma Mothershed-Wair etched their initials onto metal plates that were then welded onto the keel of the attack submarine USS Arkansas (SSN-800) in a ceremony at Newport News Shipbuilding in Newport News, Virginia. The plates will remain affixed to the submarine throughout its life. Melba Pattillo Beals and Minnijean Brown-Trickey were also named sponsors of the ship, and all members of the Little Rock Nine were honored. Elizabeth Eckford said “(Former Navy) Secretary Ray Mabus asked us to be supporters of the ship and its crew. I signed on to be a foster grandmother...President Eisenhower sent 1,000 paratroopers to Little Rock to disperse a mob, bring order, and they made it possible for us to enter Central High School. From that point, I’ve had very high regard for specially trained forces.”


title: Michael Corcoran (musician)

text: Michael Corcoran (born December 9, 1972), known professionally as Backhouse Mike or Ken Lofkoll, is an American record producer, composer, and musician. He has composed songs for Nickelodeon's "Drake & Josh", "iCarly", "Victorious", "Sam & Cat" and "Henry Danger", Disney Channel's "Shake It Up" and "Liv and Maddie", Netflix's "The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show", and VH1's "Hit the Floor".


title: Michael Corcoran (musician)

text: From around 2003 to early 2010 he was a member of Drake Bell's band. His band "Backhouse Mike", which consisted of lead singer and guitarist Jon Seminara, bassist John Charles Meyer, and keyboardist Kimberly Barnett appeared in the "iCarly" episode "iAm Your Biggest Fan" and the final episode of "Zoey 101", "", using the name "Backflesh". The band's song "Take Me Back" appears on the "iCarly" soundtrack.


title: Michael Corcoran (musician)

text: On August 8, 2020, Corcoran married actress Elizabeth Gillies at a private ceremony in New Jersey after the pair began dating in late 2012, having met each other on the Nickelodeon show "Victorious".


title: Battle of Jericho

text: The Battle of Jericho, as described in the Biblical Book of Joshua, was the first battle fought by the Israelites in the course of the conquest of Canaan. According to , the walls of Jericho fell after the Israelites marched around the city walls once a day for six days, seven times on the seventh day, and then blew their trumpets. Excavations at Tell es-Sultan, the biblical Jericho, have failed to substantiate this story, which has its origins in the nationalist propaganda of much later kings of Judah and their claims to the territory of the Kingdom of Israel. The lack of archaeological evidence and the composition, history and theological purposes of the Book of Joshua have led archaeologists like William G. Dever to characterise the story of the fall of Jericho as "invented out of whole cloth".


title: Battle of Jericho

text: According to the Book of Joshua, when the Israelites were encamped at Shittim opposite Jericho, ready to cross the river, Joshua, as a final preparation, sent out two spies to Jericho. The spies stayed in the house of Rahab, a local prostitute. The king of Jericho sent soldiers who asked Rahab to bring out the spies. Instead, she hid them under bundles of flax on the roof. After escaping, the spies promised to spare Rahab and her family after taking the city, if she would mark her house by hanging a red cord out the window.


title: Battle of Jericho

text: After the Israelites crossed the Jordan, the king of Jericho ordered that the gates of the walls be closed. God commanded Joshua to go around the walls of Jericho for six days, once every day, and seven times on the seventh day. God commanded the city to be attacked by seven priests blowing trumpets, with the Ark of the Covenant in front of them and all the people behind the Ark of the Covenant. They encircled the wall of Jericho once a day for the first six days, and then encircled the city seven times on the seventh day. After the sound of the shofar sounded a great blow, the Israelites cheered and the city walls fell beneath them.


title: Battle of Jericho

text: Following God's law, the Israelites killed every man and woman of every age, as well as the oxen, sheep, and donkeys. Only Rahab, her parents, brothers and all "those who belonged to her" were spared. They were incorporated into Israel. Joshua then cursed anybody who rebuilt the foundations and gates, with the deaths of their firstborn and youngest child respectively. This was eventually fulfilled by Hiel the Bethelite under King Ahab's reign.


