title: Kit Carson

text: In the early twenty-first century, best-selling writers Hampton Sides and David Roberts have reappraised the Carson reputation in their works, have explained the complex image of Kit Carson. While a heroic image or reputation of Carson is expressed in the earlier, 1968, biography by Harvey Carter, the older narrative has been revised by both Sides and Roberts: In 1968, Carter stated: “In respect to his actual exploits and his actual character, however, Carson was not overrated. If history has to single out one person from among the Mountain Men to receive the admiration of later generations, Carson is the best choice. He had far more of the good qualities and fewer of the bad qualities than anyone else in that varied lot of individuals.” In 2000, David Roberts wrote, "Carson's trajectory, over three and a half decades, from thoughtless killer of Apaches and Blackfeet to defender and champion of the Utes, marks him out as one of the few frontiersmen whose change of heart toward the Indians, born not of missionary theory but of first hand experience, can serve as an exemplar for the more enlightened policies that sporadically gained the day in the twentieth century." In 2006, Sides said that Carson believed the Native Americans needed reservations as a way of physically separating and shielding them from white hostility and white culture. He is said to have viewed the raids on white settlements as driven by desperation, "committed from absolute necessity when in a starving condition." Indian hunting grounds were disappearing as waves of white settlers filled the region.


title: Kit Carson

text: A final statement from biographer Roberts, 2000: "the fate in recent years of Kit Carson's reputation makes for a more perverse lesson in the vicissitudes of fame."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's home in Taos, New Mexico, is the Kit Carson Home and Museum. His tourist attraction grave is nearby in the former Kit Carson State Park, now managed as a city park. A Kit Carson monument obelisk (1885) stands at the Santa Fe, New Mexico federal building park. The Kit Carson marker of bronze, dedicated to his 1844 trip, is in Carson Pass, California. A 1913 statue of Kit Carson stands at Trinidad, Colorado’s Kit Carson Park. In Denver, a statue of a mounted Kit Carson once atop the Mac Monnies Pioneer Monument was removed and stored in 2020.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson National Forest in New Mexico was named for him, as well as a county and a town in Colorado. A river and valley in Nevada are named for Carson as well as the state's capital, Carson City. The Carson Plain in southwest Arizona was named for him.


title: Kit Carson

text: Kit Carson Peak, Colorado in the Sangre de Cristo range, Kit Carson Mesa in Colfax County, New Mexico, and Carson Pass in Alpine county, California, were named for him.


title: Kit Carson

text: Fort Carson, Colorado, an army post near Colorado Springs, was named after him during World War II by the popular vote of the men training there. Kit Carson Park in Escondido, California and in Taos, New Mexico are named for him. Innumerable streets, businesses, and lesser geographical features were given his name.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 2014 there was a petition to rename Kit Carson Park in Taos, NM Red Willow Park. Despite the support of the Taos Pueblo and the residents of Taos Valley the park was not renamed and still bears the Kit Carson moniker. A review in 2020 by a Taos columnist chronicled the attempts in Taos to rename Kit Carson park which failed, in part, because of the large Hispanic population that disagreed with the attack on its one-time community member, that the Taos Pueblo peoples that survived years of attack by Navajo did not see the story of the Navajo wars in the same light as the Carson detractors, and a community of historians who argue that Kit Carson was hardly a "genocidal killer of Indians."


title: Google hacking

text: Google hacking, also named Google dorking, is a hacker technique that uses Google Search and other Google applications to find security holes in the configuration and computer code that websites are using.


title: Google hacking

text: Google hacking involves using advanced operators in the Google search engine to locate specific sections of text on websites that are evidence of vulnerabilities, for example specific versions of vulnerable Web applications. A search query with codice_1 would locate PHP web pages with the strings "admbook" and "Fversion" in their titles, indicating that the PHP based guestbook Admbook is used, an application with a known code injection vulnerability. It is normal for default installations of applications to include their running version in every page they serve, for example, "Powered by XOOPS 2.2.3 Final", which can be used to search for websites running vulnerable versions.


title: Google hacking

text: Devices connected to the Internet can be found. A search string such as codice_2 will find public web cameras.


title: Google hacking

text: The concept of "Google hacking" dates back to 2002, when Johnny Long began to collect Google search queries that uncovered vulnerable systems and/or sensitive information disclosures – labeling them googleDorks.


title: Google hacking

text: The list of Google Dorks grew into a large dictionary of queries, which were eventually organized into the original Google Hacking Database (GHDB) in 2004.


title: Google hacking

text: Concepts explored in Google hacking have been extended to other search engines, such as Bing and Shodan. Automated attack tools use custom search dictionaries to find vulnerable systems and sensitive information disclosures in public systems that have been indexed by search engines.


title: Google hacking

text: Robots.txt is a well known file for search engine optimization and protection against Google dorking. It involves the use of robots.txt to disallow everything or specific endpoints (hackers can still search robots.txt for endpoints) which prevents Google bots from crawling sensitive endpoints such as admin panels.


title: Flightradar24

text: Flightradar24 is a Swedish internet-based service that shows real-time aircraft flight tracking information on a map. It includes flight tracking information, origins and destinations, flight numbers, aircraft types, positions, altitudes, headings and speeds. It can also show time-lapse replays of previous tracks and historical flight data by airline, aircraft, aircraft type, area, or airport. It aggregates data from multiple sources, but, outside of the United States, mostly from crowdsourced information gathering by volunteers with ADS-B receivers and from satellite-based ADS-B receivers.


title: Flightradar24

text: The service is available via a web page or mobile device apps. "The Guardian" considers the site to be "authoritative".


title: Flightradar24

text: The service was founded by two Swedish aviation enthusiasts in 2006 as Flygbilligt.com and later Flygradar.nu for Northern and Central Europe. The service was opened in 2009, allowing anyone with a suitable ADS-B receiver to contribute data.


title: Flightradar24

text: The service received extensive exposure in 2010, when international media relied on it to describe the flight disruption over the North Atlantic and Europe caused by the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruptions. Flightradar24 came at the turn of the month July-August 2010 as an iOS application.


title: Flightradar24

text: In 2014, it was used by multiple major news outlets following several high-profile crashes: in March after the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, in July after Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down over Ukraine, and in December when Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 went missing. Flightradar24 reported that its web traffic increased to around 50 times normal, which caused some access congestion to users.


title: Flightradar24

text: In November 2015, "The Guardian" newspaper reported that Metrojet Flight 9268 en route to Saint Petersburg from Sharm el-Sheikh International Airport had broken up in the air based on information available from Flightradar24.


title: Flightradar24

text: From 3 March 2020, ADS-B data collected by satellite was made available to all users. Aircraft located using satellite data are coloured blue on the map, and yellow if located by terrestrial receivers.


title: Flightradar24

text: In February 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the website crashed due to an influx of visitors tracking flights in and around Ukraine.


title: Flightradar24

text: In March 2022, the site was used to see the playback of the crash of China Eastern Airlines Flight 5735.


title: Flightradar24

text: In August 2022, the plane carrying Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan, SPAR19, became the most tracked flight to date, tracked by over 708,000 people as it landed in Taipei, with over 2,900,000 following at least a portion of the flight.


title: Flightradar24

text: In September 2022, the plane carrying the coffin of Queen Elizabeth II was attempted to be tracked by 6,000,000 users in the first minute after the transponder activated, with 4,790,000 following a portion of the flight, becoming the most tracked flight of all time. The website processed 76,200,000 requests related to the flight over its course. Initially, the site crashed due to the sheer number of users.


title: Flightradar24

text: The site blocks some ADS-B information from display for "security and privacy" purposes. For instance, the position of the Japanese Air Force One aircraft used by the Japanese emperor and prime minister was visible on the site until August 2014, when the Japanese Ministry of Defense requested that the information be blocked. This has subsequently meant that the aircraft no longer has its flight track posted online or on the site.


title: Kangaroo court

text: A kangaroo court is a court that ignores recognized standards of law or justice, carries little or no official standing in the territory within which it resides, and is typically convened ad hoc. A kangaroo court may ignore due process and come to a predetermined conclusion. The term may also apply to a court held by a legitimate judicial authority which intentionally disregards the court's legal or ethical obligations (compare show trial).


title: Kangaroo court

text: A kangaroo court could also develop when the structure and operation of the forum result in an inferior brand of adjudication. A common example of this is when institutional disputants ("repeat players") have excessive and unfair structural advantages over individual disputants ("one-shot players").


title: Kangaroo court

text: The term "kangaroo court" is often erroneously believed to have its origin from the courts of Australia's penal colonies. The "Oxford English Dictionary" cites the first published instance of the term as from an American source, "A Stray Yankee in Texas" by Philip Paxton, published in 1853. There are, however, earlier instances of the term, including an 1841 article in "The Daily Picayune", New Orleans, that quotes another publication, the "Concordia Intelligencer", reporting several lynchings instituted "on charges of the Kangaroo court". The "Picayune" article also asks "What is a "kangaroo court"?"


title: Kangaroo court

text: Some sources suggest that it may have been popularized during the California Gold Rush of 1849 to which many thousands of Australians flocked. In consequence of the Australian miners' presence, it may have come about as a description of the hastily carried-out proceedings used to deal with the issue of claim-jumping miners.


title: Kangaroo court

text: Ostensibly, the term comes from the notion of justice proceeding "by leaps", like a kangaroo – in other words, "jumping over" (intentionally ignoring) evidence that would be in favour of the defendant. An alternative theory is that as these courts are often convened quickly to deal with an immediate issue, they are called kangaroo courts since they have "jumped up" out of nowhere, like a kangaroo. Another possibility is that the phrase could refer to the pouch of a kangaroo, meaning the court is in someone's pocket.


title: Kangaroo court

text: Etymologist Philologos argues that the term arose "because a place named "Kangaroo" sounded comical to its hearers, just as place names like "Kalamazoo", and "Booger Hole", and "Okefenokee Swamp", strike us as comical."


