title: Civil disobedience

text: Egypt saw a massive implementation on a nation-wide movement starting 1914 and peaking in 1919 as the Egyptian Revolution of 1919. This was then adopted by other native peoples who objected to British occupation from 1920 and on. This was not used with native laws that were more oppressive than the British occupation, leading to problems for these countries today. Zaghloul Pasha, considered the mastermind behind this massive civil disobedience, was a native middle-class, Azhar graduate, political activist, judge, parliamentary and ex-cabinet minister whose leadership brought Christian and Muslim communities together as well as women into the massive protests. Along with his companions of Wafd Party, who have achieved an independence of Egypt and a first constitution in 1923.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have revolted against what they deem to be unfair laws. It has been used in many nonviolent resistance movements in India (Mahatma Gandhi's campaigns for independence from the British Empire), in Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution, in early stages of the Bangladeshi independence movement against Pakistani colonialism and in East Germany to oust their Stalinist government. In South Africa during the leftist campaign against the far-right Apartheid regime, in the American civil rights movement against Jim Crow laws, in the Singing Revolution to bring independence to the Baltic countries from the Soviet Union, and more recently with the 2003 Rose Revolution in Georgia, the 2004 Orange Revolution and the 2013–2014 Euromaidan revolution in Ukraine, the 2016–2017 Candlelight Revolution in South Korea, and the 2020–2021 Belarusian protests, among many other various movements worldwide.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Henry David Thoreau's 1849 essay "Resistance to Civil Government" was eventually renamed "Essay on Civil Disobedience". After his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreau's lectures were first published under the title "Civil Disobedience", in 1866, four years after his death, the term had achieved fairly widespread usage.


title: Civil disobedience

text: It has been argued that the term "civil disobedience" has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, "It has been used to describe everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. Indeed, for Vice President Spiro Agnew it has become a code-word describing the activities of muggers, arsonists, draft evaders, campaign hecklers, campus militants, anti-war demonstrators, juvenile delinquents and political assassins."


title: Civil disobedience

text: He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience.


title: Civil disobedience

text: In a letter to P. K. Rao, dated 10 September 1935, Gandhi disputes that his idea of civil disobedience was derived from the writings of Thoreau:


title: Civil disobedience

text: The statement that I had derived my idea of Civil Disobedience from the writings of Thoreau is wrong. The resistance to authority in South Africa was well advanced before I got the essay ... When I saw the title of Thoreau's great essay, I began to use his phrase to explain our struggle to the English readers. But I found that even "Civil Disobedience" failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase "Civil Resistance."


title: Civil disobedience

text: In seeking an active form of civil disobedience, one may choose to deliberately break certain laws, such as by forming a peaceful blockade or occupying a facility illegally, though sometimes violence has been known to occur. Often there is an expectation to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities. Protesters often undergo training in advance on how to react to arrest or to attack.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Civil disobedience is usually defined as pertaining to a citizen's relation to the state and its laws, as distinguished from a constitutional impasse, in which two public agencies, especially two equally sovereign branches of government, conflict. For instance, if the head of government of a country were to refuse to enforce a decision of that country's highest court, it would not be civil disobedience, since the head of government would act in his or her capacity as public official rather than private citizen.


title: Civil disobedience

text: This definition is disputed by Thoreau's political philosophy on the conscience vs. the collective. The person is the final judge of right and wrong. More than this, since only people act, only a person can act unjustly. When the government knocks on the door, it is a person in the form of a postman or tax collector whose hand hits the wood. Before Thoreau's imprisonment, when a confused taxman had wondered aloud about how to handle his refusal to pay, Thoreau had advised, "Resign". If a man chose to be an agent of injustice, then Thoreau insisted on confronting him with the fact that he was making a choice. He admits that government may express the will of the majority but it may also express nothing more than the will of elite politicians. Even a good form of government is "liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it". If a government did express the voice of most people, this would not compel the obedience of those who disagree with what is said. The majority may be powerful but it is not necessarily right.


title: Civil disobedience

text: In his 1971 book, "A Theory of Justice", John Rawls described civil disobedience as "a public, non-violent, conscientious yet political act contrary to law usually done with the aim of bringing about change in the law or policies of the government".


title: Civil disobedience

text: Some theories of civil disobedience hold that civil disobedience is only justified against governmental entities. Brownlee argues that disobedience in opposition to the decisions of non-governmental agencies such as trade unions, banks, and private universities can be justified if it reflects "a larger challenge to the legal system that permits those decisions to be taken". The same principle, she argues, applies to breaches of law in protest against international organizations and foreign governments.


title: Civil disobedience

text: It is usually recognized that lawbreaking, if it is not done publicly, at least must be publicly announced to constitute civil disobedience. But Stephen Eilmann argues that if it is necessary to disobey rules that conflict with morality, we might ask why disobedience should take the form of public civil disobedience rather than simply covert lawbreaking. If a lawyer wishes to help a client overcome legal obstacles to securing their natural rights, he might, for instance, find that assisting in fabricating evidence or committing perjury is more effective than open disobedience. This assumes that common morality does not have a prohibition on deceit in such situations. The Fully Informed Jury Association's publication "A Primer for Prospective Jurors" notes, "Think of the dilemma faced by German citizens when Hitler's secret police demanded to know if they were hiding a Jew in their house." By this definition, civil disobedience could be traced back to the Book of Exodus, where Shiphrah and Puah refused a direct order of Pharaoh but misrepresented how they did it. (Exodus 1: 15–19)


title: Civil disobedience

text: There have been debates as to whether civil disobedience must necessarily be non-violent. "Black's Law Dictionary" includes nonviolence in its definition of civil disobedience. Christian Bay's encyclopedia article states that civil disobedience requires "carefully chosen and legitimate means", but holds that they do not have to be non-violent. It has been argued that, while both civil disobedience and civil rebellion are justified by appeal to constitutional defects, rebellion is much more destructive; therefore, the defects justifying rebellion must be much more serious than those justifying disobedience, and if one cannot justify civil rebellion, then one cannot justify a civil disobedient's use of force and violence and refusal to submit to arrest. Civil disobedients' refraining from violence is also said to help preserve society's tolerance of civil disobedience.


title: Civil disobedience

text: The philosopher H. J. McCloskey argues that "if violent, intimidatory, coercive disobedience is more effective, it is, other things being equal, more justified than less effective, nonviolent disobedience." In his best-selling "Disobedience and Democracy: Nine Fallacies on Law and Order", Howard Zinn takes a similar position; Zinn states that while the goals of civil disobedience are generally nonviolent,


title: Civil disobedience

text: Zinn rejects any "easy and righteous dismissal of violence", noting that Thoreau, the popularizer of the term civil disobedience, approved of the armed insurrection of John Brown. He also notes that some major civil disobedience campaigns which have been classified as non-violent, such as the Birmingham campaign, have actually included elements of violence.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Non-revolutionary civil disobedience is a simple disobedience of laws on the grounds that they are judged "wrong" by a person's conscience, or as part of an effort to render certain laws ineffective, to cause their repeal, or to exert pressure to get one's political wishes on some other issue. Revolutionary civil disobedience is more of an active attempt to overthrow a government (or to change cultural traditions, social customs or religious beliefs). Revolution does not have to be political, i.e. "cultural revolution", it simply implies sweeping and widespread change to a section of the social fabric. Gandhi's acts have been described as revolutionary civil disobedience. It has been claimed that the Hungarians under Ferenc Deák directed revolutionary civil disobedience against the Austrian government. Thoreau also wrote of civil disobedience accomplishing "peaceable revolution". Howard Zinn, Harvey Wheeler, and others have identified the right espoused in the US Declaration of Independence to "alter or abolish" an unjust government to be a principle of civil disobedience.


title: Civil disobedience

text: The earliest recorded incidents of collective civil disobedience took place during the Roman Empire. Unarmed Jews gathered in the streets to prevent the installation of pagan images in the Temple in Jerusalem. In modern times, some activists who commit civil disobedience as a group collectively refuse to sign bail until certain demands are met, such as favourable bail conditions, or the release of all the activists. This is a form of jail solidarity. There have also been many instances of solitary civil disobedience, such as that committed by Thoreau, but these sometimes go unnoticed. Thoreau, at the time of his arrest, was not yet a well-known author, and his arrest was not covered in any newspapers in the days, weeks and months after it happened. The tax collector who arrested him rose to higher political office, and Thoreau's essay was not published until after the end of the Mexican War.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Bedau also notes, though, that the very harmlessness of such entirely symbolic illegal protests toward public policy goals may serve a propaganda purpose. Some civil disobedients, such as the proprietors of illegal medical cannabis dispensaries and Voice in the Wilderness, which brought medicine to Iraq without the permission of the US government, directly achieve a desired social goal (such as the provision of medication to the sick) while openly breaking the law. Julia Butterfly Hill lived in Luna, a -tall, 600-year-old California Redwood tree for 738 days, preventing its felling.


title: Civil disobedience

text: In cases where the criminalized behaviour is pure speech, civil disobedience can consist simply of engaging in the forbidden speech. An example is WBAI's broadcasting of the bit "Filthy Words" from a George Carlin comedy album, which eventually led to the 1978 Supreme Court case of "FCC v. Pacifica Foundation". Threatening government officials is another classic way of expressing defiance toward the government and unwillingness to stand for its policies. For example, Joseph Haas was arrested for allegedly sending an email to the Lebanon, New Hampshire, city councillors stating, "Wise up or die."