title: Battle of Jericho

text: In 1868, Charles Warren identified Tell es-Sultan as the site of biblical Jericho. Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated the site between 1907–1909 and in 1911, finding the remains of two walls which they initially suggested supported the biblical account of the Battle of Jericho. They later revised this conclusion and dated their finds to the Middle Bronze Age (1950-1550 BCE). In 1930–1936, John Garstang conducted excavations there and discovered the remains of a network of collapsed walls which he dated to about 1400 BCE. Kathleen Kenyon re-excavated the site over 1952–1958 and demonstrated that the destruction occurred at an earlier time, during a well-attested Egyptian campaign against the Hyksos of that period, and that Jericho had been deserted throughout the mid-late 13th century BCE, the supposed time of Joshua's battle. Sources differ as to what date Kenyon instead proposed; either c. 1500 BCE or c. 1580 BCE. Kenyon's work was corroborated in 1995 by radiocarbon tests which dated the destruction level to the late 17th or 16th centuries BCE. A small unwalled settlement was rebuilt in the 15th century BCE, but it has been agreed that the tell was unoccupied from the late 15th century until the 10th/9th centuries BCE.


title: Battle of Jericho

text: More recently, Lorenzo Nigro from the Italian-Palestinian Expedition to Tell es-Sultan has argued that there was some sort of settlement at the site during the 14th and 13th centuries BCE. He states that the expedition has detected Late Bronze II layers in several parts of the tell, although its top layers were heavily cut by levelling operations during the Iron Age, which explains the scarcity of 13th century materials. Nigro rejects the idea that these discoveries give credence to the biblical narrative about the conquest of Canaan by Joshua.


title: Battle of Jericho

text: Scholars agree almost unanimously that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value. Its origin lies in a time far removed from the times that it depicts, and its intention is primarily theological in detailing how Israel and her leaders are judged by their obedience to the teachings and laws (the covenant) set down in the Book of Deuteronomy. The story of Jericho and the rest of the conquest represents the nationalist propaganda of the Kingdom of Judah and their claims to the territory of the Kingdom of Israel after 722 BCE; those chapters were later incorporated into an early form of Joshua likely written late in the reign of King Josiah (reigned 640–609  BCE), and the book was revised and completed after the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in 586, and possibly after the return from the Babylonian exile in 538.


title: Intranet

text: An intranet is a computer network for sharing information, easier communication, collaboration tools, operational systems, and other computing services within an organization, usually to the exclusion of access by outsiders. The term is used in contrast to public networks, such as the Internet, but uses the same technology based on the Internet protocol suite.


title: Intranet

text: An organization-wide intranet can constitute an important focal point of internal communication and collaboration, and provide a single starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest form, an intranet is established with the technologies for local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). Many modern intranets have search engines, user profiles, blogs, mobile apps with notifications, and events planning within their infrastructure.


title: Intranet

text: An intranet is sometimes contrasted to an extranet. While an intranet is generally restricted to employees of the organization, extranets may also be accessed by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties. Extranets extend a private network onto the Internet with special provisions for authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA protocol).


title: Intranet

text: Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools, e.g. "collaboration" (to facilitate working in groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management etc.,


title: Intranet

text: Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms. For example, large numbers of employees discussing key issues in an intranet forum application could lead to new ideas in management, productivity, quality, and other corporate issues.


title: Intranet

text: In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website traffic and can be better understood by using web metrics software to track overall activity. User surveys also improve intranet website effectiveness.


title: Intranet

text: Larger businesses allow users within their intranet to access public internet through firewall servers. They have the ability to screen messages coming and going, keeping security intact. When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others outside the business, it becomes part of an extranet. Businesses can send private messages through the public network, using special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.


title: Intranet

text: Intranet user-experience, editorial, and technology teams work together to produce in-house sites. Most commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large organizations, or some combination of these.


title: Intranet

text: Because of the scope and variety of content and the number of system interfaces, intranets of many organizations are much more complex than their respective public websites. Intranets and their use are growing rapidly. According to the Intranet Design Annual 2007 from Nielsen Norman Group, the number of pages on participants' intranets averaged 200,000 over the years 2001 to 2003 and has grown to an average of 6 million pages over 2005–2007.


title: Intranet

text: "Workforce productivity": Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to make available, anytime and — subject to security provisions — from anywhere within the company workstations, increasing the employees ability to perform their jobs faster, more accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information. It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.