title: Kangaroo court

text: The term is sometimes used without any negative connotation. For example, many Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball teams have a kangaroo court to punish players for errors and other mistakes on the field, as well as for being late for a game or practice, not wearing proper attire to road games, or having a messy locker in the clubhouse. Fines are allotted, and at the end of the year, the money collected is given to charity. The organization may also use the money for a team party at the end of the season.


title: Partial derivative

text: In mathematics, a partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables, with the others held constant (as opposed to the total derivative, in which all variables are allowed to vary). Partial derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry.


title: Partial derivative

text: The partial derivative of a function formula_1 with respect to the variable formula_2 is variously denoted by


title: Partial derivative

text: Sometimes, for formula_4, the partial derivative of formula_5 with respect to formula_2 is denoted as formula_7 Since a partial derivative generally has the same arguments as the original function, its functional dependence is sometimes explicitly signified by the notation, such as in:


title: Partial derivative

text: The symbol used to denote partial derivatives is ∂. One of the first known uses of this symbol in mathematics is by Marquis de Condorcet from 1770, who used it for partial differences. The modern partial derivative notation was created by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1786), although he later abandoned it; Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi reintroduced the symbol in 1841.


title: Partial derivative

text: Like ordinary derivatives, the partial derivative is defined as a limit. Let "U" be an open subset of formula_9 and formula_10 a function. The partial derivative of "f" at the point formula_11 with respect to the "i"-th variable "x" is defined as


title: Partial derivative

text: Even if all partial derivatives "∂f"/"∂x"("a") exist at a given point "a", the function need not be continuous there. However, if all partial derivatives exist in a neighborhood of "a" and are continuous there, then "f" is totally differentiable in that neighborhood and the total derivative is continuous. In this case, it is said that "f" is a "C" function. This can be used to generalize for vector valued functions, by carefully using a componentwise argument.


title: Partial derivative

text: The partial derivative formula_13 can be seen as another function defined on "U" and can again be partially differentiated. If all mixed second order partial derivatives are continuous at a point (or on a set), "f" is termed a "C" function at that point (or on that set); in this case, the partial derivatives can be exchanged by Clairaut's theorem:


title: Partial derivative

text: When dealing with functions of multiple variables, some of these variables may be related to each other, thus it may be necessary to specify explicitly which variables are being held constant to avoid ambiguity. In fields such as statistical mechanics, the partial derivative of formula_15 with respect to formula_2, holding formula_24 and formula_5 constant, is often expressed as


title: Partial derivative

text: Conventionally, for clarity and simplicity of notation, the partial derivative "function" and the "value" of the function at a specific point are conflated by including the function arguments when the partial derivative symbol (Leibniz notation) is used. Thus, an expression like


title: Partial derivative

text: might be used for the value of the function at the point formula_29. However, this convention breaks down when we want to evaluate the partial derivative at a point like formula_30. In such a case, evaluation of the function must be expressed in an unwieldy manner as


title: Partial derivative

text: in order to use the Leibniz notation. Thus, in these cases, it may be preferable to use the Euler differential operator notation with formula_33 as the partial derivative symbol with respect to the "i"th variable. For instance, one would write formula_34 for the example described above, while the expression formula_35 represents the partial derivative "function" with respect to the 1st variable.


title: Partial derivative

text: For higher order partial derivatives, the partial derivative (function) of formula_36 with respect to the "j"th variable is denoted formula_37. That is, formula_38, so that the variables are listed in the order in which the derivatives are taken, and thus, in reverse order of how the composition of operators is usually notated. Of course, Clairaut's theorem implies that formula_39 as long as comparatively mild regularity conditions on "f" are satisfied.


title: Partial derivative

text: An important example of a function of several variables is the case of a scalar-valued function "f"("x", ..., "x") on a domain in Euclidean space formula_9 (e.g., on formula_41 or formula_42). In this case "f" has a partial derivative "∂f"/"∂x" with respect to each variable "x". At the point "a", these partial derivatives define the vector


title: Partial derivative

text: This vector is called the "gradient" of "f" at "a". If "f" is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the gradient is a vector-valued function ∇"f" which takes the point "a" to the vector ∇"f"("a"). Consequently, the gradient produces a vector field.


title: Partial derivative

text: A common abuse of notation is to define the del operator (∇) as follows in three-dimensional Euclidean space formula_42 with unit vectors formula_45:


title: Partial derivative

text: Or, more generally, for "n"-dimensional Euclidean space formula_9 with coordinates formula_48 and unit vectors formula_49:


title: Partial derivative

text: The graph of this function defines a surface in Euclidean space. To every point on this surface, there are an infinite number of tangent lines. Partial differentiation is the act of choosing one of these lines and finding its slope. Usually, the lines of most interest are those that are parallel to the formula_52-plane, and those that are parallel to the formula_53-plane (which result from holding either formula_24 or formula_2 constant, respectively).


title: Partial derivative

text: To find the slope of the line tangent to the function at formula_56 and parallel to the formula_52-plane, we treat formula_24 as a constant. The graph and this plane are shown on the right. Below, we see how the function looks on the plane formula_59. By finding the derivative of the equation while assuming that formula_24 is a constant, we find that the slope of "formula_15" at the point formula_62 is:


title: Partial derivative

text: at the point formula_64. That is, the partial derivative of formula_5 with respect to formula_2 at formula_64 is 3, as shown in the graph.


title: Partial derivative

text: The function "f" can be reinterpreted as a family of functions of one variable indexed by the other variables:


title: Partial derivative

text: In other words, every value of "y" defines a function, denoted "f", which is a function of one variable "x". That is,


title: Partial derivative

text: In this section the subscript notation "f" denotes a function contingent on a fixed value of "y", and not a partial derivative.


title: Partial derivative

text: Once a value of "y" is chosen, say "a", then "f"("x","y") determines a function "f" which traces a curve "x" + "ax" + "a" on the formula_52-plane:


title: Partial derivative

text: In this expression, "a" is a "constant", not a "variable", so "f" is a function of only one real variable, that being "x". Consequently, the definition of the derivative for a function of one variable applies:


title: Partial derivative

text: The above procedure can be performed for any choice of "a". Assembling the derivatives together into a function gives a function which describes the variation of "f" in the "x" direction:


title: Partial derivative

text: This is the partial derivative of "f" with respect to "x". Here "∂" is a rounded "d" called the "partial derivative symbol"; to distinguish it from the letter "d", "∂" is sometimes pronounced "partial".


title: Partial derivative

text: Second and higher order partial derivatives are defined analogously to the higher order derivatives of univariate functions. For the function formula_76 the "own" second partial derivative with respect to "x" is simply the partial derivative of the partial derivative (both with respect to "x"):


title: Partial derivative

text: The cross partial derivative with respect to "x" and "y" is obtained by taking the partial derivative of "f" with respect to "x", and then taking the partial derivative of the result with respect to "y", to obtain


title: Partial derivative

text: Schwarz's theorem states that if the second derivatives are continuous, the expression for the cross partial derivative is unaffected by which variable the partial derivative is taken with respect to first and which is taken second. That is,


title: Partial derivative

text: Own and cross partial derivatives appear in the Hessian matrix which is used in the second order conditions in optimization problems.


title: Partial derivative

text: There is a concept for partial derivatives that is analogous to antiderivatives for regular derivatives. Given a partial derivative, it allows for the partial recovery of the original function.


title: Partial derivative

text: The "partial" integral can be taken with respect to "x" (treating "y" as constant, in a similar manner to partial differentiation):


title: Partial derivative

text: Here, the "constant" of integration is no longer a constant, but instead a function of all the variables of the original function except "x". The reason for this is that all the other variables are treated as constant when taking the partial derivative, so any function which does not involve formula_2 will disappear when taking the partial derivative, and we have to account for this when we take the antiderivative. The most general way to represent this is to have the "constant" represent an unknown function of all the other variables.


title: Partial derivative

text: Thus the set of functions formula_84, where "g" is any one-argument function, represents the entire set of functions in variables "x","y" that could have produced the "x"-partial derivative formula_85.


title: Partial derivative

text: If all the partial derivatives of a function are known (for example, with the gradient), then the antiderivatives can be matched via the above process to reconstruct the original function up to a constant. Unlike in the single-variable case, however, not every set of functions can be the set of all (first) partial derivatives of a single function. In other words, not every vector field is conservative.


title: Partial derivative

text: The volume "V" of a cone depends on the cone's height "h" and its radius "r" according to the formula


title: Partial derivative

text: which represents the rate with which a cone's volume changes if its radius is varied and its height is kept constant. The partial derivative with respect to formula_88 equals formula_89 which represents the rate with which the volume changes if its height is varied and its radius is kept constant.


title: Partial derivative

text: The difference between the total and partial derivative is the elimination of indirect dependencies between variables in partial derivatives.


title: Partial derivative

text: If (for some arbitrary reason) the cone's proportions have to stay the same, and the height and radius are in a fixed ratio "k",


title: Partial derivative

text: The total derivative with respect to "both" r and h of the volume intended as scalar function of these two variables is given by the gradient vector


title: Partial derivative

text: Partial derivatives appear in any calculus-based optimization problem with more than one choice variable. For example, in economics a firm may wish to maximize profit π("x", "y") with respect to the choice of the quantities "x" and "y" of two different types of output. The first order conditions for this optimization are π = 0 = π. Since both partial derivatives π and π will generally themselves be functions of both arguments "x" and "y", these two first order conditions form a system of two equations in two unknowns.


