title: University of Waterloo

text: The university also placed in a number of rankings that evaluated a graduate's employment prospects. In QS's 2022 graduate employability ranking, Waterloo ranked 24th in the world, and second in Canada. In the Times Higher Education 2022 graduate employability ranking, Waterloo was ranked 191st in the world, and ninth in Canada. In an employability survey published by "The New York Times" in October 2011, when CEOs and chairpersons were asked to select the top universities which they recruited from, the university placed 108th in the world, and seventh in Canada. In 2014, a study from Riviera Partners found that the University of Waterloo had the third-most hired undergraduate candidates in Silicon Valley. In 2016, Startup Compass found that University of Waterloo alumni were the second-most frequently hired in small and medium-sized companies in Silicon Valley. Dr. Steven Woods, engineering director at Google in Canada, said in 2013 that "the University of Waterloo is one of Google's largest three or four recruiting universities year-over-year [worldwide], along with MIT and Carnegie Mellon." In 2014, "Business Insider" found via LinkedIn data that the University of Waterloo has the fourth-most alumni working at Facebook, and the third-most alumni working at Amazon.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The University of Waterloo is a member of the U15, a group that represents 15 Canadian research universities. In 2018, Research Infosource ranked Waterloo 12th on their list of top 50 Canadian research universities, with a sponsored research income (external sources of funding) of $189.333 million in 2017. In the same year, the university's faculty averaged a sponsored research income of $163,100, while graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $34,700. Research funds comes from private, and public sources. In 2019, the university has received over C$15 million in research funding from Huawei.


title: University of Waterloo

text: Waterloo's research performance has been noted several bibliometric university rankings, which uses citation analysis to evaluates the impact a university has on academic publications. In 2019, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked Waterloo 242nd in the world, and 10th in Canada. The University Ranking by Academic Performance 2018–19 rankings placed the university 191st in the world, and 10th in Canada.The university operates and manages 41 research centres and institutes, including the Centre for Applied Cryptographic Research, the Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, the Centre for Education in Mathematics and Computing, the Institute for Quantum Computing, and the Centre for Theoretical Neuroscience. Official recognition and designation of all centres and institutes requires the approval of the university's Senate. On 6 April 2018, the University of Waterloo announced the launching of its Artificial Intelligence Institute.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university has undertaken several research partnerships with other institutions. In 2007, the Balsillie School of International Affairs (BSIA) was established as a graduate school and research centre in partnership with the University of Waterloo. BSIA operates three research centres relating to public governance and public policy. In 2016, Facebook hardware development division announced a partnership with Waterloo, along with 16 other post-secondary institutions, as Facebook explores new revenue streams in virtual reality, cyber security, and other areas of research. In 2019, Microsoft announced a partnership with Waterloo's Artificial Intelligence Institute worth $115 million over five years as part of Microsoft's broader AI For Good Initiative. Waterloo's Artificial Intelligence Institute is an interdisciplinary initiative involving the researchers from faculties of arts, engineering, mathematics, and computer science.


title: University of Waterloo

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers at the Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology worked in collaboration with SiO2 Innovation Labs to develop a coating that kills the virus upon impact. The antiviral coating could be applied to all personal protective equipment and high-touch surfaces. This research was supported by both the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and Mitacs. The school also received a $499,935 grant from the Public Health Agency of Canada's Immunization Partnership Fund to engage health care professionals and community leaders to combat COVID-19 misinformation and increase acceptance of COVID-19 vaccines.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The requirements for admission differ between students from Ontario, students from other provinces in Canada, and international students, due to the lack of uniformity in marking schemes. The minimum averages required for these programs are determined each year based on the number and qualification of applicants and the number of available spaces. As of 2016, the secondary school average for first year, full-time students at the University of Waterloo was at 90.1 percent. In 2018, 61.2 percent of new students at Waterloo had a high school average equal to or greater than 90 percent, and 28.2 percent had an average equal to or greater than 95 percent. However, this proportion varies greatly between programs at the university.