title: Intranet

text: "Time": Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an "as-needed" basis; Employees may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than being distracted indiscriminately by email.


title: Intranet

text: "Communication": Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization, vertically strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization. The type of information that can easily be conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results achieved to date, and whom to speak to for more information. By providing this information on the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization. Some examples of communication would be chat, email, and/or blogs. A great real-world example of where an intranet helped a company communicate is when Nestle had a number of food processing plants in Scandinavia. Their central support system had to deal with a number of queries every day. When Nestle decided to invest in an intranet, they quickly realized the savings. McGovern says the savings from the reduction in query calls was substantially greater than the investment in the intranet.


title: Intranet

text: "Web publishing" allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and Web technologies.Examples include employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards, news feeds, and even training, can be accessed using common Internet standards (Acrobat files, Flash files, CGI applications). Because each business unit can update the online copy of a document, the most recent version is usually available to employees using the intranet.


title: Intranet

text: "Business operations and management": Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the internetworked enterprise.


title: Intranet

text: "Workflow": a collective term that reduces delay, such as automating meeting scheduling and vacation planning


title: Intranet

text: "Cost-effectiveness": Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms. This can potentially save the business money on printing, duplicating documents, and the environment as well as document maintenance overhead. For example, the HRM company PeopleSoft "derived significant cost savings by shifting HR processes to the intranet". McGovern goes on to say the manual cost of enrolling in benefits was found to be US$109.48 per enrollment. "Shifting this process to the intranet reduced the cost per enrollment to $21.79; a saving of 80 percent". Another company that saved money on expense reports was Cisco. "In 1996, Cisco processed 54,000 reports and the amount of dollars processed was USD19 million".


title: Intranet

text: "Enhance collaboration": Information is easily accessible by all authorised users, which enables teamwork. Being able to communicate in real-time through integrated third party tools, such as an instant messenger, promotes the sharing of ideas and removes blockages to communication to help boost a business's productivity.


title: Intranet

text: "Cross-platform capability": Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows, Mac, and UNIX.


title: Intranet

text: "Built for one audience": Many companies dictate computer specifications which, in turn, may allow Intranet developers to write applications that only have to work on one browser (no cross-browser compatibility issues). Being able to specifically address one's "viewer" is a great advantage. Since intranets are user-specific (requiring database/network authentication prior to access), users know exactly who they are interfacing with and can personalize their intranet based on role (job title, department) or individual ("Congratulations Jane, on your 3rd year with our company!").


title: Intranet

text: "Promote common corporate culture": Every user has the ability to view the same information within the intranet.


title: Intranet

text: "Supports a distributed computing architecture"': The intranet can also be linked to a company's management information system, for example a time keeping system.


title: Intranet

text: "Employee Engagement": Since "involvement in decision making" is one of the main drivers of employee engagement, offering tools (like forums or surveys) that foster peer-to-peer collaboration and employee participation can make employees feel more valued and involved.


title: Intranet

text: Most organizations devote considerable resources into the planning and implementation of their intranet as it is of strategic importance to the organization's success. Some of the planning would include topics such as determining the purpose and goals of the intranet, identifying persons or departments responsible for implementation and management and devising functional plans, page layouts and designs.


title: Intranet

text: The appropriate staff would also ensure that implementation schedules and phase-out of existing systems were organized, while defining and implementing security of the intranet and ensuring it lies within legal boundaries and other constraints. In order to produce a high-value end product, systems planners should determine the level of interactivity (e.g. wikis, on-line forms) desired.


title: Intranet

text: Planners may also consider whether the input of new data and updating of existing data is to be centrally controlled or devolve. These decisions sit alongside to the hardware and software considerations (like content management systems), participation issues (like good taste, harassment, confidentiality), and features to be supported.


title: Intranet

text: Intranets are often static sites; they are a shared drive, serving up centrally stored documents alongside internal articles or communications (often one-way communication). By leveraging firms which specialise in 'social' intranets, organisations are beginning to think of how their intranets can become a 'communication hub' for their entire team. The actual implementation would include steps such as securing senior management support and funding, conducting a business requirement analysis and identifying users' information needs.


title: Intranet

text: From the technical perspective, there would need to be a co-ordinated installation of the web server and user access network, the required user/client applications and the creation of document framework (or template) for the content to be hosted.