title: Partial derivative

text: Partial derivatives appear in thermodynamic equations like Gibbs-Duhem equation, in quantum mechanics as Schrodinger wave equation as well in other equations from mathematical physics. Here the variables being held constant in partial derivatives can be ratio of simple variables like mole fractions "x" in the following example involving the Gibbs energies in a ternary mixture system:


title: Partial derivative

text: Express mole fractions of a component as functions of other components' mole fraction and binary mole ratios:


title: Partial derivative

text: Partial derivatives are key to target-aware image resizing algorithms. Widely known as seam carving, these algorithms require each pixel in an image to be assigned a numerical 'energy' to describe their dissimilarity against orthogonal adjacent pixels. The algorithm then progressively removes rows or columns with the lowest energy. The formula established to determine a pixel's energy (magnitude of gradient at a pixel) depends heavily on the constructs of partial derivatives.


title: Partial derivative

text: Partial derivatives play a prominent role in economics, in which most functions describing economic behaviour posit that the behaviour depends on more than one variable. For example, a societal consumption function may describe the amount spent on consumer goods as depending on both income and wealth; the marginal propensity to consume is then the partial derivative of the consumption function with respect to income.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower photon energy, than the absorbed radiation. A perceptible example of fluorescence occurs when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum (invisible to the human eye), while the emitted light is in the visible region; this gives the fluorescent substance a distinct color that can only be seen when the substance has been exposed to UV light. Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescent materials, which continue to emit light for some time after.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence has many practical applications, including mineralogy, gemology, medicine, chemical sensors (fluorescence spectroscopy), fluorescent labelling, dyes, biological detectors, cosmic-ray detection, vacuum fluorescent displays, and cathode-ray tubes. Its most common everyday application is in (gas-discharge) fluorescent lamps and LED lamps, in which fluorescent coatings convert UV or blue light into longer-wavelengths resulting in white light which can even appear indistinguishable from that of the traditional but energy- inefficient incandescent lamp.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence also occurs frequently in nature in some minerals and in many biological forms across all kingdoms of life. The latter may be referred to as "biofluorescence", indicating that the fluorophore is part of or is extracted from a living organism (rather than an inorganic dye or stain). But since fluorescence is due to a specific chemical, which can also be synthesized artificially in most cases, it is sufficient to describe the substance itself as "fluorescent".


title: Fluorescence

text: An early observation of fluorescence was described in 1560 by Bernardino de Sahagún and in 1565 by Nicolás Monardes in the infusion known as "lignum nephriticum" (Latin for "kidney wood"). It was derived from the wood of two tree species, "Pterocarpus indicus" and "Eysenhardtia polystachya".


title: Fluorescence

text: The chemical compound responsible for this fluorescence is matlaline, which is the oxidation product of one of the flavonoids found in this wood.


title: Fluorescence

text: described fluorescence in fluorites, Sir David Brewster described the phenomenon for chlorophyll in 1833


title: Fluorescence

text: In his 1852 paper on the "Refrangibility" (wavelength change) of light, George Gabriel Stokes described the ability of fluorspar and uranium glass to change invisible light beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum into blue light. He named this phenomenon "fluorescence"


title: Fluorescence

text: The name was derived from the mineral fluorite (calcium difluoride), some examples of which contain traces of divalent europium, which serves as the fluorescent activator to emit blue light. In a key experiment he used a prism to isolate ultraviolet radiation from sunlight and observed blue light emitted by an ethanol solution of quinine exposed by it.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence occurs when an excited molecule, atom, or nanostructure, relaxes to a lower energy state (usually the ground state) through emission of a photon without a change in electron spin. When the initial and final states have different multiplicity (spin), the phenomenon is termed phosphorescence.


title: Fluorescence

text: The ground state of most molecules is a singlet state, denoted as S. A notable exception is molecular oxygen, which has a triplet ground state. Absorption of a photon of energy formula_1 results in an excited state of the same multiplicity (spin) of the ground state, usually a singlet (S with n > 0). In solution, states with n > 1 relax rapidly to the lowest vibrational level of the first excited state (S) by transferring energy to the solvent molecules through non-radiative processes, including internal conversion followed by vibrational relaxation, in which the energy is dissipated as heat. Therefore, most commonly, fluorescence occurs from the first singlet excited state, S. Fluorescence is the emission of a photon accompanying the relaxation of the excited state to the ground state. Fluorescence photons are lower in energy (formula_2) compared to the energy of the photons used to generate the excited state (formula_1)


title: Fluorescence

text: In each case the photon energy formula_6 is proportional to its frequency formula_7 according to formula_8, where formula_9 is Planck's constant.


title: Fluorescence

text: The excited state S can relax by other mechanisms that do not involve the emission of light. These processes, called non-radiative processes, compete with fluorescence emission and decrease its efficiency. Examples include internal conversion, intersystem crossing to the triplet state, and energy transfer to another molecule. An example of energy transfer is Förster resonance energy transfer. Relaxation from an excited state can also occur through collisional quenching, a process where a molecule (the quencher) collides with the fluorescent molecule during its excited state lifetime. Molecular oxygen (O) is an extremely efficient quencher of fluorescence just because of its unusual triplet ground state.


title: Fluorescence

text: The fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed.


title: Fluorescence

text: The maximum possible fluorescence quantum yield is 1.0 (100%); each photon absorbed results in a photon emitted. Compounds with quantum yields of 0.10 are still considered quite fluorescent. Another way to define the quantum yield of fluorescence is by the rate of excited state decay:


title: Fluorescence

text: is the sum of all rates of excited state decay. Other rates of excited state decay are caused by mechanisms other than photon emission and are, therefore, often called "non-radiative rates", which can include:


title: Fluorescence

text: Thus, if the rate of any pathway changes, both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield will be affected.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence quantum yields are measured by comparison to a standard. The quinine salt "quinine sulfate" in a sulfuric acid solution was regarded as the most common fluorescence standard,


title: Fluorescence

text: however, a recent study revealed that the fluorescence quantum yield of this solution is strongly affected by the temperature, and should no longer be used as the standard solution. The quinine in 0.1 M perchloric acid (Φ=0.60) shows no temperature dependence up to 45°C, therefore it can be considered as a reliable standard solution.


title: Fluorescence

text: The fluorescence lifetime refers to the average time the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon. Fluorescence typically follows first-order kinetics:


title: Fluorescence

text: where formula_15 is the concentration of excited state molecules at time formula_16, formula_17 is the initial concentration and formula_18 is the decay rate or the inverse of the fluorescence lifetime. This is an instance of exponential decay. Various radiative and non-radiative processes can de-populate the excited state. In such case the total decay rate is the sum over all rates:


title: Fluorescence

text: where formula_20 is the total decay rate, formula_21 the radiative decay rate and formula_22 the non-radiative decay rate. It is similar to a first-order chemical reaction in which the first-order rate constant is the sum of all of the rates (a parallel kinetic model). If the rate of spontaneous emission, or any of the other rates are fast, the lifetime is short. For commonly used fluorescent compounds, typical excited state decay times for photon emissions with energies from the UV to near infrared are within the range of 0.5 to 20 nanoseconds. The fluorescence lifetime is an important parameter for practical applications of fluorescence such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy.


title: Fluorescence

text: The Jablonski diagram describes most of the relaxation mechanisms for excited state molecules. The diagram alongside shows how fluorescence occurs due to the relaxation of certain excited electrons of a molecule.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorophores are more likely to be excited by photons if the transition moment of the fluorophore is parallel to the electric vector of the photon. The polarization of the emitted light will also depend on the transition moment. The transition moment is dependent on the physical orientation of the fluorophore molecule. For fluorophores in solution this means that the intensity and polarization of the emitted light is dependent on rotational diffusion. Therefore, anisotropy measurements can be used to investigate how freely a fluorescent molecule moves in a particular environment.


title: Fluorescence

text: where formula_24 is the emitted intensity parallel to polarization of the excitation light and formula_25 is the emitted intensity perpendicular to the polarization of the excitation light.


title: Fluorescence

text: Strongly fluorescent pigments often have an unusual appearance which is often described colloquially as a "neon color" (originally "day-glo" in the late 1960s, early 1970s). This phenomenon was termed "Farbenglut" by Hermann von Helmholtz and "fluorence" by Ralph M. Evans. It is generally thought to be related to the high brightness of the color relative to what it would be as a component of white. Fluorescence shifts energy in the incident illumination from shorter wavelengths to longer (such as blue to yellow) and thus can make the fluorescent color appear brighter (more saturated) than it could possibly be by reflection alone.


title: Fluorescence

text: There are several general rules that deal with fluorescence. Each of the following rules has exceptions but they are useful guidelines for understanding fluorescence (these rules do not necessarily apply to two-photon absorption).


title: Fluorescence

text: Kasha's rule dictates that the quantum yield of luminescence is independent of the wavelength of exciting radiation. This occurs because excited molecules usually decay to the lowest vibrational level of the excited state before fluorescence emission takes place. The Kasha–Vavilov rule does not always apply and is violated severely in many simple molecules. A somewhat more reliable statement, although still with exceptions, would be that the fluorescence spectrum shows very little dependence on the wavelength of exciting radiation.


title: Fluorescence

text: This is known as the mirror image rule and is related to the Franck–Condon principle which states that electronic transitions are vertical, that is energy changes without distance changing as can be represented with a vertical line in Jablonski diagram. This means the nucleus does not move and the vibration levels of the excited state resemble the vibration levels of the ground state.


title: Fluorescence

text: In general, emitted fluorescence light has a longer wavelength and lower energy than the absorbed light. This phenomenon, known as Stokes shift, is due to energy loss between the time a photon is absorbed and when a new one is emitted. The causes and magnitude of Stokes shift can be complex and are dependent on the fluorophore and its environment. However, there are some common causes. It is frequently due to non-radiative decay to the lowest vibrational energy level of the excited state. Another factor is that the emission of fluorescence frequently leaves a fluorophore in a higher vibrational level of the ground state.