title: University of Waterloo

text: In the case of admission into the Engineering and Math faculties, there is a large weighting given to the applicant's supplementary application, extracurricular involvement, adjustment factors for individual high schools, and an admissions video interview. Thus, it is possible to receive an offer with an average much lower than the mean admission average. The retention rate of the university's first-time, full-time first-year students in 2016 was 93.9 percent.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university's two main student unions are the Waterloo Undergraduate Student Association (WUSA) for undergraduate students, and the Graduate Student Association (GSA) for graduate students. Founded in 1967 as the Federation of Students, WUSA operates four businesses, twelve student services, oversees over 200 accredited student clubs; in addition to operating other student programs and events.


title: University of Waterloo

text: Each of the university's faculties has a student society which represent and provide services for the students in their respective faculties. Services include online exam banks, resume critiques, and technical skills workshops. Some student societies also operate a student deal discount program and one to two shops selling coffee and food at low prices. Each faculty also operates a student-run endowment fund, which fund student design teams, laboratory upgrades, and services for their respective student societies.


title: University of Waterloo

text: As of January 2015, neither the university administration nor the two main student unions recognize fraternities or sororities. Alpha Epsilon Pi, Pi Kappa Alpha and Sigma Chi operate as non-accredited off-campus fraternities, and Alpha Omicron Pi and Kappa Kappa Gamma as non-accredited off-campus sororities.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The three main student publications on campus are "Imprint", the university's official student newspaper, "mathNEWS", the Math Society's free-form publication, and "The Iron Warrior," the Engineering Society's newspaper. "Imprint" replaced "The Chevron" as the official student newspaper in 1979, and publishes a weekly edition during the fall and winter semesters and a biweekly edition in the spring semester. "mathNEWS" and "The Iron Warrior" publish biweekly in print and online throughout the year.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university formerly included a student-funded campus radio station, CKMS-FM. The student union withdrew financial support for the stations' operations in 2008 following several referendums and CKMS transitioned to a community radio model.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university's sports teams are known as the Waterloo Warriors. They participate in the Canadian Interuniversity Sports' Ontario University Athletics conference for most varsity sports. Varsity teams include badminton, baseball, basketball, cross country, curling, field hockey, figure skating, Canadian football, golf, hockey, Nordic skiing, rugby, soccer, squash, swimming, track and field, tennis and volleyball. The athletics program at the university dates back to 1957, when students of Waterloo College Associate Faculties participated in the sports program of Waterloo College. The university had its own independent team when the Associate Faculties officially became the University of Waterloo. The university's varsity teams and the university's recreational sports programs are operated and managed by the Department of Athletics and Recreational Activity.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university has a number of athletic facilities open to varsity teams and other students. Seating 5,400 people, Warrior Field is the university's largest stadium by seating capacity; and is used as the home field for the varsity field hockey and football teams, and hosts the university's recreational flag football and soccer activities. Prior to the completion of Warrior Field in 2008, the university's varsity teams used Seagram Stadium as their home stadium. Seagram Stadium was built by the university's predecessor, Waterloo College Associate Faculties, and remained under the ownership of the university until 1974, when it was sold to the City of Waterloo. However, the university continued to use Seagram Stadium until 2008.


