title: Condor (airline)

text: On 20 May 2021, Attestor Capital acquired 51% of the airline. It announced that it would provide 200 million euros of equity capital and will provide a further 250 million euros to modernise Condor's long-haul fleet. In July 2021, the European Commission found an aid package offered by the German State to Condor to be in line with EU State aid rules. The approval of the aid package worth in total US$240 million, and restructuring support of US$378.7 million, was intended enable Condor to return to viability.


title: Condor (airline)

text: On 28 July 2021, the airline announced an order of 16 Airbus A330-900 to replace its current fleet of Boeing 767-300ER.


title: Condor (airline)

text: In April 2022, Condor announced a major change to their corporate design including a revised logo and an entirely new aircraft livery composed of distinctive stripes in bold colors over the entire fuselage, replacing the former Thomas Cook design.


title: Condor (airline)

text: On 25 July 2022, the airline announced an order of 13 Airbus A320neo and 28 Airbus A321neo to replace its existing fleet of Airbus A320 family and Boeing 757-300.


title: Condor (airline)

text: Condor has been headquartered in Neu-Isenburg since 2020. It was previously based in Kelsterbach and later Frankfurt.


title: Condor (airline)

text: In January 2010, the airline broke ground on their then new headquarters in "Gateway Gardens", an office complex in Flughafen, Frankfurt, across the "Bundesautobahn 3" from Frankfurt Airport. 380 ground employees worked in the building, and pre-flight briefings for about 2,000 flight attendants were held in the building. Prior to its redevelopment, the land housed families stationed at a U.S. military base. Groß & Partner and OFB Projektentwicklung developed the seven-floor facility. The building is situated between the park and the central plaza, in the "Quartier Mondo" area of Gateway Gardens. It housed Condor's corporate headquarters, a training and education center with a flight simulator, and the airline's flight operations facility. of the facility included small units rented to other tenants and a café and restaurant on the building's first floor. The building opened in the spring of 2012. However, Condor left the complex in 2020 and rented cheaper offices in nearby Neu-Isenburg.


title: Condor (airline)

text: At the beginning of 1998, Condor founded "Condor Berlin GmbH" (CIB), a wholly owned subsidiary headquartered in Berlin-Schönefeld. It used the ICAO-Code "CIB" and operated on short and medium-haul routes with its Airbus A320-200 until its integration into the parent company on 1 May 2013.


title: Condor (airline)

text: Condor's Business Class is offered on all Boeing 767 aircraft. The seats (Zodiac Aerospace) convert to 170 degrees beds with in length and a standard seat pitch (in take off mode) of . The seats include power and USB outlets as well as a screen for in-flight entertainment.


title: Condor (airline)

text: The long-haul version (offered on all Boeing 767) offers regular economy class seats from German manufacturer "ZIM FLUGSITZ" with more legroom ( seat pitch).


title: Condor (airline)

text: Condor's long-haul Economy Class is offered on all Boeing 767 aircraft. All seats have a seat pitch with a width. The middle seats are slightly wider () than non-middle seats.


title: Condor (airline)

text: A personal monitor is available at every seat in all long-haul cabins, giving passengers access to roughly 30 movies, more than 50 TV series, 24 radio channels, and hundreds of audio music of all genres. All entertainment content is available to passengers in Business and Premium Economy Class. However, Economy Class passengers have only limited access without an upgrade fee. They have access to one movie, one TV episode, and the full music library and radio stations.


title: Republicanism

text: Republicanism is a political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic. Historically, it emphasises the idea of self-rule and ranges from the rule of a representative minority or oligarchy to popular sovereignty. It has had different definitions and interpretations which vary significantly based on historical context and methodological approach.


title: Republicanism

text: Republicanism may also refer to the non-ideological scientific approach to politics and governance. As the republican thinker and second president of the United States John Adams stated in the introduction to his famous "A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America," the "science of politics is the science of social happiness" and a republic is the form of government arrived at when the science of politics is appropriately applied to the creation of a rationally designed government. Rather than being ideological, this approach focuses on applying a scientific methodology to the problems of governance through the rigorous study and application of past experience and experimentation in governance. This is the approach that may best be described to apply to republican thinkers such as Niccolò Machiavelli (as evident in his "Discourses on Livy"), John Adams, and James Madison.


title: Republicanism

text: The word "republic" derives from the Latin noun-phrase "res publica" (public thing), which referred to the system of government that emerged in the 6th century BCE following the expulsion of the kings from Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus and Collatinus.


title: Republicanism

text: This form of government in the Roman state collapsed in the latter part of the 1st century BCE, giving way to what was a monarchy in form, if not in name. Republics recurred subsequently, with, for example, Renaissance Florence or early modern Britain. The concept of a republic became a powerful force in Britain's North American colonies, where it contributed to the American Revolution. In Europe, it gained enormous influence through the French Revolution and through the First French Republic of 1792–1804.


title: Republicanism

text: In Ancient Greece, several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as classical republicanism. Traditionally, the Greek concept of "politeia" was rendered into Latin as res publica. Consequently, political theory until relatively recently often used republic in the general sense of "regime". There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic" but most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle, and Polybius. These include theories of mixed government and of civic virtue. For example, in "The Republic", Plato places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue (aiming for the good) together with personal virtue ('just man') on the part of the ideal rulers. Indeed, in Book V, Plato asserts that until rulers have the nature of philosophers (Socrates) or philosophers become the rulers, there can be no civic peace or happiness.


title: Republicanism

text: A number of Ancient Greek city-states such as Athens and Sparta have been classified as "classical republics", because they featured extensive participation by the citizens in legislation and political decision-making. Aristotle considered Carthage to have been a republic as it had a political system similar to that of some of the Greek cities, notably Sparta, but avoided some of the defects that affected them.


title: Republicanism

text: Both Livy, a Roman historian, and Plutarch, who is noted for his biographies and moral essays, described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from a "kingdom" to a "republic", by following the example of the Greeks. Some of this history, composed more than 500 years after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, may be fictitious reconstruction.


title: Republicanism

text: The Greek historian Polybius, writing in the mid-2nd century BCE, emphasized (in Book 6) the role played by the Roman Republic as an institutional form in the dramatic rise of Rome's hegemony over the Mediterranean. In his writing on the constitution of the Roman Republic, Polybius described the system as being a "mixed" form of government. Specifically, Polybius described the Roman system as a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy with the Roman Republic constituted in such a manner that it applied the strengths of each system to offset the weaknesses of the others. In his view, the mixed system of the Roman Republic provided the Romans with a much greater level of domestic tranquility than would have been experienced under another form of government. Furthermore, Polybius argued, the comparative level of domestic tranquility the Romans enjoyed allowed them to conquer the Mediterranean. Polybius exerted a great influence on Cicero as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BCE. In one of these works, "De re publica", Cicero linked the Roman concept of "res publica" to the Greek "politeia".


title: Republicanism

text: The modern term "republic", despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman "res publica". Among the several meanings of the term "res publica", it is most often translated "republic" where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state, and its form of government, between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors. This Roman Republic would, by a modern understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic, even if not coinciding entirely. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system because it included features like a systematic separation of powers.


title: Republicanism

text: Romans still called their state "Res Publica" in the era of the early emperors because, on the surface, the organization of the state had been preserved by the first emperors without significant alteration. Several offices from the Republican era, held by individuals, were combined under the control of a single person. These changes became permanent, and gradually conferred sovereignty on the Emperor.


title: Republicanism

text: Cicero's description of the ideal state, in "De re Publica", does not equate to a modern-day "republic"; it is more like enlightened absolutism. His philosophical works were influential when Enlightenment philosophers such as Voltaire developed their political concepts.


title: Republicanism

text: In its classical meaning, a republic was any stable well-governed political community. Both Plato and Aristotle identified three forms of government: democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. First Plato and Aristotle, and then Polybius and Cicero, held that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government. The writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion.


title: Republicanism

text: Cicero expressed reservations concerning the republican form of government. While in his "theoretical" works he defended monarchy, or at least a mixed monarchy/oligarchy, in his own political life, he generally opposed men, like Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Octavian, who were trying to realise such ideals. Eventually, that opposition led to his death and Cicero can be seen as a victim of his own Republican ideals.


title: Republicanism

text: Tacitus, a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether a form of government could be analyzed as a "republic" or a "monarchy". He analyzed how the powers accumulated by the early Julio-Claudian dynasty were all given by a State that was still notionally a republic. Nor was the Roman Republic "forced" to give away these powers: it did so freely and reasonably, certainly in Augustus' case, because of his many services to the state, freeing it from civil wars and disorder.


title: Republicanism

text: Tacitus was one of the first to ask whether such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens wanted to give them, or whether they were given for other reasons (for example, because one had a deified ancestor). The latter case led more easily to abuses of power. In Tacitus' opinion, the trend away from a true republic was "irreversible" only when Tiberius established power, shortly after Augustus' death in 14 CE (much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome). By this time, too many principles defining some powers as "untouchable" had been implemented.


