title: People's Action Party

text: In April 1956, Lim and Lee represented the PAP at the London Constitutional Talks along with Chief Minister David Marshall which ended in failure as the British declined to grant Singapore internal self-government. On 7 June 1956, Marshall, disappointed with the constitutional talks, stepped down as Chief Minister as he had pledged to do so earlier if self-governance was not achieved. He was replaced by Lim Yew Hock, another Labour Front member. Lim pursued a largely anti-communist campaign and managed to convince the British to make a definite plan for self-government. The Constitution of Singapore was revised accordingly in 1958, replacing the Rendel Constitution with one that granted Singapore self-government and the ability for its own population to fully elect its Legislative Assembly.


title: People's Action Party

text: PAP and left-wing members who were communists were criticised for inciting riots in the mid-1950s. Lim Chin Siong, Fong Swee Suan and Devan Nair as well as several unionists were detained by the police after the Chinese middle schools riots. Lim Chin Siong was placed under solitary confinement for close to a year, away from his other PAP colleagues, as they were placed in the Medium Security Prison (MSP) instead.


title: People's Action Party

text: The number of PAP members imprisoned rose in August 1957, when PAP members from the trade unions (viewed as "communist or pro-communist") won half the seats in the Central Executive Committee (CEC). The "moderate" CEC members, including Lee Kuan Yew, Toh Chin Chye and others, refused to take their appointments in the CEC. Yew Hock's government again made a sweeping round of arrests, imprisoning all the "communist" members, before the "moderates" re-assumed their office.


title: People's Action Party

text: Following this, the PAP decided to re-assert ties with the labour faction of Singapore in the hope of securing the votes of working-class Chinese Singaporeans, many of whom were supporters of the jailed unionists. Lee Kuan Yew convinced the incarcerated union leaders to sign documents to state their support for the party and its policies, promising to release the jailed members of the PAP when the party came to power in the next elections. Ex-Barisan Sosialis member Tan Jing Quee claims that Lee was secretly in collusion with the British to stop Lim Chin Siong and the labour supporters from attaining power because of their huge popularity. Quee also states that Lim Yew Hock deliberately provoked the students into rioting and then had the labour leaders arrested. Greg Poulgrain of Griffiths University argued that "Lee Kuan Yew was secretly a party with Lim Yew Hock in urging the Colonial Secretary to impose the subversives ban in making it illegal for former political detainees to stand for election". Lee Kuan Yew eventually accused Lim Chin Siong and his supporters of being communists working for the Communist United Front, but evidence of Lim being a communist cadre was a matter of debate as many documents have yet to be declassified.


title: People's Action Party

text: The PAP eventually won the 1959 general election under Lee Kuan Yew's leadership. The election was also the first one to produce a fully elected parliament and a cabinet wielding powers of full internal self-government. The party has won a majority of seats in every general election since then. Lee, who became the first Prime Minister, requested for the release of the PAP left-wing members to form the new cabinet.


title: People's Action Party

text: In 1961, disagreements on the proposed merger plan to form Malaysia and long-standing internal party power struggle led to the split of the left-wing group from the PAP.


title: People's Action Party

text: Although the "Communist" faction had been frozen out of ever taking over the PAP, other problems had begun to arise internally. Ong Eng Guan, the former Mayor of the City Council after PAP's victory in the 1957 Singapore City Council election, presented a set of "16 Resolutions" to revisit some issues previously explored by Chin Siong's faction of the PAP: abolishing the PPSO, revising the Constitution, and changing the method of selecting cadre members.


title: People's Action Party

text: Although Ong's 16 Resolutions originated from the left-wing faction led by Lim Chin Siong, that faction had only reluctantly asked the PAP leadership to clarify its position on them, as they still thought that the party with Lee Kuan Yew at the helm was a better alternative than Ong who was regarded as mercurial and a tyrant. However, Lee took the stance taken by the left-wing PAP members as a lack of confidence in his leadership. This issue caused a rift between the "moderate" PAP members (led by Lee) and the "left-wing" faction (led by Lim).


title: People's Action Party

text: Ong was then expelled, and he resigned his Assembly seat to challenge the government to a by-election in Hong Lim in April 1961, where he won 73.3% of the vote. This was despite the fact that Lee Kuan Yew had made a secret alliance with Fong Chong Pik, the leader of the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM), to get the CPM cadres to support the PAP in the by-election.


title: People's Action Party

text: The breakaway group of members formed the Barisan Sosialis with Lim Chin Siong as secretary-general. Aside from the Chinese union leaders, lawyers Thampoe Thamby Rajah and Tann Wee Tiong, several members from the University Socialist Club such as James Puthucheary and Poh Soo Kai joined the party. 35 of 51 branches of the PAP and 19 of 23 branch secretaries defected to Barisan.


title: People's Action Party

text: After gaining independence from Britain, Singapore joined the federation of Malaysia in 1963. Although the PAP was the ruling party in the state of Singapore, the PAP functioned as an opposition party at the federal level in the larger Malaysian political landscape. At that time and until the 2018 general election, the federal government in Kuala Lumpur was controlled by a coalition led by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). However, the prospect that the PAP might rule Malaysia agitated UMNO. The PAP's decision to contest federal parliamentary seats outside Singapore and the UMNO decision to contest seats within Singapore breached an unspoken agreement to respect each other's spheres of influence and aggravated PAP–UMNO relations. The clash of personalities between PAP leader Lee Kuan Yew and Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman resulted in a crisis and led to Rahman forcing Singapore to leave Malaysia on 9 August 1965. Upon independence, the nascent People's Action Party of Malaya, which had been registered in Malaysia on 10 March 1964, had its registration cancelled on 9 September 1965, just a month after Singapore's exit. Those with the now non-existent party applied to register People's Action Party, Malaya which was again rejected by the Malaysian government, before settling with the Democratic Action Party.


title: People's Action Party

text: The PAP has held an overwhelming majority of seats in the Parliament of Singapore since 1966, when the opposition Barisan Sosialis (Socialist Front) resigned from Parliament after winning 13 seats following the 1963 general election, which took place months after a number of their leaders had been arrested in Operation Coldstore based on accusations of being communists. It subsequently achieved a monopoly in an expanding parliament (winning every parliamentary seat) for the next four elections (1968, 1972, 1976 and 1980). Opposition parties returned to the legislature at a 1981 by-election. The 1984 general election was the first election in 21 years in which opposition parties won seats. From then until 2006, the PAP faced four opposition MPs at most. Opposition parties did not win more than four parliamentary seats from 1984 until 2011 when the Workers' Party won six seats and took away a Group Representation Constituency (GRC) for the first time for any opposition party.


title: People's Action Party

text: Even so, it still holds a supermajority in the legislature, to the point that Singapore is effectively a dominant party system. With its supermajority, the PAP has always had the ability to amend the Constitution of Singapore without much obstruction, including the introduction of multi-member constituencies under the Group representation constituency (GRC) system or Nominated Member of Parliament (NMPs), which has helped strengthened the government's dominance and control of Parliament.


title: People's Action Party

text: The longtime governing party of Singapore, spans both past and present, but notably occurred in the mid-1980s where the first generation of PAP leaders in the CEC and the Cabinet of Singapore ceded power to a second generation of leaders.


title: People's Action Party

text: By 1984, the "old guard" (first generation of party leaders) had been governing Singapore for approximately a quarter of a century. Aging leadership was a key concern, and the Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew sought to groom younger leaders. In a speech on 29 September 1984, Lee argued that though the first generation of leaders was still "alert and fully in charge", to hang on to power until they had become feeble would allow power to be wrested from them, with no say in who their successors were.


title: People's Action Party

text: On 30 September, at the Ordinary Party Conference, power was transferred to the second generation of leaders, who were elected to the Central Executive Committee in place of all the old CEC members; of the 14-member CEC, only Lee Kuan Yew remained the only "old guard" leader.


title: People's Action Party

text: According to a report to the Library of Congress, the old guard were confident in their "rectitude" and discretion in using their extensive political powers for Singapore's common good, but were not as confident in the next generation in doing so. Various limits on executive power were considered, in order to minimise the chances of corruption. These included a popularly elected President of Singapore with substantial, nonceremonial powers. This particular reform was enacted with a constitutional amendment in 1991.


title: People's Action Party

text: The old guard also sought to eschew the use of PAP as a central political institution, seeking to "depoliticise" and disperse power among society, and sought to include low-level community leaders in government. A policy of cross-fertilisation was enacted: exchange of leaders, "elites" and talent would take place between private and government sectors, civilian and military segments of society, and between the party and the National Trades Union Congress.


title: People's Action Party

text: The next generation of leaders in the late 1980s was split between the factions of then Brigadier General Lee Hsien Loong and the older, more-experienced Goh Chok Tong. Lee Hsien Loong was supported by bureaucrats in the Ministry of Defence and army colleagues in the Singapore Armed Forces; Goh Chok Tong had more influence in the Singapore Civil Service, the Cabinet and the government-linked corporations.


title: People's Action Party

text: Lee Kuan Yew himself remained Prime Minister and in the CEC until 1990, when he stepped down in favour of Goh Chok Tong as PM. Lee Hsien Loong became PM in 2004.


title: People's Action Party

text: On 23 November 2018, fourth-generation leadership members, then–Minister for Finance Heng Swee Keat and then–Minister for Trade and Industry Chan Chun Sing wre elected as the First and Second Assistant Secretaries-General respectively, the second and third highest positions of the party. They had replaced then - Assistant Secretary-Generals Teo Chee Hean and Tharman Shanmugaratnam. A significant step of the leadership transition from the third-generation leaders to the fourth-generation leaders.


title: People's Action Party

text: On 1 May 2019, Heng Swee Keat was appointed the new and sole Deputy Prime Minister, replacing Teo and Tharman. He was then widely seen as the 4th and next Prime Minister and Secretary-General of PAP succeeding incumbent Lee Hsien Loong. However on 8 April 2021, Heng surprisingly announced he would step down as the fourth-generation leader and step aside to pave way for younger and healthier leaders to take over the leadership and stressed that health and age as concerns of this decision. After his decision, several Cabinet members were seen as the possible candidates to succeed Heng, ranging from Minister for Finance Lawrence Wong, Minister for Health Ong Ye Kung, Minister for Education Chan Chun Sing.