title: Fluorescence

text: There are many natural compounds that exhibit fluorescence, and they have a number of applications. Some deep-sea animals, such as the greeneye, have fluorescent structures.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence is the phenomenon of absorption of electromagnetic radiation, typically from ultraviolet or visible light, by a molecule and the subsequent emission of a photon of a lower energy (smaller frequency, longer wavelength). This causes the light that is emitted to be a different color than the light that is absorbed. Stimulating light excites an electron to an excited state. When the molecule returns to the ground state, it releases a photon, which is the fluorescent emission. The excited state lifetime is short, so emission of light is typically only observable when the absorbing light is on. Fluorescence can be of any wavelength but is often more significant when emitted photons are in the visible spectrum. When it occurs in a living organism, it is sometimes called biofluorescence. Fluorescence should not be confused with bioluminescence and biophosphorescence. Pumpkin toadlets that live in the Brazilian Atlantic forest are fluorescent.


title: Fluorescence

text: Bioluminescence differs from fluorescence in that it is the natural production of light by chemical reactions within an organism, whereas fluorescence is the absorption and reemission of light from the environment. Fireflies and anglerfish are two examples of bioluminescent organisms. To add to the potential confusion, some organisms are both bioluminescent and fluorescent, like the sea pansy Renilla reniformis, where bioluminescence serves as the light source for fluorescence.


title: Fluorescence

text: Phosphorescence is similar to fluorescence in its requirement of light wavelengths as a provider of excitation energy. The difference here lies in the relative stability of the energized electron. Unlike with fluorescence, in phosphorescence the electron retains stability, emitting light that continues to "glow-in-the-dark" even after the stimulating light source has been removed. For example, glow-in-the-dark stickers are phosphorescent, but there are no truly "biophosphorescent" animals known.


title: Fluorescence

text: Pigment cells that exhibit fluorescence are called fluorescent chromatophores, and function somatically similar to regular chromatophores. These cells are dendritic, and contain pigments called fluorosomes. These pigments contain fluorescent proteins which are activated by K+ (potassium) ions, and it is their movement, aggregation, and dispersion within the fluorescent chromatophore that cause directed fluorescence patterning. Fluorescent cells are innervated the same as other chromatophores, like melanophores, pigment cells that contain melanin. Short term fluorescent patterning and signaling is controlled by the nervous system. Fluorescent chromatophores can be found in the skin (e.g. in fish) just below the epidermis, amongst other chromatophores.


title: Fluorescence

text: Epidermal fluorescent cells in fish also respond to hormonal stimuli by the α–MSH and MCH hormones much the same as melanophores. This suggests that fluorescent cells may have color changes throughout the day that coincide with their circadian rhythm. Fish may also be sensitive to cortisol induced stress responses to environmental stimuli, such as interaction with a predator or engaging in a mating ritual.


title: Fluorescence

text: The incidence of fluorescence across the tree of life is widespread, and has been studied most extensively in cnidarians and fish. The phenomenon appears to have evolved multiple times in multiple taxa such as in the anguilliformes (eels), gobioidei (gobies and cardinalfishes), and tetradontiformes (triggerfishes), along with the other taxa discussed later in the article. Fluorescence is highly genotypically and phenotypically variable even within ecosystems, in regards to the wavelengths emitted, the patterns displayed, and the intensity of the fluorescence. Generally, the species relying upon camouflage exhibit the greatest diversity in fluorescence, likely because camouflage may be one of the uses of fluorescence.


title: Fluorescence

text: It is suspected by some scientists that GFPs and GFP-like proteins began as electron donors activated by light. These electrons were then used for reactions requiring light energy. Functions of fluorescent proteins, such as protection from the sun, conversion of light into different wavelengths, or for signaling are thought to have evolved secondarily.


title: Fluorescence

text: Currently, relatively little is known about the functional significance of fluorescence and fluorescent proteins. However, it is suspected that fluorescence may serve important functions in signaling and communication, mating, lures, camouflage, UV protection and antioxidation, photoacclimation, dinoflagellate regulation, and in coral health.


title: Fluorescence

text: Water absorbs light of long wavelengths, so less light from these wavelengths reflects back to reach the eye. Therefore, warm colors from the visual light spectrum appear less vibrant at increasing depths. Water scatters light of shorter wavelengths above violet, meaning cooler colors dominate the visual field in the photic zone. Light intensity decreases 10 fold with every 75 m of depth, so at depths of 75 m, light is 10% as intense as it is on the surface, and is only 1% as intense at 150 m as it is on the surface. Because the water filters out the wavelengths and intensity of water reaching certain depths, different proteins, because of the wavelengths and intensities of light they are capable of absorbing, are better suited to different depths. Theoretically, some fish eyes can detect light as deep as 1000 m. At these depths of the aphotic zone, the only sources of light are organisms themselves, giving off light through chemical reactions in a process called bioluminescence.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence is simply defined as the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at one wavelength and its reemission at another, lower energy wavelength. Thus any type of fluorescence depends on the presence of external sources of light. Biologically functional fluorescence is found in the photic zone, where there is not only enough light to cause fluorescence, but enough light for other organisms to detect it.


title: Fluorescence

text: The visual field in the photic zone is naturally blue, so colors of fluorescence can be detected as bright reds, oranges, yellows, and greens. Green is the most commonly found color in the marine spectrum, yellow the second most, orange the third, and red is the rarest. Fluorescence can occur in organisms in the aphotic zone as a byproduct of that same organism's bioluminescence. Some fluorescence in the aphotic zone is merely a byproduct of the organism's tissue biochemistry and does not have a functional purpose. However, some cases of functional and adaptive significance of fluorescence in the aphotic zone of the deep ocean is an active area of research.


title: Fluorescence

text: Bony fishes living in shallow water generally have good color vision due to their living in a colorful environment. Thus, in shallow-water fishes, red, orange, and green fluorescence most likely serves as a means of communication with conspecifics, especially given the great phenotypic variance of the phenomenon.


title: Fluorescence

text: Many fish that exhibit fluorescence, such as sharks, lizardfish, scorpionfish, wrasses, and flatfishes, also possess yellow intraocular filters. Yellow intraocular filters in the lenses and cornea of certain fishes function as long-pass filters. These filters enable the species that to visualize and potentially exploit fluorescence, in order to enhance visual contrast and patterns that are unseen to other fishes and predators that lack this visual specialization. Fish that possess the necessary yellow intraocular filters for visualizing fluorescence potentially exploit a light signal from members of it. Fluorescent patterning was especially prominent in cryptically patterned fishes possessing complex camouflage. Many of these lineages also possess yellow long-pass intraocular filters that could enable visualization of such patterns.


title: Fluorescence

text: Another adaptive use of fluorescence is to generate orange and red light from the ambient blue light of the photic zone to aid vision. Red light can only be seen across short distances due to attenuation of red light wavelengths by water. Many fish species that fluoresce are small, group-living, or benthic/aphotic, and have conspicuous patterning. This patterning is caused by fluorescent tissue and is visible to other members of the species, however the patterning is invisible at other visual spectra. These intraspecific fluorescent patterns also coincide with intra-species signaling. The patterns present in ocular rings to indicate directionality of an individual's gaze, and along fins to indicate directionality of an individual's movement. Current research suspects that this red fluorescence is used for private communication between members of the same species. Due to the prominence of blue light at ocean depths, red light and light of longer wavelengths are muddled, and many predatory reef fish have little to no sensitivity for light at these wavelengths. Fish such as the fairy wrasse that have developed visual sensitivity to longer wavelengths are able to display red fluorescent signals that give a high contrast to the blue environment and are conspicuous to conspecifics in short ranges, yet are relatively invisible to other common fish that have reduced sensitivities to long wavelengths. Thus, fluorescence can be used as adaptive signaling and intra-species communication in reef fish.


title: Fluorescence

text: Additionally, it is suggested that fluorescent tissues that surround an organism's eyes are used to convert blue light from the photic zone or green bioluminescence in the aphotic zone into red light to aid vision.


title: Fluorescence

text: A new fluorophore was described in two species of sharks, wherein it was due to an undescribed group of brominated tryptophane-kynurenine small molecule metabolites.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence serves a wide variety of functions in coral. Fluorescent proteins in corals may contribute to photosynthesis by converting otherwise unusable wavelengths of light into ones for which the coral's symbiotic algae are able to conduct photosynthesis. Also, the proteins may fluctuate in number as more or less light becomes available as a means of photoacclimation. Similarly, these fluorescent proteins may possess antioxidant capacities to eliminate oxygen radicals produced by photosynthesis. Finally, through modulating photosynthesis, the fluorescent proteins may also serve as a means of regulating the activity of the coral's photosynthetic algal symbionts.


title: Fluorescence

text: "Alloteuthis subulata" and "Loligo vulgaris", two types of nearly transparent squid, have fluorescent spots above their eyes. These spots reflect incident light, which may serve as a means of camouflage, but also for signaling to other squids for schooling purposes.


title: Fluorescence

text: Another, well-studied example of fluorescence in the ocean is the hydrozoan "Aequorea victoria". This jellyfish lives in the photic zone off the west coast of North America and was identified as a carrier of green fluorescent protein (GFP) by Osamu Shimomura. The gene for these green fluorescent proteins has been isolated and is scientifically significant because it is widely used in genetic studies to indicate the expression of other genes.


title: Fluorescence

text: Several species of mantis shrimp, which are stomatopod crustaceans, including "Lysiosquillina glabriuscula", have yellow fluorescent markings along their antennal scales and carapace (shell) that males present during threat displays to predators and other males. The display involves raising the head and thorax, spreading the striking appendages and other maxillipeds, and extending the prominent, oval antennal scales laterally, which makes the animal appear larger and accentuates its yellow fluorescent markings. Furthermore, as depth increases, mantis shrimp fluorescence accounts for a greater part of the visible light available. During mating rituals, mantis shrimp actively fluoresce, and the wavelength of this fluorescence matches the wavelengths detected by their eye pigments.


