title: Security Service of Ukraine

text: In 2016, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch reported that the SBU operates secret detention facilities where civilians are held incommunicado being subjected to improper treatment and torture.


title: Security Service of Ukraine

text: In December 2017, HRMMU expressed concerns about a situation with "freedom of opinion and expression" in Ukraine which facing "mounting challenges". According to the UN reports the SBU is taking advantage of broad interpretation and application of Ukrainian Criminal Code against independent Ukrainian journalists, bloggers, and media activists.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Ainsley Cory Maitland-Niles (born 29 August 1997) is an English professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder or full-back for club Southampton on loan from Arsenal.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles spent the 2015–16 season on loan at Ipswich Town and the second half of the 2020–21 and 2021-22 seasons on loan at West Bromwich Albion and Roma respectively. Internationally, he has represented England from under-17 to senior level.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles was born in Goodmayes, Greater London, being raised in Edmonton, North London and attended Oaks Park High School, Ilford. He grew up in a single parent family with his mother, Jule Niles, and his brother, Cordi. He is of Jamaican descent.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles is a product of Arsenal's academy having joined the club at the age of six. Maitland-Niles made the step up to Arsenal's U21s during the 2013–14 season, having broken into the U18 set up the season before. He signed his first professional contract with Arsenal on 24 October 2014.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 9 December 2014, Maitland-Niles made his professional debut at the age of 17 years and 102 days in a UEFA Champions League match against Galatasaray, replacing Aaron Ramsey at half time in an eventual 4–1 win for Arsenal. In doing so he became the second youngest player to have represented Arsenal in the Champions League, behind Jack Wilshere. Four days later, he made his Premier League debut, replacing Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain in added time in a 4–1 win against Newcastle United.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 2 July 2015, Maitland-Niles signed for Ipswich Town on a season-long loan for the 2015–16 season. Upon joining the club, he was given a number seven shirt ahead of a new season.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles made his Ipswich Town debut, starting the whole game before being substituted in the 82nd minute, in a 2–2 draw against Brentford in the opening game of the season. Since making his Ipswich Town debut, Maitland-Niles' performances immediately made an impact and was praised by manager Mick McCarthy, describing him as "outstanding". His performance then saw him being named the club's player of the month for September. He scored his first goal for Ipswich and his first ever senior goal in a 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers on 3 November 2015. His second goal for the club came on 19 January 2016, in a 2–1 loss against Portsmouth in the third round replay of the FA Cup. Later in the season, however, Maitland-Niles' first-team opportunities was soon limited, due to injuries and competitions, leading him to play for the reserve side. After making thirty-two appearances and scoring two times in all competitions, Maitland-Niles returned to his parent club.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On his return to Arsenal the following season, Maitland-Niles started a match away at the City Ground against Nottingham Forest in the EFL Cup at right-back. Maitland-Niles again started at centre midfield against Southampton in an FA Cup fourth-round game in an eventual 5–0 win for Arsenal. He came on as a substitute in the 74th minute in Arsenal's 2–0 win against Sutton United in the fifth round of the FA Cup. Maitland-Niles established himself as a regular first-team player in Arsène Wenger's final season as manager of the club, making 28 total appearances in all competitions. On 12 June 2018, he signed a long-term contract at Arsenal.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 12 August 2018, in Unai Emery's first match as manager, Maitland-Niles started at left-back. However, he would be subbed off 35 minutes into the match after suffering a broken leg. After his return from his leg break and a season-ending injury for Héctor Bellerín, Maitland-Niles established himself as Emery's starting right-back for the remainder of the season. On 29 December 2018, he scored his first goal for the club in a 5–1 Premier League defeat to Liverpool at Anfield. Maitland-Niles scored his first UEFA Europa League goal on 14 March 2019, scoring Arsenal's second in a 3–0 quarter-final second-leg victory against Stade Rennais at the Emirates Stadium.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: With Bellerín still working his way back from injury, Maitland-Niles kept his place as Arsenal's starting right-back for the opening games of the 2019–20 Premier League. On 22 September 2019, Maitland-Niles received a red card during the first half of Arsenal's 3–2 victory against Aston Villa at the Emirates Stadium. His sending off came after he received yellow cards in both the 11th and 41st minutes. He scored his first EFL Cup goal against Liverpool in a 5–5 draw (Liverpool won on penalties) at Anfield. On 1 August 2020, Maitland-Niles was selected to start in the FA Cup Final against Chelsea, as Arsenal won their 14th FA Cup.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles started the 2020 FA Community Shield on 29 August, taking and scoring the second penalty in a penalty shoot-out win against Liverpool after the match ended 1–1. In the FA Community Shield, Maitland-Niles was awarded the man of the match. Maitland-Niles later struggled to secure a place in Mikel Arteta's first team, with interest coming from West Brom and Southampton to sign on loan.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 1 February 2021, Maitland-Niles joined fellow Premier League club West Bromwich Albion on a loan deal until the end of the season. He made his debut in a 0–2 defeat to Tottenham in the Premier League on 7 February.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: During the summer of 2021, Maitland-Niles was linked with a move away from Arsenal, with Everton reportedly interested in signing him on loan. The potential move fell through however, and on 30 August 2021, Maitland-Niles publicly expressed his desire to leave the club via social media, stating that he wished to go where he was "wanted" and where he was going to play.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 8 January 2022, Maitland-Niles joined Serie A club Roma on a loan deal until the end of the season.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles has played for England at various levels within the youth setup of the Three Lions. He made three appearances for England U17 in 2014.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: He was then called up by England U18 in November 2014 and scored on his debut, in a 3–2 win over Poland U18. He went on to make four appearances for the England U18 side.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: In September 2015, Maitland-Niles was called up by England U19 and scored on his England U19 debut, in a 3–2 win over Germany U19 on 4 September 2015. He scored again the following month, in a 2–0 win over Macedonia U19. He was then included in the England U19 squad for the UEFA European Under-19 Championship that saw them reach the semi-final of the tournament.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 1 September 2016, Maitland-Niles scored on his England U20 debut, in a 1–1 draw against Brazil U20. In May 2017 he was called up to England's squad for the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup in South Korea. England eventually got to the final of the tournament where they were up against Venezuela. Maitland-Niles, who came on in the 75th minute of play, went on to win the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup as England beat Venezuela by a 1–0 margin. This was the first time England had ever won the Under-20 World Cup.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: On 29 August 2020, Maitland-Niles was called up to the England senior squad by Gareth Southgate for the UEFA Nations League matches against Iceland and Denmark. He made his debut on 8 September coming on as a substitute against Denmark.


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles is known for his versatility, with his pace and energy, he can play as a winger, central midfielder, full-back, and wing-back, though he prefers playing on the wing, describing it as "his natural position."


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: In December 2017, his then-Arsenal manager, Arsene Wenger, praised Maitland-Niles as "a good defender", saying that "he has that sense of one against one" and "has very quick recovery runs."


title: Ainsley Maitland-Niles

text: Maitland-Niles was involved in the Amazon Original sports docuseries "", which documented the club by spending time with the coaching staff and players behind the scenes both on and off the field throughout their 2021–22 season.


title: Tom Kane

text: Thomas Kane Roberts (born April 15, 1962) is a retired American voice actor. He is best known for his work in animation and video games, most notably in the "Star Wars" franchise.


title: Tom Kane

text: Kane began his voice-over career in 1977, at fifteen years old. He is known for his animation work throughout his career, including Jedi Master Yoda and Admiral Yularen in "Star Wars: The Clone Wars" and , The Chancellor in "9", Magneto in "Wolverine and the X-Men" and "", Ultron in "" and "", Mr. Herriman in "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends", Lord Monkey Fist on "Kim Possible", Professor Utonium and HIM in "The Powerpuff Girls". He has voiced Oxnard Montalvo in "The Angry Beavers" and the chimpanzee sidekick Darwin in "The Wild Thornberrys".


title: Tom Kane

text: Kane is also a prominent video game voice actor, appearing in numerous titles - from bit parts, to major roles such as Gandalf, Professor X and lead characters in many "Star Wars" games like "" as Imperial Captain Ozzik Sturn, Lobot and Kento Marek (the father of Sam Witwer's Galen Marek) thanks to ILM's motion capture technology. In "", "", "", "" and "", he provides the voice of Takeo Masaki, a Japanese WWII soldier and WWI warrior in the Zombies game mode.


title: Tom Kane

text: In the arena of non-animation voiceover work, Kane records commercials, film trailers and television promos. In addition, he has been the announcer for the AFI Life Achievement Award show twice, as well as the 78th, 80th, 83rd, 84th, and 90th Academy Awards. He also played Odin (the father of Thor and Loki) in the as well as the Disneyland attraction: "Thor: Treasures of Asgard", taking over the role from Anthony Hopkins from the film.


title: Tom Kane

text: On April 13, 2012, Kane took over for Joe Hursh as the voice of the Walt Disney World Monorail System. In 2013, he took over as the announcer of "The Eric Andre Show", replacing Gary Anthony Williams.


title: Tom Kane

text: Kane made his debut in the "Star Wars" film saga as the voice of Admiral Ackbar in 2017's "", taking over the role from the late Erik Bauersfeld. He had experience in voicing the character on several occasions for video games in the franchise prior to the film's release. He also voiced Plague Champion in "Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II - Chaos Rising and Retribution".


title: Tom Kane

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Kane was one of several voices for health and safety announcements at Walt Disney World.


title: Tom Kane

text: In November 2020, Kane suffered a stroke which left him with weakness on the right side of his body and damage to his speaking, writing, and reading abilities. In September 2021, his daughter Sam confirmed that, due to his stroke, he had decided to officially enter an early retirement from voice acting.


title: Tom Kane

text: Kane has been married to Cindy Roberts since 1981 and is the father of 9 children including a daughter, named Sam who began giving regular updates on his condition after his stroke on Facebook.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: His father was an accountant in the governor's office and sprang from ancestors who were Carpi (a Dacian tribe), a people whom Diocletian would eventually drive from their ancient abode (in Dacia) and transfer to Pannonia. Maximinus was the commander of the Legio IV "Italica" when Severus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in 235. The Pannonian army then elected Maximinus emperor.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: In 238 (which came to be known as the Year of the Six Emperors), a senatorial revolt broke out, leading to the successive proclamation of Gordian I, Gordian II, Pupienus, Balbinus and Gordian III as emperors in opposition to Maximinus. Maximinus advanced on Rome to put down the revolt, but was halted at Aquileia, where he was assassinated by disaffected elements of the Legio II "Parthica".