title: Republicanism

text: In Europe, republicanism was revived Europe was divided, such that those states controlled by a landed elite were monarchies, and those controlled by a commercial elite were republics. The latter included the Italian city-states of Florence, Genoa, and Venice and members of the Hanseatic League. One notable exception was Dithmarschen, a group of largely autonomous villages, which confederated in a peasants' republic. Building upon concepts of medieval feudalism, Renaissance scholars used the ideas of the ancient world to advance their view of an ideal government. Thus the republicanism developed during the Renaissance is known as 'classical republicanism' because it relied on classical models. This terminology was developed by Zera Fink in the 1940s, but some modern scholars, such as Brugger, consider it confuses the "classical republic" with the system of government used in the ancient world. 'Early modern republicanism' has been proposed as an alternative term. It is also sometimes called civic humanism. Beyond simply a non-monarchy, early modern thinkers conceived of an "ideal" republic, in which mixed government was an important element, and the notion that virtue and the common good were central to good government. Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of liberty.


title: Republicanism

text: Renaissance authors who spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While Niccolò Machiavelli's "Discourses on Livy" is the period's key work on republics, he also wrote the treatise "The Prince," which is better remembered and more widely read, on how best to run a monarchy. The early modern writers did not see the republican model as universally applicable; most thought that it could be successful only in very small and highly urbanized city-states. Jean Bodin in "Six Books of the Commonwealth" (1576) identified monarchy with republic.


title: Republicanism

text: Classical writers like Tacitus, and Renaissance writers like Machiavelli tried to avoid an outspoken preference for one government system or another. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, expressed a clear opinion. Thomas More, writing before the Age of Enlightenment, was too outspoken for the reigning king's taste, even though he coded his political preferences in a utopian allegory.


title: Republicanism

text: In England a type of republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy; thinkers such as Thomas More and Sir Thomas Smith saw a monarchy, firmly constrained by law, as compatible with republicanism.


title: Republicanism

text: Anti-monarchism became more strident in the Dutch Republic during and after the Eighty Years' War, which began in 1568. This anti-monarchism was more propaganda than a political philosophy; most of the anti-monarchist works appeared in the form of widely distributed pamphlets. This evolved into a systematic critique of monarchy, written by men such as the brothers Johan and Peter de la Court. They saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. These authors were more concerned with preventing the position of Stadholder from evolving into a monarchy, than with attacking their former rulers. Dutch republicanism also influenced French Huguenots during the Wars of Religion. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate.


title: Republicanism

text: In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, republicanism was the influential ideology. After the establishment of the Commonwealth of Two Nations, republicans supported the status quo, of having a very weak monarch, and opposed those who thought a stronger monarchy was needed. These mostly Polish republicans, such as Łukasz Górnicki, Andrzej Wolan, and Stanisław Konarski, were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a republic on the Roman model, and started to call their state the Rzeczpospolita. Atypically, Polish–Lithuanian republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial class, but rather of the landed nobility, which would lose power if the monarchy were expanded. This resulted in an oligarchy of the great landed magnates.


title: Republicanism

text: Victor Hugues, Jean-Baptiste Raymond de Lacrosse and Nicolas Xavier de Ricard were prominent supporters of republicanism for various Caribbean islands. Edwin Sandys, William Sayle and George Tucker all supported the islands becoming republics, particularly Bermuda. Julien Fédon and Joachim Philip led the republican Fédon's rebellion between 2 March 1795 and 19 June 1796, an uprising against British rule in Grenada.


title: Republicanism

text: The first of the Enlightenment republics established in Europe during the eighteenth century occurred in the small Mediterranean island of Corsica. Although perhaps an unlikely place to act as a laboratory for such political experiments, Corsica combined a number of factors that made it unique: a tradition of village democracy; varied cultural influences from the Italian city-states, Spanish empire and Kingdom of France which left it open to the ideas of the Italian Renaissance, Spanish humanism and French Enlightenment; and a geo-political position between these three competing powers which led to frequent power vacuums in which new regimes could be set up, testing out the fashionable new ideas of the age.


title: Republicanism

text: From the 1720s the island had been experiencing a series of short-lived but ongoing rebellions against its current sovereign, the Italian city-state of Genoa. During the initial period (1729–36) these merely sought to restore the control of the Spanish Empire; when this proved impossible, an independent Kingdom of Corsica (1736–40) was proclaimed, following the Enlightenment ideal of a written constitutional monarchy. But the perception grew that the monarchy had colluded with the invading power, a more radical group of reformers led by the Pasquale Paoli pushed for political overhaul, in the form of a constitutional and parliamentary republic inspired by the popular ideas of the Enlightenment.


title: Republicanism

text: Its governing philosophy was both inspired by the prominent thinkers of the day, notably the French philosophers Montesquieu and Voltaire and the Swiss theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Not only did it include a permanent national parliament with fixed-term legislatures and regular elections, but, more radically for the time, it introduced universal male suffrage, and it is thought to be the first constitution in the world to grant women the right to vote female suffrage may also have existed. It also extended Enlightened principles to other spheres, including administrative reform, the foundation of a national university at Corte, and the establishment of a popular standing army.


title: Republicanism

text: The Corsican Republic lasted for fifteen years, from 1755 to 1769, eventually falling to a combination of Genoese and French forces and was incorporated as a province of the Kingdom of France. But the episode resonated across Europe as an early example of Enlightened constitutional republicanism, with many of the most prominent political commentators of the day recognising it to be an experiment in a new type of popular and democratic government. Its influence was particularly notable among the French Enlightenment philosophers: Rousseau's famous work On the Social Contract (1762: chapter 10, book II) declared, in its discussion on the conditions necessary for a functional popular sovereignty, that ""There is still one European country capable of making its own laws: the island of Corsica. valour and persistency with which that brave people has regained and defended its liberty well deserves that some wise man should teach it how to preserve what it has won. I have a feeling that some day that little island will astonish Europe"."; indeed Rousseau volunteered to do precisely that, offering a draft constitution for Paoli'se use. Similarly, Voltaire affirmed in his "Précis du siècle de Louis XV" (1769: chapter LX) that ""Bravery may be found in many places, but such bravery only among free peoples"". But the influence of the Corsican Republic as an example of a sovereign people fighting for liberty and enshrining this constitutionally in the form of an Enlightened republic was even greater among the Radicals of Great Britain and North America, where it was popularised via An Account of Corsica, by the Scottish essayist James Boswell. The Corsican Republic went on to influence the American revolutionaries ten years later: the Sons of Liberty, initiators of the American Revolution, would declare Pascal Paoli to be a direct inspiration for their own struggle against the British; the son of Ebenezer Mackintosh was named Pascal Paoli Mackintosh in his honour, and no fewer than five American counties are named Paoli for the same reason.


title: Republicanism

text: Oliver Cromwell set up a Christian republic called the Commonwealth of England (1649–1660) which he ruled after the overthrow of King Charles I. James Harrington was then a leading philosopher of republicanism. John Milton was another important Republican thinker at this time, expressing his views in political tracts as well as through poetry and prose. In his epic poem "Paradise Lost", for instance, Milton uses Satan's fall to suggest that unfit monarchs should be brought to justice, and that such issues extend beyond the constraints of one nation. As Christopher N. Warren argues, Milton offers “a language to critique imperialism, to question the legitimacy of dictators, to defend free international discourse, to fight unjust property relations, and to forge new political bonds across national lines.” This form of international Miltonic republicanism has been influential on later thinkers including 19th-century radicals Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, according to Warren and other historians.


title: Republicanism

text: The collapse of the Commonwealth of England in 1660 and the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II discredited republicanism among England's ruling circles. Nevertheless, they welcomed the liberalism, and emphasis on rights, of John Locke, which played a major role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Even so, republicanism flourished in the "country" party of the early 18th century (commonwealthmen), which denounced the corruption of the "court" party, producing a political theory that heavily influenced the American colonists. In general, the English ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, typified by the attacks on John Wilkes, and especially on the American Revolution and the French Revolution.


title: Republicanism

text: French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers, such as Voltaire, Baron Charles de Montesquieu and later Jean-Jacques Rousseau, expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic should be: some of their new ideas were scarcely traceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Concepts they contributed, or heavily elaborated, were social contract, positive law, and mixed government. They also borrowed from, and distinguished republicanism from, the ideas of liberalism that were developing at the same time.


title: Republicanism

text: Liberalism and republicanism were frequently conflated during this period, because they both opposed absolute monarchy. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. An important distinction is that, while republicanism stressed the importance of civic virtue and the common good, liberalism was based on economics and individualism. It is clearest in the matter of private property, which, according to some, can be maintained only under the protection of established positive law.


title: Republicanism

text: Jules Ferry, Prime Minister of France from 1880 to 1885, followed both these schools of thought. He eventually enacted the Ferry Laws, which he intended to overturn the Falloux Laws by embracing the anti-clerical thinking of the "Philosophes". These laws ended the Catholic Church's involvement in many government institutions in late 19th-century France, including schools.


title: Republicanism

text: In recent years a debate has developed over the role of republicanism in the American Revolution and in the British radicalism of the 18th century. For many decades the consensus was that liberalism, especially that of John Locke, was paramount and that republicanism had a distinctly secondary role.


title: Republicanism

text: The new interpretations were pioneered by J.G.A. Pocock, who argued in "The Machiavellian Moment" (1975) that, at least in the early 18th century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is now widely accepted. Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Wood pioneered the argument that the American founding fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University professor Isaac Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean. Joyce Appleby has argued similarly for the Lockean influence on America.