title: People's Action Party

text: On 14 April 2022, Finance Minister Lawrence Wong was selected as the new leader of the PAP's fourth-generation (4G) team, succeeding Deputy Prime Minister Heng Swee Keat who had stepped down as 4G leader. Wong received an "overwhelming majority" of support in the consultation process, surpassing that of other nominees. His candidacy was unanimously endorsed by the cabinet and subsequently, by the PAP MPs at a party caucus on 14 April.


title: People's Action Party

text: During its initial years, the party had adopted a traditional Leninist form of party organisation, together with a vanguard cadre from its labour-leaning faction. The PAP Executive later expelled the leftist faction in 1961, bringing the ideological basis of the party into the centre and later in the 1960s moving further to the right.


title: People's Action Party

text: In the beginning, there were about 500 so-called temporary cadre appointed, however the current number of cadres is unknown, with the register of cadres being kept confidential. In 1988, Wong Kan Seng revealed that there were more than 1,000 cadres.


title: People's Action Party

text: Cadre members have the right to attend party conferences and to vote for and elect and to be elected into the Central Executive Committee (CEC), the pinnacle of party leaders.


title: People's Action Party

text: To become a cadre, a party member must be first nominated by the MP in their branch. The candidate will then undergo three sessions of interview, each with four to five ministers or MPs and the appointment is then made by the CEC. About 100 candidates are nominated each year.


title: People's Action Party

text: Political power in the party is concentrated in the CEC, led by the secretary-general. The secretary-general of the PAP is the leader of the party. Due to PAP's electoral victories in every general election since 1959, the prime minister of Singapore has been by convention the secretary-general of the PAP since 1959. Key appointments in the CEC are usually Cabinet members.


title: People's Action Party

text: From 1957 onward, the rules laid down that the outgoing CEC should recommend a list of candidates from which the cadre members can then vote for the next CEC. This has recently changed so that the CEC nominates eight members and the party caucus selects the remaining ten.


title: People's Action Party

text: Historically, the position of Secretary-General was not considered for the office of Prime Minister, but rather the Central Executive Committee held an election to choose the prime minister. There was a contest between PAP Secretary-General Lee Kuan Yew and PAP Treasurer Ong Eng Guan, prior to 1959. Lee subsequently won the leadership and was inaugurated as the first prime minister of Singapore.


title: People's Action Party

text: The next lower level committee is the HQ Executive Committee (HQ EXCO) which performs the party's administration and oversees 14 sub-committees.


title: People's Action Party

text: The Young PAP is the youth-wing of the party, serving as a youth organisation for young adults and students in Singapore who support the PAP and have an interest in politics. The incumbent chairman of the youth-wing is Janil Puthucheary.


title: People's Action Party

text: The YP's predecessor, the PAP Youth Committee was established in 1986, under Lee Hsien Loong's tenure as Chairman, then a Singapore Armed Forces Brigadier-General. All PAP members under the age of 35 were grouped under the Youth Committee.


title: People's Action Party

text: In 1993, the Youth Committee was renamed the Young PAP. In an effort to attract members, then Chairman George Yeo, said that people joining the YP could take positions different from central party leadership. The age limit was raised from 35 to 40. Memberships are issued through the PAP branches under each constituency in Singapore.


title: People's Action Party

text: By 2005, the committee had grown to more than 6,000 members. In 2010, then Vice-Chairman Zaqy Mohamad said the YP attracts over 1200 new members that year, an increase on the 1000 new members in 2009.


title: People's Action Party

text: Since 1995, the youth-wing of the PAP has had an internet presence that aims to "correct 'misinformation' about Singapore politics or culture". Young PAP is also in charge of several online websites since 1995 to create an online presence for the party, under the urging of then Minister for Information and the Arts George Yeo.


title: People's Action Party

text: In February 2007, it was reported by "The Straits Times" that the PAP's new media committee chaired by Minister Ng Eng Hen, had initiated an effort to counter critics anonymously on the Internet "as it was necessary for the PAP to have a voice on cyberspace".


title: People's Action Party

text: The initiative was divided by two sub-committees, one of which was in charge of strategising the campaigns and is co-headed by Minister Lui Tuck Yew and MP Zaqy Mohamad. The other sub-committee—new media capabilities group led by MPs Baey Yam Keng and Josephine Teo executed the strategies. The initiative was set up after the 2006 general election and also included around 20 IT-savvy PAP activists.


title: People's Action Party

text: After popular forum Sintercom was shut down in 2001, the Young PAP offered their own forum for moderated discussions. They have since set up various blogs and social media accounts with multimedia content to engage the masses.


title: People's Action Party

text: The PAP has often set forth the idea of Asian democracy and values, drawing from a notion of Asian culture and Confucianism to construct ideological bulwarks as an alternative to Western democracy. Nevertheless, the presence of many aspects of liberal democracy in Singapore's public policy exists, such as the recognition of democratic institutions and the rule of law. Professor Hussin Mutalib from the National University of Singapore (NUS) opines that for Lee Kuan Yew, "Singapore would be better off without Western-style liberal democracy".


title: People's Action Party

text: Consequently, the governance of the PAP has occasionally been characterised by some observers especially in the West as relatively "semi-authoritarian" or "nanny-like" by "liberal democratic standards", with the introduction of unique laws such as banning the sales of chewing gum in 1992 for cleanliness purposes.


title: People's Action Party

text: According to Kenneth Paul Tan from the NUS, it proclaimed that the reason many Singaporeans continue to vote for the PAP are due to the fact that economic considerations, pragmatism and stability triumphs over accountability and checks and balances by opposition parties. It has also been noted that despite the PAP having effective control over the state apparatus, they have "proven themselves" to Singaporeans as being much more transparent than risk having an alternative party govern the country; Singapore has been considered as being one of the least corrupt countries in the world by international observers such as Transparency International.


title: People's Action Party

text: Indeed, many political observers has added that many Singaporeans willingly accept this arrangement; by conceding some rights of personal liberty, in return, the party that has run Singapore since its founding, delivers progress and predictability. The PAP has won significant genuine support amongst the people for rapidly developing the country, as well as overseeing economic success and stability after the often turbulent periods prior to its independence. Accordingly, this has led many Singaporeans into becoming highly risk-averse in voting for other parties due to their perception that it may led to a decreased prosperity of the country.


title: People's Action Party

text: The party economic ideology has always accepted the need for some welfare spending, and pragmatic economic interventionism. However, free-market policies have been popular since the 1980s as part of the wider implementation of a meritocracy in civil society and Singapore frequently ranks extremely highly on indices of economic freedom published by economically liberal organisations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Singapore is also the only Asian country with the top AAA sovereign rating from the "Big Three" credit rating agencies of S&P, Moody's and Fitch.


title: People's Action Party

text: Lee Kuan Yew once said in 1992: "Through Hong Kong watching, I concluded that state welfare and subsidies blunted the individual's drive to succeed. I watched with amazement the ease with which Hong Kong workers adjusted their salaries upwards in boom times and downwards in recessions. I resolved to reverse course on the welfare policies which my party had inherited or copied from British Labour Party policies".


title: People's Action Party

text: Since the early years of the PAP's rule, the idea of survival has been a central theme of Singaporean politics. According to Diane Mauzy and R. S. Milne, most analysts of Singapore have discerned four major ideologies of the PAP, namely pragmatism, meritocracy, multiracialism and Asian values or communitarianism.


title: People's Action Party

text: In January 1991, the PAP introduced the White Paper on Shared Values which tried to create a national ideology and institutionalise Asian values.


title: People's Action Party

text: At an Institute of Policy Studies dialogue held on 2 July 2015, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong spoke about the need to maintain a Jeffersonian natural aristocracy in the system to instill a culture of respect and to avoid anarchy.


title: People's Action Party

text: The party is deeply suspicious of communist political ideologies despite a brief joint alliance with the pro-labour co-founders of the PAP during the party's early years, who were eventually accused of being communists. In 2015, the party was seen by some observers to have adopted a left-of-centre tack in certain areas in order to remain electorally dominant.


title: People's Action Party

text: The socialism practised by the PAP during its first few decades in power was of a pragmatic kind as characterised by the party's rejection of nationalisation. According to Chan Heng Chee, by the late 1970s the intellectual credo of the government rested explicitly upon a philosophy of self-reliance, similar to the rugged individualism of the American brand of capitalism. Despite this, the PAP still claimed to be a socialist party, pointing out its regulation of the private sector, activist intervention in the economy and social policies as evidence of this. In 1976, the PAP resigned from the Socialist International after the Dutch Labour Party had proposed to expel the party due to its shift in ideology.


title: People's Action Party

text: The PAP symbol (which is a red thunderbolt and blue circle on white) stands for action inside multicultural unity. It also appears on party flags on parades. PAP members at party rallies have customarily worn a uniform of white shirts and white trousers which symbolises incorruptibility and purity of the party's ideologies of the government.


title: Unobtainium

text: Unobtainium is a term used in fiction, engineering, and common situations for a material ideal for a particular application but impractically hard to get. Unobtainium originally referred to materials that do not exist at all, but can also be used to describe real materials that are unavailable due to extreme rarity or cost. Less commonly, it can mean a device with desirable engineering properties for an application that are exceedingly difficult or impossible to achieve.


title: Unobtainium

text: The properties of any particular example of unobtainium depend on the intended use. For example, a pulley made of unobtainium might be massless and frictionless. But for a nuclear rocket, unobtainium might have the needed qualities of lightness, strength at high temperatures, and resistance to radiation damage: A combination of all three qualities is impossible with today's materials. The concept of unobtainium is often applied hand-wavingly, flippantly, or humorously.


title: Unobtainium

text: The word "unobtainium" derives humorously from "unobtainable", with "-ium", a suffix for chemical element names. It predates the similar-sounding systematic element names, such as ununennium. An alternate spelling, unobtanium, is sometimes used, perhaps based on the spelling of real elements like titanium and uranium.