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Maximinus is described by several ancient sources, though none are contemporary except Herodian's "Roman History". He was a so-called barracks emperor of the 3rd century; his rule is often considered to mark the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. Maximinus was the first emperor who hailed neither from the senatorial class nor from the equestrian class.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: The names "Gaius Julius" suggest that his family acquired Roman citizenship during the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, as freedmen and newly integrated Romans always adopted the names of their former masters.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Herodian writes that Maximinus was of Thraco-Roman origin. According to the notoriously unreliable "Augustan History", he was born in Thrace or Moesia to a Gothic father and an Alanic mother; however, the supposed parentage is a highly unlikely anachronism, as the Goths are known to have moved to Thrace from a different place of origin much later in history and their residence in the Danubian area is not otherwise attested until after Maximinus' death. British historian Ronald Syme, writing that "the word 'Gothia' should have sufficed for condemnation" of the passage in the "Augustan History", felt that the burden of evidence from Herodian, Syncellus and elsewhere pointed to Maximinus having been born in Moesia.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: The references to his "Gothic" ancestry might refer to a Thracian Getic origin (the two populations were often confused by later writers, most notably by Jordanes in his "Getica"), as suggested by the paragraphs describing how "he was singularly beloved by the Getae, moreover, as if he were one of themselves" and how he spoke "almost pure Thracian". On the contrary, Bernard Bachrach suggests that the "Historia Augusta" use of a term not used in Maximinus time – "Gothia" – is hardly sufficient cause to dismiss its account. After all, the names it gives for Maximinius' parents are legitimate Alan and Gothic appellations. Hence, Bachrach argues, the most straightforward explanation is that the author of the "Historia Augusta" relied on a legitimate third century source, but substituted its terminology for that concurrent in his own day. Accordingly, Maximinus' ancestry remains an open question.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: His background was, in any case, that of a provincial of low birth, and he was seen by the Senate as a barbarian, not even a true Roman, despite Caracalla’s edict granting citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire. According to the "Augustan History", he was a shepherd and bandit leader before joining the Imperial Roman army, causing historian Brent Shaw to comment that a man who would have been "in other circumstances a Godfather, [...] became emperor of Rome." In many ways, Maximinus was similar to the later Thraco-Roman emperors of the 3rd–5th century (Licinius, Galerius, Aureolus, Leo I, etc.), elevating themselves, via a military career, from the condition of a common soldier in one of the Roman legions to the foremost positions of political power. He joined the army during the reign of Septimius Severus.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Maximinus was in command of Legio IV "Italica", composed of recruits from Pannonia, who were angered by Alexander's payments to the Alemanni and his avoidance of war. The troops, who included the Legio XXII "Primigenia", elected Maximinus, killing Alexander and his mother at "Moguntiacum" (modern Mainz). The Praetorian Guard acclaimed him emperor, and their choice was grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were displeased to have a peasant as emperor. His son Maximus became "caesar".


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Maximinus began his rule by eliminating the close advisors of Alexander. His suspicions may have been justified; two plots against Maximinus were foiled. The first was during a campaign across the Rhine, when a group of officers, supported by influential senators, plotted to destroy a bridge across the river, in order to strand Maximinus in hostile territory. They planned to elect senator Magnus emperor afterwards, but the conspiracy was discovered and the conspirators executed. The second plot involved Mesopotamian archers who were loyal to Alexander. They planned to elevate Quartinus, but their leader Macedo changed sides and murdered Quartinus instead, although this was not enough to save his own life.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: The accession of Maximinus is commonly seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis"), the commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by various simultaneous crises.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Maximinus' first campaign was against the Alemanni, whom he defeated despite heavy Roman casualties in a swamp in the Agri Decumates. After the victory, Maximinus took the title "Germanicus Maximus", raised his son Maximus to the rank of caesar and princeps iuventutis, and deified his late wife Paulina. Maximinus may have launched a second campaign deep into Germania, defeating a Germanic tribe beyond the Weser in the Battle at the Harzhorn. Securing the German frontier, at least for a while, Maximinus then set up a winter encampment at Sirmium in Pannonia, and from that supply base fought the Dacians and the Sarmatians during the winter of 235–236.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: In 2019 Israeli researchers translated a milestone found in the Moshav Ramot village in the Golan Heights. They were able to identify the name of Maximinus on the milestone. The roads themselves were much older, suggesting that a massive renovation project was undertaken during his rule on those roads.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Early in 238, in the province of Africa, a treasury official's extortions through false judgments in corrupt courts against some local landowners ignited a full-scale revolt in the province. The landowners armed their clients and their agricultural workers and entered Thysdrus (modern El Djem), where they murdered the offending official and his bodyguards and proclaimed the aged governor of the province, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus (Gordian I), and his son, Gordian II, as co-emperors. The Senate in Rome switched allegiance, gave both Gordian and Gordian II the title of Augustus, and set about rousing the provinces in support of the pair. Maximinus, wintering at Sirmium, immediately assembled his army and advanced on Rome, the Pannonian legions leading the way.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Meanwhile, in Africa, the revolt had not gone as planned. The province of Africa was bordered on the west by the province of Numidia, whose governor, Capelianus, nursed a long-standing grudge against the Gordians and controlled the only legionary unit (III "Augusta") in the area. Gordian II was killed in the fighting and, on hearing this, Gordian I hanged himself with his belt.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: When the African revolt collapsed, the Senate found itself in great jeopardy. Having shown clear support for the Gordians, they could expect no clemency from Maximinus when he reached Rome. In this predicament, they remained determined to defy Maximinus and elected two of their number, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. When the Roman mob heard that the Senate had selected two men from the patrician class, men whom the ordinary people held in no great regard, they protested, showering the imperial cortège with sticks and stones. A faction in Rome preferred Gordian's grandson (Gordian III), and there was severe street fighting. The co-emperors had no option but to compromise, and, sending for the grandson of the elder Gordian they appointed him "caesar".


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Maximinus marched on Rome, but Aquileia closed its gates against him. His troops became disaffected during the unexpected siege of the city, at which time they suffered from starvation. In May or June 238, soldiers of the II "Parthica" in his camp assassinated him, his son, and his chief ministers. Their heads were cut off, placed on poles, and carried to Rome by cavalrymen.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Pupienus and Balbinus then became undisputed co-emperors. However, they mistrusted each other, and ultimately both were murdered by the Praetorian Guard, making Gordian III sole surviving emperor. Unable to reach Rome, Thrax never visited the capital city during his reign.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Maximinus doubled the pay of soldiers; this act, along with virtually continuous warfare, required higher taxes. Tax collectors began to resort to violent methods and illegal confiscations, further alienating the governing class from everyone else.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: According to early church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, the Imperial household of Maximinus' predecessor, Alexander, had contained many Christians. Eusebius states that, hating his predecessor's household, Maximinus ordered that the leaders of the churches should be put to death. According to Eusebius, this persecution of 235 sent Hippolytus of Rome and Pope Pontian into exile, but other evidence suggests that the persecutions of 235 were local to the provinces where they occurred rather than happening under the direction of the Emperor.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: The Romans could bear his barbarities no longer – the way in which he called up informers and incited accusers, invented false offences, killed innocent men, condemned all whoever came to trial, reduced the richest men to utter poverty and never sought money anywhere save in some other's ruin, put many generals and many men of consular rank to death for no offence, carried others about in waggons without food and drink, and kept others in confinement, in short neglected nothing which he thought might prove effectual for cruelty – and, unable to suffer these things longer, they rose against him in revolt.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Ancient sources, ranging from the unreliable "Historia Augusta" to accounts of Herodian, speak of Maximinus as a man of significantly greater size than his contemporaries. He is, moreover, depicted in ancient imagery as a man with a prominent brow, nose, and jaw (symptoms of acromegaly). His thumb was said to be so large that he wore his wife's bracelet as a ring for it.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: According to "Historia Augusta", "he was of such size, so Cordus reports, that men said he was eight-feet, one finger (c. 2.4 metres) in height". It is very likely however that this is one of the many exaggerations in the "Historia Augusta", and is immediately suspect due to its citation of "Cordus", one of several fictitious authorities the work cites.