title: Republicanism

text: In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for models of good government. They especially followed the development of republican ideas in England. Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:


title: Republicanism

text: The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a monied interest – though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement. A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and the rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and intellectual homogeneity of the Founding Fathers and their generation.


title: Republicanism

text: The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made the American Revolution inevitable. Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and as a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed.


title: Republicanism

text: Leopold von Ranke in 1848 claimed that American republicanism played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism:


title: Republicanism

text: By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based on the rights of the individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they have found adequate concrete expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world... Up to this point, the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the interests of the nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself. But only after a state had actually been formed on the basis of the theory of representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. All later revolutionary movements have this same goal... This was the complete reversal of a principle. Until then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center around which everything turned. Now the idea emerged that power should come from below... These two principles are like two opposite poles, and it is the conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe the conflict between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French Revolution it did.


title: Republicanism

text: Republicanism, especially that of Rousseau, played a central role in the French Revolution and foreshadowed modern republicanism. The revolutionaries, after overthrowing the French monarchy in the 1790s, began by setting up a republic; Napoleon converted it into an Empire with a new aristocracy. In the 1830s Belgium adopted some of the innovations of the progressive political philosophers of the Enlightenment.


title: Republicanism

text: "Républicanisme" is a French version of modern republicanism. It is a form of social contract, deduced from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's idea of a general will. Each citizen is engaged in a direct relationship with the state, removing the need for identity politics based on local, religious, or racial identification.


title: Republicanism

text: "Républicanisme", in theory, makes anti-discrimination laws unnecessary, though some critics may argue that in republics also, colour-blind laws serve to perpetuate discrimination.


title: Republicanism

text: Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in 1791 in Belfast and Dublin. The inaugural meeting of the United Irishmen in Belfast on 18 October 1791 approved a declaration of the society's objectives. It identified the central grievance that Ireland had no national government: "...we are ruled by Englishmen, and the servants of Englishmen, whose object is the interest of another country, whose instrument is corruption, and whose strength is the weakness of Ireland..." They adopted three central positions: (i) to seek out a cordial union among all the people of Ireland, to maintain that balance essential to preserve liberties and extend commerce; (ii) that the sole constitutional mode by which English influence can be opposed, is by a complete and radical reform of the representation of the people in Parliament; (iii) that no reform is practicable or efficacious, or just which shall not include Irishmen of every religious persuasion. The declaration, then, urged constitutional reform, union among Irish people and the removal of all religious disqualifications.


title: Republicanism

text: The movement was influenced, at least in part, by the French Revolution. Public interest, already strongly aroused, was brought to a pitch by the publication in 1790 of Edmund Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France", and Thomas Paine's response, "Rights of Man", in February 1791. Theobald Wolfe Tone wrote later that, "This controversy, and the gigantic event which gave rise to it, changed in an instant the politics of Ireland." Paine himself was aware of this commenting on sales of Part I of "Rights of Man" in November 1791, only eight months after publication of the first edition, he informed a friend that in England "almost sixteen thousand has gone off – and in Ireland above forty thousand". Paine may have been inclined to talk up sales of his works but what is striking in this context is that Paine believed that Irish sales were so far ahead of English ones before Part II had appeared. On 5 June 1792, Thomas Paine, author of the "Rights of Man" was proposed for honorary membership of the Dublin Society of the United Irishmen.


title: Republicanism

text: The fall of the Bastille was to be celebrated in Belfast on 14 July 1791 by a Volunteer meeting. At the request of Thomas Russell, Tone drafted suitable resolutions for the occasion, including one favouring the inclusion of Catholics in any reforms. In a covering letter to Russell, Tone wrote, "I have not said one word that looks like a wish for separation, though I give it to you and your friends as my most decided opinion that such an event would be a regeneration of their country". By 1795, Tone's republicanism and that of the society had openly crystallized when he tells us: "I remember particularly two days thae we passed on Cave Hill. On the first Russell, Neilson, Simms, McCracken and one or two more of us, on the summit of McArt's fort, took a solemn obligation...never to desist in our efforts until we had subverted the authority of England over our country and asserted her independence."


title: Republicanism

text: The culmination was an uprising against British rule in Ireland lasting from May to September 1798 – the Irish Rebellion of 1798 – with military support from revolutionary France in August and again October 1798. After the failure of the rising of 1798 the United Irishman, John Daly Burk, an émigré in the United States in his " The History of the Late War in Ireland" written in 1799, was most emphatic in its identification of the Irish, French and American causes.


title: Republicanism

text: During the Enlightenment, anti-monarchism extended beyond the civic humanism of the Renaissance. Classical republicanism, still supported by philosophers such as Rousseau and Montesquieu, was only one of several theories seeking to limit the power of monarchies rather than directly opposing them.


title: Republicanism

text: Liberalism and socialism departed from classical republicanism and fueled the development of the more modern republicanism.


title: Republicanism

text: Neorepublicanism is the effort by current scholars to draw on a classical republican tradition in the development of an attractive public philosophy intended for contemporary purposes. Neorepublicanism emerges as an alternative postsocialist critique of market society from the left.


title: Republicanism

text: Prominent theorists in this movement are Philip Pettit and Cass Sunstein, who have each written several works defining republicanism and how it differs from liberalism. Michael Sandel, a late convert to republicanism from communitarianism, advocates replacing or supplementing liberalism with republicanism, as outlined in his "Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy."


title: Republicanism

text: Contemporary work from a neorepublican include jurist K. Sabeel Rahman's book "Democracy Against Domination", which seeks to create a neorepublican framework for economic regulation grounded in the thought of Louis Brandeis and John Dewey and popular control, in contrast to both New Deal-style managerialism and neoliberal deregulation. Philosopher Elizabeth Anderson's "Private Government" traces the history of republican critiques of private power, arguing that the classical free market policies of the 18th and 19th centuries intended to help workers only lead to their domination by employers. In "From Slavery to the Cooperative Commonwealth," political scientist Alex Gourevitch examines a strain of late 19th century American republicanism known as labour republicanism that was the producerist labour union The Knights of Labor, and how republican concepts were used in service of workers rights, but also with a strong critique of the role of that union in supporting the Chinese Exclusion Act.


title: Republicanism

text: In the late 18th century there was convergence of democracy and republicanism. Republicanism is a system that replaces or accompanies inherited rule. There is an emphasis on liberty, and a rejection of corruption. It strongly influenced the American Revolution and the French Revolution in the 1770s and 1790s, respectively. Republicans, in these two examples, tended to reject inherited elites and aristocracies, but left open two questions: whether a republic, to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an unelected upper chamber—perhaps with members appointed as meritorious experts—and whether it should have a constitutional monarch.


title: Republicanism

text: Though conceptually separate from democracy, republicanism included the key principles of rule by consent of the governed and sovereignty of the people. In effect, republicanism held that kings and aristocracies were not the real rulers, but rather the whole people were. Exactly "how" the people were to rule was an issue of democracy: republicanism itself did not specify a means. In the United States, the solution was the creation of political parties that reflected the votes of the people and controlled the government (see Republicanism in the United States). In Federalist No. 10, James Madison rejected democracy in favor of republicanism. There were similar debates in many other democratizing nations.


title: Republicanism

text: In contemporary usage, the term "democracy" refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. Today the term "republic" usually refers to representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, who serves for a limited term; in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies, with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister.


title: Republicanism

text: The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which they equated with mob rule; James Madison argued that what distinguished a "democracy" from a "republic" was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combatted faction by its very structure. What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government should be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." Thomas Jefferson warned that "an elective despotism is not the government we fought for." Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny." They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities."


title: Republicanism

text: Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited, or eventually merely symbolic, powers. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in France, China, Iran, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt). In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries the monarch, or its representative, is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost much power (as the UK House of Lords), or else became elective and remained powerful.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Richie Rich (stylized as Ri¢hie Ri¢h) is a 1994 American comedy film directed by Donald Petrie and based on the comic character of the same name created by Alfred Harvey and Warren Kremer. The film was distributed by Warner Bros. under their Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label. The film stars Macaulay Culkin (in his final film as a child actor until he began work as an adult actor in 2003), John Larroquette, Edward Herrmann, Jonathan Hyde, and Christine Ebersole, while Reggie Jackson, Claudia Schiffer, and Ben Stein appear in cameo roles. Culkin's younger brother, Rory Culkin, played the part of Young Richie Rich. In theaters, the film was shown with a Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner cartoon called "Chariots of Fur", and it was followed by the 1998 direct-to-video sequel "Richie Rich's Christmas Wish".