title: Fluorescence

text: "Siphonophorae" is an order of marine animals from the phylum Hydrozoa that consist of a specialized medusoid and polyp zooid. Some siphonophores, including the genus Erenna that live in the aphotic zone between depths of 1600 m and 2300 m, exhibit yellow to red fluorescence in the photophores of their tentacle-like tentilla. This fluorescence occurs as a by-product of bioluminescence from these same photophores. The siphonophores exhibit the fluorescence in a flicking pattern that is used as a lure to attract prey.


title: Fluorescence

text: The predatory deep-sea dragonfish "Malacosteus niger", the closely related genus "Aristostomias" and the species "Pachystomias microdon" use fluorescent red accessory pigments to convert the blue light emitted from their own bioluminescence to red light from suborbital photophores. This red luminescence is invisible to other animals, which allows these dragonfish extra light at dark ocean depths without attracting or signaling predators.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence is widespread among amphibians and has been documented in several families of frogs, salamanders and caecilians, but the extent of it varies greatly.


title: Fluorescence

text: The polka-dot tree frog ("Hypsiboas punctatus"), widely found in South America, was unintentionally discovered to be the first fluorescent amphibian in 2017. The fluorescence was traced to a new compound found in the lymph and skin glands. The main fluorescent compound is Hyloin-L1 and it gives a blue-green glow when exposed to violet or ultraviolet light. The scientists behind the discovery suggested that the fluorescence can be used for communication. They speculated that fluorescence possibly is relatively widespread among frogs. Only a few months later, fluorescence was discovered in the closely related "Hypsiboas atlanticus". Because it is linked to secretions from skin glands, they can also leave fluorescent markings on surfaces where they have been.


title: Fluorescence

text: In 2019, two other frogs, the tiny pumpkin toadlet ("Brachycephalus ephippium") and red pumpkin toadlet ("B. pitanga") of southeastern Brazil, were found to be have naturally fluorescent skeletons, which is visible through their skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. It was initially speculated that the fluorescence supplemented their already aposematic colours (they are toxic) or that it was related to mate choice (species recognition or determining fitness of a potential partner), but later studies indicate that the former explanation is unlikely, as predation attempts on the toadlets appear to be unaffected by the presence/absence of fluorescence.


title: Fluorescence

text: In 2020 it was confirmed that green or yellow fluorescence is widespread not only in adult frogs that are exposed to blue or ultraviolet light, but also among tadpoles, salamanders and caecilians. The extent varies greatly depending on species; in some it is highly distinct and in others it is barely noticeable. It can be based on their skin pigmentation, their mucous or their bones.


title: Fluorescence

text: Swallowtail ("Papilio") butterflies have complex systems for emitting fluorescent light. Their wings contain pigment-infused crystals that provide directed fluorescent light. These crystals function to produce fluorescent light best when they absorb radiance from sky-blue light (wavelength about 420 nm). The wavelengths of light that the butterflies see the best correspond to the absorbance of the crystals in the butterfly's wings. This likely functions to enhance the capacity for signaling.


title: Fluorescence

text: Parrots have fluorescent plumage that may be used in mate signaling. A study using mate-choice experiments on budgerigars ("Melopsittacus undulates") found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus. This study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by-product of pigmentation, but instead an adapted sexual signal. Considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved. Therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs.


title: Fluorescence

text: Spiders fluoresce under UV light and possess a huge diversity of fluorophores. Remarkably, spiders are the only known group in which fluorescence is:


title: Fluorescence

text: Andrews, Reed, & Masta showed that fluorescence evolved multiple times across spider taxa, with novel fluorophores evolving during spider diversification.


title: Fluorescence

text: In some spiders, ultraviolet cues are important for predator-prey interactions, intraspecific communication, and camouflage-matching with fluorescent flowers. Differing ecological contexts could favor inhibition or enhancement of fluorescence expression, depending upon whether fluorescence helps spiders be cryptic or makes them more conspicuous to predators. Therefore, natural selection could be acting on expression of fluorescence across spider species.


title: Fluorescence

text: Scorpions are also fluorescent, in their case due to the presence of beta carboline in their cuticles.


title: Fluorescence

text: Many plants are fluorescent due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is probably the most widely-distributed fluorescent molecule, producing red emission under a range of excitation wavelengths. This attribute of chlorophyll is commonly used by ecologists to measure photosynthetic efficiency.


title: Fluorescence

text: The "Mirabilis jalapa" flower contains violet, fluorescent betacyanins and yellow, fluorescent betaxanthins. Under white light, parts of the flower containing only betaxanthins appear yellow, but in areas where both betaxanthins and betacyanins are present, the visible fluorescence of the flower is faded due to internal light-filtering mechanisms. Fluorescence was previously suggested to play a role in pollinator attraction, however, it was later found that the visual signal by fluorescence is negligible compared to the visual signal of light reflected by the flower.


title: Fluorescence

text: Gemstones, minerals, may have a distinctive fluorescence or may fluoresce differently under short-wave ultraviolet, long-wave ultraviolet, visible light, or X-rays.


title: Fluorescence

text: Many types of calcite and amber will fluoresce under shortwave UV, longwave UV and visible light. Rubies, emeralds, and diamonds exhibit red fluorescence under long-wave UV, blue and sometimes green light; diamonds also emit light under X-ray radiation.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence in minerals is caused by a wide range of activators. In some cases, the concentration of the activator must be restricted to below a certain level, to prevent quenching of the fluorescent emission. Furthermore, the mineral must be free of impurities such as iron or copper, to prevent quenching of possible fluorescence. Divalent manganese, in concentrations of up to several percent, is responsible for the red or orange fluorescence of calcite, the green fluorescence of willemite, the yellow fluorescence of esperite, and the orange fluorescence of wollastonite and clinohedrite. Hexavalent uranium, in the form of the uranyl cation (), fluoresces at all concentrations in a yellow green, and is the cause of fluorescence of minerals such as autunite or andersonite, and, at low concentration, is the cause of the fluorescence of such materials as some samples of hyalite opal. Trivalent chromium at low concentration is the source of the red fluorescence of ruby. Divalent europium is the source of the blue fluorescence, when seen in the mineral fluorite. Trivalent lanthanides such as terbium and dysprosium are the principal activators of the creamy yellow fluorescence exhibited by the yttrofluorite variety of the mineral fluorite, and contribute to the orange fluorescence of zircon. Powellite (calcium molybdate) and scheelite (calcium tungstate) fluoresce intrinsically in yellow and blue, respectively. When present together in solid solution, energy is transferred from the higher-energy tungsten to the lower-energy molybdenum, such that fairly low levels of molybdenum are sufficient to cause a yellow emission for scheelite, instead of blue. Low-iron sphalerite (zinc sulfide), fluoresces and phosphoresces in a range of colors, influenced by the presence of various trace impurities.


title: Fluorescence

text: Crude oil (petroleum) fluoresces in a range of colors, from dull-brown for heavy oils and tars through to bright-yellowish and bluish-white for very light oils and condensates. This phenomenon is used in oil exploration drilling to identify very small amounts of oil in drill cuttings and core samples.


title: Fluorescence

text: Humic acids and fulvic acids produced by the degradation of organic matter in soils (humus) may also fluoresce because of the presence of aromatic cycles in their complex molecular structures. Humic substances dissolved in groundwater can be detected and characterized by spectrofluorimetry.


title: Fluorescence

text: Organic solutions such anthracene or stilbene, dissolved in benzene or toluene, fluoresce with ultraviolet or gamma ray irradiation. The decay times of this fluorescence are on the order of nanoseconds, since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene.


title: Fluorescence

text: Scintillation is defined a flash of light produced in a transparent material by the passage of a particle (an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a high-energy photon). Stilbene and derivatives are used in scintillation counters to detect such particles. Stilbene is also one of the gain mediums used in dye lasers.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence is observed in the atmosphere when the air is under energetic electron bombardment. In cases such as the natural aurora, high-altitude nuclear explosions, and rocket-borne electron gun experiments, the molecules and ions formed have a fluorescent response to light.


title: Fluorescence

text: In August 2020 researchers reported the creation of the brightest fluorescent solid optical materials so far by enabling the transfer of properties of highly fluorescent dyes via spatial and electronic isolation of the dyes by mixing cationic dyes with anion-binding cyanostar macrocycles. According to a co-author these materials may have applications in areas such as solar energy harvesting, bioimaging, and lasers.


title: Fluorescence

text: The common fluorescent lamp relies on fluorescence. Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury. An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit mostly ultraviolet light. The tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the "phosphor", which absorbs ultraviolet light and re-emits visible light. Fluorescent lighting is more energy-efficient than incandescent lighting elements. However, the uneven spectrum of traditional fluorescent lamps may cause certain colors to appear different from when illuminated by incandescent light or daylight. The mercury vapor emission spectrum is dominated by a short-wave UV line at 254 nm (which provides most of the energy to the phosphors), accompanied by visible light emission at 436 nm (blue), 546 nm (green) and 579 nm (yellow-orange). These three lines can be observed superimposed on the white continuum using a hand spectroscope, for light emitted by the usual white fluorescent tubes. These same visible lines, accompanied by the emission lines of trivalent europium and trivalent terbium, and further accompanied by the emission continuum of divalent europium in the blue region, comprise the more discontinuous light emission of the modern trichromatic phosphor systems used in many compact fluorescent lamp and traditional lamps where better color rendition is a goal.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescent lights were first available to the public at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Improvements since then have largely been better phosphors, longer life, and more consistent internal discharge, and easier-to-use shapes (such as compact fluorescent lamps). Some high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps couple their even-greater electrical efficiency with phosphor enhancement for better color rendition.


title: Fluorescence

text: White light-emitting diodes (LEDs) became available in the mid-1990s as LED lamps, in which blue light emitted from the semiconductor strikes phosphors deposited on the tiny chip. The combination of the blue light that continues through the phosphor and the green to red fluorescence from the phosphors produces a net emission of white light.