title: Unobtainium

text: Since the late 1950s, aerospace engineers have used the term "unobtainium" when referring to unusual or costly materials, or when theoretically considering a material perfect for their needs in all respects, except that it does not exist.


title: Unobtainium

text: "Unobtainium, n. A substance having the exact high test properties required for a piece of hardware or other item of use, but not obtainable either because it theoretically cannot exist or because technology is insufficiently advanced to produce it. Humorous or ironical." Listed in "Interim Glossary, Aero-Space Terms," as compiled by Woodford Heflin and published in February 1958 by the Air University of the US Air Force.


title: Unobtainium

text: By the 1990s, the term was in wide use, even in formal engineering papers such as "Towards unobtainium <nowiki>[</nowiki>new composite materials for space applications<nowiki>]</nowiki>."


title: Unobtainium

text: The word "unobtainium" may well have been coined in the aerospace industry to refer to materials capable of withstanding the extreme temperatures expected in re-entry. Aerospace engineers are frequently tempted to design aircraft which require parts with strength or resilience beyond that of currently available materials.


title: Unobtainium

text: Later, 'unobtainium' became an engineering term for practical materials that really exist, but are difficult to get. For example, during the development of the SR-71 Blackbird spy plane, Lockheed engineers at the "Skunk Works" under Clarence "Kelly" Johnson used 'unobtainium' as a dysphemism for titanium. Titanium allowed a higher strength-to-weight ratio at the high temperatures the Blackbird would reach, but its availability was restricted because the Soviet Union controlled its supply. This created a problem for the U.S. during the Cold War because the Blackbird required huge amounts of titanium (and subsequent U.S. military aircraft such as the F-15, F-18, and F-22 fighters and the B-1 bomber required relatively large amounts of it as well).


title: Unobtainium

text: By 2010, the term had diffused beyond engineering, and now can appear in the headlines of mainstream newspapers, especially to describe the commercially useful rare earth elements (particularly terbium, erbium, dysprosium, yttrium, and neodymium). These are essential to the performance of consumer electronics and green technology, but the projected demand for them so outstrips their current supply that they are called "unobtainiums" within the ore industry and by commentators on the US Congressional hearings into the supply security of rare-earths.


title: Unobtainium

text: 'Unobtainium' has come to be used as a synonym for "unobtainable" among people who are neither science fiction fans nor engineers to denote an object that actually exists, but which is very hard to obtain either because of high price (sometimes referred to as "unaffordium") or limited availability. It usually refers to a very high-end and desirable product. Examples are rear cassettes in the mountain biking community, parts that are no longer available for old-car enthusiasts, parts for reel-to-reel audio-tape recorders, and rare vacuum tubes such as the 1L6 or WD-11 that can now cost more than the equipment in which they were fitted.


title: Unobtainium

text: There have been repeated attempts to attribute the name to a real material. Space elevator research has long used "unobtainium" to describe a material with the necessary characteristics, but carbon nanotubes might have these characteristics. The eyewear and fashion wear company Oakley, Inc. also frequently denotes the material used for many of their eyeglass nosepieces and earpieces, which has the unusual property of increasing tackiness and thus grip when wet, as unobtanium.


title: Unobtainium

text: It was first used in "The Core" in 2003, and also used in James Cameron's 2009 movie "Avatar", as a substance that was named "unobtanium". In "Avatar", it is a room-temperature superconductor mined on the fictional moon Pandora that makes crewed interstellar space travel to the planet financially feasible.


title: Unobtainium

text: The term handwavium (suggesting handwaving) is another term for this hypothetical material, as are buzzwordium, impossibrium, raritanium, and hardtofindium.


title: Unobtainium

text: The term (also spelled with variants such as illudium) has been used to describe a material which has "eluded" attempts to develop it. This was mentioned in several Looney Tunes cartoons, where Marvin the Martian tried (unsuccessfully) to use his "Eludium Q-36 Explosive Space Modulator" to blow up the Earth.


title: Unobtainium

text: Another largely synonymous term is wishalloy, although the sense is often subtly different in that a wishalloy usually does not exist at all, whereas unobtainium may merely be unavailable.


title: Unobtainium

text: A similar conceptual material in alchemy is the philosopher's stone, a mythical substance with the ability to turn lead into gold, or bestow immortality and youth. While the search to find such a substance was not successful, it did lead to discovery of a new element: phosphorus.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The de Havilland Vampire is a British jet fighter which was developed and manufactured by the de Havilland Aircraft Company. It was the second jet fighter to be operated by the RAF, after the Gloster Meteor, and the first to be powered by a single jet engine.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Development of the Vampire as an experimental aircraft began in 1941 during the Second World War, to exploit the revolutionary innovation of jet propulsion. From the company's design studies, it was decided to use a single-engine, twin-boom aircraft, powered by the Halford H.1 turbojet (later produced as the Goblin). Aside from its propulsion system and twin-boom configuration, it was a relatively conventional aircraft. In May 1944 it was decided to produce the aircraft as an interceptor for the Royal Air Force (RAF). In 1946 the Vampire entered operational service with the RAF, only months after the war had ended.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire quickly proved to be effective and was adopted as a replacement of wartime piston-engined fighter aircraft. During its early service it accomplished several aviation firsts and achieved various records, such as being the first jet aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The Vampire remained in front-line RAF service until 1953 when its transfer began to secondary roles such as ground attack and pilot training, for which specialist variants were produced. The RAF retired the Vampire in 1966 when its final role of advanced trainer was filled by the Folland Gnat. The Royal Navy had also adapted the type as the "Sea Vampire", a navalised variant suitable for operations from aircraft carriers. It was the service's first jet fighter.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire was exported to many nations and was operated worldwide in numerous theatres and climates. Several countries used the type in combat including the Suez Crisis, the Malayan Emergency and the Rhodesian Bush War. By the end of production, almost 3,300 Vampires had been manufactured, a quarter of these having been manufactured under licence abroad. de Havilland pursued the further development of the type; major derivatives produced include the DH.115, a specialised dual-seat trainer and the more advanced DH.112 Venom, a refined variant for ground attack and night-fighter operations.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In January 1941, Sir Henry Tizard made an informal approach to the de Havilland Aircraft Company, suggesting that the company proceed to design a fighter aircraft that would use the revolutionary new jet propulsion technology then under development, along with an appropriate engine to go with it. Although no official specification had been issued, de Havilland proceeded to design a single-engined aircraft that had air-intakes set into the wing roots to feed a centrally mounted engine, which used a centrifugal compressor.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The aero-engine designer Major Frank Halford had been given access to Frank Whittle's pioneering work on gas turbines, which, for the projected jet-powered fighter, Halford decided to proceed with the design of a "straight through" centrifugal engine capable of generating 3,000 lb of thrust, which was considered to be high at the time. Halford's engine emerged as the Halford H.1. By April 1941, design work on the engine had been completed and a prototype H.1 engine performed its first test run one year later.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The low power output of the early jet engines had meant that only twin-engined aircraft designs were considered to be practical; as more powerful jet engines were quickly developed, particularly Halford's H.1 (later known as the de Havilland Goblin), the practicalities of single-engined jet fighter were soon realised. de Havilland was approached to produce an airframe for the H.1 as insurance against Germany using jet bombers against Britain; this was considered more important than de Havilland's suggestion of a high-speed jet bomber. Its first design, the "DH.99", was set out in a brochure dated 6 June 1941; it was an all-metal, twin-boom, tricycle undercarriage aircraft armed with four cannon. The use of a twin boom enabled the jet pipe to be kept relatively short, which avoided the power loss that would have occurred if a long pipe was used, as would have been necessary in a conventional fuselage. It also put the tailplane clear of interference from the exhaust. Performance was estimated at at sea level and initial climb of on 2,700 lb thrust. The Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP) representative expressed doubts regarding the lack of detail, estimations for the aircraft's performance and optimistic structure weight; the project received permission to proceed in July 1941.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The DH.99 design was soon modified to incorporate a combined wood-and-metal construction in light of recommendations from the MAP; the design was thus renumbered to "DH.100" by November 1941. The aircraft was considered to be a largely experimental design due to its use of a single engine and some unorthodox features, unlike the Gloster Meteor which had been specified for production early on. In February 1942, the MAP suggested dropping the project for a bomber but de Havilland stated that the twin-boom was, despite Ministry doubts, only an engineering problem to be overcome. On 22 April 1942, the construction of two prototypes (serials "LZ548" and "LZ551") was authorised by the Ministry while Specification E.6/41 was produced and issued to cover the work. The company proceeded with the detailed design work phase of the DH.100 in early 1942.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Internally designated as the DH.100 and originally named the "Spider Crab", the aircraft was entirely a de Havilland project, being principally worked upon at the company's facility at Hatfield, Hertfordshire. The construction of the aircraft exploited de Havilland's extensive experience in the use of moulded plywood for aircraft construction which had previously been used on the Mosquito, a widely produced fast bomber of the war.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The layout of the DH.100 used a single jet engine installed in an egg-shaped fuselage which was primarily composed of plywood for the forward section and aluminium throughout the aft section. It was furnished with conventional mid-mounted straight wings; air brakes were installed on the wings to slow the aircraft, a feature that had also been incorporated in the Meteor. Armament comprised four 20 mm Hispano Mk V cannon located underneath the nose; from the onset of the design phase, even when the aircraft was officially intended to serve only as an experimental aircraft, the provision for the cannon armament had been included.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 20 September 1943, the first DH.100 prototype, serial number "LZ548/G", conducted its maiden flight from Hatfield Aerodrome; it was piloted by Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., the company's chief test pilot and son of the company's founder. This flight took place only six months after the Meteor had performed its own maiden flight; the first flight had been delayed due to the need to dispatch the only available engine suitable for flight to America to replace one destroyed in ground engine runs in Lockheed's prototype XP-80 jet fighter. Three prototypes, "LZ548/G", "LZ551/G", and "MP838/G" were produced in order to support the type's development.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Testing showed the major issue was a problem with directional instability – the aircraft "snaking" – this was corrected by changes to the tail design.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 13 May 1944, an initial production order for 120 "Vampire Mk I" aircraft was received and quickly increased to 300 aircraft. The production Vampire Mk I did not fly until April 1945. Owing to the wartime pressures upon de Havilland's production facilities for existing aircraft types, English Electric Aircraft undertook production of the Vampire at their factories at Preston in Lancashire instead; the company would go on to produce the majority of the aircraft. Only about half a dozen production aircraft had been built by the end of the Second World War, although it did not result in the type becoming a victim of the extensive post-war cuts that were soon implemented, which had terminated the production of many aircraft along with development work upon several more.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: De Havilland initiated a private venture night fighter, the "DH.113" intended for export, fitting a two-seat cockpit closely based on that of the Mosquito night fighter and a lengthened nose that accommodated an AI Mk X radar. An order to supply the Egyptian Air Force was received but this was blocked by the British government as part of an embargo on supplying arms to Egypt. The RAF took over the order and put them into service as an interim measure between the retirement of the de Havilland Mosquito night fighter and the full introduction of the Meteor night fighter. Removal of the radar from the night fighter and fitting of dual controls resulted in a jet trainer model of the aircraft, the "DH.115 Vampire" which entered British service as the "Vampire T.11". This trainer variant was built in large numbers for the RAF and for export.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: An alternative powerplant to the de Havilland Goblin soon became available in the form of the Rolls-Royce Nene, another turbojet engine capable of generating similar levels of thrust. The name "Vampire II" was given to three experimental Nene-powered Vampires, which were used to assess their performance. One of these was evaluated by the RAF before it was decided that the rival Goblin would be adopted for the RAF Vampires instead; another contributed to development work for the Vampires for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Although the Nene had a higher thrust than the Goblin, the level flight speed was no greater. To reduce the intake losses caused by having to feed air to the rear face of the impeller of the Nene, two additional intakes were added behind the cockpit; these caused elevator reversal and buffeting, which in turn reduced the Vampire's Mach limit. The Vampires of the RAAF were powered by the Nene engine; these were initially outfitted with dorsal intakes, later moved underneath the fuselage. In 1949, Boulton Paul Aircraft redesigned the wing-root intakes and internal ducting based on the installation of the Nene in the prototype Hawker Sea Hawk. The "Mistral", the French name for their models of the Vampire, also used the Nene engine with Boulton Paul intakes.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The "Vampire III" was the first of several models that sought to address the demands for greater range from the type. Underwing fuel drop-tanks of 100 and 200 gallon capacities were fitted; other modifications included lowering the tailplane and reshaping the vertical surfaces of the tail. The design changes to accommodate the hardpoint-mounted drop-tanks had the benefit of enabling the carriage of various stores and readied the type for ground-attack operations. The wing was considerably modified to improve low altitude performance, the span was reduced by 2 ft with the adoption of square-cut wing tips, the wing skins thickened and the undercarriage modified to withstand the increased weight.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In total 3,268 Vampires were built in 15 versions, including twin-seat night fighters, trainers and carrier-based "Sea Vampires". The Vampire was used by 31 air forces. Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the U.S. were the only major Western powers not to use the aircraft.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 8 June 1946, the Vampire was introduced to the British public when Fighter Command's 247 Squadron was given the honour of leading the flypast over London at the Victory Day Celebrations. The Vampire was a versatile aircraft, setting many aviation firsts and records, being the first RAF fighter with a top speed in excess of . On 3 December 1945, a Sea Vampire piloted by Captain Eric "Winkle" Brown became the first pure-jet aircraft to land on and take off from an aircraft carrier.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Vampires and Sea Vampires were used in trials from 1947 to 1955 to develop recovery and deck-handling procedures and equipment for the operation of aircraft without an undercarriage from flexible rubber decks on aircraft carriers. Deletion of the undercarriage would reduce the aircraft weight and allow extra fuel to be carried. Despite demonstrating that the technique was feasible, with many landings being made with undercarriage retracted on flexible decks both at RAE Farnborough and on board the carrier HMS "Warrior", the proposal was not taken further. Aviation author Geoffrey Cooper quotes author Marriott stating that the rubber deck system "...would have required extensive facilities both aboard ship and at naval air stations to support it. Any gains in aircraft performance were more than cancelled by the complexity and cost of implementation."