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Richard "Richie" Rich, Jr. is "the world's richest boy", the son of billionaire businessman and philanthropist, Richard Sr. Richie has only his loyal butler, Herbert Cadbury, the family's lead scientist Professor Keenbean, and his dog Dollar as companions and lacks any friends his own age. At a dedication to the reopening of the United Tool production plant, Richie encounters a group of sandlot kids playing baseball. Unfortunately, before he is able to talk to them, the overly-strict head of security, Ferguson, stops Richie and sharply pulls him away.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Meanwhile, the greedy CFO of Rich Industries Lawrence Van Dough is plotting to steal the Rich financial fortune, believed to be stored in the Rich family vault. Van Dough, with the help of Ferguson, plots to blow up the plane carrying the Rich family to England.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: After a failed attempt on Richie's part to make friends with the sandlot kids, Cadbury makes a suggestion to Richie's mother Regina and arranges for Richie to stay home in Chicago for a weekend of fun with the sandlot kids. The kids were initially offered a bribe by Cadbury to come to the manor, but they end up having so much fun with Richie that they decline the offer when they leave.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: During the plane trip to England, the bomb Van Dough ordered planted is discovered by chance among the many presents they mean to deliver to the Queen. Upon realizing what it is, Richard is able to toss it out his window, but the bomb detonates while still near the plane, destroying part of the tail, sending their plane, "Billion Dollar One," into the ocean. Richard and Regina survive the crash and float on a life raft. While initially upset that Richie wasn't on the plane, Van Dough is undeterred and, believing Richie's parents to be dead, assumes leadership of Rich Corporation, and proceeds to cut the many charitable contributions the Rich family were known for. This includes closing the recently reopened United Tool factory, which the parents of the sandlot kids relied upon for their income. This angers Richie, and so with the encouragement and assistance of Cadbury, he proceeds to the company headquarters and, as a living Rich family member, assumes the leadership position.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Van Dough, however, sees this as a minor setback: as Richie is still underage, his ability to run the business is dependent on Cadbury as his legal guardian and business proxy. To rectify this, he has Cadbury framed for the Rich family's apparent murder when bomb parts are found in his room, and most of the Rich family's other loyal servants are fired "en masse" by Van Dough's edict. To ensure he doesn't somehow get released, Van Dough plots to have Cadbury murdered in jail and make it look like a suicide. When Professor Keenbean eavesdrops on their conversation, he manages to sneak Richie out and enact a successful plan to help Cadbury escape from prison just as a hulking hitman arrives to murder Cadbury. Cadbury surprisingly, is able to knock out the hitman as he is extremely irritated due to his sensitive teeth. Cadbury and Richie then make their way to the house of Gloria, the only female member of the sandlot kids, where her mother Diane tends to Cadbury, and Richie uses Gloria's computer to hack into the Dadlink's mainframe at Rich Manor, which is a device created by Keenbean that Richard and Richie use to communicate from anywhere in the world.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: During this time, Van Dough finds out about Cadbury's escape and, with Ferguson's help, confronts Keenbean to the point where he reveals that the lock to the Rich family vault is voice-activated by Richard and Regina. Richard manages to send out a distress code on his repaired Dadlink, but the signal is intercepted by Ferguson, who disconnects Richie's modem from the phone line and then informs Van Dough that Richie's parents are alive. Richie and Gloria rally the other sandlot kids to break back into Rich Manor.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Van Dough manages to track Richard and Regina down and is eventually led to Mount Richmore, a gigantic mountainside-sculpture of the three Rich members' heads where the vault is located and forces them to open it. All the time assuming this was where the Rich family fortune was located, he is furious and outraged when he sees that the vault holds what the Rich family actually values most: precious mementos, keepsake treasures and family heirlooms. The vault contains no money at all, which is actually/realistically invested in banks, stocks, real estate, and insurance companies. Desperate to get the money, he attempts to shoot Richard and Regina, only for Richie to appear in the nick of time and interfere and is shot at instead, though the bullets prove harmless thanks to Keenbean's bulletproof spray. The Rich family manages to get away and the chase leads them down the side of the mountain, where they are under further attack by Ferguson and a rock-blasting laser that had originally been used to sculpt the mountain/vault. After a brief fight, Cadbury finally succeeds in disarming Ferguson and Van Dough is fired. Meanwhile, the sandlot kids use Keenbean's various inventions to incapacitate Van Dough's men.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Days later, Richie plays baseball with his new friends for the United Tool team on the Rich Manor's yard, with Cadbury as team coach. He hits a home run that is picked up by Van Dough, who is gardening with Ferguson as part of their work release and bitterly tosses the baseball into the fountain. Richard and Regina blissfully state that Richie really is the richest boy in the world now, as he has finally found the one thing that money can't buy: friends.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Though set in Chicago, the house and grounds at which most of "Richie Rich" is filmed are those of the Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina. Some scenes, however, are filmed in Chicago, including a fencing scene filmed at DePaul University's Cortelyou Commons. The roller coaster in the backyard is the former stand-up roller coaster Iron Wolf at Six Flags Great America. In contrast to the famous publication and animated series, a few characters are eliminated to accommodate the movie: among them are Irona the robot maid.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: Data East was one of few regular pinball companies that manufactured custom pinball games e.g. for the movie "Richie Rich". This pinball machine was based on "The Who's Tommy Pinball Wizard" machine.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: The movie has been met with mixed reception. A Los Angeles Times reviewer praised the actors' portrayal of characters in the film. Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars saying he was surprised how much he enjoyed it and said that though it was not the greatest movie, he liked that it had style and did not go for cheap payoffs. "Richie Rich" earned a Razzie Award nomination for Macaulay Culkin as Worst Actor for his performance in the movie (also for "Getting Even with Dad" and "The Pagemaster") but lost the award to Kevin Costner for "Wyatt Earp".


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: The movie received a 26% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 23 reviews, with the sites critical consensus reading "With Macaulay Culkin barely registering any emotion, "Richie Rich" feels disjointed and free of a sense of fun and wonderment". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: The film grossed $38 million at the box office in the United States and Canada and the same internationally for a worldwide total of $76 million on a $40 million budget. It was an even bigger home video success, with $125 million in VHS rentals and, , $44.2 million in retail sales, the studio receiving 75%.


title: Richie Rich (film)

text: "Richie Rich's Christmas Wish" is a 1998 direct-to-video sequel starring David Gallagher in the titular role.


title: William Poole

text: William Poole (July 24, 1821 – March 8, 1855), also known as Bill the Butcher, was the leader of the Washington Street Gang, which later became known as the Bowery Boys gang. He was a local leader of the Know Nothing political movement in mid-19th-century New York City.


title: William Poole

text: Poole was born in Sussex County, New Jersey to parents of English descent. In 1832, his family moved to New York City to open a butcher shop in Washington Market, Manhattan. Poole trained in his father's trade and eventually took over the family store. In the 1840s, he worked with the Howard (Red Rover) Volunteer Fire Engine Company #34, on Hudson and Christopher Streets, and started the Washington Street Gang which later became the Bowery Boys. During this period in New York fires were a huge problem for the city. Volunteer fire groups, such as the one Poole was in, were important for keeping fires under control. These firefighting groups were closely tied with street gangs and were seen as a public service provided by those groups. There were rivalries between the fire companies to put fires down in the neighborhood. One of the strategies that Bowery Boys used to ensure that other fire engine companies could not put out the fires was once hearing the alarm sound a Bowery Boy would find the nearest fire hydrant to the fire and flip over an empty barrel over the fire hydrant and sit on the barrel, so it could not be seen or used. The Bowery Boy would sit on the barrel until his own fire engine arrived; however, fights over the fire hydrant would break out, and sometimes the Bowery Boys had no time to actually extinguish the fire.


title: William Poole

text: William Poole was a large man for the time. He weighed over two hundred pounds and was about six feet tall. He was known for his brutal boxing style: "He was well known as being a notoriously dirty fighter, not averse to biting off noses, gouging out eyeballs, or beating a man to jelly." He fought in many fights that were considered illegal due to the brutality of bare-knuckle boxing. He was also a known skilled knife fighter, as a result of his profession as a butcher. Poole was a known gambler and a heavy drinker. He closed his family's butchery business in the 1850s and opened a drinking saloon, known as the "Bank Exchange".


title: William Poole

text: Street gangs in New York were fluid in their membership and name as they merged and found new leaders. The most well-known of these was the Bowery Boys, which Poole formed from his own Washington Street gang and a collection of many other street gangs. Other key gangs incorporated into the Bowery Boys were the American Guards, Atlantic Guards, True Blue Americans, and the Order of the Star-Spangled Guard. These gangs were composed of Nativist White Anglo-Saxon Protestants who were opposed to enfranchisement of the growing number of Irish Catholic refugees from the Great Famine. Street gangs, like the Bowery Boys, "were bound by ethnic ties or nativist belief; the members tended to be deeply patriotic, and a common thread was the belief that the country was pretty well full, so that newcomers were not welcomed." Poole's gang was located near to the Five Points neighborhood, where many recent Irish Catholic immigrants settled. Five Points was located in what is now Chinatown in Lower Manhattan. Waves of Irish- and German-Americans moved into the Five Points as their first stop on the way to the American dream. In response to attacks by Poole and his followers, the Irish created their own street gangs. The Dead Rabbits were an Irish-membership gang and the biggest rival of Poole's Bowery Boys. Much of the hatred between the two gangs was based on racial and religious differences. "For years the Bowery Boys and the Dead Rabbits waged a bitter feud, and a week seldom passed in which they did not come to blows, either along the Bowery, in the Five Points section." Both gangs were primarily brawlers and street fighters, another reason why William Poole was a well-known fighter, and most of their battling was done in open spaces. Poole made many alliances with other street gangs that supported his ideology.