title: Fluorescence

text: Glow sticks sometimes utilize fluorescent materials to absorb light from the chemiluminescent reaction and emit light of a different color.


title: Fluorescence

text: Many analytical procedures involve the use of a fluorometer, usually with a single exciting wavelength and single detection wavelength. Because of the sensitivity that the method affords, fluorescent molecule concentrations as low as 1 part per trillion can be measured.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence in several wavelengths can be detected by an array detector, to detect compounds from HPLC flow. Also, TLC plates can be visualized if the compounds or a coloring reagent is fluorescent. Fluorescence is most effective when there is a larger ratio of atoms at lower energy levels in a Boltzmann distribution. There is, then, a higher probability of excitement and release of photons by lower-energy atoms, making analysis more efficient.


title: Fluorescence

text: Usually the setup of a fluorescence assay involves a light source, which may emit many different wavelengths of light. In general, a single wavelength is required for proper analysis, so, in order to selectively filter the light, it is passed through an excitation monochromator, and then that chosen wavelength is passed through the sample cell. After absorption and re-emission of the energy, many wavelengths may emerge due to Stokes shift and various electron transitions. To separate and analyze them, the fluorescent radiation is passed through an emission monochromator, and observed selectively by a detector.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescence in the life sciences is used generally as a non-destructive way of tracking or analysis of biological molecules by means of the fluorescent emission at a specific frequency where there is no background from the excitation light, as relatively few cellular components are naturally fluorescent (called intrinsic or autofluorescence).


title: Fluorescence

text: In fact, a protein or other component can be "labelled" with an extrinsic fluorophore, a fluorescent dye that can be a small molecule, protein, or quantum dot, finding a large use in many biological applications.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fingerprints can be visualized with fluorescent compounds such as ninhydrin or DFO (1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one). Blood and other substances are sometimes detected by fluorescent reagents, like fluorescein. Fibers, and other materials that may be encountered in forensics or with a relationship to various collectibles, are sometimes fluorescent.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to find cracks and other defects on the surface of a part. Dye tracing, using fluorescent dyes, is used to find leaks in liquid and gas plumbing systems.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescent colors are frequently used in signage, particularly road signs. Fluorescent colors are generally recognizable at longer ranges than their non-fluorescent counterparts, with fluorescent orange being particularly noticeable. This property has led to its frequent use in safety signs and labels.


title: Fluorescence

text: Fluorescent compounds are often used to enhance the appearance of fabric and paper, causing a "whitening" effect. A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more visible light than that which shines on it, making it appear brighter. The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the diminishing blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown and toward white. Optical brighteners are used in laundry detergents, high brightness paper, cosmetics, high-visibility clothing and more.


title: Names for India

text: The Republic of India has two principal short names, each of which is historically significant, "India" and "Bharata". A third name, "Hindustān", is sometimes an alternative name for the region comprising most of the modern Indian states of the subcontinent when Indians speak among themselves. The usage of "Bhārat", "Hindustān", or "India" depends on the context and language of conversation.


title: Names for India

text: "Bhārat", the name for India in several Indian languages, is variously said to be derived from the name of either, King Dhashrath's son Bharat, Dushyanta's son Bharata or Rishabha's son Bharata. At first the name Bhārat referred only to the western part of the Ganges in North India, but was later more broadly applied to the Indian subcontinent and the region of Greater India, as was the name "India". Today it refers to the contemporary Republic of India located therein. The name "India" is originally derived from the name of the river Sindhu (Indus River) and has been in use in Greek since Herodotus (5th century BCE). The term appeared in Old English as early the 9th century and reemerged in Modern English in the 17th century.


title: Names for India

text: The English term is from Greek Ἰνδική / Indikē (cf. Megasthenes' work Indica) or (), via Latin transliteration .


title: Names for India

text: The name derives ultimately from Sanskrit (), which was the name of the Indus River as well as the lower Indus basin (modern Sindh, in Pakistan). The Old Persian equivalent of was . Darius I conquered Sindh in about 516 BCE, upon which the Persian equivalent was used for the province at the lower Indus basin. Scylax of Caryanda who explored the Indus river for the Persian emperor probably took over the Persian name and passed it into Greek. The terms () for the Indus river as well as "an Indian" are found in Herodotus's Geography. The loss of the aspirate /h/ was probably due to the dialects of Greek spoken in Asia Minor. Herodotus also generalised the term "Indian" from the people of lower Indus basin, to all the people living to the east of Persia, even though he had no knowledge of the geography of the land.


title: Names for India

text: By the time of Alexander, in Koine Greek denoted the region beyond the Indus. Alexander's companions were aware of at least North India up to the Ganges delta (Gangaridai). Later, Megasthenes included in India the southern peninsula as well.


title: Names for India

text: Latin is used by Lucian (2nd century AD). was known in Old English language and was used in King Alfred's translation of Paulus Orosius. In Middle English, the name was, under French influence, replaced by or , which entered Early Modern English as "". The name "India" then came back to English usage from the 17th century onward, and may be due to the influence of Latin, or Spanish or Portuguese.


title: Names for India

text: Sanskrit "indu" "drop (of Soma)", also a term for the Moon, is unrelated, but has sometimes been erroneously connected.


title: Names for India

text: The words () and () came from Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit (the Indus River or its region). The Achaemenid emperor Darius I conquered the Indus valley in about 516 BCE, upon which the Achaemenid equivalent of , viz., ""Hindush"" (, ) was used for the lower Indus basin. The name was also known as far as the Achaemenid province of Egypt where it was written () on the , circa 500 BCE.


title: Names for India

text: In middle Persian, probably from the first century CE, the suffix () was added, indicative of a country or region, forming the name . Thus, Sindh was referred to as "Hindūstān" in the Naqsh-e-Rustam inscription of Sassanid emperor Shapur I in 262 CE.


title: Names for India

text: "Hind" was notably adapted in the Arabic language as the definitive form () for India, e.g. in the 11th century "Tarikh Al-Hind" ('History of India'). It occurs intermittently in usage within India, such as in the phrase () or in (), the Standard Hindi name for the Indian Ocean, but otherwise is deemed archaic.


title: Names for India

text: Both the names were current in Persian and Arabic from the 11th century Islamic conquests: the rulers in the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods called their Indian dominion, centered around Delhi, "Hindustan" (; ). In contemporary Persian and Urdu language, the term Hindustan has recently come to mean the Republic of India. The same is the case with Arabic, where is the name for the Republic of India.


title: Names for India

text: "Hindustan", as the term Hindu itself, entered the English language in the 17th century. In the 19th century, the term as used in English referred to the Subcontinent. "Hindustan" was in use simultaneously with "India" during the British Raj.


title: Names for India

text: The name Bhārata or Bhārata-varṣa (Bharata-varsha) is said to be derived from the name of either Dushyanta's son Bharata or Rishabha's son Bharata. Several Puranas state that it is derived from the name of Bharata, the son of Rishabha. However, some Puranic passages state that it is derived from Bharata, which was another name for Rishabha's ancestor Manu. Some other Puranic passages refer to the Bharata people, who are described as the descendants of Dushyanta's son Bharata in the "Mahabharata".


title: Names for India

text: The earliest recorded use of Bhāratavarṣa in a geographical sense is in the Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela (first century BCE), where it applies only to a restrained area of northern India, namely the part of the Ganges west of Magadha. In the Sanskrit epic, the "Mahabharata" (200 BCE to 300 CE), a larger region of North India is encompassed by the term, but much of the Deccan and South India are still excluded.


title: Names for India

text: Bhārata has been used as a self-ascribed name by some people of the Indian subcontinent and the Republic of India. The designation "Bhārata" appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, "Bhārata Gaṇarājya". The name is derived from the ancient Hindu Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as "Bhāratavarṣa" () and uses this term to distinguish it from other "varṣa"s or continents. For example, the Vayu Purana says ""he who conquers the whole of Bhāratavarṣa is celebrated as a samrāt" (Vayu Purana 45, 86)."


title: Names for India

text: The Sanskrit word "bhārata" is a vṛddhi derivation of "Bharata", which was originally an epithet of Agni. The term is a verbal noun of the Sanskrit root bhr-, "to bear/to carry", with a literal meaning of to be maintained (of fire). The root "bhr" is cognate with the English verb "to bear" and Latin "ferō". This term also means "one who is engaged in search for knowledge". "Barato", the Esperanto name for India, is also a derivation of "Bhārata".


title: Names for India

text: According to the Puranas, this country is known as Bharatavarsha after Bharata, the son of Rishabha.He was a Kshatriya born in Ikshvaku Dynasty(Solar Dynasty).(Reference -Champat Rai Jain 1929, p. 92). This has been mentioned in Vishnu Purana (2,1,31), Vayu Purana (33,52), Linga Purana (1,47,23), Brahmanda Purana (14,5,62), Agni Purana (107,11–12), Skanda Purana, Khanda (37,57) and Markandaya Purana (50,41), all using the designation "Bharata Varsha".


title: Names for India

text: The Srimad Bhagavat Purana mentions(Canto 5, Chapter 4) - "He (Rishabha) begot a hundred sons that were exactly like him... He (Bharata) had the best qualities and it was because of him that this land by the people is called Bhârata-varsha"


title: Names for India

text: The Bhāratas were also a Vedic tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings.


title: Names for India

text: The realm of Bharata is known as "Bharātavarṣa" in the "Mahabharata" (the core portion of which is itself known as "Bhārata") and later texts. According to the text, the term "Bharata" is from the king Bharata, who was the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala and the term "varsa" means a division of the earth or a continent.


title: Names for India

text: Bharata Khanda (or Bharata Ksetra) is a term used in Hindu texts, including the Vedas, "Mahabharata", "Ramayana" and the Puranic, to describe the geographic region that encompassed the modern countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Myanmar—that is, "South Asia" at the term's furthest extent.