title: Civil disobedience

text: More generally, protesters of particular victimless crimes often see fit to openly commit that crime. Laws against public nudity, for instance, have been protested by going naked in public, and laws against cannabis consumption have been protested by openly possessing it and using it at cannabis rallies.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Some forms of civil disobedience, such as illegal boycotts, refusals to pay taxes, draft dodging, distributed denial-of-service attacks, and sit-ins, make it more difficult for a system to function. In this way, they might be considered coercive; coercive disobedience has the effect of exposing the enforcement of laws and policies, and it has even operated as an aesthetic strategy in contemporary art practice. Brownlee notes that "although civil disobedients are constrained in their use of coercion by their conscientious aim to engage in moral dialogue, nevertheless they may find it necessary to employ limited coercion to get their issue onto the table". The Plowshares organization temporarily closed GCSB Waihopai by padlocking the gates and using sickles to deflate one of the large domes covering two satellite dishes.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Electronic civil disobedience can include web site defacements, redirects, denial-of-service attacks, information theft and data leaks, illegal web site parodies, virtual sit-ins, and virtual sabotage. It is distinct from other kinds of hacktivism in that the perpetrator openly reveals his identity. Virtual actions rarely succeed in completely shutting down their targets, but they often generate significant media attention.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Dilemma actions are designed to create a "response dilemma" for public authorities "by forcing them to either concede some public space to protesters or make themselves look absurd or heavy-handed by acting against the protest."


title: Civil disobedience

text: Some disciplines of civil disobedience hold that the protester must submit to arrest and cooperate with the authorities. Others advocate falling limp or resisting arrest, especially when it will hinder the police from effectively responding to a mass protest.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Many of the same decisions and principles that apply in other criminal investigations and arrests arise also in civil disobedience cases. For example, the suspect may need to decide whether to grant a consent search of his property, and whether to talk to police officers. It is generally agreed within the legal community, and is often believed within the activist community, that a suspect's talking to criminal investigators can serve no useful purpose, and may be harmful. Some civil disobedients are compelled to respond to investigators' questions, sometimes by a misunderstanding of the legal ramifications or a fear of seeming rude. Also, some civil disobedients seek to use the arrest as an opportunity to make an impression on the officers. Thoreau wrote,


title: Civil disobedience

text: Some civil disobedients feel it is incumbent upon them to accept punishment because of their belief in the validity of the social contract, which is held to bind all to obey the laws that a government meeting certain standards of legitimacy has established, or else suffer the penalties set out in the law. Other civil disobedients who favour the existence of government still do not believe in the legitimacy of their particular government or do not believe in the legitimacy of a particular law it has enacted. Anarchistic civil disobedients do not believe in the legitimacy of any government, so see no need to accept punishment for a violation of criminal law.


title: Civil disobedience

text: An important decision for civil disobedients is whether to plead guilty. There is much debate on this point, as some believe that it is a civil disobedient's duty to submit to the punishment prescribed by law, while others believe that defending oneself in court will increase the possibility of changing the unjust law. It has also been argued that either choice is compatible with the spirit of civil disobedience. ACT UP's Civil Disobedience Training handbook states that a civil disobedient who pleads guilty is essentially stating, "Yes, I committed the act of which you accuse me. I don't deny it; in fact, I am proud of it. I feel I did the right thing by violating this particular law; I am guilty as charged", but that pleading not guilty sends a message of, "Guilt implies wrong-doing. I feel I have done no wrong. I may have violated some specific laws, but I am guilty of doing no wrong. I, therefore, plead not guilty." A plea of no contest is sometimes regarded as a compromise between the two. One defendant accused of illegally protesting nuclear power, when asked to enter his plea, stated, "I plead for the beauty that surrounds us"; this is known as a "creative plea", and will usually be interpreted as a plea of not guilty.


title: Civil disobedience

text: When the Committee for Non-Violent Action sponsored a protest in August 1957, at the Camp Mercury nuclear test site near Las Vegas, Nevada, 13 of the protesters attempted to enter the test site knowing that they faced arrest. At an announced time, one by one they crossed a line and were immediately arrested. They were put on a bus and taken to the Nye County seat of Tonopah, Nevada, and arraigned for trial before the local Justice of the Peace, that afternoon. A civil rights attorney, Francis Heisler, had volunteered to defend the accused, advising them to plead "nolo contendere" rather than guilty or not guilty. They were found guilty and given suspended sentences, conditional on not reentering the test site.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Sometimes the prosecution proposes a plea bargain to civil disobedients, as in the case of the Camden 28, in which the defendants were offered an opportunity to plead guilty to one misdemeanour count and receive no jail time. In some mass arrest situations, the activists decide to use solidarity tactics to secure the same plea bargain for everyone. But some activists have opted to enter a blind plea, pleading guilty without any plea agreement in place. Mahatma Gandhi pleaded guilty and told the court, "I am here to ... submit cheerfully to the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime and what appears to me to be the highest duty of a citizen."


title: Civil disobedience

text: Some civil disobedience defendants choose to make a defiant speech, or a speech explaining their actions, in allocution. In "U.S. v. Burgos-Andujar", a defendant who was involved in a movement to stop military exercises by trespassing on US Navy property argued to the court in allocution that "the ones who are violating the greater law are the members of the Navy". As a result, the judge increased her sentence from 40 to 60 days. This action was upheld because, according to the US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, her statement suggested a lack of remorse, an attempt to avoid responsibility for her actions, and even a likelihood of repeating her illegal actions. Some of the other allocution speeches given by the protesters complained about mistreatment from government officials.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Tim DeChristopher gave an allocution statement to the court describing the US as "a place where the rule of law was created through acts of civil disobedience" and arguing, "Since those bedrock acts of civil disobedience by our founding fathers, the rule of law in this country has continued to grow closer to our shared higher moral code through the civil disobedience that drew attention to legalized injustice."


title: Civil disobedience

text: Steven Barkan writes that if defendants plead not guilty, "they must decide whether their primary goal will be to win an acquittal and avoid imprisonment or a fine, or to use the proceedings as a forum to inform the jury and the public of the political circumstances surrounding the case and their reasons for breaking the law via civil disobedience." A technical defence may enhance the chances for acquittal but increase the possibility of additional proceedings and of reduced press coverage. During the Vietnam War era, the Chicago Eight used a political defence, but Benjamin Spock used a technical defence. In countries such as the United States, whose laws guarantee the right to a jury trial but do not excuse lawbreaking for political purposes, some civil disobedients seek jury nullification. Over the years, this has been made more difficult by court decisions such as "Sparf v. United States", which held that the judge need not inform jurors of their nullification prerogative, and "United States v. Dougherty", which held that the judge need not allow defendants to openly seek jury nullification.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Governments have generally not recognized the legitimacy of civil disobedience or viewed political objectives as an excuse for breaking the law. Specifically, the law usually distinguishes between criminal motive and criminal intent; the offender's motives or purposes may be admirable and praiseworthy, but his intent may still be criminal. Hence the saying that "if there is any possible justification of civil disobedience it must come from outside the legal system."


title: Civil disobedience

text: One theory is that, while disobedience may be helpful, any great amount of it undermines the law by encouraging general disobedience which is neither conscientious nor of social benefit. Therefore, conscientious lawbreakers must be punished. Michael Bayles argues that if a person violates a law to create a test case as to the constitutionality of a law, and then wins his case, then that act did not constitute civil disobedience. It has also been argued that breaking the law for self-gratification, as in the case of a cannabis user who does not direct his act at securing the repeal of amendment of the law, is not civil disobedience. Likewise, a protester who attempts to escape punishment by committing the crime covertly and avoiding attribution, or by denying having committed the crime, or by fleeing the jurisdiction, is generally not called a civil disobedient.


title: Civil disobedience

text: Courts have distinguished between two types of civil disobedience: "Indirect civil disobedience involves violating a law which is not, itself, the object of protest, whereas direct civil disobedience involves protesting the existence of a particular law by breaking that law." During the Vietnam War, courts typically refused to excuse the perpetrators of illegal protests from punishment on the basis of their challenging the legality of the Vietnam War; the courts ruled it was a political question. The necessity defence has sometimes been used as a shadow defence by civil disobedients to deny guilt without denouncing their politically motivated acts, and to present their political beliefs in the courtroom. Court cases such as "United States v. Schoon" have greatly curtailed the availability of the political necessity defence. Likewise, when Carter Wentworth was charged for his role in the Clamshell Alliance's 1977 illegal occupation of the Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, the judge instructed the jury to disregard his competing harms defence, and he was found guilty. Fully Informed Jury Association activists have sometimes handed out educational leaflets inside courthouses despite admonitions not to; according to the association, many of them have escaped prosecution because "prosecutors have reasoned (correctly) that if they arrest fully informed jury leafleters, the leaflets will have to be given to the leafleter's own jury as evidence."


title: Civil disobedience

text: Along with giving the offender his just deserts, achieving crime control via incapacitation and deterrence is a major goal of criminal punishment. Brownlee argues, "Bringing in deterrence at the level of justification detracts from the law's engagement in a moral dialogue with the offender as a rational person because it focuses attention on the threat of punishment and not the moral reasons to follow this law." British judge Lord Hoffman writes, "In deciding whether or not to impose punishment, the most important consideration would be whether it would do more harm than good. This means that the objector has no right not to be punished. It is a matter for the state (including the judges) to decide on utilitarian grounds whether to do so or not." Hoffman also asserted that while the "rules of the game" for protesters were to remain non-violent while breaking the law, the authorities must recognize that demonstrators are acting out of their conscience in pursuit of democracy. "When it comes to punishment, the court should take into account their personal convictions", he said.


title: Pagani (company)

text: Pagani Automobili S.p.A. (commonly referred to as Pagani) is an Italian manufacturer of hypercars and carbon fiber components. The company was founded in 1992 by the Argentinian Horacio Pagani and is based in San Cesario sul Panaro, near Modena, Italy.


title: Pagani (company)

text: Horacio Pagani, who formerly managed Lamborghini's composites department, founded Pagani Composite Research in 1988. This new company worked with Lamborghini on numerous projects, including the restyling of the Lamborghini Countach 25th Anniversary Edition, the Lamborghini LM002, the P140 design concept, and the Diablo. In the late 1980s, Pagani began designing his own car, then referred to as the "C8 Project". Pagani planned to rename the C8 the "Fangio F1" to honour his friend, the Argentinian five-time Formula One champion, Juan Manuel Fangio.


title: Pagani (company)

text: In 1991, Pagani established Modena Design to meet the increasing demand for his design, engineering, and prototyping services. In 1992, he began construction of a Fangio F1 prototype, and by 1993, the car was being tested at the Dallara wind tunnel with positive results. In 1994, Mercedes-Benz agreed to supply Pagani with V12 engines. The cost of these cars are at a total of 2.3 million dollars.