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 23 March 1948, John Cunningham, flying a modified Vampire Mk I with extended wing tips and powered by the Ghost engine, achieved a new world altitude record of 59,446 ft (18,119 m).


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 14 July 1948, six Vampire F.3s of No. 54 Squadron RAF became the first jet aircraft to fly across the Atlantic Ocean when they arrived in Goose Bay, Labrador. They went via Stornoway in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, Keflavík in Iceland and Bluie West 1, Greenland. From Goose Bay airfield they went on to Montreal (c. 3,000 mi/4,830 km) to start the RAF's annual goodwill tour of Canada and the US, where they gave formation aerobatic displays. At the same time USAF Colonel David C. Schilling led a group of F-80 Shooting Stars flying to Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base in Germany to relieve a unit based there. There were conflicting reports later regarding competition between the RAF and USAF to be the first to fly the Atlantic. One report said the USAF squadron delayed completion of its movement to allow the Vampires to be "the first jets across the Atlantic". Another said that the Vampire pilots celebrated "winning the race against the rival F-80s."


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The de Havilland Vampire was a jet-powered twin-boom aircraft, typically employed in the fighter and fighter bomber roles. Aviation author Francis K Mason referred to it as being "the last unsophisticated single-engine front line aircraft to serve with Britain's Fighter Command"; the Vampire was a relatively straightforward aircraft, employing only manually operated flight controls, no radar, a simple airframe, and, aside from the propulsion system, made use of mostly conventional practices and technologies. The distinctive twin-boom tail configuration of the Vampire was one of the only non-traditional airframe features when compared to its contemporaries.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In comparison to later aircraft, the Vampire had a relatively disorganised cockpit that in some aspects lacked ergonomic measures; such as the fuel gauges being difficult for the pilot to observe without pulling the control column back. A few controls, such as the low-pressure fuel cock, were known for being difficult to move or were otherwise obstructed by other controls. The pilot was provided with a fairly favourable external view, in part aided by the relatively small size of the Vampire.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire was first powered by a single Halford H1 (produced as the de Havilland Goblin) turbojet engine, initially capable of producing 2,100 lbf (9.3 kN) of thrust, designed by Frank Halford and manufactured by de Havilland Engine Company. This engine was a centrifugal-flow type, a configuration superseded after 1949 by the slimmer axial-flow units. In 1947, Wing Commander Maurice Smith, assistant editor of "Flight" magazine, stated upon piloting his first jet-powered aircraft, a Vampire Mk III: "Piloting a jet aircraft has confirmed one opinion I had formed after flying as a passenger in the Lancastrian jet test beds, that few, if any, having flown in a jet-propelled transport, will wish to revert to the noise, vibration and attendant fatigue of an airscrew-propelled piston-engined aircraft".