title: Names for India

text: Jambudvīpa () was used in ancient scriptures as a name of India before Bhārata became the official name. The derivative "Jambu Dwipa" was the historical term for India in many Southeast Asian countries before the introduction of the English word "India". This alternate name is still used occasionally in Thailand, Malaysia, Java and Bali to describe the Indian Subcontinent. However, it also can refer to the whole continent of Asia.


title: Names for India

text: Both, Gyagar and Phagyul, are Tibetan names for India. Ancient Tibetan Buddhist authors and pilgrims used the ethnogeographic referents "Gyagar" or "Gyagar to the south" and "Madhyadesa" ("central land" or holy centre) for India. Since at least 13th century, several influential indigenous Tibetan lamas & authors also started to refer to India as the "Phagyul", short for "Phags yul", meaning "the land of aryas" i.e. land of noble, holy, enlightened & superior people who are the source of spiritual enlightenment. Tibetan scholar Gendun Chopel explains that tibetan word "gyagar" comes from the Indian sanskrit language word "vihāra" (buddhist monastery), and the ancient tibetans applied the term "Geysar" mainly to the northern and central India region from Kuru (modern Haryana) to Magadha (modern Bihar). The Epic of King Gesar, which originally developed around 200 BCE or 300 BCE and about 600 CE, describes India as the ""Gyagar: The Kingdom of Buddhist Doctrine"", ""Gyagar: The Kingdom of Aru Medicine"" (ayurveda), ""Gyagar: The Kingdom of Pearls"" and ""Gyagar: The Kingdom of Golden Vases"". The Central Tibetan Administration, often referred to as the Tibetan Government-in-Exile, asserts ""Tibet is inextricably linked to India through geography, history, culture, and spiritually, Tibetans refer to India as ‘Gyagar Phagpay Yul’ or ‘India the land of Aryas.’"" Dalai Lama reveres India as the guru with Tibet as its chela (shishya or disciple) and ""refers to himself the ‘Son of India’ and a true follower of Mahatma Gandhi. He continues to advocate the revival of India’s ancient wisdom based on the Nalanda tradition.""


title: Names for India

text: or (; originally pronounced ) is used since ancient times, the Japanese and some other Asian peoples, especially devout Buddhists, traditionally used "Tenjiku" and its related terms to designate India as their "heavenly centre", referring to the sacred origins of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent. Some historical East Asian name for India that comes from the Chinese transliteration of the Persian "Hindu", which itself is derived from the Sanskrit "Sindhu", the native name of the Indus River. is one of several Chinese transliterations of Sindhu. () appears in Sima Qian's Shiji and () is used in the Hou Hanshu (Book of the Later Han). () comes from the Kuchean "Indaka", another transliteration of "Hindu". A detailed account of Tianzhu is given in the "Xiyu Zhuan" (Record of the Western Regions) in the "Hou Hanshu" compiled by Fan Ye (398–445):


title: Names for India

text: Tianzhu was also referred to as (, literally "Five Indias"), because there were five geographical regions in India known to the Chinese: Central, Eastern, Western, Northern, and Southern India. The monk Xuanzang also referred to India as or "Five Inds".


title: Names for India

text: The term is also used in Japan, where it is pronounced as Tenjiku (). The foreign loanwords () and () are also used in some cases. The current Japanese name for modern India is the foreign loanword ().


title: Names for India

text: The current Chinese word for India is (), first used by the seventh-century monk and traveller Xuanzang. Similar to Hindu and Sindhu, the term 印 was used in classical Chinese much like the English "Ind".


title: Names for India

text: Hodu ( "Hoddû") is the Biblical Hebrew name for India mentioned in the "Book of Esther" part of the Jewish Tanakh and Christian Old Testament. In Esther, 1:1 and 8.9, Ahasuerus had been described as King ruling 127 provinces from "Hodu" (India) to "Ethiopia". The term seemingly derives from Sanskrit "Sindhu", "great river", i.e., the Indus River, via Old Persian "Hiñd°u". It is thus cognate with the term India.


title: Names for India

text: Writers throughout history, both Indian and of other nationalities have written about a 'Greater India', which Indians have called either Akhand Bharat or Mahabharata.


title: Effie Gray

text: Euphemia Chalmers Millais, Lady Millais ("née" Gray; 7 May 1828 – 23 December 1897) was a Scottish artists' model and the wife of Pre-Raphaelite painter John Everett Millais. She had previously been married to the art critic John Ruskin, but she left him with the marriage never having been consummated; it was subsequently annulled. This famous Victorian "love triangle" has been dramatised in plays, films, and an opera.


title: Effie Gray

text: Euphemia Chalmers Gray was born on 7 May 1828 in Perth, Perthshire, Scotland to lawyer and businessman George Gray (1798–1877) and Sophia Margaret (1808–1894), daughter of Andrew Jameson, Sheriff-substitute of Fife. She grew up at Bowerswell, an Italianate-style house near the foot of Kinnoull Hill. Though she was given the pet-name "Phemy" by her parents as a child, she started to be known as "Effie" by the time she was a teenager. Her sisters Sophie and Alice often modelled for John Everett Millais.


title: Effie Gray

text: John Ruskin wrote the fantasy novel "The King of the Golden River" for Gray in 1841, when she was 12 and he was 21. Gray's family knew Ruskin's father and encouraged a match between the two when she had matured. She ended up marrying Ruskin, after an initially unsteady courtship, when she was 19 years old on 10 April 1848. During their honeymoon, they travelled to Venice, where Ruskin was doing research for his book "The Stones of Venice". While in Perth, Scotland, they lived at Bowerswell, the Gray family home, and site of their wedding. It had, coincidentally, previously been the home of Ruskin's paternal grandparents. In 1817, Ruskin's mother, Margaret, during her engagement to Ruskin's father, had stayed at Bowerswell and was witness to three tragic deaths within its walls in quick succession (Ruskin's grandmother, grandfather, and newborn cousin). This caused her to develop a severe phobia of the place, keeping her from attending her son's wedding to Effie.


title: Effie Gray

text: Effie and Ruskin's different personalities were thrown into sharp relief by their contrasting priorities. For Effie, Venice provided an opportunity to socialise while Ruskin was engaged in solitary studies. In particular, he made a point of drawing the Ca' d'Oro and the Palazzo Ducale (Doge's Palace), because he feared they would soon be destroyed by the occupying Austrian troops. One of the troops, Lieutenant Charles Paulizza, made friends with Effie, apparently with no objection from Ruskin. Her brother, among others, later said that Ruskin was deliberately encouraging the friendship in order to compromise her, as an excuse to separate.


title: Effie Gray

text: When she met John Everett Millais five years later, she was still a virgin. Ruskin had persistently put off consummating the marriage. Gray and Ruskin had agreed upon abstaining from sex for five years to allow Ruskin to focus on his studies. Another reason involved his apparent disgust with some aspect of her body. As she later wrote to her father:


title: Effie Gray

text: He alleged various reasons, hatred to children, religious motives, a desire to preserve my beauty, and, finally this last year he told me his true reason... that he had imagined women were quite different to what he saw I was, and that the reason he did not make me his Wife was because he was disgusted with my person the first evening.


title: Effie Gray

text: Ruskin confirmed this in his statement to his lawyer during the annulment proceedings: "It may be thought strange that I could abstain from a woman who to most people was so attractive. But though her face was beautiful, her person was not formed to excite passion. On the contrary, there were certain circumstances in her person which completely checked it." The reason for Ruskin's disgust with "circumstances in her person" is unknown. Various suggestions have been made, including revulsion at either her pubic hair, or menstrual blood. Robert Brownell, on the contrary, in his analysis "Marriage of Inconvenience", argues that Ruskin's difficulty with the marriage was financial and related to concerns that Effie and her less affluent family were trying to tap into Ruskin's considerable wealth.


title: Effie Gray

text: While married to Ruskin, she modelled for Millais' painting "The Order of Release", in which she was depicted as the loyal wife of a Scottish rebel who has secured his release from prison. She then became close to Millais when he accompanied the couple on a trip to Scotland in order to paint Ruskin's portrait according to the critic's artistic principles. During this time, spent in Brig o' Turk in the Trossachs, they fell in love. While working on the portrait of her husband, Millais made many drawings and sketches of her. He also sent humorous cartoons of him, Effie and Ruskin to friends. She copied some of his works.


title: Effie Gray

text: After their return to London, she left Ruskin, nominally to visit her family. She sent back her wedding ring with a note announcing her intention to file for an annulment. With the support of her family and a number of influential friends, she pursued the case, causing a public scandal and their marriage was annulled on the grounds of "incurable impotency" in 1854.


title: Effie Gray

text: In 1855, she married John Millais and they had eight children together: Everett, born in 1856; George, born in 1857; Effie, born in 1858; Mary, born in 1860; Alice, born in 1862; Geoffrey, born in 1863; John in 1865; and Sophie in 1868. Their youngest son, John Guille Millais, was a notable bird artist and gardener. Effie also modelled for a number of her husband's works, notably "Peace Concluded" (1856), which idealises her as an icon of beauty and fertility. In 1885, her husband was elevated to the baronetage by Queen Victoria, having been created Baronet Millais of Palace Gate, in the parish of St Mary Abbot, Kensington, in the county of Middlesex, and of Saint Ouen, in the Island of Jersey. Upon her husband's elevation, Effie became entitled to use the style Lady Millais.


title: Effie Gray

text: In 1858, Ruskin met Rose La Touche; at the time she was 10 years old, and he became her teacher in drawing as well as other subjects. Ruskin became attracted to La Touche and when she turned 18 sought to become engaged. Rose's parents were concerned and wrote to Effie, asking for her opinion of Ruskin as a husband. Effie's reply described him as oppressive.


title: Effie Gray

text: Effie was an effective manager of Millais' career and often collaborated with him in choosing his subjects. Her journal indicates her high regard for her husband's art, and his works are still recognisably Pre-Raphaelite in style several years after his marriage.