title: Pagani (company)

text: The final car was named the Zonda C12, the first of the Zonda line (the Fangio F1 name was dropped out of respect for Fangio, who died in 1995). It was first presented at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show.


title: Pagani (company)

text: In 2005, Pagani announced that it planned to triple its production output within the next three years, and to enter the US market in 2007.


title: Pagani (company)

text: On 30 June 2010, Pagani claimed a new record for production-based cars using the Pagani Zonda R and completing the Nürburgring in 6:47, beating the Ferrari 599XX.


title: Pagani (company)

text: Pagani's first model, the Zonda, is powered by a mid-mounted DOHC V12 engine manufactured by Mercedes-Benz's AMG division. The car's design was inspired by jet fighters and the famous Sauber-Mercedes Silver Arrow Group C cars, and features several unique design elements, including its circular four pipe exhaust system.


title: Pagani (company)

text: The Zonda's production run ended with the Zonda HP Barchetta. Only three were produced with one unit retained for Horacio Pagani's personal collection and the other two costing US$15M.


title: Pagani (company)

text: Pagani announced a variant of the Zonda named "Zonda Cinque" which was introduced as a 2009 model. The Cinque is based on the track-only Zonda R, but features a new Mercedes-Benz M297 V12 engine, active aerodynamics, and features exterior elements from the newly developed material "carbon-titanium fibre", which is stronger and lighter than typical carbon fibre. Only five were produced, all of which were already spoken for.


title: Pagani (company)

text: Pagani announced the Zonda Cinque Roadster in July 2009, of which only five were produced. The roadster uses the same Mercedes-Benz M297 V12 engine as the coupé version, but has been made lighter and stronger to keep the car structurally rigid. Both the coupe and the roadster accelerate from 0– in 3.4 seconds, 0– in 9.6 seconds and have a top speed of . The Cinque uses carbon-ceramic brakes from Brembo. They help decelerate the car from –0 mph in 3.1 seconds and –0mph in 4.3 seconds. The maximum side acceleration is 1.45g with road tyres. The car produces of downforce at .


title: Pagani (company)

text: At the 2010 Geneva Motor Show, Pagani announced the exclusive Zonda Tricolore, built to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Frecce Tricolori, the Italian Air Force's aerobatic squadron. Originally intended to be limited to a single car, eventually three were produced. The Tricolore is based on a top specification Zonda Cinque, built on a carbon titanium chassis with sequential transmission and titanium exhausts. The mid-mounted 7.3L M297 Mercedes AMG V12 engine produces , which helps the car achieve a top speed of and a 0– acceleration time of 3.2 seconds.


title: Pagani (company)

text: The Pagani Huayra, a successor to the Pagani Zonda, was initially revealed online in a press release on January 25, 2011. It was officially revealed at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show. The car is named after the Incan god of wind, Huayra-tata. The engine is a 6.0-litre twin-turbo M158 V12 engine from Mercedes-AMG producing and of torque. The Huayra's body is made from carbotanium; a lightweight composition of carbon fibre and titanium. The Huayra has been redesigned from the ground up, but shares many visual qualities with its predecessor. The car can accelerate from 0– in 3.2 seconds and has a top speed of . Only 100 units of the Huayra were produced, each costing £1,000,000 without options.


title: Pagani (company)

text: An extreme, track-focused version of the Huayra called the Huayra BC was unveiled at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show. The Huayra BC is named after the late Benny Caiola, a friend of Horacio Pagani, and the first Pagani customer. The Huayra BC has an improved version of the standard Huayra's engine, producing and of torque. The weight is reduced by to just , thanks to the use of an all-new material called 'carbon-triax' in the car which Pagani claims is 50% lighter and 20% stronger than regular carbon fibre, giving the car a power-to-weight ratio of per horsepower. The Huayra BC uses a lightweight titanium exhaust system, new aluminum alloy wheels, and a stripped-out interior. The tyres are Pirelli P-Zero Corsa tires that feature 12 different rubber compounds, and the suspension and wishbones are made of aeronautical grade aluminum, known as Avional. The Huayra BC also has a new front bumper with a front splitter and winglets, deeper side skirts, and an air diffuser that stretches the entire width of the rear bumper along with a large rear wing. The car uses an Xtrac 7-speed sequential manual transmission and has an electro-hydraulic actuation system. Pagani has stuck with a single-clutch gearbox because it weighs 40% less than double-clutch gearboxes.


title: Pagani (company)

text: 30 units of the Huayra BC were made, despite the claim by Pagani that the model was limited to 20 units. Each unit cost in excess of €2.1M.


title: Pagani (company)

text: After 2 years of development, the Huayra Roadster was officially unveiled in the 2017 Geneva Motor Show.


title: Pagani (company)

text: The design of the car underwent several changes, with the most noticeable being the rear, with updated eyelid-like fixed flaps that continued with the design and eventually ended on the rear lights. Vents were included on the rear engine cover for efficient cooling of the engine, and the wheels were updated specifically for the car along with Pirelli P-Zero tires, along with the addition of a spoiler at the front. The car has conventional doors instead of the Gull-wing doors used in the coupé as such doors cannot be fitted to an open top car. The car has the same twin-turbo V12 engine as the coupé but with the power upgraded to at 6,200 rpm and of torque at 2,400 rpm. The power is delivered to the rear wheels via a Xtrac 7-speed sequential manual transmission which is 40% lighter than its coupé counterpart. The car was constructed by a material developed by Pagani called 'carbon triax', which is a combination of tri-axis fibre glass with carbon fibre. This allowed the car to weigh less than its coupé counterpart, for a total of , making it the first roadster lighter than the coupé. Only 100 were made, all of which were sold even before production ended.


title: Pagani (company)

text: The successor to the Huayra, named Utopia, was revealed on September 12, 2022. It has a planned production run of 99 units of the coupé variant, though Pagani have not disclosed the price or when deliveries will begin.


title: Embryo

text: An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm cell. The resulting fusion of these two cells produces a single-celled zygote that undergoes many cell divisions that produce cells known as blastomeres. The blastomeres are arranged as a solid ball that when reaching a certain size, called a morula, takes in fluid to create a cavity called a blastocoel. The structure is then termed a blastula, or a blastocyst in mammals.


title: Embryo

text: The mammalian blastocyst hatches before implantating into the endometrial lining of the womb. Once implanted the embryo will continue its development through the next stages of gastrulation, neurulation, and organogenesis. Gastrulation is the formation of the three germ layers that will form all of the different parts of the body. Neurulation forms the nervous system, and organogenesis is the development of all the various tissues and organs of the body.


title: Embryo

text: A newly developing human is typically referred to as an embryo until the ninth week after conception, when it is then referred to as a fetus. In other multicellular organisms, the word "embryo" can be used more broadly to any early developmental or life cycle stage prior to birth or hatching.


title: Embryo

text: First attested in English in the mid-14c., the word "embryon" derives from Medieval Latin "embryo", itself from Greek ("embruon"), lit. "young one", which is the neuter of ("embruos"), lit. "growing in", from ἐν ("en"), "in" and βρύω ("bruō"), "swell, be full"; the proper Latinized form of the Greek term would be "embryum".


title: Embryo

text: In animals, fertilization begins the process of embryonic development with the creation of a zygote, a single cell resulting from the fusion of gametes (e.g. egg and sperm). The development of a zygote into a multicellular embryo proceeds through a series of recognizable stages, often divided into cleavage, blastula, gastrulation, and organogenesis.


title: Embryo

text: Cleavage is the period of rapid mitotic cell divisions that occur after fertilization. During cleavage, the overall size of the embryo does not change, but the size of individual cells decrease rapidly as they divide to increase the total number of cells. Cleavage results in a blastula.


title: Embryo

text: Depending on the species, a blastula or blastocyst stage embryo can appear as a ball of cells on top of yolk, or as a hollow sphere of cells surrounding a middle cavity. The embryo's cells continue to divide and increase in number, while molecules within the cells such as RNAs and proteins actively promote key developmental processes such as gene expression, cell fate specification, and polarity. Before implanting into the uterine wall the embryo is sometimes known as the "pre-implantation embryo" or "pre-implantation conceptus". Sometimes this is called the pre-embryo a term employed to differentiate from an embryo proper in relation to embryonic stem cell discourses.


title: Embryo

text: Gastrulation is the next phase of embryonic development, and involves the development of two or more layers of cells (germinal layers). Animals that form two layers (such as Cnidaria) are called diploblastic, and those that form three (most other animals, from flatworms to humans) are called triploblastic. During gastrulation of triploblastic animals, the three germinal layers that form are called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. All tissues and organs of a mature animal can trace their origin back to one of these layers. For example, the ectoderm will give rise to the skin epidermis and the nervous system, the mesoderm will give rise to the vascular system, muscles, bone, and connective tissues, and the endoderm will give rise to organs of the digestive system and epithelium of the digestive system and respiratory system. Many visible changes in embryonic structure happen throughout gastrulation as the cells that make up the different germ layers migrate and cause the previously round embryo to fold or invaginate into a cup-like appearance.


title: Embryo

text: Past gastrulation, an embryo continues to develop into a mature multicellular organism by forming structures necessary for life outside of the womb or egg. As the name suggests, organogenesis is the stage of embryonic development when organs form. During organogenesis, molecular and cellular interactions prompt certain populations of cells from the different germ layers to differentiate into organ-specific cell types. For example, in neurogenesis, a subpopulation of cells from the ectoderm segregate from other cells and further specialize to become the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves.


title: Embryo

text: The embryonic period varies from species to species. In human development, the term fetus is used instead of embryo after the ninth week after conception, whereas in zebrafish, embryonic development is considered finished when a bone called the cleithrum becomes visible. In animals that hatch from an egg, such as birds, a young animal is typically no longer referred to as an embryo once it has hatched. In viviparous animals (animals whose offspring spend at least some time developing within a parent's body), the offspring is typically referred to as an embryo while inside of the parent, and is no longer considered an embryo after birth or exit from the parent. However, the extent of development and growth accomplished while inside of an egg or parent varies significantly from species to species, so much so that the processes that take place after hatching or birth in one species may take place well before those events in another. Therefore, according to one textbook, it is common for scientists interpret the scope of embryology broadly as the study of the development of animals.