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Initially, the relatively high fuel consumption of the Goblin engine had limited the range of early models of the Vampire; this had been a common problem with all early jet aircraft. As a result, later marks featured considerably increased internal fuel capacity. The H.1 Goblin engine, conceived in 1941, remained unchanged in basic form for 13 years; "Flight" said "The Goblin ... can fairly claim to be the world's most reliable turbojet". Over successive models, it gained increased turbine temperature and thrust. Later-built Vampire Mk Is were powered by the Goblin II; the F.3 onwards used the improved Goblin III; by the mid-1950s, the Goblin Mk. 35 export engine, capable of 3,500 lbf, had become available as well.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Certain marks of the Vampire were also operated as flying test-beds for the Rolls-Royce Nene engine, leading to the FB30 and 31 variants that were built in, and operated by, Australia. Due to the low positioning of the engine, a Vampire could not remain on idle for long as the heat from the jet exhaust would melt the tarmac behind the aircraft. If the engine did stall in flight, there was no means to re-light the engine, meaning that a forced landing would be necessary.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: According to Mason, the controls of the Vampire were considered to be relatively light and sensitive, employing an effective elevator arrangement that enabled generous acceleration from relatively little control inputs along with highly balanced ailerons that could achieve high rates of roll. In comparison to the elevator and ailerons, the rudder required more vigorous actuation in order to achieve meaningful effect. Pilots converting from piston-engined types would find themselves having to adapt to the slower acceleration of turbojet engines and the corresponding need to moderate rapid throttle movements to avoid instigating a compressor stall.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire had a relatively good power/weight ratio and was reputedly quite manoeuvrable within the range. Heavy use of the rudder was required at slower speeds, during which pilots had to be cautious during shallow turns to avoid stalls; this would be typically embarrassing rather than dangerous due to the relative ease of recovery, which was principally achieved via positive elevator application. At speeds in excess Mach 0.71, increasing levels of buffeting were encountered.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire was compatible with a wide range of aerobatic manoeuvres, Mason comparing its capabilities in this respect to purpose-built sporting aircraft. It has been claimed that the type was the last British jet-powered fighter capable of accurately precipitating conditions such as hammer stalls, stall turns, and wingovers.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Preparing the Vampire for take-off required pilots to perform only six 'vital actions': setting the trim to neutral, opening the high and low-pressure fuel cocks, activating the booster pump, setting the flaps, and retracting the air brakes. If laden with external fuel tanks or bombs, pilots would have to retract the undercarriage quite quickly upon leaving the ground, else increasing airflow as the aircraft picked up speed would prevent the undercarriage doors from closing. Landing procedure was similarly free of complexity: disengaging the wheel brakes, lowering the undercarriage, setting the flaps to fully down, and activating the air brakes. Typically, power-on landings were conducted due to the slow response of the engine to throttle changes, and wheel brakes had to be applied carefully to avoid locking the wheels because there was no anti-lock braking system on the fighters. Training variants had the Dunlop Maxaret anti-skid system fitted.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In 1946, the first Vampire Mk I fighters entered RAF service in the interceptor role. Soon thereafter, considerable numbers of Mk I aircraft began equipping RAF squadrons of the Second Tactical Air Force stationed in Germany, often to replace wartime fighters such as the Hawker Typhoon, Hawker Tempest, and North American Mustang. On 3 July 1948, the Vampire became the first jet aircraft to equip peacetime units of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force, gradually replacing the de Havilland Mosquito in this capacity.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 23 June 1948, the first production "Vampire Fighter-Bomber Mk 5" (otherwise commonly designated as the "FB.5"), which had been modified from a Vampire F.3, carried out its maiden flight. The FB.5 retained the Goblin III engine of the F.3, but featured armour protection around engine systems, wings clipped back by 1 ft (30 cm), and longer-stroke main landing gear to handle greater takeoff weights and provide clearance for stores/weapons load. An external tank or 500 lb (227 kg) bomb could be carried under each wing, and eight "3-inch" rocket projectiles ("RPs") could be stacked in pairs on four attachments inboard of the booms. Although the adoption of an ejection seat was being considered at one stage, it was ultimately not fitted.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: At its peak, a total of 19 RAF squadrons flew the Vampire FB.5 in Europe, the Middle East and the Far East. By far, the theatre in which the largest number of Vampires were stationed was Germany; this extensive deployment by the RAF has been viewed as one measure of the emerging Cold War climate between West and East Europe, as well as being a reaction to events such as the Korean War and the Berlin Blockade. Vampires were also operated by a number of active and reserve squadrons stationed in the UK.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: A number of RAF Vampires were used in active combat within the Far East during the Malayan Emergency, fought in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Specifically, the Vampire FB.5 typically undertook attack missions using a combination of rockets and bombs against insurgent targets often located in remote jungle areas throughout in Malaysia. The Vampire FB.5 became the most numerous single-seat variant of the type, 473 aircraft having been produced.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: Experience of Vampire operation in tropical climates led to the development of new models featuring refrigeration equipment for pilot comfort and increasingly powerful models of the Goblin engine, to counter the degradation of performance in hot conditions. The RAF decided to adopt a new model of the Vampire featuring the Goblin 3 engine. Accordingly, in January 1952, the first Vampire FB.9 was introduced to service and were first used by the Far East Air Force, soon replacing its older FB.5 aircraft. The FB.9 was deployed to various parts of the Middle East and Africa, including a brief 1954 deployment against Mau Mau insurgents in Kenya. It was gradually replaced by the de Havilland Venom, a swept wing development of the Vampire.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire NF.10 served from 1951 to 1954 with three squadrons (23, 25 and 151) but was often flown in daytime as well as night time. After its replacement by the De Havilland Venom, these aircraft underwent conversion to the NF(T).10 standard, after which they were operated by the Central Navigation and Control School at RAF Shawbury. Other aircraft were sold on to the Indian Air Force for further use.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: By 1953, the Vampire FB.5 was being increasingly considered to be obsolete, having not kept up with the advancements made on the Meteor 8. The RAF eventually relegated the single-seat Vampire to advanced training roles in the mid-1950s, and the type had been generally phased out of RAF service by the end of the decade.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The final variants of the Vampire was the T (trainer) aircraft. Being first flown from the old Airspeed Ltd factory at Christchurch, Hampshire, on 15 November 1950, production deliveries of the Vampire trainer began in January 1952. Over 600 examples of the T.11 were produced at Hatfield and Chester and by Fairey Aviation at Manchester Airport. By 1965, the Vampire trainer had been mostly withdrawn, its replacement in the advanced training role being the Folland Gnat; only a small number of Vampire T.11s remained in service, typically for the training of foreign students until these too were retired in 1967.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: A small number of aircraft that were used in secondary roles carried on in these capacities until the withdrawal of the last operational aircraft from service with No. 3 Civilian Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit at Exeter at the end of 1971. A single aircraft continued to be flown and remained in official service with the RAF as part of the "Vintage Pair" display team (along with a Gloster Meteor); however, this aircraft was lost as a result of a crash in 1986.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Admiralty had immediately taken great interest in the Vampire following a series of carrier-landing trials which had been conducted on the aircraft carrier using the modified third prototype of the Vampire in December 1945. At one point, the service had been allegedly considering the adoption of the type as the standard naval fighter to equip the Fleet Air Arm with; however, according to Mason, there had been a prevailing attitude that carrier operations lacked the flexibility to enable combat operations to be conducted with jet aircraft while at sea due to factors such as jet blast and the limited range of the early jets. In 1947, the Royal Navy decided to place an order for a navalised variant of the Vampire FB.5, which had been separately ordered by Air Ministry; the navalised model was quickly given the name "Sea Vampire".