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Although not going into the supposedly detailed portions of "Historia Augusta", the historian Herodian, a contemporary of Maximinus, mentions him as a man of greater size, noting that: "He was in any case a man of such frightening appearance and colossal size that there is no obvious comparison to be drawn with any of the best-trained Greek athletes or warrior elite of the barbarians."


title: Maximinus Thrax

text: Some historians interpret the stories on Maximinus' unusual height (as well as other information on his appearance, like excessive sweating and superhuman strength) as popular stereotyped attributes which do no more than intentionally turn him into a stylized embodiment of the barbarian bandit or emphasize the admiration and aversion that the image of the soldier evoked in the civilian population.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Maharaja Sir Duleep Singh, (4 September 1838 – 22 October 1893), or Sir Dalip Singh, and later in life nicknamed the "Black Prince of Perthshire", was the last "Maharaja" of the Sikh Empire. He was Maharaja Ranjit Singh's youngest son, the only child of Maharani Jind Kaur.


title: Duleep Singh

text: He was placed in power in September 1843, at the age of five, with his mother ruling on his behalf, and after their defeat in the Anglo-Sikh War, under a British Resident. He was subsequently deposed by the British Crown, and thereafter exiled to Britain at age 15 where he was befriended by Queen Victoria, who is reported to have written of the Punjabi Maharaja: "Those eyes and those teeth are too beautiful". The Queen was godmother to several of his children. He died at 55, living most of his final years in the United Kingdom.


title: Duleep Singh

text: His mother had effectively ruled when he was very young and he managed to meet her again on 16 January 1861, in Calcutta and return with her to the United Kingdom. During the last two years of her life, his mother told the Maharaja about his Sikh heritage and the Empire which once had been his to rule. In June 1861, he was one of the first 25 Knights in the Order of the Star of India.


title: Duleep Singh

text: After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, Duleep Singh lived quietly with his mother, Jind Kaur Aulakh, at Jammu ruled by Gulab Singh, under the protection of the Vizier, Raja Dhian Singh. He and his mother were recalled to Lahore in 1843 after the assassinations of Maharaja Sher Singh and Dhian Singh, and on 16 September, at the age of five, Duleep Singh was proclaimed Maharaja of the Sikh Empire, with Maharani Jind Kaur as Regent.


title: Duleep Singh

text: On 13 December 1845 the British East India Company declared war on the Sikhs and, after winning the First Anglo-Sikh War, retained the Maharaja as nominal ruler, but replaced the Maharani by a Council of Regency and later imprisoned and exiled her. Over thirteen years passed before Duleep Singh was permitted to see his mother again.


title: Duleep Singh

text: After the close of the Second Anglo-Sikh War and the subsequent annexation of the Punjab on 29 March 1849, he was deposed at the age of ten and was put into the care of Dr John Login and sent from Lahore to Fatehgarh on 21 December 1849, with tight restrictions on who he was allowed to meet. No Indians, except trusted servants, could meet him in private. As a matter of British policy, he was to be culturally anglicised in every possible aspect. His health was reportedly poor and he was often sent to the hill station of Landour near Mussoorie in the Lower Himalaya for convalescence, at the time about 4 days' journey. He would remain for weeks at a time in Landour at a grand hilltop building called The Castle, which had been lavishly furnished to accommodate him.


title: Duleep Singh

text: In 1853, under the tutelage of his long-time retainer Bhajan Lal (himself a Christian convert), he converted to Christianity at Fatehgarh with the approval of the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie. His conversion remains controversial, and it occurred before he turned 15. He later had serious doubts and regrets regarding this decision and reconverted to Sikhism in 1886.


title: Duleep Singh

text: He was also heavily and continuously exposed to Christian texts under the tutelage of the devout Sir John Spencer Login. His two closest childhood friends were both English Anglican missionaries. In May 1854 he was sent into exile in Britain.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Duleep Singh arrived in England in late 1854 and was introduced to the British court. Queen Victoria showered affection upon the turbaned Maharaja, as did the Prince Consort. Duleep Singh was initially lodged at Claridge's Hotel in London before the East India Company took over a house in Wimbledon and then eventually another house in Roehampton which became his home for three years. He was also invited by the Queen to stay with the Royal Family at Osborne, where she sketched him playing with her children and Prince Albert photographed him, while the court artist, Winterhalter, made his portrait.


title: Duleep Singh

text: He eventually got bored with Roehampton and expressed a wish to go back to India but it was suggested by the East India Company Board he take a tour of the European continent which he did with Sir John Spencer Login and Lady Login. He was a member of the Photographic Society, later the Royal Photographic Society, from 1855 until his death.


title: Duleep Singh

text: On his return from Continental Europe in 1855 he was given an annual pension of £25,000 a year (approximately £ in today's value) provided he "remain obedient to the British Government," and was officially under ward of Sir John Spencer Login and Lady Login, who leased Castle Menzies in Perthshire, Scotland, for him. He spent the rest of his teens there, but at 19 he demanded to be in charge of his household. Eventually, he was given this and an increase in his annual pension.


title: Duleep Singh

text: In 1859 Lt Col James Oliphant was installed as Equerry to the Maharaja at the recommendation of Sir John Login. Oliphant was to be a possible replacement should anything happen to the Maharaja's most trusted friend Sir John Login (who did indeed die four years later in 1863).


title: Duleep Singh

text: While Sir Samuel White Baker was visiting the Duke of Atholl on his shooting estate in Scotland, he befriended Maharaja Duleep Singh. In 1858–1859, the two partnered an extensive hunting trip in central Europe and the Balkans, via Frankfurt, Berlin, Vienna and Budapest. On the last part of the voyage, Baker and the Maharajah hired a wooden boat in Budapest, which was eventually abandoned on the frozen Danube. The two continued into Vidin where, to amuse the Maharajah, Baker went to the Vidin slave market. There, Baker fell in love with a white slave girl, destined for the Ottoman Pasha of Vidin. Baker was outbid by the Pasha but bribed the girl's attendants. The two ran away in a carriage together and eventually, as Florence Baker, she became Baker's lover and wife and accompanied him everywhere he journeyed.


title: Duleep Singh

text: When he was 18, Singh wrote to his mother in Kathmandu, suggesting that she should join him in Great Britain, but his letter was intercepted by the British authorities in India and did not reach her. He then sent a courier, Pundit Nehemiah Goreh, who was also intercepted and forbidden to contact the Maharani. Duleep Singh then decided to go himself. Under cover of a letter from Login he wrote to the British Resident in Kathmandu, who reported that the Maharani had 'much changed, was blind and had lost much of the energy which formerly characterised her.' The British government decided she was no longer a threat and she was allowed to join her son on 16 January 1861 at Spence's Hotel in Calcutta and return with him to England.


title: Duleep Singh

text: In 1858 the lease of Castle Menzies expired and Duleep Singh rented the house at Auchlyne from the Earl of Breadalbane. He was known for a lavish lifestyle, shooting parties, and a love of dressing in Highland costume and soon had the nickname "the Black Prince of Perthshire". (At the same time, he was known to have gradually developed a sense of regret for his circumstances in exile, including some inner turmoil about his conversion to Christianity and his forced departure from the Punjab). His mother stayed in Perthshire with him for a short time, before he rented the Grandtully Estate, near Aberfeldy. Following the death of his mother and Sir John Login in 1863, he returned to England.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Maharaja Duleep Singh (as he became in June 1861) bought (or the India Office purchased for him) a country estate at Elveden on the border between Norfolk and Suffolk, close to Thetford, in 1863. He enjoyed living in Elveden Hall and the surrounding area and restored the church, cottages, and school. He transformed the run-down estate into an efficient game preserve and it was here that he gained his reputation as the fourth best shot in England.


title: Duleep Singh

text: The house was remodelled into a quasi-oriental palace where he lived the life of a British aristocrat. Maharaja Duleep Singh was accused of running up large expenses and the estate was sold after his death to pay his debts. Today, Elveden is owned by The 4th Earl of Iveagh, the head of the Anglo-Irish Guinness family of brewing fame; it remains an operating farm and private hunting estate.


title: Duleep Singh

text: In 1864, Duleep Singh married Bamba Müller in Cairo and established his family home at Elveden Hall in Suffolk. He eventually became disaffected and embittered with the British, and he reverted to Sikhism.


title: Duleep Singh

text: While in exile, he sought to learn more about Sikhism and was eager to return to India. Though previous efforts were thwarted by his handlers, he re-established contact with his cousin Sardar Thakar Singh Sandhawalia, who on 28 September 1884 left Amritsar for England along with his sons Narinder Singh and Gurdit Singh and a Sikh "granthi" (priest), Pratap Singh Giani. He also brought a list of properties held by Sir Duleep Singh in India. All this renewed his connection with Sikhism.


title: Duleep Singh

text: The British Government decided in 1886 against his return to India or his re-embracing Sikhism. Despite protests from the India Office, he set sail for 'home' on 30 March 1886. However, he was intercepted and arrested in Aden, then part of Aden Settlement, where the writ of the Viceroy of India began. He could not be stopped from an informal re-conversion ceremony in Aden, far less grand and symbolic than it would have been in India, done by emissaries sent by Sardar Thakar Singh Sandhawalia, who was earlier planning the "Pahaul" ceremony at Bombay. Sir Duleep was forced to return to Europe.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Maharaja Duleep Singh died in Paris in 1893 at the age of 55, having seen India after the age of fifteen during only two brief, tightly controlled visits in 1860 (to bring his mother to England) and in 1863 (to cremate his mother's body).


title: Duleep Singh

text: Maharaja Duleep Singh's wish for his body to be returned to India was not honoured, in fear of unrest, given the symbolic value the funeral of the son of the Lion of the Punjab might have caused and the growing resentment of British rule. His body was brought back to be buried according to Christian rites, under the supervision of the India Office, in Elveden Church beside the grave of his wife Maharani Bamba, and his son Prince Edward Albert Duleep Singh. The graves are located on the west side of the Church.


title: Duleep Singh

text: A life-size bronze statue of the Maharaja, showing him on a horse, was unveiled by the then Prince of Wales in 1999 at Butten Island in Thetford, a town which benefited from his and his sons' generosity.


title: Duleep Singh

text: In an auction at Bonhams, London, on 19 April 2007, the 74 cm high white marble portrait bust of Maharaja Duleep Singh by Victorian sculptor John Gibson, R.A., in Rome in 1859 fetched £1.7 million (£1.5 million plus premium and tax).


title: Duleep Singh

text: A film titled "Maharaja Duleep Singh: A Monument Of Injustice", was made in 2007, directed by P.S. Narula.


title: Duleep Singh

text: The Maharaja and his family used a coat of arms which was drawn up by Prince Albert, despite not being registered at the College of Arms. It contained a coronet, lions, and a shield with a cross, along with the motto "Prodesse quam conspicii" ("to do good rather than be conspicuous").


title: Duleep Singh

text: Sir Duleep Singh married twice, first to Bamba Müller in 1864, and then to Ada Douglas Wetherill (1869-1930) in 1889. He had eight children in total.