title: Embryo

text: Flowering plants (angiosperms) create embryos after the fertilization of a haploid ovule by pollen. The DNA from the ovule and pollen combine to form a diploid, single-cell zygote that will develop into an embryo. The zygote, which will divide multiple times as it progresses throughout embryonic development, is one part of a seed. Other seed components include the endosperm, which is tissue rich in nutrients that will help support the growing plant embryo, and the seed coat, which is a protective outer covering. The first cell division of a zygote is asymmetric, resulting in an embryo with one small cell (the apical cell) and one large cell (the basal cell). The small, apical cell will eventually give rise to most of the structures of the mature plant, such as the stem, leaves, and roots. The larger basal cell will give rise to the suspensor, which connects the embryo to the endosperm so that nutrients can pass between them. The plant embryo cells continue to divide and progress through developmental stages named for their general appearance: globular, heart, and torpedo. In the globular stage, three basic tissue types (dermal, ground, and vascular) can be recognized. The dermal tissue will give rise to the epidermis or outer covering of a plant, ground tissue will give rise to inner plant material that functions in photosynthesis, resource storage, and physical support, and vascular tissue will give rise to connective tissue like the xylem and phloem that transport fluid, nutrients, and minerals throughout the plant. In heart stage, one or two cotyledons (embryonic leaves) will form. Meristems (centers of stem cell activity) develop during the torpedo stage, and will eventually produce many of the mature tissues of the adult plant throughout its life. At the end of embryonic growth, the seed will usually go dormant until germination. Once the embryo begins to germinate (grow out from the seed) and forms its first true leaf, it is called a seedling or plantlet.


title: Embryo

text: Plants that produce spores instead of seeds, like bryophytes and ferns, also produce embryos. In these plants, the embryo begins its existence attached to the inside of the archegonium on a parental gametophyte from which the egg cell was generated. The inner wall of the archegonium lies in close contact with the "foot" of the developing embryo; this "foot" consists of a bulbous mass of cells at the base of the embryo which may receive nutrition from its parent gametophyte. The structure and development of the rest of the embryo varies by group of plants.


title: Embryo

text: Since all land plants create embryos, they are collectively referred to as embryophytes (or by their scientific name, Embryophyta). This, along with other characteristics, distinguishes land plants from other types of plants, such as algae, which do not produce embryos.


title: Embryo

text: Embryos from numerous plant and animal species are studied in biological research laboratories across the world to learn about topics such as stem cells, evolution and development, cell division, and gene expression. Examples of scientific discoveries made while studying embryos that were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine include the Spemann-Mangold organizer, a group of cells originally discovered in amphibian embryos that give rise to neural tissues, and genes that give rise to body segments discovered in "Drosophila" fly embryos by Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus.


title: Embryo

text: Creating and/or manipulating embryos via assisted reproductive technology (ART) is used for addressing fertility concerns in humans and other animals, and for selective breeding in agricultural species. Between the years 1987 and 2015, ART techniques including in vitro fertilization (IVF) were responsible for an estimated 1 million human births in the United States alone. Other clinical technologies include preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which can identify certain serious genetic abnormalities, such as aneuploidy, prior to selecting embryos for use in IVF. Some have proposed (or even attempted - see He Jiankui affair) genetic editing of human embryos via CRISPR-Cas9 as a potential avenue for preventing disease; however, this has been met with widespread condemnation from the scientific community.


title: Embryo

text: ART techniques are also used to improve the profitability of agricultural animal species such as cows and pigs by enabling selective breeding for desired traits and/or to increase numbers of offspring. For example, when allowed to breed naturally, cows typically produce one calf per year, whereas IVF increases offspring yield to 9-12 calves per year. IVF and other ART techniques, including cloning via interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT), are also used in attempts to increase the numbers of endangered or vulnerable species, such as Northern white rhinos, cheetahs, and sturgeons.


title: Embryo

text: Cryoconservation of genetic resources involves collecting and storing the reproductive materials, such as embryos, seeds, or gametes, from animal or plant species at low temperatures in order to preserve them for future use. Some large-scale animal species cryoconservation efforts include "frozen zoos" in various places around the world, including in the UK's Frozen Ark, the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW) in the United Arab Emirates, and the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation in the United States. As of 2018, there were approximately 1,700 seed banks used to store and protect plant biodiversity, particularly in the event of mass extinction or other global emergencies. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway maintains the largest collection of plant reproductive tissue, with more than a million samples stored at .


title: Embryo

text: Fossilized animal embryos are known from the Precambrian, and are found in great numbers during the Cambrian period. Even fossilized dinosaur embryos have been discovered.


title: Phill Lewis

text: Phillip David Lewis (born February 14, 1968) is an American actor, comedian and director who is best known for his role as hotel manager Mr. Moseby on the Disney Channel series "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" and its spin-off, "The Suite Life on Deck".


title: Phill Lewis

text: Lewis has also appeared in series such as "Lizzie McGuire", "Friends", "The Wayans Bros.", "Yes, Dear", "Scrubs" and "How I Met Your Mother".


title: Phill Lewis

text: Lewis was born on February 14, 1968, in Uganda to American parents. His father, Delano Lewis, served as the Peace Corps' associate director and country director for Nigeria and Uganda at the time and would later serve as the United States Ambassador to South Africa. Lewis has three brothers.


title: Phill Lewis

text: Lewis made his film debut as Dennis in the 1988 dark comedy "Heathers". In 1991, he was cast in the lead role of the short-lived CBS sitcom "Teech". The series was cancelled after thirteen episodes. He has appeared in smaller roles in other films, including "City Slickers" (1991), "Bowfinger" (1999), "I Spy" (2002), "Surviving Christmas" (2004), "Kicking & Screaming" (2005), and "Beverly Hills Chihuahua 2" (2011). He also appeared in guest parts on various television series including "Sister Sister", "Pacific Blue", "JAG", "Ally McBeal", "Joan of Arcadia", "Brothers & Sisters", "8 Simple Rules", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Friends" and "How I Met Your Mother". Lewis has also had recurring roles on "A Different World", "The Wayans Bros.", "Lizzie McGuire", "Yes, Dear", "Scrubs", and "Raising Hope".


title: Phill Lewis

text: Lewis co-starred in the Disney Channel original series "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" as Mr. Moseby. In 2008, he had reprised the role on a spin-off "The Suite Life on Deck," where he plays the manager of The S.S. Tipton. He has appeared as a guest star on Disney Channel's "That's So Raven" and "Phineas and Ferb" and also in one of the channel's original films, "Dadnapped". On the children's series "Special Agent Oso", he has a recurring role as the voice of Agent Wolfie.


title: Phill Lewis

text: As a television director, he directed eight episodes of "The Suite Life on Deck", first making his directorial debut with "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" episode "I Want My Mummy" (2007). He has since gone on to direct episodes of the Disney Channel sitcoms "A.N.T. Farm", "Austin & Ally", "Good Luck Charlie", Hannah Montana, "Kickin' It" and "Jessie". He has also directed some episodes of Nickelodeon sitcoms as well including, Big Time Rush, Henry Danger, Danger Force, and iCarly (both the original show and the revival series on Paramount+). and His other television directing credits include "Malibu Country", "Mike & Molly", "2 Broke Girls", "The Soul Man", "Sullivan & Son", Mr. Iglesias, "Melissa & Joey", "Young & Hungry", "The Odd Couple", "One Day at a Time", and "Indebted". He also directed the live episode of "Undateable" in 2015 that secured a third season for the series.


title: Phill Lewis

text: In late December 1991, Lewis was arrested after he fatally struck Isabel Duarte, a resident of Bethesda, Maryland, in a car crash. He was charged with manslaughter and driving while intoxicated. His blood alcohol level at the time measured three times the limit for legal intoxication. The court sentenced Lewis to five years in prison, but suspended four, citing Lewis's work after his arrest with a prison-based theater troupe that performed in jails, schools, and churches, to highlight the consequences of drug abuse. Lewis was also ordered to serve two years' probation after his release and to perform 350 hours of community service.


title: Boyzone

text: Boyzone were an Irish boy band, created in 1993 by talent manager Louis Walsh. Before even recording any material, Boyzone made an appearance on RTÉ's "The Late Late Show". Their most successful line-up was composed of Keith Duffy, Stephen Gately, Mikey Graham, Ronan Keating, and Shane Lynch. As of 2018, Boyzone have released seven studio albums and nine compilation albums.


title: Boyzone

text: In 2012, the Official Charts Company revealed the biggest selling singles artists in British music chart history, with Boyzone currently placed at 29th and the second most successful boy band in Britain, behind Take That. According to the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), Boyzone has been certified for six million albums and over seven million singles in the UK, with 25 million records sold by 2013 worldwide.


title: Boyzone

text: Boyzone have had six UK No.1 singles and nine No.1 singles in Ireland. Of the 24 singles they released in the UK, 21 entered the top 40 (including 18 in the top 10 and 12 in the top 2) in the UK charts and 22 singles (including 19 in the top 5) in the Irish charts. They have had five No. 1 albums in the UK.


title: Boyzone

text: The group split in 1999. Boyzone made a comeback in 2007, originally with the intention of just touring. Gately died on 10 October 2009 of natural causes while on holiday in the Spanish island of Majorca.


title: Boyzone

text: Boyzone went on tour in late 2018 to celebrate their 25th anniversary. An album to celebrate the anniversary was released on 16 November 2018. On 28 April 2018, it was announced that the band would split for good after their anniversary celebrations, which ended in 2019.