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Sea Vampire had several key differences from their land-based counterparts. It could be easily distinguished by the presence of a V-shaped arrester hook that retracted to a high-mounted position above the jet pipe. The Sea Vampire was fitted with enlarged air brakes and landing flaps for superior low-speed control during landing approaches, along with stronger construction for the higher stresses involved in carrier landings and catapult launches.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 15 October 1948, the first Sea Vampire performed its maiden flight. A pair of prototypes were followed by 18 production aircraft which were used to gain experience in carrier jet operations before the arrival of the two-seat Sea Vampire T.22 trainers. The Sea Vampire was initially delivered to 700 Naval Air Squadron and 702 Naval Air Squadron, soon replacing their piston-engine powered de Havilland Sea Hornets.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: During 1946, government approval was given for the purchase of an initial 50 Vampire fighter aircraft for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). The first three machines of this batch were British-built aircraft, an F1, F2 and FB.5, and were given serial numbers "A78-1" to "A78-3". The second aircraft, the F2 ("A78-2"), was significant in that it was powered by the more powerful Rolls-Royce Nene jet engine, rather than the standard Goblin unit.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: All of the 80 F.30 fighters and FB.31 fighter-bomber Vampires that were subsequently built by de Havilland Australia were powered by Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC) versions of the Nene engine manufactured under licence at their facility in Melbourne. The Nene required a greater intake cross-section than the Goblin, and the initial solution was to mount auxiliary intakes on top of the fuselage behind the canopy. Unfortunately these intakes led to elevator blanking on formation of shock waves, and three aircraft and pilots were lost in unrecoverable dives. All of the Nene-engined aircraft were later modified to move the auxiliary intakes beneath the fuselage, thus entirely avoiding the problem.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In June 1949, the first Vampire F.30 fighter ("A79-1") made its first flight; it was followed by 56 more F.30 variants before the final 23 aircraft were completed as FB.31s, being fitted with strengthened and clipped wings along with underwing hardpoints. A single F.30 was also converted to the F.32 standard, which was almost identical to the Vampire FB.9. In 1954, all single seat Vampires were retired by the RAAF, but remained in service in Citizen Air Force squadrons until the early 1960s.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire T.33 was a two-seat training version, powered by the Goblin turbojet and built in Australia. T.34 and T.35 were used by the RAAF and the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). (In RAAF service they were known as Mk33 through to Mk35W.) Many were manufactured or assembled at de Havilland Australia's facilities in Sydney. The Mk35W was a Mk35 fitted with spare Mk33 wings following overstress or achievement of fatigue life. Vampire trainer production in Australia amounted to 110 aircraft, and the initial order was filled by 35 T.33s for the RAAF; deliveries being made in 1952 with five T.34s for the RAN delivered in 1954. Additional Vampires were imported from Britain during the mid-to-late 1950s. The trainers remained in service in the RAAF until September 1970, and in the RAN until 1971, when they were replaced by the Macchi MB-326.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In 1946, a single Vampire F.1 began operating on an evaluation basis in Canada at the Winter Experimental Establishment in Edmonton. The Vampire F.3 was selected as one of two types of operational fighters for the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and was first flown in Canada on 17 January 1948 where it went into service as a Central Flying School training aircraft at RCAF Station Trenton. Operating a total of 86 aircraft, the Vampire F.3 became the first jet fighter to enter RCAF service in any significant numbers.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire had the function of introducing Canadian fighter pilots not only to jet propulsion, but also to other amenities such as cockpit pressurisation and the tricycle landing gear arrangement. It proved to be a popular aircraft, being easy to fly and often considered a "hot rod." In Canadian service, the Vampire served in both operational and air reserve units (400, 401, 402, 411, 438 and 442 squadrons). For three years from May 2, 1949 to August 22, 1951 the RCAF aerobatic team "The Blue Devils" flew airshows throughout North America In November 1956, the type was retired and was replaced in RCAF service by the Canadair Sabre.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Dominican Air Force purchased 25 of Sweden's Vampires in 1952. Some of these subsequently saw combat in 1959, preventing an attempted amphibious landing by Cuban revolutionaries. They later took part in the 1965 Dominican Civil War.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Egyptian Air Force received its first of a planned 66 Vampire FB52s in December 1950, eventually receiving 50 from de Havilland production. An order for 12 Vampire NF.10 night fighters was cancelled owing to an arms embargo and the aircraft were acquired by the RAF. A factory was built at Helwan to build the Vampire under licence, but political disputes between Egypt and the United Kingdom over the presence of British troops in Egypt led to the project being delayed, before being abandoned following the Egyptian revolution of 1952. Instead, Egypt turned to Italy, and purchased 58 ex-Italian Air Force FB52As, using Syria as an intermediary, with deliveries from 1955 to 1956.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: By 1954, Egypt was operating a fleet of 49 Vampires, which had been acquired from both Italy and Britain, in the fighter-bomber role. In 1955, a further 12 Vampire trainers were ordered, deliveries of which started in July that year. On 1 September 1955, in a response to an Israeli commando raid on an Egyptian-held fort at Khan Yunis, four Egyptian Vampires crossed into Israeli airspace, but were intercepted by Israeli Meteor jets, with two Vampires being shot down. By 1956, Egyptian Vampires were in the process of being replaced in the front-line fighter role by the much more capable Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 and MiG-17 swept-wing fighters, and several Vampires were given to Saudi Arabia and Jordan. During the Suez Crisis, the Egyptians mainly used their Vampires for ground-attack missions against the advancing Israeli forces, particularly at the Mitla Pass, and are recorded as having lost a total of four Vampires in combat with Israeli jet aircraft. Several more were destroyed on the ground by Anglo-French air raids.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Finnish Air Force received six FB.52 Vampires in 1953. The model was nicknamed ""Vamppi"" in Finnish service. An additional nine twin-seat T.55s were purchased in 1955. The aircraft were assigned to 2nd Wing at Pori, but were transferred to 1st Wing at Tikkakoski at the end of the 1950s. The last Finnish Vampire was decommissioned in 1965.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: As part of a larger effort to build up the post-war French Air Force, a number of Goblin-powered Vampire FB.5s were delivered to France from 1949 onwards. This variant of the Vampire was subsequently manufactured under licence by Sud-Est at Marignane, the first 67 aircraft were assembled from British-produced components and were standard aircraft for the most part; these were followed by a further 183 Vampires, which incorporated a greater proportion of French-produced elements. The French developed the FB.53 model, a Nene-powered variant, which was named in French service as the "Mistral" after the wind of the same name. The Nene engine was alleged to be responsible for the Mistral having greater rate of climb and a higher top speed than the standard Vampire.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: A total of 250 Mistrals were built, equipped with Hispano-Suiza built engines, French ejector seats and enlarged wing root ducts. French orders for the type were greatly expanded during the early 1950s as a reaction to the outbreak of the Korean War. Furthermore, the production line was converted for the license-production of the improved de Havilland Sea Venom by the end of 1952 as well. On 2 April 1951, the first Mistral made its maiden flight.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 6 November 1948, the Indian Air Force (IAF) took delivery of its first three de Havilland Vampires at Palam Air Force Station, Delhi; these were procured under a large-scale expansion and modernisation programme. No. 7 Squadron IAF received its first Vampires in January 1949. No. 17 Squadron IAF also operated the type. No. 37 Squadron IAF flew a number of Vampire NF54 night reconnaissance missions over Goa during the 1961 Annexation of Goa from Portuguese rule, sometimes coming under anti-aircraft fire.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 1 September 1965, during the Indo-Pakistani War, No. 45 Squadron IAF responded to a request for strikes against a counter-attack by the Pakistani Army (Operation Grand Slam), and twelve Vampire Mk 52 fighter-bombers were successful in slowing the Pakistani advance. However, the Vampires encountered two Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F-86 Sabres, armed with air-to-air missiles; in the ensuing dogfight, the outdated Vampires were outclassed. One was shot down by ground fire and another three were shot down by Sabres. The Vampires were withdrawn from front line service after these losses.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Vampire entered service with the Irish Air Corps in 1955, and was the first ever jet powered fighter aircraft in Ireland. A total of six Vampire T.55s were acquired and served under No.1 Fighter Squadron, stationed at Casement Air Base. The Vampires replaced the Supermarine Spitfire and Seafire as Ireland's main combat aircraft. The Vampire brought the jet age to Ireland and introduced heavier armaments through the Vampire's cannons, as well as new technology such as ejection seats. The Vampires served until 1975 and were replaced with six Fouga CM.170 Magisters.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: During the late 1940s, Italy became interested in procuring the Vampire as part of its reequipment programme following the Second World War. The Meteor had also been considered, but was discarded on grounds of cost. At the invitation of Italian Air Force, a series of aerial demonstrations at Italian air shows were performed by British Vampires during September 1949. On 24 October 1949, an agreement was struck with Fiat to license manufacture the type at its plant in Turin; additional work type would also be undertaken by Macchi at Varese; the agreement included five Vampire FB.5, 51 Vampire FB.52, four Vampire NF.10 and ten Vampire NF.54 to be built in the United Kingdom; a total of 150 Vampire FB.52s were also built in Italy under licence.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: On 11 March 1950, the first five Vampire FB.5s arrived at the Jet Flight Training School at Foggia. British-built Vampires were delivered in advance of their Italian counterparts as the latter needed more time to establish their production line. During the early 1950s, Italian Vampires were flown by the Cavallino Rampante, the Italian Air Force's first post-war aerial display team. Following Britain's embargo on the sale of military aircraft to Egypt, 58 ex-Italian Air Force Vampires were refurbished and transferred to Egypt during early 1956; Macchi built 45 additional Vampires to replace these in Italian service.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) purchased a total of 20 Vampires F.3s, 36 FB.52s and six T.55 trainers. The Vampire was in Norwegian use as a fighter from 1948 to 1957, equipping a three-squadron Vampire wing stationed at Gardermoen. In 1957, the type was withdrawn when the RNoAF decided to re-equip with the Republic F-84G Thunderjet. In 1955, the Vampire trainers were replaced by the Lockheed T-33, these aircraft were returned to the United Kingdom and saw later use by the Royal Air Force.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: The Rhodesian Air Force acquired 16 Vampire FB.9 fighters and a further 16 Vampire T.11 trainers in the early 1950s, its first jet aircraft, equipping two squadrons. These were regularly deployed to Aden between 1957 and 1961, supporting British counter-insurgency operations. 21 more two-seaters and 13 single-seaters were supplied by South Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Rhodesia operated Vampires until the end of the bush war in 1979. In 1977, six were pressed into service for Operation Dingo. They were eventually replaced by the BAE Hawk 60 in the early 1980s. After 30 years service, they were the last Vampires used on operations anywhere.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In 1946, the Swedish Air Force purchased its first batch of 70 FB 1 Vampires, having been looking for a jet-powered fighter to replace the outdated J 22 and obsolescenct SAAB 21 aircraft of its fighter force. In Swedish service, the Vampire received the designation "J 28A", it was assigned to the Bråvalla Wing (F 13). The type soon provided such good service that the Vampire was soon selected to serve as the backbone of the fighter force. In 1949, a total of 310 of the more modern FB.50s, designated "J 28B", which were based on the Vampire FB.5, were procured. The last of these was delivered in 1952, after which all piston-engined fighters were decommissioned. In addition, a total of 57 two-seater DH 115 Vampires, designated "J 28C", were also used for training purposes.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In 1956, the Swedish Vampires were retired from the fighter role, to be replaced in service with the "J 29" (SAAB Tunnan) and "J 34" (Hawker Hunter). In 1968, the final Vampire trainer was retired.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In 1946, the Swiss Air Force purchased an initial four Vampire F.1s, one of which crashed on 2 August 1946 while the other three remained in service until 1961. In 1949, the Swiss government signed a contract to locally manufacture the Vampire FB.6 in Switzerland using British-built Goblin engines; accordingly, a batch of 85 Vampire FB.6s were produced. In 1952, the first production Vampire NF.10 was delivered to Switzerland for evaluation purposes.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In 1949, the first batch of 75 Vampire Mk.6 (J-1005 to J-1079) was purchased. Most of these were phased out of service in 1968/1969, the last aircraft being withdrawn in 1973. A second batch of 100 Vampire Mk.6 (J-1101 to J-1200) were built under licence by a consortium of Swiss aviation companies, including Eidgenössische Flugzeugwerke Emmen, Pilatus Aircraft and Flug- und Fahrzeugwerke Altenrhein. Aircraft from this batch were in use from 1951 to 1974, and were retained in storage until 1988. A further three DH-100 Mk.6 (J-1080 to J-1082) were subsequently built from remaining spare parts. A force of 39 DH-115 Mk 55 Vampire two-seat trainers (U-1201 to U-1239) were also in service from 1953 to 1990. During the late 1950s, Switzerland started procuring Hawker Hunters to replace their Vampire fleet in the fighter role.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In the United States, Jerry Conley, owner of Vampire Air Shows, is the only known operator of an airworthy DH-115 Havilland Vampire available for Air Shows and aerobatic demonstrations.


title: De Havilland Vampire

text: In Canada, Waterloo Warbirds, owns and operates the DH-115 de Havilland Vampire. It is available for passenger rides and airshows.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: The 2020–21 La Liga season, also known as La Liga Santander due to sponsorship reasons, was the 90th since its establishment. The season began on 12 September 2020 and concluded on 23 May 2021. The fixtures were announced on 31 August 2020.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: Real Madrid were the defending champions, after winning a record 34th title in the previous season. Huesca, Cádiz and Elche joined as the promoted clubs from the 2019–20 Segunda División. They replaced Espanyol, Mallorca and Leganés, who were relegated to the 2020–21 Segunda División.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: Exceptionally, this season the five substitutions were maintained in a maximum of three rounds per team, adopted in May 2020 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: Atlético Madrid clinched their eleventh La Liga title on the final matchday of the season, after a 2–1 comeback win against Valladolid. It was their first title since 2013–14. Barcelona and Real Madrid were the only other teams to have won the title since Atlético Madrid last did so.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: A total of twenty teams contested the league, including seventeen sides from the 2019–20 season and three promoted from the 2019–20 Segunda División. This included the two top teams from the Segunda División, and the winners of the promotion play-offs.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: The first team to be relegated from La Liga were Espanyol, after a 0–1 loss to city rivals Barcelona on 8 July 2020, ending their 26-year stay in the top tier. The second team to be relegated were Mallorca, following a 1–2 home defeat against Granada on 16 July 2020, suffering an immediate return to the second division. The third and final team to be relegated were Leganés, after drawing 2–2 against Real Madrid on 19 July 2020 in their final game of the season. This ended "Lega"'s four-year stint in the first tier.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: On 12 July 2020, Cádiz became the first side to mathematically be promoted, assured of a return to the top flight after a fourteen-year absence following Oviedo's 4–2 win against Zaragoza. The second team to earn promotion were Huesca, following their 3–0 win against Numancia on 17 July 2020. This marked an immediate return to the first division after a season away. The final team to achieve promotion were Elche on 23 August 2020, following a 1–0 aggregate victory over Girona in the final of the promotion play-offs, sealing a return to La Liga after a five-year absence.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: This was the first season since the 2018–19 season without any teams from the archipelagos of Spain (teams located on the Balearic Islands and Canary Islands) since Mallorca was relegated and Las Palmas failed to qualify for the promotion play-offs.