title: Intranet

text: The end-user should be involved in testing and promoting use of the company intranet, possibly through a parallel adoption methodology or pilot programme. In the long term, the company should carry out ongoing measurement and evaluation, including through benchmarking against other company services.


title: Intranet

text: An intranet structure needs key personnel committed to maintaining the intranet and keeping content current. For feedback on the intranet, social networking can be done through a forum for users to indicate what they want and what they do not like.


title: Intranet

text: An enterprise private network is a computer network built by a business to interconnect its various company sites (such as production sites, offices and shops) in order to share computer resources.


title: Intranet

text: Beginning with the digitalisation of telecommunication networks, started in the 1970s in the US by AT&T, and propelled by the growth in computer systems availability and demands, enterprise networks have been built for decades without the need to append the term "private" to them. The networks were operated over telecommunication networks and, as for voice communications, a certain amount of security and secrecy was expected and delivered.


title: Intranet

text: But with the Internet in the 1990s came a new type of network, virtual private networks, built over this public infrastructure, using encryption to protect the data traffic from eaves-dropping. So the enterprise networks are now commonly referred to as "enterprise private networks" in order to clarify that these are private networks, in contrast to public networks.


Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide (sometimes shortened to Ned's Declassified) is an American live action sitcom on Nickelodeon that debuted on the Nickelodeon Sunday night TEENick scheduling block on September 12, 2004. The series' original pilot episode aired on September 7, 2003, without many of the current version's main characters, and it was ordered to series by Nickelodeon in early 2004. The one-hour special movie series finale aired on June 8, 2007.


title: Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide

text: The show was produced by Apollo ProScreen GmbH & Co. Filmproduktion KG in association with Jack Mackie Pictures. Its main executive producer and creator is Scott Fellows, the head writer for "The Fairly OddParents".


text: "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide" follows the lives of Ned Bigby, Jennifer "Moze" Mosely, and Simon "Cookie" Nelson-Cook. The first season takes place during the first semester of seventh grade, the second season covers the second semester of seventh grade, and the third season takes place during eighth grade. Throughout the series, Ned builds up a number of 'tips' for his "survival guide", and uses the tips to help himself and his classmates cope with the standard struggles of middle school. Each individual episode relates to a topic in the guide, such as popularity, grades, or sports, as well as developing other plots (such as Ned's love life) throughout.


text: The show takes place at the fictional James K. Polk Middle School, named after the 11th President of the United States, James K. Polk. The exterior of the school was filmed at La Mesa Junior High in Santa Clarita, California. The school's colors are gold and green and its mascot is the Wolves, which is a common theme throughout the school's interior.


text: During the first season, all of the show's action took place within the school or its grounds, and with the exception of one or two notable occasions, everything happened indoors. However, during season 2, the show's producers decided they wanted more exterior scenes, so more outdoor shots were used, and on certain occasions, the show took place off school property. The show's finale, for example, took place almost entirely off the school grounds.


text: The first season of "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide" was released on DVD in the Netherlands, Australia, and Belgium on April 9, 2009. The Netherlands also released the second season, although both seasons were only released with Dutch dubbing. It's unknown if there will follow more places in Europe, or someplace else.


text: Alliance Home Entertainment has released the first two seasons on DVD in Canada only. The third and final season was supposed to be released on February 7, 2012 in Canada only, but again the production was delayed.


text: The debut of "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide" on September 12, 2004, received a 4.5 rating, with 914,000 tween viewers, which was described as "healthy, but not as stellar" ratings by "Variety"s Denise Martin.


text: Robert Lloyd of "Los Angeles Times" upon reviewing the series finale of "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide" remarked that it was "one of the best series on television — a show that took genre conventions and ran them through unpredictable changes".


text: In June 2008, Werkheiser signed a development contract with Nickelodeon for a spin-off that would deal with his character's adventures in high school. The show was never greenlit to production, due to the other major actors from the original series being busy with their own projects – creator and executive producer Scott Fellows was working on another Nickelodeon show, "Big Time Rush"; Daniel Curtis Lee was committed to Disney XD's "Zeke and Luther"; and Lindsey Shaw was working as the lead on ABC Family's "10 Things I Hate About You".