title: Boyzone

text: In 1993, an advertisement appeared in Irish newspapers calling for auditions to form a new Irish "boy band" group. The advertisements were sent out by theatrical manager Louis Walsh who was looking to make an "Irish Take That" following on from their success. The auditions were held in The Ormond Centre, in Dublin, in November 1993. More than 300 people replied to the advertisement. At the auditions the applicants were asked to sing the song "Careless Whisper" by George Michael. Each audition would be taped and watched again to judge the applicant's performance. Out of the 300, 50 were selected for a second audition. For the second audition the applicants where asked to sing two songs, including one of their own choice with a backing tape. Mikey Graham sang "Two Out of Three Ain't Bad" by Meat Loaf, Keith Duffy sang "I'm Too Sexy" by Right Said Fred, Ronan Keating sang "Father and Son" by Cat Stevens (a cover version of which the band would later release), and Stephen Gately sang "Hello" by Lionel Richie. Out of this 50, 10 were selected for a third audition. In the end, Keating, Gately, Duffy, Richard Rock (son of Dickie Rock), Shane Lynch and Mark Walton were chosen. This lineup of the group were mocked by both the audience and presenter Gay Byrne in an appearance on "The Late Late Show" in 1993, where they mimed and danced to the Clubhouse hit "Light My Fire".


title: Boyzone

text: Boyzone played through 1994 in pubs and clubs all over Northern Ireland before PolyGram signed them up in 1994 and released the cover version of the Four Seasons' hit "Working My Way Back to You", featuring Graham and Gately on lead vocals. It reached No. 3 in the Irish Charts. The release of their cover version of the classic Johnny Bristol song, "Love Me for a Reason", broke into the British charts. The song hit No. 2 in the UK and was included in their 1995 hit debut album "Said and Done". The album reached the No. 1 spot in Ireland and the UK. In 1995, the singles "Key to My Life", "So Good" and "Father and Son" were released, which all got the attention of new fans in Europe.


title: Boyzone

text: Their second album, "A Different Beat", was released in 1996. It was the album that would bring the band worldwide success, and sold 2 million copies worldwide. The song "Coming Home Now" was released as a single. Boyzone had their first UK No. 1 single, a cover of the Bee Gees' hit "Words". The album also contained the hit singles "A Different Beat" and "Isn't It a Wonder".


title: Boyzone

text: In 1997, Boyzone released three singles: "Isn't It a Wonder", "Picture of You", and "Baby Can I Hold You/Shooting Star". The group performed "Let The Message Run Free" at the Eurovision Song Contest 1997, co-hosted by Keating, in Dublin and tried to break the US market with their version of "Mystical Experience", which they also recorded in Spanish. Ronan Keating – who by now had emerged as the lead singer and frontman – won the Ivor Novello Award for songwriting in 1997 for "Picture of You".


title: Boyzone

text: Their third studio album, "Where We Belong", was released in 1998 and featured Boyzone's writing abilities; the album sold over 3 million copies worldwide. It contained the hit singles "All That I Need" (which stayed for six weeks in the MTV Asia charts), "Baby Can I Hold You" (Tracy Chapman cover) and "No Matter What".


title: Boyzone

text: Originally written for the Andrew Lloyd Webber stage musical "Whistle Down the Wind", "No Matter What" was the group's best ever selling single selling over 4 million copies worldwide and it is the biggest selling record for a boy band, it was also voted Song of the Year, 1998. Since the song was also recorded by Meat Loaf, Boyzone shared the stage with him to perform the song during his 1998 live concert in Dublin. They also sang the song in Italy with Luciano Pavarotti. Their 1998 tour of Ireland broke all sales records when 35,000 tickets were sold out in four hours.


title: Boyzone

text: In 1999, "When the Going Gets Tough", "You Needed Me" and "Every Day I Love You" were singles released which were worldwide hits. As well as their greatest hits compilation "By Request"—the highest-selling Boyzone album, having sold over 4 million copies worldwide—a tour followed from May–July 1999 in Ireland, the UK and Europe. In June 1999, Stephen Gately revealed that he was gay and was in love with the ex-Caught in the Act member Eloy de Jong. Also during this year Keating released his first solo single, "When You Say Nothing at All", an Alison Krauss song which he had recorded for the movie "Notting Hill".


title: Boyzone

text: In November 1999, after six years together and amid growing tensions behind the scenes, the group members decided to take some time off from Boyzone to pursue solo projects. Boyzone performed together for the last time in Ireland at the point depot during nine dates running from 3–8 January and 10–12 January 2000. They had sold more than 20 million records in total and all 16 of their singles reached the UK top five, making them the first Irish act to have four No. 1 hits in the United Kingdom charts.


title: Boyzone

text: For seven years after their split, the members had mixed success in their individual careers. Keating in particular remained a force in the music industry as he continued writing and managing other bands. Gately also continued his career as a solo artist, appearing in a number of West End stage musicals, and Duffy had some success as an actor, including a role in the UK television soap "Coronation Street". Rumours came to a head and in early 2007 there were news reports that all five members and their manager, "The X Factor" judge Walsh, had met in Dublin to discuss and organise a comeback tour. On 11 October 2007, Walsh was interviewed on "The Graham Norton Show"; when asked by Norton whether there was going to be a re-launch of Boyzone he replied "I think so". On 5 November 2007, Keating confirmed that Boyzone would reunite for a special appearance on the BBC's annual fundraiser, "Children in Need", performing a medley of hits, although had not yet commented on the possibility of a new tour or album. On 14 November 2007, it was reported that all five members of Boyzone were to begin a UK tour in May, which would be their first in seven years. Keating, who left the group to pursue a solo career, joined them for the series of concerts. On 16 November, Boyzone made a comeback appearance as part of "Children in Need" on BBC1 in the UK, with an Irish and UK tour announced for June 2008.


title: Boyzone

text: The group sold 200,000 tickets for the tour within three hours and sold 20,000 tickets on the first day of them going on sale for their concert in the RDS Dublin. Keating told the "Daily Star": "We've been taking it easy on the Guinness and been out for dinners and just a couple of drinks. We're taking the tour plans very seriously. We're all on diets and we've been training in the gym every day. I'm probably the fittest now that I've ever been. I think we all look better now than before. I can't wait to be back on the road and all the guys feel the same." The 29-date tour, taking in cities such as Cardiff, Newcastle, Liverpool, London at the O2 Arena and Wembley, Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Sheffield, Newcastle, Nottingham, Edinburgh Castle and the RDS in Dublin.


title: Boyzone

text: The tour began on 25 May 2008 at Belfast's Odyssey arena and finished at Carlisle Bitts Park on 23 August 2008. On 29 August 2008 Boyzone played alongside other acts such as Sandi Thom and Scouting For Girls at an event in Blackpool to switch on the Blackpool Illuminations, an annual event in the town. The event received coverage on BBC Radio 2. On 3 September, the video for Love You Anyway debuted on the digital music channel The Box. It features all five members of the best-known lineup of Boyzone with Keating taking most of the lead vocals. The single received its first play on 20 August 2008, live on Terry Wogan's Radio 2 Breakfast show. On 6 October 2008, "Love You Anyway" entered the UK charts at No. 5, making it their 17th consecutive top five single. On 8 December their second single of 2008 "Better" was released and charted at No. 22 in the UK charts, No. 26 in the Irish charts and N. 63 in the European hot singles charts. On 28 August 2009 the group joined Yvette Fielding in Edinburgh for a "Ghosthunting with..." show for ITV2.


title: Boyzone

text: In 2009, Boyzone played their Better Tour, which was the last tour to feature Gately. On 10 October 2009, Gately died suddenly at his flat in Port d'Andratx, Majorca. Gately's bandmates flew to Majorca on 11 October 2009; Walsh was expected to join them soon after. The surviving members of Boyzone, Keith Duffy, Mikey Graham, Ronan Keating and Shane Lynch, issued a joint statement: Post-mortem and toxicology tests took place on 13 October and showed that Gately died from a pulmonary edema resulting from an undiagnosed heart condition.


title: Boyzone

text: On 16 October, accompanied by the four surviving members of Boyzone, his body was brought from Majorca to Dublin where his funeral took place at the Church of St Laurence O'Toole the following day.


title: Boyzone

text: Fans responded with messages of sympathy on the social media. Boyzone manager Louis Walsh was quoted as saying: "We're all absolutely devastated. I'm in complete shock. I was only with him on Monday at an awards ceremony. We don't know much about what's happened yet. I only heard after "The X Factor" (UK television talent show on which Walsh is a judge) and we will rally around each other this week. He was a great man."


title: Boyzone

text: The four surviving Boyzone members were originally going to release the new album in mid-2010 with a summer tour following the album, but the album was released in March 2010 which was earlier than planned. The album was released as a tribute to Gately which included two new songs that were performed by Gately before his death. One song was written by singer-songwriter Mika, who has also claimed that the new song he wrote for Boyzone is the last one which will feature Gately's vocals in which he and Keating shared the vocals and originally the song would have led to Ronan singing first then Stephen would sing the second part prior to that, the song was released as their fourth studio album on 8 March 2010. The track written by Mika became the lead single from the new album, titled "Gave It All Away". Graham stated that "Gave It All Away" would be released on 1 March 2010 and the album was released a week afterwards. To date, the single has sold over 130,000 copies in the UK alone. The single charted in Australia and New Zealand and peaked at No. 9 on the UK Singles Chart and at No. 1 on the Irish Singles Chart.


title: Boyzone

text: Boyzone's fourth studio album, "Brother" was released on 8 March 2010 and become their fourth studio number one album so far in both Ireland and the UK selling 400,000 copies in the UK, 30,000 copies in Republic of Ireland and 7,000 in Germany, the album also charted in several other European countries, Australia and in the top ten in New Zealand. It has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide as of 2012. "Love Is a Hurricane" was the second and final single from "Brother". It was released on 17 May, peaking at No. 44 on the UK Singles Chart and at No. 39 on the Irish Singles Chart, selling 12,000 copies. In mid-2010, it was announced that they would be touring the UK and Ireland during February and March 2011 with a 21 date tour of Ireland and UK with their arena-based Brother Tour and four outdoor shows around the UK during August, the tour was seen by 160,000 fans and the tour grossed million in total. A Huge contribution to the background and lead vocals in their tours since 2011 has come from backing vocalist Jo Garland who has sung with Ronan Keating in his solo ventures since 2001 and with Boyzone since 2008, her vocals have been more prominent often covering for vocals that Stephen Gately sung. A DVD of the tour from The O2 Arena will be released in December 2013. Boyzone performed "No Matter What" with Kym Marsh on an ITV programme called "Coronation Street: The Big 50", broadcast on ITV1 on 10 December 2010, but Graham was not present due to other commitments.