title: University of Waterloo

text: Other facilities include the Physical Activity Complex, which houses two gymnasiums, beach volleyball courts, squash rooms, and a swimming pool, and is also home to the university's varsity badminton, basketball, squash, swimming and volleyball teams. The Columbia Ice Field was constructed in 1983 and houses the university's hockey team home rink, with a seating capacity of 700. The Ice Field has been expanded twice, in 1990 and 2003, and now includes three gyms and a number of fitness centres. Including the football field, the university manages seven outdoor playing fields, with Fields 1 and 2 reserved for the varsity soccer and rugby teams, while portions of Field 3 are used as a baseball field. The rest of the fields are used by the university's recreational sports programs.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The University of Waterloo operates a startup incubator for its students, faculty, and alumni called the Velocity program. With no fees or equity, it is the largest free startup incubator in the world. It offers office space for up to 120 startup companies, as well as a wet laboratory, assembly space, workshop, and prototyping lab. The program also provides business mentorship to its resident companies and to Waterloo students as well as partnerships with researchers at the university's main campus. Velocity provides some students and startups with grants, previously valued from C$5,000 to C$25,000. As of 2019, the $25,000 grant was removed and companies in Velocity may now pitch their ideas to instead receive C$50,000 in funding, with equity stakes from investors. Companies that emerged from the Velocity program include Maluuba.


title: University of Waterloo

text: In addition to the resources provided by Velocity, alumni regularly receive funding for their startups from United States accelerators. Companies Waterloo alumni have founded with the aid of Silicon Valley accelerator Y Combinator include Pebble and Bufferbox. Y Combinator founder Paul Graham and president Sam Altman have both noted the University of Waterloo has stood out to them more than any other school during Y Combinator applications.


title: University of Waterloo

text: In 2017, "Pitchbook Data" ranked the University of Waterloo's undergraduate program fourth for schools that have the greatest number of alumni who have founded unicorn startups. As of the same year, Waterloo students and alumni have raised a cumulative US$3.662 billion in venture capital. The current unicorn startups from Waterloo are Wish, Instacart, Kik Messenger, Pivotal Software, and Storm8.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The University of Waterloo's coat of arms has been used as a symbol of the institution since 1961, with the coat of arms also being used in the logo of the university, and its academic faculties and departments. The university's colours is black, gold, and white, and may be found on the university's coat of arms.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The school also maintains official colours to represent the academic faculties of the university. Other objects have also been used to represent the faculties of the university. Mathematics students have used pink ties to represent their faculty since 1968, when a pink tie was placed on the exterior of the Mathematics & Computer Building during the building's opening. A copy of the statue of "Porcellino" at the university's Modern Languages Building is also used as a mascot for the Faculty of Arts. The statue was donated to the university in 1978, and was placed at the Modern Languages Building.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university's coat of arms was first used by the university in October 1961, but was only officially granted by the Lord Lyon King of Arms in August 1987. It was not registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority until 15 February 2001. Four variations of the coat of arms existed. The first was used from 1961 to 1996, when the second bright-yellow shield using slightly different shaped lions was introduced. The yellow background was dulled in 2000, and finally, the original lions were reintroduced in 2010 in conjunction with the attempt to replace the use of the coat of arms with a futuristic "W" logo. The new logo was eventually rejected after student opposition.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The red-on-gold lions on the university's arms were adopted from those of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, who defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. The City of Waterloo was named after an area just south of Brussels, Belgium, where the battle occurred. The chevron on the arms was taken from the arms of Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener, Field Marshal with the British Army during World War I. The black and white pattern used on the chevron was based on the colours of Prussia, as homage to the German heritage of the area. The City of Kitchener was originally known as Berlin, but was renamed after Earl Kitchener in 1916 during World War I.


title: University of Waterloo

text: The university's Latin motto is "Concordia cum veritate", translated as "In Harmony with Truth". It was introduced along with the university coat of arms in October 1961.


title: University of Waterloo

text: A number of songs are commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic contests. The main song of the university is known as the "Black and White and Gold". The words were written by K. D. Fryer and H. F. Davis, while the music was composed by Alfred Kunz.


title: University of Waterloo

text: Over 221,000 people have graduated from the university, and now reside in over 150 countries. Waterloo graduates have accumulated a number of awards, such as George Elliott Clarke, recipient of the Governor General's Award; William Reeves, recipient of an Academy Award, and a number of Rhodes Scholarships. Two members of the university have received the Nobel Prize. In 1999, Robert Mundell was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his work in monetary dynamics and optimum currency areas. In 2018, university faculty member Donna Strickland was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics for her work in laser physics. Other notable awards and positions bestowed on people affiliated with the university includes two Canada Excellence Research Chair laureates, five Killam Prize winners, 74 Canada Research Chairs, and 83 Fellows to the Royal Society of Canada.