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Jamie Christopher Hewlett (born 3 April 1968) is an English comic book creator, illustrator, music video director, and songwriter. He is the co-creator of the comic book "Tank Girl" with Alan Martin and co-creator of the virtual band Gorillaz, alongside Blur frontman Damon Albarn.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Brought up in Horsham, West Sussex, Jamie Hewlett was a pupil at Tanbridge House School, a local co-educational source comprehensive for pupils aged 11–16 years. He contributed to the artwork of a road safety campaign that ended up as a runner-up in a national television competition. He was inspired by the punk group The Undertones. Whilst still a teenager Hewlett sold his first comic strip creation "One Boring Day". In 1983 he became the youngest person ever to work in the Wardour Street studios of Oscar Award-winning animator Bob Godfrey. Hewlett created the original artwork for a pilot animated cartoon series for Thames Television directed by Bob Godfrey with voiceovers by Peter Hawkins, the voice of Bill & Ben. The TV series "Amber, Bovver, and Bounce" never appeared as enough finance could not be raised to make the first twenty-five episodes.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: While studying at Northbrook College Worthing, Hewlett, Alan Martin and fellow student Philip Bond created a fanzine called "Atomtan". This brought him to the attention of Brett Ewins. After leaving college Hewlett and Martin were invited by Ewins to create material for a new magazine he was setting up with Steve Dillon in 1988.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: The magazine was called "Deadline" and featured a mixture of comic strips produced by British creators, and articles on music and culture. Martin and Hewlett created "Tank Girl", an anarchic strip about a teenage punk girl who drove a tank and had a mutant kangaroo for a boyfriend. The strip proved instantly popular and quickly became the most talked-about part of "Deadline". Hewlett's eccentric style proved popular and he started to work with bands Senseless Things and Cud providing covers for record releases; he also contributed artwork sporadically to "Commodore User" magazine.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: He designed decor for a nightclub called The Factory in Chatsworth Road, Worthing. The decor featured red and green stripes, a wall of blown-up panels from "Tank Girl" set against 1970s wallpaper, a Ford Escort hung from the ceiling, and toilets pasted with pages from old comic book annuals. The Factory has since been refurbished and renamed several times.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: By 1992, Hewlett had become a major creator in the comics industry, and one of the few to break into mainstream media. He had worked with writer Peter Milligan on "Hewligan's Haircut" in "2000 AD" issues 700 to 707. The series was later compiled into a trade paperback. He was involved in providing covers and art for "Shade, the Changing Man", also written by Milligan, for DC Comics.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: "Tank Girl" was optioned to be made into a film by MGM after being considered by, among others, Steven Spielberg. The film was released in 1995 and featured Lori Petty as Tank Girl. It was a commercial and critical failure and was criticized by fans who said it failed to capture the essence of the original strip. Hewlett had very little involvement with the film.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: He opened a secondhand clothing store, 49. The shop, at 49 Rowlands Road, Worthing, was managed by girlfriend Jane Oliver, originally a member of Elastica, but this was a short-lived venture and closed within a year.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Hewlett was still involved with British bands of the mid-1990s, including illustrating a comic strip version of Pulp's song "Common People".