title: Duleep Singh

text: He had seven children from his marriage to Bamba. Their first child and male heir died aged one day in 1865. The others were:


title: Duleep Singh

text: There is a memorial at Eton College in England to Princes Victor and Frederick, Maharaja Sir Duleep Singh's two sons who studied at Eton in the 1870s.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Maharani Bamba Müller was an Arabic-speaking, part-Ethiopian, part-German woman, whose father was a German banker and whose mother was an Abyssinian Coptic Christian slave. She and Sir Duleep met in Cairo in 1863 on his return from scattering his mother's ashes in India; they were married in Alexandria, Egypt, on 7 June 1864. The Maharani died in London on 18 September 1887.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Ada Douglas Wetherill (born 15 January 1869 in Kennington, Surrey, the daughter of a civil engineer) had been Duleep's mistress before he decided to return to India with his family, and upon being stopped in Aden by the British authorities he abandoned his family and moved to Paris, where she joined him. They married in Paris on 28 April 1889. She stayed with him through his years in Paris and also travelled with him to St. Petersburg, Russia, where he failed to persuade the Czar of the benefits of invading India through the north and reinstalling him as ruler. She died in Sussex on 6 August 1930.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Queen Victoria and Maharaja Duleep Singh reconciled their differences before he died. Out of loyalty to Maharani Bamba, the Queen refused to receive Ada, whom she suspected had been involved with the Maharaja before Maharani Bamba's death in 1887.


title: Duleep Singh

text: In 1854, Madame Blavatsky, the founder of the Theosophical Society, met her Master Morya in England, who was in her words, "in the company of a dethroned native prince". This "native prince" according to general consent was Sir Duleep Singh.


title: Duleep Singh

text: On 21 October 1893, the day before Sir Duleep Singh's death, Prince Victor Duleep Singh, the eldest son of Sir Duleep Singh, had visions of his father looking at him through a picture frame.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Duleep Singh remembered his servant James Cawood who died in 1865 with a gravestone in Killin cemetery, Killin, Scotland.


title: Duleep Singh

text: A 2017 film, "The Black Prince", by the Indian-born film director Kavi Raz told the story of Duleep and his relationship with Queen Victoria.


title: Duleep Singh

text: Maharaja Duleep Singh's character is featured in Ubisoft's "" game. He is featured as a young Duleep Singh, which based on his real-life struggle as an exiled ruler in Victorian London.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Females typically have a special ovipositor for inserting eggs into hosts or places that are otherwise inaccessible. This ovipositor is often modified into a stinger. The young develop through holometabolism (complete metamorphosis)—that is, they have a wormlike larval stage and an inactive pupal stage before they mature.


title: Hymenoptera

text: The name Hymenoptera refers to the wings of the insects, but the original derivation is ambiguous. All references agree that the derivation involves the Ancient Greek πτερόν ("pteron") for wing. The Ancient Greek ὑμήν ("hymen") for membrane provides a plausible etymology for the term because species in this order have membranous wings. However, a key characteristic of this order is that the hindwings are connected to the forewings by a series of hooks. Thus, another plausible etymology involves Hymen, the Ancient Greek god of marriage, as these insects have married wings in flight. Another suggestion for the inclusion of Hymen is the myth of Melissa, a nymph with a prominent role at the wedding of Zeus.


title: Hymenoptera

text: The cladogram of external relationships, based on a 2008 DNA and protein analysis, shows the order as a clade, most closely related to endopterygote orders including the Diptera (true flies) and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths).


title: Hymenoptera

text: Hymenoptera originated in the Triassic, with the oldest fossils belonging to the family Xyelidae. Social hymenopterans appeared during the Cretaceous. The evolution of this group has been intensively studied by Alex Rasnitsyn, Michael S. Engel, and others.


title: Hymenoptera

text: This clade has been studied by examining the mitochondrial DNA. Although this study was unable to resolve all the ambiguities in this clade, some relationships could be established. The Aculeata, Ichneumonomorpha, and Proctotrupomorpha were monophyletic. The Megalyroidea and Trigonalyoidea are sister clades as are the Chalcidoidea+Diaprioidea. The Cynipoidea was generally recovered as the sister group to Chalcidoidea and Diaprioidea which are each other's closest relations.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Hymenopterans range in size from very small to large insects, and usually have two pairs of wings. Their mouthparts are adapted for chewing, with well-developed mandibles (ectognathous mouthparts). Many species have further developed the mouthparts into a lengthy proboscis, with which they can drink liquids, such as nectar. They have large compound eyes, and typically three simple eyes, ocelli.


title: Hymenoptera

text: The forward margin of the hind wing bears a number of hooked bristles, or "hamuli", which lock onto the fore wing, keeping them held together. The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side, but the largest wasps may have a considerable number, keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly. Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects, especially in the smaller species.


title: Hymenoptera

text: In the more ancestral hymenopterans, the ovipositor is blade-like, and has evolved for slicing plant tissues. In the majority, however, it is modified for piercing, and, in some cases, is several times the length of the body. In some species, the ovipositor has become modified as a stinger, and the eggs are laid from the base of the structure, rather than from the tip, which is used only to inject venom. The sting is typically used to immobilise prey, but in some wasps and bees may be used in defense.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Hymenopteran larvae typically have a distinct head region, three thoracic segments, and usually nine or 10 abdominal segments. In the suborder Symphyta, the larvae resemble caterpillars in appearance, and like them, typically feed on leaves. They have large chewing mandibles, three pairs of thoracic limbs, and, in most cases, six or eight abdominal prolegs. Unlike caterpillars, however, the prolegs have no grasping spines, and the antennae are reduced to mere stubs. Symphytan larvae that are wood borers or stem borers have no abdominal legs and the thoracic legs are smaller than those of non-borers.


title: Hymenoptera

text: With rare exceptions, larvae of the suborder Apocrita have no legs and are maggotlike in form, and are adapted to life in a protected environment. This may be the body of a host organism, or a cell in a nest, where the adults will care for the larva. In parasitic forms, the head is often greatly reduced and partially withdrawn into the prothorax (anterior part of the thorax). Sense organs appear to be poorly developed, with no ocelli, very small or absent antennae, and toothlike, sicklelike, or spinelike mandibles. They are also unable to defecate until they reach adulthood due to having an incomplete digestive tract (a blind sac), presumably to avoid contaminating their environment. The larvae of stinging forms (Aculeata) generally have 10 pairs of spiracles, or breathing pores, whereas parasitic forms usually have nine pairs present.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Among most or all hymenopterans, sex is determined by the number of chromosomes an individual possesses. Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent's respective gametes) and develop into diploid females, while unfertilized eggs only contain one set (from the mother) and develop into haploid males. The act of fertilization is under the voluntary control of the egg-laying female, giving her control of the sex of her offspring. This phenomenon is called haplodiploidy.


title: Hymenoptera

text: However, the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination may be more complex than simple chromosome number. In many Hymenoptera, sex is actually determined by a single gene locus with many alleles. In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male, instead. This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives. Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee, and wasp species. Diploid biparental males are usually sterile but a few species that have fertile diploid males are known.


title: Hymenoptera

text: One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of eusociality within this order. In many colonies of bees, ants, and wasps, worker females will remove eggs laid by other workers due to increased relatedness to direct siblings, a phenomenon known as worker policing.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Another consequence is that hymenopterans may be more resistant to the deleterious effects of inbreeding. As males are haploid, any recessive genes will automatically be expressed, exposing them to natural selection. Thus, the genetic load of deleterious genes is purged relatively quickly.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Some hymenopterans take advantage of parthenogenesis, the creation of embryos without fertilization. Thelytoky is a particular form of parthenogenesis in which female embryos are created (without fertilisation). The form of thelytoky in hymenopterans is a kind of automixis in which two haploid products (proto-eggs) from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process tends to maintain heterozygosity in the passage of the genome from mother to daughter. It is found in several ant species including the desert ant "Cataglyphis cursor", the clonal raider ant "Cerapachys biroi", the predaceous ant "Platythyrea punctata", and the electric ant (little fire ant) "Wasmannia auropunctata". It also occurs in the Cape honey bee "Apis mellifera capensis".


title: Hymenoptera

text: Oocytes that undergo automixis with central fusion often have a reduced rate of crossover recombination, which helps to maintain heterozygosity and avoid inbreeding depression. Species that display central fusion with reduced recombination include the ants "Platythyrea punctata" and " Wasmannia auropunctata" and the Cape honey bee "Apis mellifera capensis". In "A. m. capensis", the recombination rate during meiosis is reduced more than tenfold. In "W. auropunctata" the reduction is 45 fold.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Single queen colonies of the narrow headed ant "Formica exsecta" illustrate the possible deleterious effects of increased homozygosity. Colonies of this species which have more homozygous queens will age more rapidly, resulting in reduced colony survival.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Different species of Hymenoptera show a wide range of feeding habits. The most primitive forms are typically phytophagous, feeding on flowers, pollen, foliage, or stems. Stinging wasps are predators, and will provision their larvae with immobilised prey, while bees feed on nectar and pollen.


title: Hymenoptera

text: A huge number of species are parasitoids as larvae. The adults inject the eggs into a host, which they begin to consume after hatching. For example, the eggs of the endangered "Papilio homerus" are parasitized at a rate of 77%, mainly by Hymenoptera species. Some species are even hyperparasitoid, with the host itself being another parasitoid insect. Habits intermediate between those of the herbivorous and parasitoid forms are shown in some hymenopterans, which inhabit the galls or nests of other insects, stealing their food, and eventually killing and eating the occupant.


title: Hymenoptera

text: The Hymenoptera are divided into two groups; the Symphyta which have no waist, and the Apocrita which have a narrow waist.


title: Hymenoptera

text: The suborder Symphyta includes the sawflies, horntails, and parasitic wood wasps. The group may be paraphyletic, as it has been suggested that the family Orussidae may be the group from which the Apocrita arose. They have an unconstricted junction between the thorax and abdomen. The larvae are herbivorous, free-living, and eruciform, with three pairs of true legs, prolegs (on every segment, unlike Lepidoptera) and ocelli. The prolegs do not have crochet hooks at the ends unlike the larvae of the Lepidoptera.