title: University of Waterloo

text: A number of business leaders have worked or studied at Waterloo. Examples include David I. McKay, president and CEO of the Royal Bank of Canada, Kevin O’Leary, founder of SoftKey, John Baker, founder of Desire2Learn, David Cheriton, co-founder and chief scientist of Arista Networks, Mike Lazaridis, co-founder and former co-CEO of Research in Motion (now BlackBerry Ltd), Prem Watsa, chairman of Fairfax Financial and a former chancellor of the university, Steven Woods, co-founder of NeoEdge Networks and Quack.com and co-founders of Waterloo Maple, Keith Geddes and Gaston Gonnet. Gonnet was also the co-founder of OpenText Corporation. Several faculty members and students have also gained local and national prominence in government. David Johnston, the former president of Waterloo, served as the 28th Governor General of Canada from 2010 to 2017.


title: University of Waterloo

text: A number of the university's faculty and students have also gained prominence in the field of computing sciences. Examples include QNX operating systems co-creators Gordon Bell and Dan Dodge, Rasmus Lerdorf, the creator of the PHP scripting language, Matei Zaharia, the creator of Apache Spark, Gordon Cormack, the co-creator of the Dynamic Markov compression algorithm, Ric Holt, co-creator of several programming languages, most notably Turing, Jack Edmonds, a computer scientist, and developer of the Blossom algorithm, and the Edmonds' algorithm, and William Thomas Tutte, a World War II codebreaker who cracked the Nazi high command's Lorenz Cypher.


title: University of Waterloo

text: Graduates from the university have also risen to prominence in other fields. Heather Moyse, a graduate from the kinesiology program, is a prominent Canadian athlete and two-time Olympic bobsleigh gold medalist. Moyse has represented Canada in international bobsleigh, rugby and track cycling competitions. Graduate of the Rhetoric and Professional Writing program, Rupi Kaur is a Canadian poet, writer, illustrator. Her book of poetry, Milk and Honey, has spent over a year on "The New York Times"' bestsellers list, reaching No. 1 in January 2017. George Elliott Clarke, who served as the Poet Laureate of Toronto from 2012 to 2015 and as the 2016–2017 Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate, graduated with an English degree.


title: University of Waterloo

text: On 2 October 2018, Donna Strickland, an associate professor at the Physics and Astronomy Department, was awarded the Nobel prize in physics. Strickland is the third woman to have ever been awarded the prize in physics. This was the first Nobel prize for a member of the university's faculty. Strickland was honoured for being half of the team to discover chirped pulse amplification, a technique that underpins today's short-pulse, high-intensity lasers. Scientific American explained the practical aspects of the invention as it applies in the most noteworthy application: it allows for "ultrabrief, ultrasharp beams can be used to make extremely precise cuts, so their technique is now used in laser machining and enables doctors to perform millions of corrective" laser eye surgeries.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik (Illyana Nikolaievna Rasputina) (Russian: Ильяна Николаевна Распутина) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is depicted most often in relation to the X-Men, and first appeared in the comic book "Giant-Size X-Men" #1 (May 1975).