title: Effie Gray

text: However, Millais eventually abandoned the Pre-Raphaelite obsession with detail and began to paint in a looser style which produced more paintings for the time and effort. Many paintings were inspired by his family life with his wife, often using his children and grandchildren as models. Millais also used his sister-in-law, Sophie Gray, then in her early teens, as the basis of some striking images in the mid to late 1850s, provoking suggestions of a mutual infatuation.


title: Effie Gray

text: Effie had been officially presented to Queen Victoria on 20 June 1850. This was arranged by Lady Davy, a friend and neighbour of hers from London who was also friends with one of the queen's ladies-in-waiting. However, the annulment from Ruskin barred her from events at which the queen was present. Her social status was affected negatively, although many in society were still prepared to receive her and to press her case sympathetically. Eventually, when Millais was dying, the queen relented through the intervention of her daughter Princess Louise, allowing Gray to attend an official function. Sixteen months after Millais' death, Effie died at Bowerswell on 23 December 1897 and was buried beside her son George, who died aged 21, in Kinnoull Parish Church churchyard, Perth, which is depicted in Millais's painting "The Vale of Rest". Gray's father had donated the Millais window, the West window, to Kinnoull Church in 1870. It is based on designs drawn by Millais.


title: Wellesley College

text: Wellesley College is a private women's liberal arts college in Wellesley, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1870 by Henry and Pauline Durant as a female seminary, it is a member of the original Seven Sisters Colleges, an unofficial grouping of elite current and former women's colleges in the northeastern United States. Wellesley's endowment of $3.226 billion is the largest out of all women's colleges and the 49th largest among all colleges and universities in the United States in 2019. Wellesley is frequently considered to be one of the best liberal arts colleges in the United States. The college is currently ranked #5 on the National Liberal Arts College list produced by "U.S. News & World Report".


title: Wellesley College

text: Wellesley is home to 56 departmental and interdepartmental majors spanning the liberal arts, as well as over 150 student clubs and organizations. Wellesley athletes compete in the NCAA Division III New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference. Its 500-acre (200 ha) campus was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and houses the Davis Museum and a Botanic Garden.


title: Wellesley College

text: Notable alumnae and affiliates include two U.S. Secretaries of State; the first female nominee for President of the United States from a major party; noted academics, journalists, writers, politicians, diplomats, activists, businesspeople, filmmakers, and entertainers; and recipients of Emmy, Tony, Academy, and Peabody Awards, the Nobel Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize.


title: Wellesley College

text: Wellesley was founded by Pauline and Henry Fowle Durant, believers in educational opportunity for women, who intended that the college should prepare women for "...great conflicts, for vast reforms in social life". Its charter was signed on March 17, 1870, by Massachusetts Governor William Claflin. The original name of the college was the Wellesley Female Seminary; its renaming to Wellesley College was approved by the Massachusetts legislature on March 7, 1873. Wellesley first opened its doors to students on September 8, 1875. At the time of its founding, Wellesley College's campus was actually situated in Needham; however, in 1880 residents of West Needham voted to secede and in 1881 the area was chartered as a new town, Wellesley.


title: Wellesley College

text: Wellesley College was a leading center for women's study in the sciences. Between 1875 and 1921, Wellesley employed more female scientists than any other U.S. institution of high education. After MIT, it was the second college in the United States to initiate laboratory science instruction for undergraduates. In early 1896, Sarah Frances Whiting, the first professor of physics and astronomy, was among the first U.S. scientists to conduct experiments in X-rays.


title: Wellesley College

text: The first president of Wellesley was Ada Howard. There have been thirteen more presidents in its history: Alice Elvira Freeman Palmer, Helen Almira Shafer, Julia Josephine Thomas Irvine, Caroline Hazard, Ellen Fitz Pendleton, Mildred H. McAfee (later Mildred McAfee Horton), Margaret Clapp, Ruth M. Adams, Barbara Warne Newell, Nannerl Overholser Keohane (later the president of Duke University from 1993 to 2004), Diana Chapman Walsh, H. Kim Bottomly, and current president Paula Johnson.


title: Wellesley College

text: The original architecture of the college consisted of one very large building, College Hall, which was approximately in length and five stories in height. It was completed in 1875. The architect was Hammatt Billings. College Hall was both an academic building and a residential building. On March 17, 1914, it was destroyed by fire, the precise cause of which was never officially established. The fire was first noticed by students who lived on the fourth floor near the zoology laboratory. It has been suggested that an electrical or chemical accident in this laboratory—specifically, an electrical incubator used in the breeding of beetles—triggered the fire.


title: Wellesley College

text: A group of residence halls known as the Tower Court complex is located on top of the hill where the old College Hall once stood.


title: Wellesley College

text: After the loss of the Central College Hall in 1914, the college adopted a master plan in 1921 and expanded into several new buildings. The campus hosted a Naval Reserve Officer Training program during the Second World War, and the College President Mildred McAfee took a leave of absence to lead the Women's Reserve of the U.S. Navy. She received the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945. Wellesley College began to significantly revise its curriculum after the war and through the late 1960s; in 1968, the college began its exchange programs between other colleges in the area such as MIT. In 2013 the faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.


title: Wellesley College

text: The campus overlooks Lake Waban and includes evergreen, deciduous woodlands and open meadows. Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., Boston's preeminent landscape architect at the beginning of the 20th century, described Wellesley's landscape as "not merely beautiful, but with a marked individual character not represented so far as I know on the ground of any other college in the country". He also wrote: "I must admit that the exceedingly intricate and complex topography and the peculiarly scattered arrangement of most of the buildings somewhat baffled me". The campus is adjacent to the privately owned Hunnewell Estates Historic District, the gardens of which can be viewed from the lake's edge on campus.


title: Wellesley College

text: The original master plan for Wellesley's campus landscape was developed by Olmsted, Arthur Shurcliff, and Ralph Adams Cram in 1921. This landscape-based concept represented a break from the architecturally-defined courtyard and quadrangle campus arrangement that was typical of American campuses at the time. The site's glaciated topography, a series of meadows, and native plant communities shaped the original layout of the campus, resulting in a campus architecture that is integrated into its landscape.


title: Wellesley College

text: The campus offers multiple housing options, including Tower Court, which was built after College Hall burnt down, the Quad (Quint, including Munger), the “New Dorms”, referring to the east-side dormitories erected in the 1950s, and multiple “Branch Halls”, including both a Spanish and French-speaking house. In total, Wellesley offers 17 different residence halls for students to live in.


title: Wellesley College

text: The most recent master plan for Wellesley College was completed in 1998 by Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates. According to the designers, this plan was intended to restore and recapture the original landscape character of the campus that had been partially lost as the campus evolved through the 20th century. In 2011, Wellesley was listed by Travel+Leisure as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States.


title: Wellesley College

text: Wellesley is home to Green Hall, completed in 1931, the only building bearing the name of famed miser Hetty Green; the building was funded by her children. Part of the building is the Galen L. Stone Tower, housing a 32-bell carillon, which is routinely played between classes by members of the Guild of Carillonneurs.


title: Wellesley College

text: Houghton Chapel was dedicated in 1899 in the center of the college campus. The architectural firm of Heins & LaFarge designed Houghton of gray stone in the classic Latin cross floor plan. The exterior walls are pierced by stained glass windows. Window designers include Tiffany; John La Farge; Reynolds, Francis & Rohnstock; and Jeffrey Gibson. The chapel can seat up to 750 people. Houghton is used by the college for a variety of religious and secular functions, like lectures and music concerts, and is also available for rental. The lower-level houses the Multifaith Center.


title: Wellesley College

text: In 1905 Andrew Carnegie donated $125,000 to build what is now known as Clapp Library, on the condition that the college match the amount for an endowment. The money was raised by 1907 and construction began June 5, 1909. In 1915 Carnegie gave another $95,446 towards an addition. This renovation added a recreational reading room, offices, archives, a reserve reading room, added space for rare books and additional stacks. The building underwent renovations from 1956 to 1959, that doubled its size. From 1973 to 1975 a major addition was added to the right-hand side of the building. In 1974 the building was renamed for Margaret Antoinette Clapp, a Pulitzer Prize-winning author and member of the 1930 class who served as the eighth college president from 1949 to 1966.


title: Wellesley College

text: The Davis Museum, opened in 1993, was the first building in North America designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Rafael Moneo, whose notion of the museum as a “treasury” or “treasure chamber” informs its design. The Davis is at the heart of the arts on the Wellesley campus adjacent to the academic quad and is connected by an enclosed bridge to the Jewett Arts Center, designed by Paul Rudolph. The collections span from ancient art from around the world to contemporary art exhibitions, and admission is free to the general public.


title: Wellesley College

text: The current president of Wellesley College is Paula Johnson. With a remarkable track record of accomplishments—she founded the Connors Center for Women's Health and Gender Biology at Brigham and Women's Hospital—she has led in the field of women's health, taking an interdisciplinary approach to biology by integrating insights from sociology, economics, and many other fields. Paula Johnson was the Grace A. Young Family Professor of Medicine in the Field of Women's Health at Harvard Medical School, as well as professor of epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Johnson succeeded H. Kim Bottomly to become Wellesley's 14th President in July 2016.


title: Wellesley College

text: Wellesley's fund-raising campaign in 2005 set a record for liberal arts colleges with a total of $472.3 million, 18.1% more than the goal of $400 million. According to data compiled by The Chronicle of Higher Education, Wellesley's campaign total is the largest of any liberal arts college. In late 2015, the college launched another campaign, with a goal of $500 million. Many notable alumnae including Madeleine Albright, Hillary Clinton, Diane Sawyer, Susan Wagner, and Cokie Roberts collaborated on the campaign video and launch festivities. As of Fall 2017, over $446 million has been raised.