title: Hymenoptera

text: The wasps, bees, and ants together make up the suborder (and clade) Apocrita, characterized by a constriction between the first and second abdominal segments called a wasp-waist (petiole), also involving the fusion of the first abdominal segment to the thorax. Also, the larvae of all Apocrita lack legs, prolegs, or ocelli. The hindgut of the larvae also remains closed during development, with feces being stored inside the body, with the exception of some bee larvae where the larval anus has reappeared through developmental reversion. In general, the anus only opens at the completion of larval growth.


title: Hymenoptera

text: Hymenoptera as a group are highly susceptible to habitat loss, which can lead to substantial decreases in species richness and have major ecological implications due to their pivotal role as plant pollinators.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The International is an annual world championship tournament for the five-on-five esports video game "Dota 2". Produced by the game's developer Valve, the International is the final event of the Dota Pro Circuit (DPC) and consists of 20 teams: 12 based on final results from the DPC; six from North America, South America, Southeast Asia, China, Eastern Europe, and Western Europe regional leagues; and two from last-chance qualifiers. The International was first held at Gamescom in 2011 to promote the game's release. It was then held annually in Seattle, where Valve is headquartered, until it began to be hosted internationally again starting with The International 2018.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The tournament's prize pool has been crowdfunded via a battle pass system within the game since 2013, with a quarter of all revenue from it directly going towards it. Internationals have the largest single-tournament prize pool of any esport event, with largest reaching 40 million. The most recent champion is Tundra Esports, who won The International 2022. OG is only repeat winner in the tournament's history, winning The International 2018 and 2019.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: Valve announced the first edition of The International on August 1, 2011. 16 teams were invited to compete in the tournament, which would also serve as the first public viewing of "Dota 2". The tournament was funded by Valve, including the 1 million grand prize, with Nvidia supplying the hardware. It took place at Gamescom in Cologne from August 17–21 the same year. The tournament started with a group stage in which the winners of each of the four groups were entered into a winner's bracket, and the other teams entered the loser's bracket. The rest of the tournament was then played as a double-elimination tournament. The final of this inaugural tournament was between Ukrainian-based Natus Vincere and Chinese-based EHOME, with Natus Vincere winning the series 3–1. EHOME won 250,000, with the rest of the 14 teams splitting the remaining $350,000.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The International 2013 was hosted again at the Benaroya Hall in Seattle from August 7–11. Sixteen teams participated, thirteen of which received direct invitations, and the final three being decided in two qualifying tournaments and a match at the start of the tournament. In May 2013, it was announced that an in-game battle pass, known as the Compendium, would be available for purchase that allowed for the tournament's prize pool to be crowdfunded. A quarter of the total revenue from the Compendium was added to the base $1.6 million prize pool. The prize pool eventually reached over $2.8 million, making it the largest prize pool in esports history at the time. KCPQ news anchor Kaci Aitchison acted as a host at the event, providing behind-the-scenes commentary and player interviews. The International 2013 was viewed by over a million concurrent viewers at its peak, via live streaming websites such as Twitch.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The International 2014 took place from July 18–21 at the KeyArena in Seattle. For the event, eleven teams would receive direct invites, with an additional four spots determined by regional qualifiers taking place between May 12–25. The sixteenth spot would be determined by a wild card qualifier between the runners-up from the regional competitions. The tickets for the event were sold out within an hour of going on sale that April. The tournament's crowdfunded prize pool again broke esport records for being the largest in history, with it totalling over $10.9 million. As a result, eight "Dota 2" players became the highest earning players in esports, surpassing the top earning player at the time, Lee "Jaedong" Jae-dong of "StarCraft". The event was also broadcast on ESPN networks for the first time.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The tournament was expanded to 18 teams for The International 2017 onwards, an increase from the previous 16. The event in 2017 was also the last time it was held in Seattle, with every International since being hosted in a new country. The International 2020 was the first International to skip a year, as it was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ahead of the event, originally scheduled to be held in Stockholm, Sweden, the Swedish Sports Federation voted to deny recognition of esports as a sporting event, making it difficult for Valve to help international players to secure travel visas for participating there. Valve later rescheduled the event and rebranded it as The International 2021, which was held at the Arena Națională in Bucharest, Romania, in October 2021. It set a record for the largest prize pool of any single esports event at $40 million.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The International 2022 increased to 20 teams and was held in Singapore in October 2022, where it was won by Tundra Esports. It was the first International to not surpass the previous one's prize pool at $18.9 million, the lowest since The International 2015.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The International features a series of tournaments before the event, known as the Dota Pro Circuit (DPC), with the top 12 ranking teams receiving direct invitations based on their final standings.<ref name="Majors/Minors"></ref> Besides the directly invited DPC teams, an additional team from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), China, Europe, North America, South America, and Southeast Asia regions each earn an invite by winning regional playoffs, bringing the total number of participating teams up to 18. At the International, two separate best-of-two round robin groups consisting of nine teams each are played, with lowest placed team from both at the end of the stage being eliminated. The remaining 16 teams then move on to the double elimination main event at the hosted venue, with the top four finishing teams from both groups advancing to the upper bracket, and the bottom four advancing to the lower bracket. The first round of the lower bracket is treated as single-elimination, with the loser of each match being immediately eliminated from the tournament. Every other round of both brackets is played in a best-of-three series, with the exception being the Grand Finals, which is played between the winners of the upper and lower brackets in a best-of-five series.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: Starting with The International 2013 onward, the tournament's prize pool began to be crowdfunded through a type of in-game battle pass called the "Compendium", which raises money from players buying them to get exclusive in-game virtual goods and other bonuses. 25% of all the revenue made from yearly Compendiums go directly to the prize pool. The contribution of players from the game community is the main source of prize pool for the International. Before 2022, each iteration of The International has surpassed the previous one's prize pool. The International 2021, awarding $40 million (£29 million) in total to the teams.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The Aegis of Champions is a trophy that is awarded to the champions of an International. The reverse side of it is permanently engraved with the names of each player on the winning team. The Aegis is a shield inspired by Norse and Chinese designs, with it molded in bronze and silver by the prop studio, Weta Workshop. Miniature replicas of it are also sometimes awarded to compendium owners for having a high enough level in it.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: The primary medium for International coverage is through the video game live streaming platform Twitch, which is done by a selection of dedicated esports organizations and personnel who provide on-site commentary, analysis, match predictions, and player interviews surrounding the event in progress, similar to traditional sporting events. Multiple streams are provided in a variety of languages, mainly in English, Russian, and Chinese. The International also sometimes provides a "newcomer stream" that is dedicated to presenting games for viewers unfamiliar with the game.


title: The International (Dota 2)

text: In 2014, Valve released a free documentary, "Free to Play", which followed three players during their time at the first International in 2011. In 2016, Valve began producing an episodic-based documentary series titled "True Sight", considered a spiritual successor to "Free to Play". Several more episodes of it have been filmed, showcasing the 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2021 tournaments.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The Cadillac CTS is an executive car that was manufactured and marketed by General Motors from 2003 until 2019 across three generations. Historically, it was priced similarly to cars on the compact luxury spectrum; but it has always been sized closely to its mid-size rivals. The third generation competes directly with the mid-size luxury cars. Initially available only as a 4-door sedan on the GM Sigma platform, GM had offered the second generation CTS in three body styles: 4-door sedan, 2-door coupe, and 5-door sport wagon also using the Sigma platform — and the third generation was offered only as a sedan, using a stretched version of the GM Alpha platform.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The third-generation CTS's indirect successor is the smaller CT5, which, like the first- and second-generation CTS, takes on the BMW 3 Series and Mercedes-Benz C-Class, while maintaining its 5 Series/E-Class size.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Wayne Cherry and Kip Wasenko designed the exterior of the first generation CTS, marking the production debut of a design language (marketed as "Art and Science") first seen on the Evoq concept car. Bob Boniface and Robin Krieg designed the exterior of the third generation CTS.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The Cadillac CTS-V is a high-performance version of the Cadillac CTS. The CTS-V series includes three body styles, all of which feature a pushrod OHV V-8 engine and a sport-tuned suspension. The four-door CTS-V sedan was introduced in 2004, and the CTS-V sport wagon and coupe were introduced in 2010 for the 2011 model year. The sedan competes in the North American consumer market against other high-performance luxury sedans and "echoes" their quality but is a more affordable option than competitors such as the Audi RS6, BMW M5, and Mercedes E63 AMG.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The second generation CTS-V sedan, coupe and station wagon was sold through 2014, concurrent with the third generation standard sedan, until the third generation CTS-V was ready. The car was discontinued and replaced by the CT5–V Blackwing in 2019.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Introduced in early 2002 as a 2003 model, the CTS sedan was built on GM's new rear-wheel drive Sigma platform and sported a fully independent suspension. It was the first Cadillac to be offered with a manual transmission since the 1988 Cimarron. The CTS was designed as a replacement for the Opel-based Catera. (The acronym "CTS" stands for Catera Touring Sedan.) Wayne Cherry and Kip Wasenko designed the exterior of the first generation CTS and this vehicle marked the production debut of the "Art and Science" design language first seen on the Evoq concept car. CTS vehicles are built at GM's Lansing Grand River Assembly in Lansing, Michigan.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Originally powered by a 3.2 L LA3 V6 producing , the CTS received an updated 3.6 L DOHC V6 with variable valve timing as an option in 2004, producing and of torque. The 3.2 L engine went out of production in 2005, when a new 2.8 L version of the DOHC V6 debuted in an entry-level version of the CTS. In Europe, the 2.8 L replaced the previous entry-level 2.6 L engine.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS was originally offered with either GM's in-house five-speed 5L40-E automatic transmission or a five-speed Getrag 260 manual transmission. For the 2005 model year, the Getrag was replaced with an Aisin AY-6 six-speed.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: In 2004, GM introduced the CTS-V, a high-performance version of the CTS intended to compete with luxury performance sedans like the BMW M3/M5, Audi S4/S6, and Mercedes-Benz C and E-class AMGs. The 2004 and 2005 CTS-Vs were equipped with the 5.7L LS6 V-8 ( at 6,000 rpm, at 4,800 rpm), a Tremec T56 6-speed manual transmission, 14+" rotors and Brembo 4-piston calipers front and rear, suspension upgrades (higher spring rates, stiffer anti-roll bars, six-lug hubs, and two available damper packages), and subtle exterior changes. As the LS6 was phased out, the 2006 and 2007 CTS-Vs received the 6.0L LS2 V-8, which carried the same HP and torque ratings (with peak torque coming 400 rpm sooner).