title: 2020–21 La Liga

text: The Zamora Trophy was awarded by newspaper "Marca" to the goalkeeper with the lowest goals-to-games ratio. A goalkeeper had to have played at least 28 games of 60 or more minutes to be eligible for the trophy.


title: Gianni Russo

text: Gianni Vito Russo is an American actor and singer. He is best known for his role as Carlo Rizzi in the 1972 film "The Godfather".


title: Gianni Russo

text: Russo was born in Manhattan in 1943 and raised in Little Italy and Staten Island. After reprising the Rizzi character in a brief flashback scene at the end of "The Godfather Part II", Russo acted in more than 46 films, including "Goodnight, My Love" (1972), "Lepke" (1975, as Albert Anastasia), "Laserblast" (1978), "Chances Are" (1989), "The Freshman" (1990), "Side Out" (1990), "Another You" (1991), "Super Mario Bros." (1993), "Any Given Sunday" (1999) and "Seabiscuit" (2003).


title: Gianni Russo

text: Russo claims that he started a fledgling career in organized crime working as an errand boy and mob associate for Frank Costello as an adolescent but later abandoned the dangerous and volatile lifestyle of organized crime.


title: Gianni Russo

text: Since the beginning of his acting career, Russo owned a Las Vegas restaurant called Gianni Russo's State Street at 2570 State Street on the Las Vegas Strip (closed in 1988), and defeated 23 federal criminal indictments on a variety of charges stemming from alleged organized crime associations.


title: Gianni Russo

text: In 1988, Russo killed a man inside the Las Vegas nightclub. When he tried to intervene to stop a man from harassing a female patron, the man stabbed him with a broken champagne bottle. Russo, a legal carry owner, pulled his gun and shot him in the head. The man was a 30-year-old Cuban national. Russo was not charged with the killing because it was ruled a justifiable homicide by the Nevada District Attorney's Office.


title: Gianni Russo

text: Russo is also a singer. In 2004, he released a CD called "Reflections" that pays homage to Dean Martin and Frank Sinatra.


title: Rent (film)

text: Rent is a 2005 American musical drama film directed by Chris Columbus. It is an adaptation of the 1996 Broadway musical of the same name, in turn based on Giacomo Puccini's 1896 opera "La bohème".


title: Rent (film)

text: The film, which features six of the original Broadway cast members reprising their roles, depicts the lives of several bohemians and their struggles with sexuality, drugs, paying their rent, and life under the shadow of AIDS in the gritty East Village of New York City from 1989 to 1990.


title: Rent (film)

text: On Christmas Eve 1989, aspiring filmmaker Mark Cohen, and his roommate, Roger Davis, learn that the rent previously waived by their old friend and now landlord, Benjamin "Benny" Coffin III, is due ("Rent"). Their former roommate Tom Collins shows up and gets mugged. Mark and Roger meet with Benny, who tells them he plans to evict the homeless from the nearby lot and build a cyber studio ("You'll See"). He offers them free rent if they get Maureen, Mark's ex-girlfriend, to cancel her protest against his plans, but they refuse.


title: Rent (film)

text: A street drummer, Angel, finds Collins and they bond since they are both HIV positive. Roger, who is HIV-positive and a former drug addict, tries to compose his one last great song ("One Song Glory"). He's visited by his downstairs neighbor, Mimi, an erotic dancer and heroin addict who tries to convince him to do heroin together despite her own HIV+ status ("Light My Candle").


title: Rent (film)

text: On Christmas Day, Mark and Roger are visited by Collins and Angel, now in full drag, bearing gifts ("Today 4 U"). They invite Mark and Roger to attend Life Support, an AIDS support group. Roger turns them down, while Mark goes to fix Maureen's sound equipment. He runs into Joanne, Maureen's new girlfriend, who bonds with him as they discuss Maureen's promiscuity ("Tango: Maureen"). Mark arrives at the Life Support meeting ("Life Support"). He films the meeting for the documentary that he's making about people living with HIV/AIDS.


title: Rent (film)

text: Mimi visits Roger ("Out Tonight"). Roger, whose ex-girlfriend died by suicide after discovering she (and Roger) were HIV positive, rebukes her advances and throws her out ("Another Day"). The next day, he joins Mark, Collins and Angel at a Life Support meeting ("Will I?"). Leaving the meeting, the group imagines what it would be like to move to Santa Fe, New Mexico ("Santa Fe"). Roger and Mark leave to help Maureen set up for her performance, and Angel and Collins reveal they are falling in love ("I'll Cover You"). Maureen performs her song that calls out Benny for changing who he was when he got married and blames him for trying to shut down the tent city ("Over the Moon"). The performance starts a riot because Benny called in police to make sure the protest stayed peaceful, but it escalated into violence. Once the protest is over, the group goes to The Life Cafe and celebrates Mark selling his riot footage to a local news station ("La Vie Bohème" or "La Vie Bohème A"). Roger and Mimi reveal they are falling for each other, and reveal they are HIV positive ("I Should Tell You"). They kiss, start a relationship and continue celebrating with their friends ("Viva La Vie Bohème!" or "La Vie Bohème B").


title: Rent (film)

text: On New Years Day, Benny has padlocked the apartment, but Angel breaks the lock with a garbage can. Mark takes a job at Buzzline, the television news program that he sold his riot footage to. After another fight, Maureen proposes to Joanne; the relationship ends when Maureen flirts with another woman at the engagement party ("Take Me or Leave Me"). After being persuaded by Mimi, his ex-girlfriend, Benny gives the group back their apartment. Over the following year, Roger grows distrustful of Mimi due to her massive usage of drugs, and their relationship ends ("Without You"). Angel becomes more ill and eventually succumbs to AIDS. At Angel's funeral on Halloween, the group goes their separate ways after a bitter argument, although Maureen and Joanne reconcile in the process ("I'll Cover You/Goodbye Love").


title: Rent (film)

text: Roger sells his guitar, buys a car, and moves to Santa Fe. He soon returns to New York because he still loves Mimi. Mark quits his job at Buzzline to pursue his own film ("What You Own").


title: Rent (film)

text: On Christmas Eve 1990, Mark and Roger reunite with Collins, who reveals that he has reprogrammed an ATM to dispense cash when someone inputs the code: A-N-G-E-L. Joanne and Maureen find Mimi on the streets, near death. Mimi and Roger reconcile, and he sings the song that he has written over the past year ("Finale A/Your Eyes"). Mimi appears to die but suddenly awakens. She tells them that she was heading to the light, but Angel told her to go back. As Mark's documentary is shown for the first time, the friends reaffirm that there is "no day but today" ("Finale B").


title: Rent (film)

text: In addition to four deleted scenes, the DVD release of the film includes an alternate ending, showing all the main characters (including Benny, who was not present in the other ending) except Angel standing in the positions where they were during the "Seasons of Love" opening, all standing in a line of spotlights, with Angel's spot empty. Later in the scene, she enters from the side and walks down the line to take her place, stopping as she passes Collins to take his hand for a moment. Although this tableau is used in the finale of the musical, it was dropped from the film for fear that audiences may have wondered why Angel had returned or why the characters were lined up on stage again. In the commentary, Chris Columbus adds that he "didn't want audiences to think that everything was okay and Angel was alive again."


title: Rent (film)

text: Rent: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2005 film of the same name. The two-disc soundtrack, containing 28 tracks, was originally packaged in eight different slipcovers, each featuring one of the eight most prominent characters in the film.


title: Rent (film)

text: In promotion for the film, Warner Brothers had dance remixes of several of the songs commissioned. These were sent to clubs, and were also made of available for purchase on CD and download.


title: Rent (film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 46% based on reviews from 175 critics, with an average rating of 5.90/10. The site's critic consensus reads, "Fans of the stage musical may forgive "Rent" its flaws, but weak direction, inescapable staginess and an irritating faux-boho pretension prevent the film from connecting on screen." On another review aggregator, Metacritic, the film received a score of 53 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Mantoux test

text: The Mantoux test or Mendel–Mantoux test (also known as the Mantoux screening test, tuberculin sensitivity test, Pirquet test, or PPD test for purified protein derivative) is a tool for screening for tuberculosis (TB) and for tuberculosis diagnosis. It is one of the major tuberculin skin tests used around the world, largely replacing multiple-puncture tests such as the tine test. The Heaf test, a form of tine test, was used until 2005 in the UK, when it was replaced by the Mantoux test. The Mantoux test is endorsed by the American Thoracic Society and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It was also used in the USSR and is now prevalent in most of the post-Soviet states.


title: Mantoux test

text: Tuberculin is a glycerol extract of the tubercle bacillus. Purified protein derivative (PPD) tuberculin is a precipitate of species-nonspecific molecules obtained from filtrates of sterilized, concentrated cultures. The tuberculin reaction was first described by Robert Koch in 1890. The test was first developed and described by the German physician Felix Mendel in 1908. It is named after Charles Mantoux, a French physician who built on the work of Koch and Clemens von Pirquet to create his test in 1907. However, the test was unreliable due to impurities in tuberculin which tended to cause false results.


title: Mantoux test

text: Esmond R. Long and Florence B. Seibert identified the active agent in tuberculin as a protein. Seibert then spent a number of years developing methods for separating and purifying the protein from "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", obtaining purified protein derivative (PPD) and enabling the creation of a reliable test for tuberculosis. Her first publication on the purification of tuberculin appeared in 1934. By the 1940s, Seibert's PPD was the international standard for tuberculin tests. In 1939, M. A. Linnikova in the USSR created a modified version of PPD. In 1954, the Soviet Union started mass production of PPD-L, named after Linnikova.