title: William Poole

text: William Poole detested the Democratic Party's local political machine, Tammany Hall, because they accepted and included immigrants as members. Tammany Hall-affiliated street gangs also protected Irish Catholics from Poole's Bowery Boys, whom he sent to terrorize immigrants and keep them from registering to vote. Poole and the Bowery Boys were a de facto extension of the Know Nothings, a nativist and militantly anti-Catholic political party. According to the "New Orleans True Delta", the purpose of the Know Nothings was "twofold – part religious, part political; and the ends aimed at the disenfranchisement of adopted citizens, and their exclusion from office, and perpetual war upon the Catholic religion." Originally, the Know Nothings were known as the Native American Party, but changed their name in 1855. Members of the Know Nothing Party had to "be a native-born citizen, of native-born parents, and not of the Catholic religion". The goal was to organize native-born White Anglo-Saxon Protestants to defend and preserve their religion and control of American politics from enfranchised Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and their descendants.


title: William Poole

text: Poole was nominated by the Whig party in April 1848 as a candidate for alderman, representing the Sixth Ward. Poole fared poorly in the general election, receiving only 199 votes and tying for last place with his ticket-mate against four other candidates.


title: William Poole

text: In February of 1853, Poole was appointed to represent the Sixth Ward on the New York City Board of Education.


title: William Poole

text: As a well-known gang leader and pugilist, Poole was frequently involved in fights, brawls, and other confrontations. The "New York Daily Times" reported the following on October 23, 1851:


title: William Poole

text: Poole's arch rival, John Morrissey, was an Irish immigrant and worked for the political machine at Tammany Hall. Morrissey was also a popular bare-knuckle boxer and challenged Poole to a match. Though the two men were of differing ethnic backgrounds and political parties, the initial grounds for their dispute may have arisen from an earlier bet by Poole on a boxing match at Boston Corners on October 12, 1853, in which Poole had placed his bet on Morrissey's opponent, "Yankee Sullivan". The results of the boxing match were disputed—Sullivan beat Morrisey but was then distracted into leaving the ring by Morrisey's friends and the referee announced Morrisey winner for being in the ring—and Poole was against Morrissey being paid. In 1854 a fight was arranged between Morrissey and Poole, which Poole won.


title: William Poole

text: Morrissey plotted revenge and on February 25, 1855, recently fired NYPD patrolman Lewis Baker and Jim Turner, who were allegedly acting as enforcers for Morrissey, shot Poole in the leg and chest at Stanwix Hall, a bar on Broadway near Prince, at that time a center of the city's nightlife. The "New York Daily Times" reported on February 26, 1855 the following:


title: William Poole

text: Several days after the shooting, on March 8, 1855, Poole died in his home on Christopher Street at the age of 33. Poole was survived by his wife and son, Charles Poole. The war between Poole and Morrissey had been very public and "The New York Times" covered the events of Stanwix Hall almost every day for a month. A local newsman reported Poole's last words were, "Good-bye, boys; I die a true American." He was buried on March 11, 1855 in Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery with thousands of spectators.


title: William Poole

text: Lewis Baker fled New York City, with the help of Daniel Kerrigan, a twenty-four year old 1853 Democratic nominee for councilman. Kerrigan was an Irish-American and expressed sympathy for Baker. The "Times" called Kerrigan "one 'of the principle accessories to the murder of Poole and the flight of Baker." Facing an international manhunt organized by Poole's patrons in the Know Nothing Party, Baker boarded the "Jewett" and sailed for the Canary Islands. He was intercepted, however, on the high seas on April 17, 1855. Baker was arrested and returned to New York City to be tried for the murder of William Poole. All three trials, however, ended with a hung jury and Baker ultimately walked away a free man. Morrissey went on to open up several Irish pubs and accumulated a fortune of $1.5 million. He later served two terms as a New York state senator and two more terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. Morrissey died in 1878 and lies buried in a Roman Catholic cemetery in his childhood hometown of Troy, New York.


title: William Poole

text: Daniel Day-Lewis played a heavily fictionalized version of Bill the Butcher, renamed William Cutting, in the 2002 Martin Scorsese film "Gangs of New York". The chief differences between the historical Poole and the cinematic "Butcher": while Poole died before the Civil War, the fictional character is still alive and leading his street gang in 1862, and he claims his father was killed by the British at the Battle of Lundy's Lane which took place seven years before he was born. The character is slain in an epic street battle at the end of the film.


title: The Apartment

text: The Apartment is a 1960 American romantic comedy-drama film directed and produced by Billy Wilder from a screenplay he co-wrote with I. A. L. Diamond. It stars Jack Lemmon, Shirley MacLaine, Fred MacMurray, Ray Walston, Jack Kruschen, David Lewis, Willard Waterman, David White, Hope Holiday and Edie Adams.


title: The Apartment

text: The film follows an insurance clerk (Lemmon) who, in the hope of climbing the corporate ladder, lets more senior coworkers use his Upper West Side apartment to conduct extramarital affairs. He is attracted to an elevator operator (MacLaine) in his office building, unaware that she is having an affair with his immediate boss (MacMurray).


title: The Apartment

text: "The Apartment" was distributed by United Artists to widespread critical acclaim and was a commercial success, despite controversy owing to its subject matter. It became the 8th highest grossing film of 1960. At the 33rd Academy Awards, the film was nominated for ten awards, and won five, including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Screenplay. Lemmon, MacLaine and Kruschen were Oscar-nominated. Lemmon and MacLaine won Golden Globe Awards for their performances. It provided the basis for "Promises, Promises", a 1968 Broadway musical by Burt Bacharach, Hal David and Neil Simon.


title: The Apartment

text: Ever since its release, "The Apartment" has come to be regarded as one of the greatest films ever made, appearing in lists by the American Film Institute and "Sight and Sound" magazine. In 1994, it was one of the 25 films selected for inclusion to the United States Library of Congress National Film Registry.


title: The Apartment

text: In 1959, C.C. "Bud" Baxter is a lonely office drudge at an insurance corporation in New York City. To climb the corporate ladder, he allows four company managers to take turns regularly borrowing his Upper West Side apartment, 51 West 67th Street Apartment 2A, for their extramarital liaisons. Baxter meticulously juggles the "booking" schedule, but the steady stream of women in and out convinces his neighbors that he is a playboy, bringing home someone else every night.


title: The Apartment

text: Baxter solicits glowing performance reviews from the four managers and submits them to personnel director Jeff Sheldrake, who then promises to promote him—but Sheldrake also demands use of the apartment for his own affairs, beginning that night. As compensation for this short notice, he gives Baxter two theater tickets for that evening. Bud asks his secret crush, Fran Kubelik, an elevator operator in the office building, to join him. She agrees, but first meets up with a "former fling", who turns out to be Sheldrake. When Sheldrake dissuades her from breaking up with him, promising to divorce his wife, they head to Baxter’s apartment, as Baxter waits, stood-up, outside the theater.


title: The Apartment

text: Later, at the company's raucous Christmas party, Sheldrake's secretary, Miss Olsen, tells Fran that her boss has had affairs with other female employees, including herself. Later, at Baxter’s apartment, Fran confronts Sheldrake. He claims he loves her, but then heads back to his suburban family as usual.


title: The Apartment

text: Having realized that Fran is the woman Sheldrake has been taking to his apartment, Baxter lets himself be picked up by a married lady at a local bar. However, when they arrive at his apartment, he discovers Fran, passed out on his bed from an apparent suicidal overdose of Seconal, his sleeping pills. He sends away the woman from the bar and enlists Dr. Dreyfuss, a medical doctor living in the next-door apartment, to revive Fran. Baxter intentionally makes Dreyfuss believe that he was the cause of the incident. Dreyfuss scolds Baxter for his apparent philandering and advises him to "be a "mensch"."


title: The Apartment

text: While Fran spends two days recuperating in the apartment, Baxter takes cares of her, and a bond develops between them, especially after he confesses to his own suicide attempt over unrequited feelings for a woman who now sends him a fruitcake every Christmas. During a game of gin rummy, Fran says she has always suffered bad luck in her love life. She falls asleep before they can finish the game. As Baxter prepares a romantic dinner, one of the managers arrives for a tryst. Baxter persuades him and his companion to leave, but the manager recognizes Fran and informs his colleagues. Later confronted by Fran's brother-in-law, Karl Matuschka, who is looking for her, the jealous managers direct Karl to Baxter’s apartment. There, Baxter deflects the brother's-in-law anger over Fran's wayward behavior by once again assuming all responsibility. Karl punches him, and Fran kisses Baxter for protecting her.


title: The Apartment

text: When Sheldrake learns that Miss Olsen tipped off Fran about his affairs, he fires her, but she retaliates by spilling all to Sheldrake's wife, who promptly throws her husband out. Sheldrake believes that this situation just makes it easier to pursue his affair with Fran. Having promoted Baxter to an even higher position, which also gives him a key to the executive washroom, Sheldrake expects Baxter to loan out his apartment yet again. Baxter gives him back the washroom key instead, proclaiming that he has decided to become a "mensch", and quits the firm. He decides to move out of the apartment and begins to pack his belongings.


title: The Apartment

text: That night at a New Year's Eve party, Sheldrake indignantly tells Fran about Baxter quitting. Realizing she loves Baxter, Fran abandons Sheldrake and runs to the apartment. At the door, she hears an apparent gunshot. Fearing that Baxter has attempted suicide again, she frantically pounds on the door. Baxter opens the door with a bottle of champagne in his hand, having just popped the cork. As the two settle down to resume their unfinished game of gin rummy, Fran tells Baxter that she is on her own, like he is. When he asks about Sheldrake, she replies, "We'll send him a fruitcake every Christmas,” prompting him to declare his love for her. She happily hands him the cards and affectionately tells him to "Shut up and deal".