title: Boyzone

text: Lynch said in an interview on ITV1 show Loose Women that Boyzone will be releasing a new album and be touring in 2013 which will celebrate the 20th anniversary of the band forming. Duffy told The Sun newspaper, "We've plans in place for a tour and an album next year for the 20th anniversary, The album will probably involve the O2 arena in London, it's very exciting!, we've a very loyal fanbase that always come in their thousands. It's a nice set-up. We never broke up, so we can take time out to do our own thing, and then get back together when it suits."


title: Boyzone

text: In early 2014, a compilation album "Love Me for a Reason: The Collection" was released and it has charted in Ireland and Belgium. In 2014, further dates were added to their BZ20 Tour. On 17 July 2014, it was announced that Boyzone would be releasing a sixth studio album called "From Dublin To Detroit", a 12-song album with covers of motown hits. Keith Duffy said "We're basically just covering some of our favourite songs from the Motown era, and putting a full album together. So we've got 12 really exciting tracks coming out. It's going to give us a whole new catalogue of music to perform. And it will be very interesting how it fits in with our own back catalogue. It's kind of rejuvenating us. It's giving us just good times and good memories in the studio. So fingers crossed people will receive it well and it goes well for us." On 29 September 2014 a few songs from the album were announced on Twitter; Upon release, the album Dublin to Detroit featured 11 songs with a deluxe version having an extra 2 songs. The album sold 90,000 copies in the UK. In 2015, Boyzone toured Asia, England and Scotland with 12 dates.


title: Boyzone

text: Boyzone toured the UK in late summer of 2017 along with 4 outdoor dates in Chelmsford City Racecourse, Derby County Cricket Ground, Hastings Pier and Windsor Racecourse.


title: Boyzone

text: In December 2017, it was announced that the album had been finalized and was ready for release in 2018.


title: Boyzone

text: In April 2018, it was confirmed that Boyzone will be releasing a new studio album in September and will tour the UK in 2018 with arena shows. Keith Duffy announced in March 2017 that Boyzone had a signed a contract with Warner Music for an album and an arena tour. The album was be titled "Thank You & Goodnight".


title: Boyzone

text: The album was released on 16 November 2018 by Warner Music and it peaked at number 10 in Ireland and 6 in the UK. Shane Lynch compared the album's style to that of American singer Charlie Puth, and both Sam Smith and Ed Sheeran wrote some material for the album.


title: Boyzone

text: It is speculated that the band will re-form for their 30th anniversary in 2024 With a new album and tour


title: Carnotaurus

text: Carnotaurus (; ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous period, probably sometime between 71 and 69 million years ago. The only species is Carnotaurus sastrei. Known from a single well-preserved skeleton, it is one of the best-understood theropods from the Southern Hemisphere. The skeleton, found in 1984, was uncovered in the Chubut Province of Argentina from rocks of the La Colonia Formation. "Carnotaurus" is a derived member of the Abelisauridae, a group of large theropods that occupied the large predatorial niche in the southern landmasses of Gondwana during the late Cretaceous. Within the Abelisauridae, the genus is often considered a member of the Brachyrostra, a clade of short-snouted forms restricted to South America.


title: Carnotaurus

text: "Carnotaurus" was a lightly built, bipedal predator, measuring in length and weighing . As a theropod, "Carnotaurus" was highly specialized and distinctive. It had thick horns above the eyes, a feature unseen in all other carnivorous dinosaurs, and a very deep skull sitting on a muscular neck. "Carnotaurus" was further characterized by small, vestigial forelimbs and long, slender hind limbs. The skeleton is preserved with extensive skin impressions, showing a mosaic of small, non-overlapping scales approximately 5 mm in diameter. The mosaic was interrupted by large bumps that lined the sides of the animal, and there are no hints of feathers.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The distinctive horns and the muscular neck may have been used in fighting conspecifics. According to separate studies, rivaling individuals may have combated each other with quick head blows, by slow pushes with the upper sides of their skulls, or by ramming each other head-on, using their horns as shock absorbers. The feeding habits of "Carnotaurus" remain unclear: some studies suggested the animal was able to hunt down very large prey such as sauropods, while other studies found it preyed mainly on relatively small animals. Its brain cavity suggests an acute sense of smell, while hearing and sight were less well developed. "Carnotaurus" was probably well adapted for running and was possibly one of the fastest large theropods.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The only skeleton (holotype MACN-CH 894) was unearthed in 1984 by an expedition led by Argentinian paleontologist José Bonaparte. This expedition also recovered the peculiar spiny sauropod "Amargasaurus". It was the eighth expedition within the project named "Jurassic and Cretaceous Terrestrial Vertebrates of South America", which started in 1976 and was sponsored by the National Geographic Society. The skeleton is well-preserved and (still connected together), with only the posterior two thirds of the tail, much of the lower leg, and the hind feet being destroyed by weathering. The skeleton belonged to an adult individual, as indicated by the fused sutures in the . It was found lying on its right side, showing a typical death pose with the neck bent back over the torso. Unusually, it is preserved with extensive skin impressions. In view of the significance of these impressions, a second expedition was started to reinvestigate the original excavation site, leading to the recovery of several additional skin patches. The skull was deformed during fossilization, with the snout bones of the left side displaced forwards relative to the right side, the nasal bones pushed upwards, and the pushed backwards onto the . Deformation also exaggerated the upward curvature of the upper jaw. The snout was more strongly affected by deformation than the rear part of the skull, possibly due to the higher rigidity of the latter. In top or bottom view, the upper jaws were less U-shaped than the lower jaws, resulting in an apparent mismatch. This mismatch is the result of deformation acting from the sides, which affected the upper jaws but not the lower jaws, possibly due to the greater flexibility of the joints within the latter.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The skeleton was collected on a farm named "Pocho Sastre" near Bajada Moreno in the Telsen Department of Chubut Province, Argentina. Because it was embedded in a large hematite concretion, a very hard kind of rock, preparation was complicated and progressed slowly. In 1985, Bonaparte published a note presenting "Carnotaurus sastrei" as a new genus and species and briefly describing the skull and lower jaw. The generic name "Carnotaurus" is derived from the Latin carno [carnis] ("flesh") and taurus ("bull") and can be translated with "meat-eating bull", an allusion to the animal's bull-like horns. The specific name "sastrei" honors Angel Sastre, the owner of the ranch where the skeleton was found. A comprehensive description of the whole skeleton followed in 1990. After "Abelisaurus", "Carnotaurus" was the second member of the family Abelisauridae that was discovered. For years, it was by far the best-understood member of its family, and also the best-understood theropod from the Southern Hemisphere. It was not until the 21st century that similar well-preserved abelisaurids were described, including "Aucasaurus", "Majungasaurus" and "Skorpiovenator", allowing scientists to re-evaluate certain aspects of the anatomy of "Carnotaurus". The holotype skeleton is displayed in the Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences, Bernardino Rivadavia; replicas can be seen in this and other museums around the world. Sculptors Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas manufactured a life-sized sculpture of "Carnotaurus" that was previously on display at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. This sculpture, ordered by the museum during the mid-1980s, is probably the first life restoration of a theropod showing accurate skin.


title: Carnotaurus

text: "Carnotaurus" was a large but lightly built predator. The only known individual was about in length, making "Carnotaurus" one of the largest abelisaurids. "Ekrixinatosaurus" and possibly "Abelisaurus", which are highly incomplete, might have been similar or larger in size. A 2016 study found that only "Pycnonemosaurus", at , was longer than "Carnotaurus"; it was estimated at . Its mass is estimated to have been , , , , and in separate studies that used different estimation methods. "Carnotaurus" was a highly specialized theropod, as seen especially in characteristics of the skull, the vertebrae and the forelimbs. The pelvis and hind limbs, on the other hand, remained relatively conservative, resembling those of the more basal "Ceratosaurus". Both the pelvis and hind limb were long and slender. The left (thigh bone) of the individual measures 103 cm in length, but shows an average diameter of only 11 cm.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The skull, measuring in length, was proportionally shorter and deeper than in any other large carnivorous dinosaur. The snout was moderately broad, not as tapering as seen in more basal theropods like "Ceratosaurus", and the jaws were curved upwards. A prominent pair of horns protruded obliquely above the eyes. These horns, formed by the frontal bones, were thick and cone-shaped, internally solid, somewhat vertically flattened in cross-section, and measured in length. Bonaparte, in 1990, suggested that these horns would probably have formed the bony cores of much longer keratinous sheaths. Mauricio Cerroni and colleagues, in 2020, agreed that the horns supported keratinous sheaths, but argued that these sheaths would not have been greatly longer than the bony cores.


title: Carnotaurus

text: As in other dinosaurs, the skull was perforated by six major skull openings on each side. The frontmost of these openings, the (bony nostril), was subrectangular and directed sidewards and forwards, but was not sloping in side view as in some other ceratosaurs such as "Ceratosaurus". This opening was formed by the nasal and premaxilla only, while in some related ceratosaurs the maxilla also contributed to this opening. Between the bony nostril and the orbit (eye opening) was the antorbital fenestra. In "Carnotaurus", this opening was higher than long, while it was longer than high in related forms such as "Skorpiovenator" and "Majungasaurus". The antorbital fenestra was bounded by a larger depression, the , which was formed by recessed parts of the maxilla in front and the behind. As in all abelisaurids, this depression was small in "Carnotaurus". The lower front corner of the antorbital fossa contained a smaller opening, the , which led into an air-filled cavity within the maxilla. The eye was situated in the upper part of the keyhole-shaped orbit. This upper part was proportionally small and subcircular, and separated from the lower part of the orbit by the forward-projecting . It was slightly rotated forward, probably permitting some degree of binocular vision. The keyhole-like shape of the orbit was possibly related to the marked skull shortening, and is also found in related short-snouted abelisaurids. As in all abelisaurids, the (on the skull roof between the eyes) was excluded from the orbit. Behind the orbit were two openings, the on the side and the on the top of the skull. The infratemporal fenestra was tall, short, and kidney-shaped, while the supratemporal fenestra was short and square-shaped. Another opening, the , was located in the lower jaw – in "Carnotaurus", this opening was comparatively large.