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The first generation CTS-V is based on the same rear-wheel-drive GM Sigma platform as is the base model CTS. The use of a V8 engine required a unique engine cradle distinct from the base CTS V6. Larger anti-roll bars and larger shocks were also added. The spring rate was significantly increased. The 2006-2007 update also included a stronger rear differential and half shaft design. Unique front and rear treatments also included mesh grilles over the front openings, a track-ready suspension, six-lug hubs instead of the regular CTS's five-lug units, and 18×8.5 inch wheels inside of P245/45R18 Z-rated Goodyear Eagle F1 Supercar run-flat tires. Brakes were rotors in the front, with rotors in the rear - each with four-piston Brembo calipers on the front and rear wheels. In addition, GM badges were added on 2006 models. For performance enthusiasts, a high performance suspension package (RPO FG2) was available as a dealer installed option.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS sedan is enhanced with GM performance parts like a GM LS engine V8 from the C5-generation Chevrolet Corvette Z06, as well as the Corvette Z06's six-speed Tremec manual transmission gear ratios. From 2004 and 2005, the CTS-V came with the 5.7 L pushrod OHV LS6 engine producing at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 4,800 rpm. The torque reduction of the CTS-V vs the LS6 used in the C5 Z06, was due to the exhaust manifold that needed to be used on the CTS-V. From 2006 to 2007, the previous LS6 engine was superseded by the new 6.0 L OHV LS2 engine as used in the base 2005 Chevrolet Corvette. The new LS2 engine was rated at the same at 6,000 rpm with the peak torque of at 4,400 rpm. While both engines offer the same HP and torque specifications, the LS2's benefit was a wider torque band, due to the higher displacement it offered.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The only available transmission was the six-speed manual Tremec T56. The transmission used the skip-shift feature to conserve fuel during light loads by preventing drivers from using the second and third gears, and a dual mass flywheel to reduce "rattle" in no load conditions. The rear axle was a Getrag limited slip IRS unit with a 3.73:1 ratio.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: General Motors states a 0- time of 4.6 seconds for the first generation CTS-V, with the quarter mile time estimated at 13.1 seconds at , onward to a stated top speed of . The 14 inch diameter Brembo brakes can slow the vehicle from in 110 feet. The first generation CTS-V also posted a lap time of 8 minutes 19 seconds at Germany's famed Nürburgring Nordschleife, competitive with rivals such as the Mercedes-Benz E55 AMG and BMW M5.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: GM revealed the all-new 2008 CTS at the North American International Auto Show in January 2007. The 2008–2009 base model featured a 3.6 L LY7 V6 with and of torque carried over from the previous generation. A second engine, a new 3.6 L direct-injection V6 VVT engine with and of torque was also offered. For 2010, the base engine changed to a 3.0L variable valve timing (VVT) V6 with and of torque. A 6-speed manual transmission was standard equipment on the second generation CTS and GM's 6-speed Hydra-matic 6L50 automatic transmission was available as an option on all variants. On-demand all-wheel drive was offered with both engines when equipped with an automatic transmission. Suspension, braking, and steering improvements from the previous generation CTS-V were designed into the new standard CTS.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The second generation CTS was wider and longer than the original, measuring long, wide and in height. Wheelbase remained unchanged at , but with a wider front/rear track of , donated by the larger STS. Other changes included a revamped exterior, with a new, larger grille, slimmer headlights and taillights, side air extractor vents located forward of the front doors, and new nine-spoke 18-inch wheels, surrounding larger high-performance brake calipers and rotors. Available features on the second-gen CTS included a Bose 5.1 surround sound system, GM's Stabilitrak ESC system, a tire pressure monitoring system, a navigation system with real-time traffic and weather data, an integrated 40 GB hard drive for music storage, swiveling headlights, and remote starting.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: In 2008, the General Motors chose the CTS to relaunch the Cadillac brand in Australia and New Zealand. However, in early 2009, amidst the global financial crisis, a last-minute decision was made not to go ahead with the Australian launch. As a result, the entire batch of cars, less one, which had already been shipped to Australia were transferred to New Zealand and sold via selected Holden New Zealand dealers. One dealer ended up buying the entire stock and owing to their popularity, sourced further UK market spec models while the model was still produced in RHD.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: During the 2010 model year, the GM badges were dropped, although early 2010 models still had GM badges.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: For the 2012 CTS, the front grille used higher quality materials to give a more vertical design, and the Cadillac logo was being subtly changed to give a more vibrant appearance. The biggest change was to the engine. Although kept the same 3.6-liter displacement, the V6 was able to produce while dropping weight thanks to some modified engine internals. For 2012, GM also offered some new technology and option packages with the Cadillac CTS.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: At the 2008 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, General Motors unveiled a coupe concept version of the CTS, alongside the new CTS-V performance sedan. The coupe's unveiling surprised the media and public, stealing a great deal of attention away from the CTS-V. In November 2009, the production version was unveiled in a press release. The coupe went into production in spring 2010 for sale in August 2010 as a 2011 model. The design of the production model is very similar to the concept, with the B-pillars still removed. The standard engine was a 3.6L direct injected V6 rated at 304 hp. Like the sedan, both six-speed manual and automatic transmissions, in either RWD or AWD configurations, were available. A CTS-V Coupe was introduced, first shown at the 2010 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. The CTS Coupe was Cadillac's first coupe since the Eldorado, which was discontinued in 2002. The CTS Coupe was discontinued after the 2014 model year, and the CTS-V Coupe discontinued after the 2015 model year.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: At the 2008 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, Cadillac presented the 2010 CTS Sport Wagon. The wagon became available in late 2009 as a 2010 model. A CTS-V version was added for 2011.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS Sport Wagon is available in either rear-wheel-drive or all-wheel-drive layouts, and is powered by either a 3.0-liter DOHC V6 engine or a 3.6-liter V6 with variable valve timing. The 3.0-liter engine produces , and the 3.6-liter produces .


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The second generation CTS-V is based on the new GM Sigma II platform. The rear-wheel-drive platform is the basis for the 2008 to present Cadillac CTS base model with which the CTS-V shares most of the body work. The suspension features coil springs front and rear. The front suspension is a control arm arrangement while the rear is an independent multi-link suspension. To improve the handling and comfort, the 2009 CTS-V uses BWI Group's MagneRide technology. The dampers, filled with magnetorheological fluid, are adjusted based on sensor readings that happen at 1 ms intervals. The sedan has four-wheel disc brakes similar to the first generation. The front brakes were increased in size to ventilated discs with six piston Brembo fixed calipers. The rear brakes are ventilated rotors with four piston calipers. Steering is speed-sensing hydraulic-assist rack-and-pinion. The steering ratio is 16.1:1. Tire sizes are 255/40ZR19 front and 285/35ZR19 rear on 19×9.0 inch and 19×9.5 inch wheels front and rear.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The powerplant in the 2009 CTS-V is a supercharged LSA V-8, based on the LS9 V-8 from the Chevrolet Corvette C6 ZR1. It produces and of torque. The choice to use a pushrod engine (OHV) arrangement is unique in the luxury performance sedan market where competitors typically use dual overhead camshaft (DOHC) engines. The engine is produced in GM's Silao, Guanajuato, Mexico engine assembly plant. The LSA engine has a bore x stroke of . The engine block is cast aluminium 319-T5 alloy with cast iron cylinder liners. The crankshaft is forged steel using powdered-metal connecting rods. Pistons are high-silicon Hypereutectic Aluminium alloy replacing the forged aluminum used in the LS9 engine. The compression ratio is 9.1:1. The cylinder heads are based on the Corvette's LS3 head and are cast from type 356-T6 Aluminum alloy. The exhaust manifolds are cast iron. The supercharger is a twin four-lobe screw compressor-type unit displacing . It is Eaton's Twin Vortices Series (TVS) generating a maximum boost of . Intake air is cooled with a water-to-air intercooler built directly into the supercharger unit.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: There are manual and automatic transmission choices. The manual is a Tremec TR-6060 six-speed transmission with a short-throw shifter, twin disk clutch and dual-mass flywheel. The 6L90 automatic is a paddle shift conventional (planetary gearing and torque converter-based) automatic six-speed.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Production of the CTS-V sedan began in the summer of 2008 in the Lansing, Michigan GM plant. Total production of the CTS-V for the 2009 model year was approximately 3,500 out of approximately 59,716 CTS model production. The 2009 CTS-V has a base price of US$59,995, and was available for purchase as of November 1, 2008.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Standard features include: leather seats, lateral acceleration gauge, 19-inch aluminum alloy wheels, Michelin Pilot Sport PS2 tires, a built-in 40GB hard drive to store music, and LED flash tracers to tell the driver when to shift.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Options include polished wheels, sunroof, navigation system and, for the first time, Cadillac offers 14-way adjustable performance Recaro seats.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The official 0- time for the second-generation CTS-V is 3.9 seconds, while the quarter mile is run at 12.0 seconds at . These numbers were duplicated by "Road and Track" magazine (0-60 mph in 3.9 seconds for the automatic and 4.1 seconds for the manual).