title: The Apartment

text: Immediately following the success of "Some Like It Hot", Wilder and Diamond wished to make another film with Lemmon. Wilder had originally planned to cast Paul Douglas as Sheldrake; however, after he died unexpectedly, MacMurray was cast.


title: The Apartment

text: The initial concept came from "Brief Encounter" by Noël Coward, in which Laura Jesson (Celia Johnson) meets Alec Harvey (Trevor Howard) for a thwarted tryst in his friend's apartment. However, due to the Hays Production Code, Wilder was unable to make a film about adultery in the 1940s. Wilder and Diamond also based the film partially on a Hollywood scandal in which high-powered agent Jennings Lang was shot by producer Walter Wanger for having an affair with Wanger's wife, actress Joan Bennett. During the affair, Lang used a low-level employee's apartment. Another element of the plot was based on the experience of one of Diamond's friends, who returned home after breaking up with his girlfriend to find that she had committed suicide in his bed.


title: The Apartment

text: Although Wilder generally required his actors to adhere exactly to the script, he allowed Lemmon to improvise in two scenes: In one scene, he squirts a bottle of nasal spray across the room, and in another, he sings while cooking spaghetti (which he strains through the grid of a tennis racket). In another scene, where Lemmon was supposed to mime being punched, he failed to move correctly, and was accidentally knocked down. Wilder chose to use the shot of the genuine punch in the film. Lemmon also caught a cold when one scene on a park bench was filmed in sub-zero weather.


title: The Apartment

text: Art director Alexandre Trauner used forced perspective to create the set of a large insurance company office. The set appeared to be a very long room full of desks and workers; however, successively smaller people and desks were placed to the back of the room, ending up with children. He designed the set of Baxter's apartment to appear smaller and shabbier than the spacious apartments that usually appeared in films of the day. He used items from thrift stores and even some of Wilder's own furniture for the set.


title: The Apartment

text: The film's title theme, written by Charles Williams and originally titled "Jealous Lover", was first heard in the 1949 film "The Romantic Age". A recording by Ferrante & Teicher, released as "Theme from "The Apartment"", reached #10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart later in 1960.


title: The Apartment

text: The film doubled its $3 million budget at the American box office in 1960. Critics were split on "The Apartment". "Time" and "Newsweek" praised it, as did "The New York Times" film critic Bosley Crowther, who called the film "gleeful, tender, and even sentimental" and Wilder's direction "ingenious". "Esquire" critic Dwight Macdonald gave the film a poor review, calling it "a paradigm of corny avantgardism". Others took issue with the film's controversial depictions of infidelity and adultery, with critic Hollis Alpert of the "Saturday Review" dismissing it as "a dirty fairy tale".


title: The Apartment

text: MacMurray, having generally played guileless characters, related that after the film's release he was accosted by women in the street who berated him for making a "dirty filthy movie", and one of them hit him with her purse.


title: The Apartment

text: In 2001, "Chicago Sun-Times" film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four, and added it to his Great Movies list. The film critic Clarisse Loughrey has identified it as one of her two favorite movies, along with the 2010 film "Boy". The film holds a 93% "Certified Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 103 reviews with an average rating of 8.8/10; the site's consensus states that "Director Billy Wilder's customary cynicism is leavened here by tender humor, romance, and genuine pathos. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 94 out of 100 based on 21 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim", and was awarded the "Must-See" badge.


title: The Apartment

text: Although Lemmon did not win the Oscar, Kevin Spacey dedicated his Oscar for "American Beauty" (1999) to Lemmon's performance. According to the behind-the-scenes feature on the "American Beauty" DVD, the film's director, Sam Mendes, had watched "The Apartment" (among other classic American films) as inspiration in preparation for shooting his film.


title: The Apartment

text: Within a few years after "The Apartment"'s release, the routine use of black-and-white film in Hollywood ended. Since "The Apartment" only two black-and-white movies have won the Academy Award for Best Picture: "Schindler's List" (1993) and "The Artist" (2011).


title: The Apartment

text: In 1994, "The Apartment" was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. In 2002, a poll of film directors conducted by "Sight and Sound" magazine listed the film as the 14th greatest film of all time (tied with "La Dolce Vita"). In the 2012 poll by the same magazine directors voted the film 44th greatest of all time. The film was included in ""The New York Times" Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made" in 2002. In 2006, "Premiere" voted this film as one of "The 50 Greatest Comedies Of All Time". The Writers Guild of America ranked the film's screenplay (written by Billy Wilder & I.A.L. Diamond.) the 15th greatest ever. In 2015, "The Apartment" ranked 24th on BBC's "100 Greatest American Films" list, voted on by film critics from around the world. The film was selected as the 27th best comedy of all time in a poll of 253 film critics from 52 countries conducted by the BBC in 2017.


title: The Apartment

text: In 1968, Burt Bacharach, Hal David and Neil Simon created a musical adaptation titled "Promises, Promises" which opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre in New York City. Starring Jerry Orbach, Jill O'Hara and Edward Winter in the roles of Chuck, Fran and Sheldrake, the production closed in 1972. An all-star revival began in 2010 with Sean Hayes, Kristin Chenoweth and Tony Goldwyn as the three leads. This version added famous Bacharach/David songs "I Say a Little Prayer" and "A House Is Not a Home" to the roster.


title: Cuties

text: Cuties () is a 2020 French coming-of-age drama film written and directed by Maïmouna Doucouré in her feature directorial debut. The film's ensemble cast is led by Fathia Youssouf who portrays Amy, a Senegalese-French girl with a traditional Muslim upbringing who is caught between traditional Muslim values and Internet culture when she joins a twerking dance crew.


title: Cuties

text: Doucouré was inspired to write the script upon seeing a suggestive youth talent show one day, as well as from her experience as a Senegalese-French person. She said that it is intended to criticise the hypersexualisation of pre-adolescent girls, with over 18 months of research. The script later won an award at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival. Casting took six months, with more than 600 girls being auditioned for the role of Amy. Principal photography took three months, with a psychologist assisting the child actresses throughout.


title: Cuties

text: "Cuties" premiered at the 2020 Sundance Film Festival on 23 January, where Doucouré won the Directing Award. It was released in France on 19 August 2020 by BAC Films and internationally on 9 September 2020 on Netflix. While receiving generally positive reviews from critics for its ambition and acting as well as receiving accolades, it became a subject of controversy, starting from Netflix's initial promotional poster that was widely considered inappropriate. The film received overwhelming negative reviews from audiences following its release on Netflix and cases of review bombs and subscription cancellations surged, popularised by the hashtag #CancelNetflix. Netflix has defended the film.


title: Cuties

text: Amy, an 11-year-old girl from Senegal, lives with her mother Mariam and two younger brothers, one of them named Ishmael, in an apartment in one of Paris's poorest neighbourhoods. She helplessly witnesses her mother suffer as her polygynous husband prepares to return with a second wife. She is also bored with Islamic culture that her aunt seeks to impress on her. Amy is fascinated by her disobedient neighbour Angelica's pre-teen twerking clique, the Cuties, which is in stark contrast to Mariam's Muslim customs. They do not hesitate to adopt revealing outfits in the image of their older rivals, the Sweety Swags. Encouraged by the quest for online recognition, Amy decides to incorporate sexually suggestive dance moves into the choreography. Following a humiliation at school where she gets pantsed after fighting with a rival dance group, Amy steals her cousin’s phone and sends a photo of her vulva online to a social network in an attempt to look mature, backfiring heavily with her being ostracised. This in turn also causes a rift between her and the Cuties, who ban her from performing with them; being replaced with former member Yasmine. Her mother also yells at her for committing such indecent actions.


title: Cuties

text: While her father's wedding day corresponds to the finale at the Parc de la Villette, she is determined to dance with them, and sneaks out of the house. She pushes Yasmine into a canal, so the Cuties have no choice but to allow her to dance with them. The highly suggestive dance routine polarized audiences. Suddenly thinking about her mother during the routine, Amy bursts into tears and leaves before their performance ends. Upon her return, she runs into her aunt, who blames her for her outfit and recent attitude. Amy's mother intervenes by telling her to leave her daughter alone and then hugs her to reassure her. Amy's aunt implores her mother to not allow her to attend the wedding in order to demonstrate her disapproval. Amy's mother permits her not to go, but states that she herself must go to fulfill her duty as a wife. In the end, Amy abandons both the traditional wedding dress and her provocative dancer's outfit, living a normal youth lifestyle.


title: Cuties

text: The film was announced by filmmaker Maïmouna Doucouré as her feature debut directorial venture. She rose to prominence with her 2016 short film "Maman(s)", which was selected and premiered in over two hundred film festivals, and won around sixty awards in several international film festivals.


title: Cuties

text: Doucouré penned the script for "Cuties", taking her life experience as a refugee girl into account. The script eventually won Sundance's Global Filmmaking Award in 2017. Doucouré says her inspiration for the film was a talent show in Paris that she happened to see. She says that the contrast of the dancing and the traditional garb of the families in the audience was fascinating. She also based it on her own experience with the contrast of the cultures of France and Senegal.