title: Carnotaurus

text: On each side of the upper jaws there were four premaxillary and twelve maxillary teeth, while the lower jaws were equipped with fifteen dentary teeth per side. The teeth had been described as being long and slender, as opposed to the very short teeth seen in other abelisaurids. However, Cerroni and colleagues, in their 2020 description of the skull, stated that all erupted teeth have been severely damaged during excavation and were later reconstructed with plaster (Bonaparte, in 1990, only noted that some lower jaw teeth had been fragmented). Reliable information on the shape of the teeth is therefore limited to replacement teeth and tooth roots that are still enclosed by the jaw, and can be studied using CT imaging. The replacement teeth had low, flattened crowns, were closely spaced, and inclined forwards at approximately 45°. In his 1990 description, Bonaparte noted that the lower jaw was shallow and weakly constructed, with the (the foremost jaw bone) connected to the hindmost jaw bones by only two contact points; this contrasts to the robust-looking skull. Cerroni and colleagues instead found multiple but loose connections between the dentary and the hindmost jaw bones. This articulation, therefore, was very flexible but not necessarily weak. The bottom margin of the dentary was convex, while it was straight in "Majungasaurus".


title: Carnotaurus

text: The lower jaw was found with ossified hyoid bones, in the position they would be in if the animal was alive. These slender bones, supporting the tongue musculature and several other muscles, are rarely found in dinosaurs because they are often cartilaginous and not connected to other bones and therefore get lost easily. In "Carnotaurus", three hyoid bones are preserved: a pair of curved, rod-like ceratobranchials that articulate with a single, trapezoidal element, the basihyal. "Carnotaurus" is the only known non-avian theropod from which a basihyal is known. The back of the skull had well-developed, air-filled chambers surrounding the braincase, as in other abelisaurids. Two separate chamber systems were present, the paratympanic system, which was connected to the middle ear cavity, as well as chambers resulting from outgrowths of the air sacs of the neck.


title: Carnotaurus

text: A number of autapomorphies (distinguishing features) can be found in the skull, including the pair of horns and the very short and deep skull. The maxilla had excavations above the promaxillary fenestra, which would have been excavated by the antorbital air sinus (air passages in the snout). The nasolacrimal duct, which transported eye fluid, exited on the medial (inner) surface of the lacrimal through a canal of uncertain function. Other proposed autapomorphies include a deep and long, air-filled excavation in the and an elongated depression on the of the .


title: Carnotaurus

text: The vertebral column consisted of ten cervical (neck), twelve dorsal, six fused sacral and an unknown number of caudal (tail) vertebrae. The neck was nearly straight, rather than having the S-curve seen in other theropods, and also unusually wide, especially towards its base. The top of the neck's spinal column featured a double row of enlarged, upwardly directed bony processes called epipophyses, creating a smooth trough on the top of the neck vertebrae. These processes were the highest points of the spine, towering above the unusually low spinous processes. The epipophyses probably provided attachment areas for a markedly strong neck musculature. A similar double row was also present in the tail, formed there by highly modified caudal ribs, in front view protruding upwards in a V-shape, their inner sides creating a smooth, flat, top surface of the front tail vertebrae. The end of each caudal rib was furnished with a forward projecting hook-shaped expansion that connected to the caudal rib of the preceding vertebra.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The forelimbs were proportionally shorter than in any other large carnivorous dinosaurs, including "Tyrannosaurus". The forearm was only a quarter the size of the upper arm. There were no carpalia in the hand, so that the metacarpals articulated directly with the forearm. The hand showed four basic digits, though apparently only the middle two of these ended in finger bones, while the fourth consisted of a single splint-like metacarpal that may have represented an external 'spur'. The fingers themselves were fused and immobile, and may have lacked claws. "Carnotaurus" differed from all other abelisaurids in having proportionally shorter and more robust forelimbs, and in having the fourth, splint-like metacarpal as the longest bone in the hand. A 2009 study suggests that the arms were vestigial in abelisaurids, because nerve fibers responsible for stimulus transmission were reduced to an extent seen in today's emus and kiwis, which also have vestigial forelimbs.


title: Carnotaurus

text: "Carnotaurus" was the first theropod dinosaur discovered with a significant number of fossil skin impressions. These impressions, found beneath the skeleton's right side, come from different body parts, including the lower jaw, the front of the neck, the shoulder girdle, and the rib cage. The largest patch of skin corresponds to the anterior part of the tail. Originally, the right side of the skull also was covered with large patches of skin—this was not recognized when the skull was prepared, and these patches were accidentally destroyed. However, the surface texture of several skull bones allows for inferences on their probable covering. A hummocky surface with grooves, pits, and small openings is found on the sides and front of the snout and indicates a scaly covering, possibly with flat scales as in today's crocodilians. The top of the snout was sculptured with numerous small holes and spikes – this texture can probably be correlated with a cornified pad (horny covering). Such a pad also occurred in "Majungasaurus" but was absent in "Abelisaurus" and "Rugops". A row of large scales did probably surround the eye, as indicated by a hummocky surface with longitudinal grooves on the lacrimal and postorbital bones.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The skin was built up of a mosaic of polygonal, non-overlapping scales measuring approximately in diameter. This mosaic was divided by thin, parallel grooves. Scalation was similar across different body parts with the exception of the head, which apparently showed a different, irregular pattern of scales. There is no evidence of feathers. Larger bump-like structures were distributed over the sides of the neck, back and tail in irregular rows. These bumps were in diameter and up to in height and often showed a low midline ridge. They were set apart from each other and became larger towards the animal's top. The bumps probably represent feature scales – clusters of condensed scutes – similar to those seen on the soft frill running along the body midline in hadrosaurid ("duck-billed") dinosaurs. These structures did not contain bone. Stephen Czerkas (1997) suggested that these structures may have protected the animal's sides while fighting members of the same species (conspecifics) and other theropods, arguing that similar structures can be found on the neck of the modern iguana where they provide limited protection in combat.


title: Carnotaurus

text: More recent studies of the skin of "Carnotaurus" published in 2021 suggest that previous depictions of the scales on the body are inaccurate, and the larger feature scales were randomly distributed along the body, not distributed in discrete rows like in older artistic depictions and illustrations. There is also no sign of progressive size variation in feature scales along different areas along the body. The basement scales of "Carnotaurus" were by comparison highly variable, ranging in size from small and elongated, to large and polygonal, and from circular-to-lenticular in the thoracic, scapular, and tail regions, respectively. This scale differentiation may have been related to regulating body heat and shedding excess heat via thermoregulation due to its large body size and active lifestyle.


title: Carnotaurus

text: "Carnotaurus" is one of the best-understood genera of the Abelisauridae, a family of large theropods restricted to the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana. Abelisaurids were the dominant predators in the Late Cretaceous of Gondwana, replacing the carcharodontosaurids and occupying the ecological niche filled by the tyrannosaurids in the northern continents. Several notable traits that evolved within this family, including shortening of the skull and arms as well as peculiarities in the cervical and caudal vertebrae, were more pronounced in "Carnotaurus" than in any other abelisaurid.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Though relationships within the Abelisauridae are debated, "Carnotaurus" is consistently shown to be one of the most derived members of the family by cladistical analyses. Its nearest relative might have been "Aucasaurus" or "Majungasaurus". A 2008 review, in contrast, suggested that "Carnotaurus" was not closely related to either genus, and instead proposed "Ilokelesia" as its sister taxon. Juan Canale and colleagues, in 2009, erected the new clade Brachyrostra to include "Carnotaurus" but not "Majungasaurus"; this classification has been followed by a number of studies since.


title: Carnotaurus

text: "Carnotaurus" is eponymous for two subgroups of the Abelisauridae: the Carnotaurinae and the Carnotaurini. Paleontologists do not universally accept these groups. The Carnotaurinae was defined to include all derived abelisaurids with the exclusion of "Abelisaurus", which is considered a basal member in most studies. However, a 2008 review suggested that "Abelisaurus" was a derived abelisaurid instead. Carnotaurini was proposed to name the clade formed by "Carnotaurus" and "Aucasaurus"; only those paleontologists who consider "Aucasaurus" as the nearest relative of "Carnotaurus" use this group.