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Coinciding with the release of General Motors' Viability Plan, the automaker has disbanded its High Performance Vehicle Operations team, the crew responsible for the line V-series Cadillacs, the Chevrolet Cobalt SS, the HHR SS, and the V8 version of the Colorado. According to Vince Muniga, a spokesman for GM, "All high-performance projects are on indefinite hold. The engineers are moving into different areas of the organization, and they will work on Cadillacs, Buicks, Chevrolets and Pontiacs." Muniga went on to say that there are no plans for high-performance versions of upcoming plans, but once GM is in a better financial position, the team could be reinstated.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: For the 2010 model year, GM badges were dropped from near the doors, although earlier models still had the badges.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS-V Coupe debuted at the 2010 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, and entered production in summer 2010 as a 2011 model. It has the same engine and transmission choices as the CTS-V sedan. The CTS-V Coupe features unique centered twin exhausts, a larger grille for air intake, and an optional "saffron" interior trim color. Like the CTS-V sedan, it comes standard with 19-inch aluminum wheels, Brembo brakes, and Magnetic Ride Control.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: When asked in 2009 about the possibility of a CTS-V wagon, the GM Vice Chairman at that time, Bob Lutz, replied, "... should sufficient demand materialize, there is no reason why we couldn't do a V-Series wagon, and I would be standing in line for one, just ahead of you." GM decided to move forward, introducing a 5-door sport wagon body style to the CTS-V vehicle line at the New York International Auto Show on March 29, 2010.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS-V wagon shares the engine and 6-speed manual or automatic transmission, Magnetic Ride Control, Brembo brakes, 19 inch aluminum wheels and performance tires and a dual-airflow grille also used in the CTS-V sedan and coupe. The United States Environmental Protection Agency lists the 2014 CTS-V Sport Wagon as the least fuel efficient small station wagon on sale in the United States with a combined EPA fuel economy rating of .


title: Cadillac CTS

text: General Motors states a 0- time of 3.9 seconds for the CTS-V Sedan and 4.0 seconds for the CTS-V Coupe and Wagon.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: In May 2008, a 2009-model CTS-V sedan achieved a lap time of 7:59.32 at the Nürburgring Nordschleife, which was the fastest documented time for a production sedan on factory tires, until the Porsche Panamera Turbo clocked a time of 7:56 in July 2009. The vehicle was driven by John Heinricy during the attempt.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: On March 26, 2013, Cadillac unveiled the third generation of the CTS. The 2014 CTS uses the 2.0L turbocharged I4 and 3.6L V6 from the ATS and also offers an all-new twin turbocharged V6 producing and of torque. The twin turbocharged engine is only available in the CTS Vsport, a new trim that serves as a step between the 3.6L V6 and the high-performance CTS-V.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Despite carrying the CTS name, the third generation model is actually closer in size and market position to the former STS.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Bob Boniface and Robin Krieg designed the exterior of the third generation CTS. Eric Clough designed the interior.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: General Motors began assembling 2014 CTS sedans intended for sale to customers on September 16, 2013. Sales began in October 2013.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: "Motor Trend" named the third-generation CTS its 2014 Car of the Year. As customary with award winners, the magazine acquired a CTS (in Vsport trim) for a long-term test. Its verdict lauded the car's driving dynamics and reliability but criticized its CUE multi-media interface.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: In a four-way comparison in the December 2013 issue of "Car and Driver" the 2014 CTS 3.6 placed second overall. The article praised the handling of the CTS stating "[The CTS] is the only car in this group that didn't just put up with hard driving, it indeed goaded its driver to go faster." and praised the stopping ability, stiff structure and light weight of the car. The article criticized the engine for being "coarse in the upper ranges", the acceleration times, the fuel economy and the CUE entertainment system.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: Sales concerns led Cadillac to offer rebates to the 2014 models and lower sticker prices on the 2015 models.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: All engines available in the 2014 CTS are constructed from cast aluminum blocks and heads and use direct injection and variable valve timing.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: For the 2016 model year, the 6-speed 6L45 automatic transmission was replaced by the new 8-speed 8L45 automatic transmission, with the 8L45 also taking over duties with the naturally aspirated 3.6L V6 from the 8-speed Aisin TL-80SN automatic transmission. V-Sport models will continue to use the 8-speed Aisin TL-80SN. A new 3.6L V6, the LGX, replaced the 3.6L V6 LFX.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The third generation CTS-V includes a at 6400 rpm and of torque at 3600 rpm LT4 supercharged gasoline V8 engine, as the most powerful Cadillac ever produced to date. The third generation CTS-V is sometimes referred to as a four-door Corvette, because of its supercharged V8 from the Corvette C7 Z06 with 10 less horsepower and a top speed of . It weighs . The new 2016 Cadillac CTS-V model equipped with an 8-speed automatic transmission has been street tested with a best 0- test time of 3.5 seconds.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS and CTS-V were discontinued after the 2019 model year; a new model, the CT5, built on an Alpha 2 platform, was scheduled to replace the CTS, and would also include a CT5 V series. Production ended in early 2019.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: In its first year of production, the first-generation CTS was nominated for the 2002 North American Car of the Year award. The gen-2 CTS/CTS-V won MotorWeek's Driver's Choice Awards for "Best Sport Sedan" in 2008 and 2009. The second-generation CTS won the 2008 "Motor Trend" Car of the Year award and was chosen as one of "Car and Driver's" 10Best cars.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: In 2009, the second-generation CTS and CTS-V were chosen for the "Car and Driver" 10Best list, making the CTS the first Cadillac to be chosen twice in consecutive years. In 2010, the second-generation CTS and CTS-V returned to the "Car and Driver" 10Best list under the sub-headline "Maybe the best American car ever made". The CTS-V made the "Car and Driver" 10Best list again in 2011 and 2012.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The third-generation CTS won the 2014 "Motor Trend" Car of the Year award and was named to the "Car and Driver" 10Best list. Also in 2014, the CTS ranked number one among Upscale Midsize Cars according to "U.S. News & World Report".


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The success of the CTS has been attributed in part to the car's placement in the 2003 sci-fi action film "The Matrix Reloaded". The producers of the film were seeking a car that would complement the film's atmosphere. General Motors suggested the then-unreleased CTS to the filmmakers, who accepted; ten prototypes damaged to different extents were used to represent the film's hero car, a silver CTS.


title: Cadillac CTS

text: The CTS-V is raced in the SCCA World Challenge series. The first generation CTS-V sedan competed from 2004 to 2007, winning the manufacturer's championship in 2005 and 2007. Starting in 2011 the second generation V competed as a coupe, winning Cadillac back-to-back manufacturer's championships in 2012 and 2013. The 2011 coupe race car is built by Pratt & Miller. For the 2015 season, the CTS-V was replaced by the Cadillac ATS-V.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Przewalski's horse (, , (Пржевальский ), ) (Equus ferus przewalskii or Equus przewalskii), also called the takhi, Mongolian wild horse or Dzungarian horse, is a rare and endangered horse originally native to the steppes of Central Asia. It is named after the Russian geographer and explorer Nikolay Przhevalsky. Once extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat since the 1990s in Mongolia at the Khustain Nuruu National Park, Takhin Tal Nature Reserve, and Khomiin Tal, as well as several other locales in Central Asia and Eastern Europe.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Several genetic characteristics of Przewalski's horse differ from what is seen in modern domestic horses, indicating neither is an ancestor of the other. For example, the Przewalski has 33 chromosome pairs, compared to 32 for the domestic horse. Their ancestral lineages split from a common ancestor between 38,000 and 160,000 years ago, long before the domestication of the horse. Przewalski's horse was long considered the only remaining truly wild horse, in contrast with the American Mustang or the Australian brumby, which are instead feral horses descended from domesticated animals. This assumption was challenged in 2018 when DNA analysis of horse remains associated with the 5,000-year-old Botai culture of Central Asia revealed the animals were of Przewalski lineage. However, the domestication status of these animals has been questioned. Its taxonomic position is still debated, with some taxonomists treating Przewalski's horse as a species, "E. przewalskii", others as a subspecies of wild horse ("E. ferus przewalskii") or a variety of the domesticated horse ("E. caballus").


title: Przewalski's horse

text: The Przewalski's horse is stockily built, smaller, and shorter than its domesticated relatives. Typical height is about , and the average weight is around . They have a dun coat with "pangaré" features and often have dark primitive markings.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Przewalski's horse was formally described as a novel species in 1881 by . The taxonomic position of Przewalski's horse remains controversial, and no consensus exists whether it is a full species (as "Equus przewalskii"); a subspecies of "Equus ferus" the wild horse, (as "Equus ferus przewalskii" in trinomial nomenclature, along with two other subspecies, the domestic horse "E. f. caballus", and the extinct tarpan "E. f. ferus"), or even a subpopulation of the domestic horse. The American Society of Mammalogists considers the Przewalski's horse and the tarpan to both be subspecies of "Equus ferus", and classifies the domestic horse as separate species, "Equus caballus".