title: Cuties

text: Doucouré spent nearly 18 months researching studies on how young and pre-teen children are being exposed to adult content and sexualised images on social media in order to showcase the accurate reality in the film. She spoke to many young girls about these issues. She says that the film deals with self-image and social media. "Our girls see that the more a woman is overly sexualised on social media, the more she's successful. And the children just imitate what they see, trying to achieve the same result without understanding the meaning, and yeah, it's dangerous." She says that although watching the film may be difficult, it is important to have a conversation in society about these issues.


title: Cuties

text: Casting for the film took nearly six months. Approximately 650 girls auditioned for the main character Amy; ultimately, 11-year-old Fathia Youssouf was chosen. Principal photography took place in various locations around France over a period of three months. Doucouré said she "created a climate of trust" between the young actors and herself during filming. She stated while working on the film, "I explained to them everything I was doing and the research that I had done before I wrote this story. I was also lucky that these girls' parents were also activists, so we were all on the same side. At their age, they've seen this kind of dance. Any child with a telephone can find these images on social media these days." She also stated that a child psychologist was on staff during filming.


title: Cuties

text: "Cuties" had its world premiere in the World Cinema Dramatic Competition section of the 2020 Sundance Film Festival on 23 January, where Doucouré won the Directing Award, and was one of three French films to be screened at festival. Originally set for a theatrical release in France on 1 April 2020, the film was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in France, and was eventually released on 19 August 2020 by BAC Films. The film earned US$692,459; in its opening day it earned US$644,309 at 169 theaters.


title: Cuties

text: In January 2020, prior to the film's Sundance premiere, Netflix purchased the worldwide rights to the film, excluding France. It was released internationally on Netflix on 9 September 2020.


title: Cuties

text: Prior to its release on Netflix, the film had not been deemed controversial when it was screened at Sundance and released in France. After Netflix acquired "Cuties", its international promotional poster and trailer for the film were criticised for allegedly sexualising 11-year-old girls and were different from those used to promote the film in its original release in France. The Parents Television Council (PTC) requested that Netflix remove the film entirely, and a Change.org petition calling for people to cancel their Netflix subscription gathered more than 600,000 signatures. Followers of QAnon on social media also criticised the film, and 4chan banned images pertaining to the film from being posted on the imageboard site. In Latin America, NetflixPedofilia trended on Twitter prior to the film's Netflix release.


title: Cuties

text: In response, Netflix replaced the poster with a new one, stating, "This was not an accurate representation of the film so the image and description has been updated." The new poster was replaced with that of the original theatrical release, depicting the girls running in the street with shopping bags while celebrating.


title: Cuties

text: Amidst the controversy, American actress Tessa Thompson came out in support of the film when it was criticised on social media, stating that ""Cuties" is a beautiful film" and said that she felt "gutted" when she saw the film for the first time during the Sundance premiere.


title: Cuties

text: In Turkey, the Ministry of Family asked Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) to take the necessary precautions and evaluate the film; RTÜK subsequently demanded the film be removed from the Netflix catalogue. Netflix removed the film from its catalogue in Turkey two days before its release. In September 2020, Pakistani actor Hamza Ali Abbasi signed one of the petitions and demanded Netflix cancel their planned release of the film. Adriana Martínez Bedini, vice-president of Buenos Aires' "Consejo de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes" (Council for the Rights of Girls, Boys and Teenagers), called for "being very careful not to eroticize childhood. Its consequences in society can be serious", adding that the topic would be included in the council plenary.


title: Cuties

text: In an interview with "Deadline Hollywood", Maïmouna Doucouré stated that she received numerous death threats and personal attacks following the backlash on social media. She claimed that things happened fairly quickly (after delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic); she was focusing solely on the film's theatrical release in France, and at the time was not consulted about the controversial poster unveiled by Netflix. She said that she was notified of the film's poster controversy after being informed of negative feedback and reviews from the public on social media, and that the co-CEO of Netflix phoned her directly and apologised for the poster release.


title: Cuties

text: On 10 September, CancelNetflix started trending on Twitter in the United States (one day after the release of the film internationally) with "The Guardian" saying that opposition came from across the political spectrum. Michelle Jaworski of "The Daily Dot" said that part of the outrage was based on clips of the film that were taken out of context. Subscribers of Netflix repeatedly threatened to cancel their subscriptions following the release of the film on the platform. It became the second Netflix film in 2020 to have received severe backlash and condemnation among the public regarding accusations of inappropriate culture portrayal, following "365 Days". Shortly after its release on Netflix, "Cuties" had an IMDb rating of 1.7/10, reflecting the impact of review bombing in relation to the controversy over the film.


title: Cuties

text: In response, Netflix defended "Cuties", saying that the film is a piece of "social commentary against the sexualisation of young children" and encouraged subscribers to watch it. In a further interview, Doucouré claimed that people upset with her film have not streamed it, stating: "I realise that the people who have started this controversy haven't yet seen the film. Netflix has apologised to the public and to myself. I'm hoping that these people will watch the movie now that it's out. I'm eager to see their reaction when they realise that we're both on the same side of this fight against young children's hypersexualisation."


title: Cuties

text: The National Center on Sexual Exploitation, a conservative religious organisation formerly known as Morality in Media, condemned Netflix for giving a film "that has permitted the sexual exploitation of children" a platform and called for the company to cut the "sexually-exploitative scenes or stop hosting this film at all".


title: Cuties

text: "Forbes" noted that the film does not contain any child pornography, such as explicit nudity of a minor. The French directors guild criticised the backlash against the film, calling it a "grave attack on freedom of creation" being fueled by "the most conservative of Americans." French organisation UniFrance also condemned the backlash towards the film, saying in a statement that the backlash "pose[s] a serious threat to the very space that cinema seeks to open up: a space of discussion, reflection, and of helping us to see beyond our own preconceived ideas."


title: Cuties

text: Despite the controversy, the film reached the top 5 on Netflix in the United States, as well as the top 10 in 17 other countries. In a poll by Screen Engine/ASI of 96 U.S Netflix subscribers 52% of people said they only watched the film due to the controversy, while 29% said it was a major factor in their choice to watch the film. After watching the film 72% said the controversy was "overblown" with 38% strongly agreeing. Overall 48% strongly agreed that the film should not be available on Netflix, while 17% somewhat agreed.


title: Cuties

text: However, it has also been noted that there was a decrease in renewals to Netflix, likely due to the film. The days after the film's release saw an eight times increase in the number of cancellations of Netflix subscriptions than typical, reaching "a multi-year high", according to data analytics companies Antenna and YipitData. Research firm 7Park Data noted that the surge in Netflix cancellations died down within a week of the initial uproar.


title: Cuties

text: In September 2020, in an interview hosted by UniFrance, Doucouré reflected that the film became controversial primarily due to the artwork used by Netflix. In the interview, she rejected the claim that the controversy originated in cultural differences between European and American viewers. She insisted that she shares the spirit and fight against sexualisation of children similar to those who criticised the film. Doucouré reaffirmed her intentions for making the film in an op-ed for "The Washington Post", and responded to the controversy saying, "The movie has certainly started a debate, though not the one that I intended." She also said, "It's my sincerest hope that this conversation doesn't become so difficult that it too gets caught up in today's 'cancel culture.'"


title: Cuties

text: U.S. Senator Josh Hawley of Missouri informally invited Netflix to discuss the film "before Congress" in a tweet. U.S. Senator Mike Lee of Utah sent a letter directly to Netflix CEO Reed Hastings, and requested "an explanation on [Hasting's] views as to whether or not the potential exploitation of minors in this film constitutes criminal behavior". U.S. House Representative Tulsi Gabbard of Hawaii explicitly called the film "child porn" and that it would "whet the appetite of pedophiles [and] help fuel the child sex trafficking trade." U.S. Senator Ted Cruz of Texas sent a letter to the Department of Justice to "investigate whether Netflix, its executives, or the filmmakers violated any federal laws against the production and distribution of child pornography." Christine Pelosi, daughter of U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, stated that "Cuties" "hypersexualises girls my daughter's age no doubt to the delight of pedophiles like the ones I prosecuted." Senator Tom Cotton of Arkansas and Representative Jim Banks of Indiana also both criticised the film in separate statements, calling for the U.S. Department of Justice to take legal action against Netflix, with Cotton saying "There's no excuse for the sexualisation of children, and Netflix's decision to promote the film "Cuties" is disgusting at best and a serious crime at worst". Representatives Ken Buck of Colorado and Andy Biggs of Arizona also called for the Department of Justice to investigate. The state attorneys general of Ohio, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas have also written a letter to Netflix asking for removal of the film. Donald Trump Jr., son of then-President Donald Trump, also condemned the film in a campaign event in Arizona saying "You know what the left is doing? They're justifying "Cuties", they're justifying pedophilia."


title: Cuties

text: On 23 September 2020, Netflix was indicted by a grand jury in Tyler County, Texas, on a charge that it "depicts the lewd exhibition of the genitals or pubic area of a clothed or partially clothed child who was younger than 18 years of age ... and has no serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value." In response, Netflix continued to defend the film in a statement saying, ""Cuties" is a social commentary against the sexualization of young children. This charge is without merit and we stand by the film." Thomas Leatherbury, director of the First Amendment clinic at Southern Methodist University, said the indictment was an "unusual test case", adding that it's "troubling" that there is a "criminal charge related to First Amendment activity, particularly expressive activity, like a movie." The Texas-based defense lawyer Paul Saputo called the indictment "one of 'the dumbest and most absurd' in the state", noting its win at Sundance qualifies the film as having serious artistic value. Former federal prosecutor Duncan Levin also stated that the indictment was "more [of] a culture wars attack on a sexualized film than a law enforcement issue." The National Society of Film Critics also spoke out against the indictment, calling it "utterly baseless" and "absurd". The case was dismissed without prejudice in 2022.