title: Mantoux test

text: In the Mantoux test, a standard dose of 5 tuberculin units (TU - 0.1 ml), according to the CDC, or 2 TU of Statens Serum Institute (SSI) tuberculin RT23 in 0.1 ml solution, according to the National Health Service, is injected intradermally (between the layers of dermis) on the flexor surface of the left forearm, mid-way between elbow and wrist. The injection should be made with a tuberculin syringe, with the needle bevel facing upward. When placed correctly, injection should produce a pale wheal of the skin, 6 to 10 mm in diameter. The result of the test is read after 48–96 hours but 72 hours (3rd day) is the ideal. This intradermal injection is termed the Mantoux technique. A person who has been exposed to the bacteria is expected to mount an immune response in the skin containing the bacterial proteins. The response is a classical example of delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction (DTH), a type IV of hypersensitivities. T cells and myeloid cells are attracted to the site of reaction in 1–3 days and generate local inflammation. The reaction is read by measuring the diameter of induration (palpable raised, hardened area) across the forearm (perpendicular to the long axis) in millimeters. If there is no induration, the result should be recorded as "0 mm". Erythema (redness) should not be measured. In the Pirquet version of the test tuberculin is applied to the skin via scarification.


title: Mantoux test

text: The results of this test must be interpreted carefully. The person's medical risk factors determine at which increment (5 mm, 10 mm, or 15 mm) of induration the result is considered positive. A positive result indicates TB exposure.


title: Mantoux test

text: A tuberculin test conversion is defined as an increase of 10 mm or more within a two-year period, regardless of age. Alternative criteria include increases of 6, 12, 15 or 18 mm.


title: Mantoux test

text: TST (tuberculin skin test) positive is measured by size of induration. The size of the induration considered to be a positive result depends on risk factors. For example, a low-risk patient must have a larger induration for a positive result than a high-risk patient. High-risk groups include recent contacts, those with HIV, those with chest radiograph with fibrotic changes, organ transplant recipients, and those with immunosuppression.


title: Mantoux test

text: According to the Ohio Department of Health and US Department of Health, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine does not protect against TB infection. It does, though, give 80% of children protection against tuberculous meningitis and miliary tuberculosis. Therefore, a positive TST/PPD in a person who has received BCG vaccine is interpreted as latent TB infection (LTBI).


title: Mantoux test

text: Due to the test's low specificity, most positive reactions in low-risk individuals are false positives. A false positive result may be caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria or previous administration of BCG vaccine. Vaccination with BCG may result in a false-positive result for many years after vaccination.


title: Mantoux test

text: False positives can also occur when the injected area is touched, causing swelling and itching. If the swelling is less than 5 mm, it is possibly due to error by the healthcare personnel causing inflammation to the area.


title: Mantoux test

text: Another source of false positive results can be allergic reaction or hypersensitivity. Although rare, (about 0.08 reported reactions per million doses of tuberculin), these reactions can be dangerous and precautions should be taken by having epinephrin available.


title: Mantoux test

text: This is because the immune system needs to be functional to mount a response to the protein derivative injected under the skin. A false negative result may occur in a person who has been recently infected with TB, but whose immune system hasn't yet reacted to the bacteria.


title: Mantoux test

text: In case a second tuberculin test is necessary it should be carried out in the other arm to avoid hypersensitising the skin.


title: Mantoux test

text: The role of Mantoux testing in people who have been vaccinated is disputed. The US recommends that tuberculin skin testing is not contraindicated for BCG-vaccinated persons, and prior BCG vaccination should not influence the interpretation of the test. The UK recommends that interferon-γ testing should be used to help interpret positive Mantoux tests of over 5mm, and repeated tuberculin skin testing must not be done in people who have had BCG vaccinations. In general, the US recommendation may result in a larger number of people being falsely diagnosed with latent tuberculosis, while the UK approach has an increased chance of missing patients with latent tuberculosis who should be treated.


title: Mantoux test

text: According to the US guidelines, latent tuberculosis infection diagnosis and treatment is considered for any BCG-vaccinated person whose skin test is 10 mm or greater, if any of these circumstances are present:


title: Mantoux test

text: In cases of anergy, a lack of reaction by the body's defence mechanisms when it comes into contact with foreign substances, the tuberculin reaction will occur weakly, thus compromising the value of Mantoux testing. For example, anergy is present in AIDS, a disease which strongly depresses the immune system. Therefore, anergy testing is advised in cases where there is suspicion that anergy is present. However, routine anergy skin testing is not recommended.


title: Mantoux test

text: Some people who have been infected with TB may have a negative reaction when tested years after infection, as the immune system response may gradually wane. This initial skin test, though negative, may stimulate (boost) the body's ability to react to tuberculin in future tests. Thus, a positive reaction to a subsequent test may be misinterpreted as a new infection, when in fact it is the result of the boosted reaction to an old infection.


title: Mantoux test

text: Use of two-step testing is recommended for initial skin testing of adults who will be retested periodically (e.g., health care workers). This ensures any future positive tests can be interpreted as being caused by a new infection, rather than simply a reaction to an old infection.


title: Mantoux test

text: A person who is diagnosed as "infected in the distant past" on two-step testing is called a "tuberculin reactor".


title: Mantoux test

text: The US recommendation that prior BCG vaccination be ignored results in almost universal false diagnosis of tuberculosis infection in people who have had BCG (mostly foreign nationals).


title: Mantoux test

text: According to the guidelines published by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2005, the results are re-categorized into 3 parts based on their previous or baseline outcomes:


title: Mantoux test

text: In addition to tuberculin skin tests such as (principally) the Mantoux test, interferon gamma release assays (IGRAs) have become common in clinical use in the 2010s. In some contexts they are used instead of TSTs, whereas in other contexts TSTs and IGRAs both continue to be useful.


title: Mantoux test

text: The QuantiFERON-TB Gold blood test measures the patient's immune reactivity to the TB bacterium, and is useful for initial and serial testing of persons with an increased risk of latent or active tuberculosis infection. Guidelines for its use were released by the CDC in December 2005. QuantiFERON-TB Gold is FDA-approved in the United States, has CE Mark approval in Europe and has been approved by the MHLW in Japan. The interferon gamma release assay is the preferred method for patients who have had immunosuppression and are about to start biological therapies.


title: Mantoux test

text: The Heaf tuberculin skin test was used in the United Kingdom, but discontinued in 2005. The equivalent Mantoux test positive levels done with 10 TU (0.1 ml at 100 TU/ml, 1:1000) are


title: Strange Fruit

text: "Strange Fruit" is a song written and composed by Abel Meeropol (under his pseudonym Lewis Allan) and recorded by Billie Holiday in 1939. The lyrics were drawn from a poem by Meeropol published in 1937. The song protests the lynching of Black Americans with lyrics that compare the victims to the fruit of trees. Such lynchings had reached a peak in the Southern United States at the turn of the 20th century and the great majority of victims were black. The song has been called "a declaration" and "the beginning of the civil rights movement".


title: Strange Fruit

text: Meeropol set his lyrics to music with his wife and the singer Laura Duncan and performed it as a protest song in New York City venues in the late 1930s, including Madison Square Garden. Holiday's version was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1978. It was also included in the "Songs of the Century" list of the Recording Industry of America and the National Endowment for the Arts.


title: Strange Fruit

text: In 2002, "Strange Fruit" was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant".


title: Strange Fruit

text: "Strange Fruit" originated as a poem written by the Jewish-American writer, teacher and songwriter Abel Meeropol, under his pseudonym Lewis Allan, as a protest against lynchings. In the poem, Meeropol expressed his horror at lynchings, inspired by Lawrence Beitler's photograph of the 1930 lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith in Marion, Indiana.


title: Strange Fruit

text: Meeropol published the poem under the title "Bitter Fruit" in January 1937 in "The New York Teacher", a union magazine of the Teachers Union. Though Meeropol had asked others (notably Earl Robinson) to set his poems to music, he set "Strange Fruit" to music himself. First performed by Meeropol's wife and their friends in social contexts, his protest song gained a certain success in and around New York. Meeropol, his wife, and the Black vocalist Laura Duncan performed it at Madison Square Garden.


title: Strange Fruit

text: One version of events claims that Barney Josephson, the founder of Café Society in Greenwich Village, New York's first integrated nightclub, heard the song and introduced it to Billie Holiday. Other reports say that Robert Gordon, who was directing Holiday's show at Café Society, heard the song at Madison Square Garden and introduced it to her. Holiday first performed the song at Café Society in 1939. She said that singing it made her fearful of retaliation but, because its imagery reminded her of her father, she continued to sing the piece, making it a regular part of her live performances. Because of the power of the song, Josephson drew up some rules: Holiday would close with it; the waiters would stop all service in advance; the room would be in darkness except for a spotlight on Holiday's face; and there would be no encore. During the musical introduction to the song, Holiday stood with her eyes closed, as if she were evoking a prayer.


title: Strange Fruit

text: Holiday approached her recording label, Columbia, about the song, but the company feared reaction by record retailers in the South, as well as negative reaction from affiliates of its co-owned radio network, CBS. When Holiday's producer John Hammond also refused to record it, she turned to her friend Milt Gabler, owner of the Commodore label. Holiday sang "Strange Fruit" for him "a cappella", and moved him to tears. Columbia gave Holiday a one-session release from her contract so she could record it; Frankie Newton's eight-piece Café Society Band was used for the session. Because Gabler worried the song was too short, he asked pianist Sonny White to improvise an introduction. On the recording, Holiday starts singing after 70 seconds. It was recorded on April 20, 1939. Gabler worked out a special arrangement with Vocalion Records to record and distribute the song.


title: Strange Fruit

text: Holiday recorded two major sessions of the song at Commodore, one in 1939 and one in 1944. The song was highly regarded; the 1939 recording eventually sold a million copies, in time becoming Holiday's biggest-selling recording.


title: Strange Fruit

text: In her 1956 autobiography, "Lady Sings the Blues", Holiday suggested that she, together with Meeropol, her accompanist Sonny White, and arranger Danny Mendelsohn, set the poem to music. The writers David Margolick and Hilton Als dismissed that claim in their work "Strange Fruit: The Biography of a Song", writing that hers was "an account that may set a record for most misinformation per column inch". When challenged, Holiday—whose autobiography had been ghostwritten by William Dufty—claimed, "I ain't never read that book."


title: Strange Fruit

text: Holiday was so well known for her rendition of "Strange Fruit" that "she crafted a relationship to the song that would make them inseparable". Holiday's 1939 version of the song was included in the National Recording Registry on January 27, 2003.