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Early sequencing studies of DNA revealed several genetic characteristics of Przewalski's horse that differ from what is seen in modern domestic horses, indicating neither is ancestor of the other, and supporting the status of Przewalski horses as a remnant wild population not derived from modern domestic horses. The evolutionary divergence of the two populations was estimated to have occurred about 45,000 YBP, while the archaeological record places the first horse domestication about 5,500 YBP by the ancient central-Asian Botai culture. The two lineages thus split well before domestication, most likely due to climate, topography, or other environmental changes.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Several subsequent DNA studies produced partially contradictory results. A 2009 molecular analysis using ancient DNA recovered from archaeological sites placed Przewalski's horse in the middle of the domesticated horses. However, a 2011 mitochondrial DNA analysis suggested that Przewalski's and modern domestic horses diverged some 160,000 years ago. An analysis based on whole genome sequencing and calibration with DNA from old horse bones gave a divergence date of 38,000–72,000 years ago.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: In 2018, a new analysis involved genomic sequencing of ancient DNA from horse remains associated with the mid-fourth-millennium BCE Botai culture and bearing marks considered characteristic of domestication, as well as domestic horses from more recent archaeological sites, for comparison with those of modern domestic and Przewalski's horses. The study revealed that the Botai horses were members of the Przewalski's horse lineage, rather than that of modern domestic horses as was previously believed. Further, all of the modern Przewalski's horses analyzed were found to nest within the phylogenetic tree of the Botai horses, leading the authors to posit that modern Przewalski's horses are feral descendants of the ancient Botai domesticated animals, rather than representing a surviving population of never-domesticated horses. The researchers suggested that because Botai horse domestication was relatively short-lived before they again became feral, the Przewalski's horse retained more wild or primitive traits than did the domestic horse lineage. However, a 2021 reevaluation of the Botai horses reached a conclusion in favor of the traditional view of Przewalski's horses as a never-domesticated population. These authors viewed the tooth wear previously attributed to bridle mouthpieces as more likely to have been caused by natural processes, while the age structure of the Botai horses seemed inconsistent with domesticated herding. Furthermore, some specimens were found associated with arrowheads, suggesting they had been hunted. They concluded that the horses associated with the Botai culture were wild instead of domesticated animals, and that the Przewalski's horse lineage should indeed be viewed not as a feral lineage but as one that was always wild.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: In any case, the Botai horses were found to have negligible genetic contribution to any of the ancient or modern domestic horses studied, indicating that the domestication of the latter was independent, involving a different wild population, from any possible domestication of Przewalski's horse by the Botai culture.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Przewalski's horse is stockily built in comparison to domesticated horses, with shorter legs, though being much smaller and shorter than its domesticated relatives. Typical height is about , and length is about . It weighs around . The coat is generally dun in color with "pangaré" features, varying from dark brown around the mane, to pale brown on the flanks, and yellowish-white on the belly, as well as around the muzzle. The legs of Przewalski's horse are often faintly striped, also typical of primitive markings. The mane stands erect and does not extend as far forward, while the tail is about long, with a longer dock and shorter hair than seen in domesticated horses. The hooves of Przewalski's horse are longer in the front and have significantly thicker sole horns than feral horses, an adaptation that improves hoof performance on terrain.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: The karyotype of Przewalski's horse differs from that of the domestic horse, having 33 chromosome pairs versus 32, apparently due to a fission of a large chromosome ancestral to domestic horse chromosome 5 to produce Przewalski's horse chromosomes 23 and 24, though conversely, a Robertsonian translocation that fused two chromosomes ancestral to those seen in Przewalski's horse to produce the single large domestic horse chromosome has also been proposed.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Many smaller inversions, insertions and other rearrangements were observed between the chromosomes of domestic and Przewalski's horses, while there was much lower heterozygosity in Przewalski's horses, with extensive segments devoid of genetic diversity, a consequence of the recent severe bottleneck of the captive Przewalski's horse population. In comparison, the chromosomal differences between domestic horses and zebras include numerous large-scale translocations, fusions, inversions, and centromere repositioning. Przewalski's horse has the highest diploid chromosome number among all equine species. They can interbreed with the domestic horse and produce fertile offspring, with 65 chromosomes.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Przewalski reported the horses forming troops of between five and fifteen members, consisting of an old stallion, his mares and foals. Modern reintroduced populations similarly form family groups of one adult stallion, one to three mares, and their common offspring that stay in the family group until they are no longer dependent, usually at two or three years old. Young females join other harems, while bachelor stallions as well as old stallions who have lost their harems join bachelor groups. Family groups can join to form a herd that moves together.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: The patterns of their daily lives exhibit horse behavior similar to that of feral horse herds. Stallions herd, drive, and defend all members of their family, while the mares often display leadership in the family. Stallions and mares stay with their preferred partners for years. While behavioral synchronization is high among mares, stallions other than the main harem stallion are generally less stable in this respect.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Home range in the wild is little studied, but estimated as in the Hustai National Park and in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area. The ranges of harems are separated, but slightly overlapping. They have few modern predators, but one of the few is the Himalayan wolf.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Horses maintain visual contact with their family and herd at all times, and have a host of ways to communicate with one another, including vocalizations, scent marking, and a wide range of visual and tactile signals. Each kick, groom, tilt of the ear, or other contact with another horse is a means of communicating. This constant communication leads to complex social behaviors among Przewalski's horses.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: The historical population was said to have lived in the "wildest parts of the desert" with a preference for "especially saline districts". They were observed mostly during spring and summer at natural wells, migrating to them by crossing valleys rather than by way of higher mountains.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Przewalski horse's diet consists mostly of vegetation. Many plant species are in a typical Przewalski's horse environment, including: "Elymus repens", "Carex "spp., Fabaceae, and Asteraceae.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Looking at the species' diet overall, Przewalski's horses most often eat "E. repens", "Trifolium pratense", "Vicia cracca", "Poa trivialis", "Dactylis glomerata", and "Bromus inermis".


title: Przewalski's horse

text: While the horses eat a variety of different plant species, they tend to favor different species at different times of year. In the springtime, they favor "Elymus repens", "Corynephorus canescens", "Festuca valesiaca," and "Chenopodium album". In early summer, they favor "Dactylis glomerata" and "Trifolium", and in late summer, they gravitate towards "E. repens" and "Vicia cracca".


title: Przewalski's horse

text: In winter the horses eat "Salix "spp., "Pyrus communis", "Malus sylvatica", "Pinus sylvestris", "Rosa" spp., and "Alnus" spp. Additionally, Przewalski's horses may dig for "Festuca" spp., "Bromus inermis", and "E. repens" that grow beneath the ice and snow. Their winter diet is very similar to the winter diet of domestic horses, but differs from that revealed by isotope analysis of the historical (pre-captivity) population, which switched in winter to browsing shrubs, though the difference may be due to the extreme habitat pressure the historical population was under. In the wintertime, they eat their food more slowly than they do during other times of the year. Przewalski's horses seasonally display a set of changes collectively characteristic of physiologic adaptation to starvation, with their basal metabolic rate in winter being half what it is during springtime. This is not a direct consequence of decreased nutrient intake, but rather a programmed response to predictable seasonal dietary fluctuation.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Mating occurs in late spring or early summer. Mating stallions do not start looking for mating partners until the age of five. Stallions assemble groups of mares or challenge the leader of another group for dominance. Females are able to give birth at the age of three and have a gestation period of 11–12 months. Foals are able to stand about an hour after birth. The rate of infant mortality among foals is 25%, with 83.3% of these deaths resulting from leading stallion infanticide. Foals begin grazing within a few weeks but are not weaned for 8–13 months after birth. They reach sexual maturity at two years of age.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: Przewalski's-type wild horses appear in European cave art dating as far back as 20,000 years ago, but genetic investigation of a 35,870-year-old specimen from one such cave instead showed affinity with extinct Iberian horse lineage and the modern domestic horse, suggesting that it was not Przewalski's horse being depicted in this art. Horse skeletons dating to the fifth to the third millennia BCE, found in Central Asia, with a range extending to the southern Urals and the Altai, belong to the genetic lineage of Przewalski's horse. of particular note are the horses of this lineage found in the archaeological sites of the Chalcolithic Botai culture. Sites dating from the mid-fourth-millennium BCE show evidence of horse domestication, though their status as domesticated horses has been recently challenged. Analysis of ancient DNA from Botai horse specimens from about 3000 BCE reveal them to have DNA markers consistent with the lineage of modern Przewalski's horses.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: There are sporadic reports of Przewalski's horse in the historical record prior to its formal characterization. The Buddhist monk Bodowa wrote a description of what is thought to have been Przewalski's horse about AD 900, and an account from 1226 reports an incident involving wild horses during Genghis Khan's campaign against the Tangut empire. In the fifteenth century, Johann Schiltberger recorded one of the first European sightings of the horses in the journal recounting his trip to Mongolia as a prisoner of the Mongol Khan. Another was recorded as a gift to the Manchurian emperor around 1630, its value as a gift suggesting a difficulty in obtaining them. John Bell, a Scottish doctor in service to Peter the Great from 1719 to 1722, observed a horse in Russia's Tomsk Oblast that was apparently this species, and a few decades later in 1750, a large hunt with thousands of beaters organized by the Manchurian emperor killed between two and three hundred of these horses.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: The species is named after a Russian colonel of Polish descent, Nikolai Przhevalsky (1839–1888) (Nikołaj Przewalski in Polish). An explorer and naturalist, he obtained a skull and hide of an animal shot in 1878 in the Gobi near what is today's China–Mongolia border, and he would make an expedition into the Dzungarian Basin to observe it in the wild. In 1881, the horse received a formal scientific description and was named "Equus przevalskii" by Ivan Semyonovich Polyakov, based on Przewalski's collection and description, while in 1884, the sole exemplar of the horse in Europe was a preserved specimen in the Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. This was supplemented in 1894 when the brothers Grum-Grzhimailo returned several hides and skulls to St. Petersburg and provided a description of the horse's behavior in the wild. A number of these horses were captured around 1900 by Carl Hagenbeck and placed in zoos, and these, along with one later captive, reproduced to give rise to today's population.


title: Przewalski's horse

text: After 1903, there were no reports of the wild population until 1947, when several isolated groups were observed and a lone filly captured. Although local herdsmen reported seeing as many as 50 to 100 takhis grazing in small groups at that time, there were only sporadic sightings of single groups of two or three animals thereafter, mostly near natural wells. Two scientific expeditions in 1955 and 1962 failed to find any, and after herders and naturalists reported single harem groups in 1966 and 1967, the last observation of the wild horse in its native habitat was of a single stallion in 1969. Expeditions after this failed to locate any horses, and the species would be designated "extinct in the wild" for over 30 years. Competition with livestock, hunting, capture of foals for zoological collections, military activities, and harsh winters recorded in 1945, 1948, and 1956 are considered to be main causes of the decline in Przewalski's horse population.