title: Cuties

text: On 12 October 2020, during a MIPCOM Online+ keynote address, Netflix co-CEO Ted Sarandos continued to defend the film. "Frankly, I'm surprised there hasn't been more discussion about the First Amendment implications of this film. It's a film I would argue is very misunderstood with some audiences, uniquely in the United States...It's the director's story and the film has obviously played very well at Sundance, without any of this kind of controversy and played in theaters throughout Europe without any of this controversy, ...I think it's a little surprising that in 2020 in America, we're having a discussion about censoring storytelling."


title: Cuties

text: In November 2020, it was reported that Netflix sent dozens of takedown requests to Twitter targeting specific posts that criticise "Cuties". One user whose tweets were removed said it was "a clear violation of our First Amendment rights", while another user stated it was "just sad", and added "[s]hame on Netflix and Twitter for taking away people's voices. That is how I feel." TorrentFreak said the cluster of copyright claims by Netflix was unusual.


title: Cuties

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: "A thoughtful look at the intricacies of girlhood in the modern age, "Cuties" is a coming-of-age film that confronts its themes with poignancy and nuance." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Cuties

text: Monica Castillo of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, stating that ""Cuties" is a difficult and challenging film, pushing the idea of 'depiction does not equal endorsement' to its limit." In a review for IndieWire, Kate Erbland wrote, "Although Doucouré steeps "Cuties" in emotion and experience, she abandons its grace to make crazier gestures." "Variety"s Amy Nicholson wrote: "Newcomer Youssouf has an anchoring presence. Occasionally, Doucouré lets her light up the screen with a smile, and at the director's most expressionistic, the girl floats", though it stated the film is aiming to gain more "gasps than laughs" with its dance numbers. Other reviewers commented that the film is intended to criticise "a culture that steers impressionable young girls toward the hypersexualisation of their bodies" and "seems to want to provoke censure". Clarisse Fabre of "Le Monde" praised the film and said that it avoids judging the sexualised dances of the girls.


title: Cuties

text: French newspaper "Libération" described the film as "endearing but too demonstrative", adding that "the film remains on the threshold of the discomfort that it intends to press each time it meets the male gaze, as if it was afraid to blame it head on". According to France Info, ""Mignonnes" words are a subtle reflection on the condition of women when childhood and innocence discreetly recede" and a "female cast carried by the intensity of the young Fathia Youssouf, a revelation".


title: Cuties

text: David Fear of "Rolling Stone" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars, calling it a "sensitive portrait of growing pains that deserves to be seen". "Common Sense Media" gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and wrote that "Maïmouna Doucouré has created an evocative, compassionate portrait of young girls finding their identity and values". Alyssa Rosenberg of "The Washington Post" defended the film, stating that the film would be liked by those who have not seen a glimpse of it yet, and she also criticised the remarks made against the film. Carlos Aguilar of "TheWrap" compared "Cuties" to films such as "Girlhood" (2014), "The Fits" (2015) and "Atlantics" (2019).


title: Cuties

text: Fionnuala Halligan of "Screen Daily", however, commented on the close-up minor shots: "Doucouré seems to want to provoke censure, but fails precisely because she's trying so hard." She also called the musical shots "outrageous", but also said that "[a]ll four "Cuties" members give excellent performances." Yvonne Bohwongprasert of the "Bangkok Post" stated that the film's storyline "sexualises the girls in a manner that would pander to the desires of a paedophile." with "a plot that really does not make sense." Brett McCracken of "The Gospel Coalition" argued that "People on every point on the political spectrum should be able to say it is wrong for a film—"any" film, however well-intentioned—to depict close-up, lingering shots of scantily clad 11-year-olds twerking.


title: Emperor Norton

text: Joshua Abraham Norton (February 4, 1818January 8, 1880), known as Emperor Norton, was a resident of San Francisco, California who, in 1859, proclaimed himself "Norton I., Emperor of the United States". In 1863, after Napoleon III invaded Mexico, he took the secondary title of "Protector of Mexico".


title: Emperor Norton

text: Norton was born in England but spent most of his early life in South Africa. Leaving Cape Town, probably in late 1845, he arrived in Boston, via Liverpool, in March 1846 and San Francisco in late 1849. Nothing is known of his whereabouts or occupations in the intervening three-and-a-half years.


title: Emperor Norton

text: For the first few years after arriving in San Francisco, Norton made a successful living as a commodities trader and real estate speculator becoming one of the city's richest citizens. However, he was financially ruined following a failed bid to corner the rice market during a shortage prompted by a famine in China. He bought a shipload of Peruvian rice at ; but more Peruvian ships arrived in port, causing the price to drop sharply to . He then lost a protracted lawsuit in which he tried to void his rice contract, and his public prominence faded.


title: Emperor Norton

text: Norton did not disappear from the scene completely. However, he dramatically "reset" his relationship to the world around him in September 1859, when he declared himself Emperor of the United States. Norton had no formal political power; nevertheless, he was treated deferentially in San Francisco, and currency issued in his name was honored in some establishments that he frequented. Some considered him insane or eccentric, but citizens of San Francisco celebrated his imperial presence and his proclamations, such as his order that the United States Congress be dissolved by force and his numerous decrees calling for the construction of a bridge and tunnel crossing San Francisco Bay to connect San Francisco with Oakland. Though Norton received many favors from the city, merchants also capitalized on his notoriety by selling souvenirs bearing his name. "San Francisco lived off the Emperor Norton," Norton's biographer William Drury wrote, "not Norton off San Francisco".


title: Emperor Norton

text: On January 8, 1880, Norton collapsed at the corner of California and Dupont (now Grant) streets and died before he could be given medical treatment. According to the "San Francisco Chronicle", upwards of 10,000 people lined the streets of San Francisco to pay him homage at his funeral. Norton has been immortalized as the basis of characters in the literature of Mark Twain, Robert Louis Stevenson, Christopher Moore, Morris and René Goscinny, Selma Lagerlöf, Neil Gaiman, Mircea Cărtărescu and Charles Bukowski.


title: Emperor Norton

text: Norton's parents were John Norton (d. 1848) and Sarah Norden (d. 1846), who were English Jews. John was a farmer and merchant, and Sarah was a daughter of Abraham Norden and a sister of Benjamin Norden, a successful merchant. The family moved to South Africa in early 1820 as part of a government-backed colonization scheme whose participants came to be known as the 1820 Settlers. Most likely, Norton was born in the Kentish town of Deptford, today part of London.


title: Emperor Norton

text: The best available evidence points to February 4, 1818, as the date of Norton's birth. Obituaries published in 1880, following Norton's death, offered conflicting information about his birth date. The second of two obituaries in the "San Francisco Chronicle", "following the best information obtainable," cited the silver plate on his coffin which said he was "aged about 65", suggesting that 1815 could be the year of his birth. However, Norton's biographer, William Drury, points out that "about 65" was based solely on the guess that Norton's landlady offered to the coroner at the inquest following his death. In a 1923 essay published by the California Historical Society, Robert Ernest Cowan claimed that Norton was born on February 4, 1819. However, the passenger lists for the "La Belle Alliance", the ship that carried Norton and his family from England to South Africa, list him as having been two years old when the ship set sail in February 1820. This information appears not to have been known until after 1934, the year that Norton's headstone was placed at his grave in Colma, California—when Cowan's account remained prominent. This may help to explain why those who had the stone made used 1819 as the birth year.


title: Emperor Norton

text: The February 4, 1865, edition of "The Daily Alta California" newspaper included an item in which the "Alta" wished Emperor Norton a happy 47th birthday, indicating that his birth date was February 4, 1818 (not 1819, as Cowan claimed)—a date that would line up with "La Belle Alliance"s passenger list from two years later. Moreover, when Cowan quoted the 1865 "Alta" item in his essay, he used an altered version in an apparent attempt to advance his claim of an 1819 birth date. Persistent claims for an 1819 birth date are of doubtful provenance, tracing to unsubstantiated assertions made online, during the early years of the Internet. The Emperor Norton Trust, a nonprofit that engages in Norton research and education, produced a 2018 bicentennial series, "Emperor Norton at 200", that took as its starting point a February 4, 1818, birth date for Norton. Supporting and participating in the series were a number of institutions that long have helped to preserve the historical record of Emperor Norton: the California Historical Society, the San Francisco Public Library, the Mechanics' Institute and the Society of California Pioneers.


title: Emperor Norton

text: There are often-repeated historical claims that Joshua Norton arrived in San Francisco on a specific vessel, the "Franzeska", on November 23, 1849; that he arrived with $40,000, in whole or in part a bequest from his father's estate; and that he parlayed this into a fortune of $250,000. None of this is substantiated by contemporaneous documentation. What is known is that, after Norton arrived in San Francisco, he enjoyed a good deal of success in commodities markets and in real estate speculation, and that by late 1852, he was one of the more prosperous, respected citizens of the city.