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: "Deadline" was eventually cancelled in 1996 due to falling sales in a changed market and Hewlett concentrated on working in advertising and designs for television, most notably the children's series "SMTV Live", featuring Ant & Dec. He also created the strip "Get the Freebies", which was published monthly in British fashion magazine "The Face". The stories, all set in London, followed the exploits of Terry Phoo, a gay, Buddhist kung-fu law enforcement officer and his sidekick Whitey Action, an enigmatic young anarchist with a bad attitude, as they tackle their primary adversaries The Freebies Gang. The dynamic between the two heroes was much like that of Tank Girl and her mutant kangaroo boyfriend Booga, with the episodes from the female protagonist's point of view. The strip's primary function was for Hewlett to vent his spleen against the media idols and trends of the day, the story often taking second place to the jokes.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: At this time, he had moved into a flat with Blur's Damon Albarn after Hewlett split with Oliver, and it was while sharing the flat that the pair came up with the idea of Gorillaz, a virtual band. Albarn would work on the music, while Hewlett would come up with character designs, and both came up with ideas for the members of the band. The first Gorillaz EP was released in 2000 followed by the first album, "Gorillaz" in 2001. In 2005, their second full studio album, "Demon Days" was released.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: In January 2006, Hewlett's artwork for Gorillaz was shortlisted for the Design Museum's Designer of the Year award. In May 2006, he was named the Designer of the Year 2006. On 25 May 2006, Hewlett and Albarn won the joint award for Songwriters of the Year at the Ivor Novello Awards.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: In 2007, Hewlett and Albarn premiered their first major work since Gorillaz, entitled "", a re-working of the ancient Chinese legend "Journey to the West". Albarn wrote the score whilst Hewlett designed the set, animations and costumes. Written and adapted by Chen Shi-zheng, the show featured 45 Chinese circus acrobats, Shaolin monks and Chinese vocalists. It premiered at the Palace Theatre, Manchester as part of the Manchester International Festival, on 28 June 2007.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: His "Get the Freebies" strip was adapted by BBC Three for a pilot entitled "Phoo Action", broadcast in February 2008.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Hewlett and Albarn created the animation sequence the BBC used to introduce coverage of the Beijing 2008 Olympics. The sequence titled "Journey to the East" uses the Monkey character from "Monkey: Journey to the West".


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: A 2014 Kickstarter campaign successfully raised the capital for a new Tank Girl book called "21st Century Tank Girl" featuring co-creators Hewlett and Martin, as well as other artists, including Brett Parson, Warwick Johnson-Cadwell, Philip Bond, Jim Mahfood, Craig Knowles, and Jonathan Edwards.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: In November 2015, Hewlett debuted his first art exhibition called The Suggestionists at the Saatchi Gallery in London. The exhibition then made its American debut at the Woodward Gallery in Manhattan in May 2016.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: In a 2013 interview with Consequence of Sound, Hewlett stated that his primary influences were the works of cartoonists such as Mort Drucker, Carl Giles, Jack Davis, and Ronald Lowe.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: In a 2012 interview for Absolut Vodka, Hewlett also listed Harvey Kurtzman's American satirical magazine MAD Magazine as a leading influence of his art.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Hewlett has mentioned that he is largely influenced by the works of American animator Chuck Jones of Looney Tunes, and cites the works of British comic book artists Ronald Searle and Mike McMahon as influences on his artwork. In fact, Hewlett has even stated that the entirety of Chuck Jones' filmography and Mad Magazine as a whole are the biggest overall influences on his work.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Hewlett was influenced by not only the works of Chuck Jones, but also various UPA cartoons. Hewlett's Absolut London web profile also revealed that along with Chuck Jones, American filmmaker Stanley Kubrick and American author Hunter S. Thompson were big influences on his artwork as well. Hewlett has also admitted to being heavily inspired by the likes of artists such as Robert Crumb, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Martin Kippenberger, and Richard Caton Woodville.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: During a 2012 Interview with Alfred Dunhill, he also lists the of the "Star Wars" series as another main influence on his artwork.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: Hewlett has admitted to being a big fan of Brendan McCarthy's works, more specifically his work on his comic book "Strange Days". Hewlett has said that French comic book artist Moebius is a big influence on his art, calling him 'unbelievably inspiring' and saying that he considers him to be 'one of the greatest'. In addition to Moebius, Hewlett has been heavily influenced by the works of artists Tony Hart and Tanino Liberatore. In an interview with "The Telegraph", Hewlett also mentioned being a fan of American animator Brad Bird and his work on "Family Dog", as well as American cartoonist Charles Schulz' "Peanuts" comic strips.


title: Jamie Hewlett

text: In a conversation with Mark Kermode, Hewlett said that the 1973 French stop motion animated film "Fantastic Planet" was the very first animated film that showed him animation is also a medium for adults.


title: Ball python

text: The ball python (Python regius), also called the royal python, is a python species native to West and Central Africa, where it lives in grasslands, shrublands and open forests. This nonvenomous constrictor is the smallest of the African pythons, growing to a maximum length of . The name "ball python" refers to its tendency to curl into a ball when stressed or frightened.


title: Ball python

text: "Boa regia" was the scientific name proposed by George Shaw in 1802 for a pale variegated python from an indistinct place in Africa.