title: Carnotaurus

text: "Carnotaurus" is the only known carnivorous bipedal animal with a pair of horns on the frontal bone. The use of these horns is not entirely clear. Several interpretations have revolved around use in fighting conspecifics or in killing prey, though a use in display for courtship or recognition of members of the same species is possible as well.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Greg Paul (1988) proposed that the horns were butting weapons and that the small orbita would have minimized the possibility of hurting the eyes while fighting. Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues (1998) suggested that "Carnotaurus" used its horns in a way similar to rams. They calculated that the neck musculature was strong enough to absorb the force of two individuals colliding with their heads frontally at a speed of 5.7 m/s each. Fernando Novas (2009) interpreted several skeletal features as adaptations for delivering blows with the head. He suggested that the shortness of the skull might have made head movements quicker by reducing the moment of inertia, while the muscular neck would have allowed strong head blows. He also noted an enhanced rigidity and strength of the spinal column that may have evolved to withstand shocks conducted by the head and neck.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Other studies suggest that rivaling "Carnotaurus" did not deliver rapid head blows, but pushed slowly against each other with the upper sides of their skulls. Mazzetta and colleagues, in 2009, argued that the horns may have been a device for the distribution of compression forces without damage to the brain. This is supported by the flattened upper sides of the horns, the strongly fused bones of the top of the skull, and the inability of the skull to survive rapid head blows. Rafael Delcourt, in 2018, suggested that the horns could have been used either in slow headbutting and shoving, as seen in the modern marine iguana, or in blows to the opponent's neck and flanks, as seen in the modern giraffe. The latter possibility had been previously proposed for the related "Majungasaurus" in a 2011 conference paper.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues (1998) propose that the horns might also have been used to injure or kill small prey. Though horn cores are blunt, they may have had a similar form to modern bovid horns if there was a keratinous covering. However, this would be the only reported example of horns being used as hunting weapons in animals.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Analyses of the jaw structure of "Carnotaurus" by Mazzetta and colleagues, in 1998, 2004, and 2009, suggest that the animal was capable of quick bites, but not strong ones. Quick bites are more important than strong bites when capturing small prey, as shown by studies of modern-day crocodiles. These researchers also noted a high degree of flexibility (kinesis) within the skull and especially the lower jaw, somewhat similar to modern snakes. Elasticity of the jaw would have allowed "Carnotaurus" to swallow small prey items whole. In addition, the front part of the lower jaw was hinged, and thus able to move up and down. When pressed downwards, the teeth would have projected forward, allowing "Carnotaurus" to spike small prey items; when the teeth were curved upwards, the now backward projecting teeth would have hindered the caught prey from escaping. Mazzetta and colleagues also found that the skull was able to withstand forces that appear when tugging on large prey items. "Carnotaurus" may therefore have fed mainly on relatively small prey, but also was able to hunt large dinosaurs. In 2009, Mazzetta and colleagues estimated a bite force of around 3,341 newtons. A 2022 study estimating bite force for 33 different dinosaurs suggests that the bite force in "Carnotaurus" was around 3,392 newtons at the anterior portion of the jaws; slightly higher than the previous estimate. The posterior bite force at the back of the jaws meanwhile, was estimated at 7,172 newtons.


title: Carnotaurus

text: This interpretation was questioned by François Therrien and colleagues (2005), who found that the biting force of "Carnotaurus" was twice that of the American alligator, which may have the strongest bite of any living tetrapod. These researchers also noted analogies with modern Komodo dragons: the flexural strength of the lower jaw decreases towards the tip linearly, indicating that the jaws were not suited for high precision catching of small prey but for delivering slashing wounds to weaken big prey. As a consequence, according to this study, "Carnotaurus" must have mainly preyed upon large animals, possibly by ambush. Cerroni and colleagues, in 2020, argued that flexibility was restricted to the lower jaw, while the thickened skull roof and the ossification of several cranial joints suggest that the skull had no or only little kinesis.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Robert Bakker (1998) found that "Carnotaurus" mainly fed upon very large prey, especially sauropods. As he noted, several adaptations of the skull—the short snout, the relatively small teeth and the strong back of the skull (occiput)—had independently evolved in "Allosaurus". These features suggest that the upper jaw was used like a serrated club to inflict wounds; big sauropods would have been weakened by repeated attacks.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Mazzetta and colleagues (1998, 1999) presumed that "Carnotaurus" was a swift runner, arguing that the thigh bone was adapted to withstand high bending moments while running; The ability of an animal's leg to withstand those forces limits its top speed. The running adaptations of "Carnotaurus" would have been better than those of a human, although not nearly as good as those of an ostrich. Scientists calculate that Carnotaurus had a top speed of up to per hour.


title: Carnotaurus

text: In dinosaurs, the most important locomotor muscle was located in the tail. This muscle, called the caudofemoralis, attaches to the fourth trochanter, a prominent ridge on the thigh bone, and pulls the thigh bone backwards when contracted. Scott Persons and Phil Currie (2011) note that in the tail vertebrae of "Carnotaurus", the caudal ribs did not protrude horizontally ("T-shaped"), but were angled against the vertical axis of the vertebrae, forming a "V". This would have provided additional space for a caudofemoralis muscle larger than in any other theropod—the muscle mass was calculated at per leg. Therefore, "Carnotaurus" could have been one of the fastest large theropods. While the caudofemoralis muscle was enlarged, the epaxial muscles situated above the caudal ribs would have been proportionally smaller. These muscles, called the longissimus and spinalis muscle, were responsible for tail movement and stability. To maintain tail stability in spite of reduction of these muscles, the caudal ribs bear forward projecting processes interlocking the vertebrae with each other and with the pelvis, stiffening the tail. As a consequence, the ability to make tight turns would have been diminished, because the hip and tail had to be turned simultaneously, unlike in other theropods.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Cerroni and Paulina-Carabajal, in 2019, used a CT scan to study the endocranial cavity that contained the brain. The volume of the endocranial cavity was 168.8 cm³, although the brain would only have filled a fraction of this space. The authors used two different brain size estimates, assuming a brain size of 50% and 37% of the endocranial cavity, respectively. This results in a reptile encephalization quotient (a measure of intelligence) larger than that of the related "Majungasaurus" but smaller than in tyrannosaurids. The pineal gland, which produces hormones, might have been smaller than in other abelisaurids, as indicated by a low dural expansion – a space on top of the forebrain in which the pineal gland is thought to have been located.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The olfactory bulbs, which housed the sense of smell, were large, while the optic lobes, which were responsible for sight, were relatively small. This indicates that the sense of smell might have been better developed than the sense of sight, while the opposite is the case in modern birds. The front end of the olfactory tracts and bulbs were curved downwards, a feature only shared by "Indosaurus"; in other abelisaurids, these structures were oriented horizontally. As hypothesized by Cerroni and Paulina-Carabajal, this downward-curvature, together with the large size of the bulbs, might indicate that "Carnotaurus" relied more on the sense of smell than other abelisaurids. The flocculus, a brain lobe thought to be correlated with gaze stabilization (coordination between eyes and body), was large in "Carnotaurus" and other South American abelisaurids. This could indicate that these forms frequently used quick movements of the head and body. Hearing might have been poorly developed in "Carnotaurus" and other abelisaurids, as indicated by the short lagena of the inner ear. The hearing range was estimated to be below 3 kHz.


title: Carnotaurus

text: Originally, the rocks in which "Carnotaurus" was found were assigned to the upper part of the Gorro Frigio Formation, which was considered to be approximately 100 million years old (Albian or Cenomanian stage). Later, they were realized to pertain to the much younger La Colonia Formation, dating to the Campanian and Maastrichtian stages (83.6 to 66 million years ago). Novas, in a 2009 book, gave a narrower time span of


title: Carnotaurus

text: 72 to 69.9 million years ago (lower Maastrichtian stage). "Carnotaurus" therefore was the latest South American abelisaurid known. By the Late Cretaceous, South America was already isolated from both Africa and North America.


title: Carnotaurus

text: The La Colonia Formation is exposed over the southern slope of the North Patagonian Massif. Most vertebrate fossils, including "Carnotaurus", come from the formation's middle section (called the "middle facies association"). This part likely represents the deposits of an environment of estuaries, tidal flats or coastal plains. The climate would have been seasonal with both dry and humid periods. The most common vertebrates collected include ceratodontid lungfish, turtles, crocodiles, plesiosaurs, dinosaurs, lizards, snakes and mammals. Some of the snakes that have been found belong to the families Boidae and Madtsoidae, such as "Alamitophis argentinus". Turtles are represented by at least five taxa, four from Chelidae (Pleurodira) and one from Meiolaniidae (Cryptodira). Among the marine reptiles is the plesiosaur "Sulcusuchus erraini" of the family Polycotylidae. Mammals are represented by "Reigitherium bunodontum", which was considered the first record of a South American docodont, and "Argentodites coloniensis", possibly of Multituberculata. In 2011, the discovery of a new enantiornithine bird from the La Colonia Formation was announced.


title: Tinto Brass

text: Giovanni "Tinto" Brass (born 26 March 1933) is an Italian film director and screenwriter. In the 1960s and 1970s, he directed many critically acclaimed avant-garde films of various genres. Today, he is mainly known for his later work in the erotic genre, with films such as "Caligula", "Così fan tutte" (released under the English title "All Ladies Do It"), "Paprika", "Monella" ("Frivolous Lola") and "Trasgredire".


title: Tinto Brass

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, Brass was considered a promising experimental and avant-garde director, and his debut film "Who Works Is Lost" got very favorable reviews after screening at Venice Film Festival 1963. In 1964, he was commissioned by Umberto Eco to create two short films experimenting with visual language for the 13th Triennale di Milano – "Tempo Libero" and "Tempo Lavorativo". Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, Brass directed films in many genres, including western ("Yankee") and crime ("Col cuore in gola"), all using a very experimental editing- and camera-style. In 1968, Warner Bros. offered Brass the job of directing "A Clockwork Orange", which did not happen due to scheduling conflicts. In an article about the filming of "Dropout" from 1970, he was called the "Antonioni of the 70s". His early period has been referred to as ", anarchistic and experimental".


title: Tinto Brass

text: "L'urlo" was shown in competition at Berlin Film Festival 1970. "La Vacanza", starring Vanessa Redgrave and Franco Nero won the prize of the film critics for the best Italian film at 1971 Venice Film Festival. In 1972, Brass was a member of the jury at the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Tinto Brass

text: After "Salon Kitty" (1976) and "Caligula" (1979), the style of his films gradually changed towards erotic films. "Caligula" was originally supposed to be a satire on power instead of an erotic film, but the producers changed and re-edited the film entirely without Brass's consent, removing many political and comical scenes, and shooting sexually explicit sequences, to make the film a pornographic drama. The director demanded that his name be stricken from the credits, and he is only credited for "Principal Photography". Despite this, the film remains his most widely viewed work (and the highest-grossing Italian film released in the United States). Other notable works of Brass's later period include "The Key" (1983) and "Senso '45" (2002). He was making films into his seventies.


title: Tinto Brass

text: Brass' films since his early works follow an impressionistic style – they tend not to show immense landscapes, but bits and pieces of the scenery and peripheral characters and objects through pans and zooms, thus imitating how the viewer might see the events if he were actually present. This also gives the films an extraordinarily rapid pace. He often uses a television-like multicam method of shooting, with at least three cameras running at once, each focusing on something different.