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik is the younger sister of the Russian X-Men member Colossus. She is a member of a fictional species of humanity known as mutants, who are born with superhuman abilities. Due to her time imprisoned in (and later ruling) Limbo, she is a powerful sorceress. Her mutant power, which first manifested in that Limbo, is the ability to teleport via stepping discs utilizing that dimension's magic.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana first appeared in "Giant-Size X-Men" #1 (May 1975), though her first name was not given until "The Uncanny X-Men" #145 (May 1981). For the first eight years of the character's existence, she was an infrequently appearing background character known as Colossus' little sister. The means of changing this was set in "The Uncanny X-Men" #160 (August 1982), in which she ages seven years while in a paranormal dimension called Limbo, becomes a sorceress, and develops the mutant ability to create "teleportation discs." These changes were not immediately explored or explained, and for the next year she remained essentially a background character.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In December 1983, the limited series "Magik (Illyana and Storm)" was launched, chronicling Illyana's years in Limbo, which is also her origin story. "Magik" #1 (Dec. 1983) is her first cover appearance as young Illyana, her second full appearance and the first time she get the name Magik. "Magik" #2 (Jan. 1984) is her first cover appearance as adult Magik. Immediately following the end of the series, she was added to the cast of the New Mutants, appearing regularly in that comic from "The New Mutants" #14 (April 1984), the first cover appearance of adult Magik in costume, to "The New Mutants" #77 (July 1989), in which she returns to her family in Russia after having reverted to childhood. As the younger sister of Colossus and a member of the New Mutants, she also sporadically appeared as a guest star in "Uncanny X-Men".


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In "The Uncanny X-Men" #303 (1993), she dies of the Legacy Virus. Other than flashbacks and alternate realities, she was absent from regular publication for most of the 1990s, though she does appear as a time-traveler in "The New Mutants: Truth or Death" #1-3 (1997). After being resurrected by Belasco, she returned to regular publication in 2007, in "New X-Men" #38-41 (2007), "X-Infernus" #1-4 (2009), "X-Men: Hellbound" #1-3 (2010) and "New Mutants" vol. 3 #1-29 (2009-2011). As a member of Cyclops' Extinction Team, she appears in "The Uncanny X-Men" vol. 2 #1-20 (2012), "Avengers vs. X-Men" #1-12 (2012), "AVX: Versus" #3 (2012), and "AVX: Consequences" #1-5 (2012). She appears in "All-New X-Men", "The Uncanny X-Men" vol. 3, "Extraordinary X-Men" and "The New Mutants: Dead Souls" (2018) as a regular character. She appears in Strange Academy #1 (2020) as a teacher in Dr. Strange's Sorcerer School.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana Rasputin (born Illyana Nikolaievna Rasputina) was born in the Ust-Ordynski Collective farm, near Lake Baikal, Siberia, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union to Nikolai Rasputin and his wife Alexandra Natalya Rasputina. Illyana's two older brothers, Mikhail Nikolaievitch Rasputin and Colossus (Piotr "Peter" Nikolaievitch Rasputin) are also mutants. Colossus' superhuman powers manifest while saving Illyana from a runaway tractor.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: At six years old, Illyana is abducted and brought to the United States by Arcade, who uses her and several other hostages to coerce the X-Men into opposing Doctor Doom. She is rescued and brought back to the X-Mansion.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Shortly thereafter, Illyana is called to the Limbo dimension by Belasco, who seeks to bring forth the Elder Gods to rule Earth. She is raised there, frequently bullied and tormented by Belasco's underling S'ym. To free himself, Belasco needs to fill the Beatrix Medallion with five bloodstones. The bloodstones are created by corrupting Illyana's soul, with a new stone appearing as her corruption deepens. She is rescued and tutored in the practice of white magic by that dimension's version of Storm (who turned to magic when her mutant powers waned). Finding the use of magic abhorrent, Limbo's version of Shadowcat, known as Cat, kidnaps and trains Illyana in hand to hand and sword combat. Cat, along with Illyana, storms Belasco's citadel. They are overwhelmed by Belasco who further transforms Cat into a feline demonic creature. With Illyana back under his control, Belasco instructs her in the art of black magic in the hopes that it will further corrupt her soul. However, Illyana plots Belasco's defeat and continues to resist the dark influence on her soul. Illyana forms a mystical bond between both Storm and Cat, who were also tutored by Belasco.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Belasco succeeds in creating three parts of Illyana's bloodstone pendant. Illyana creates the Soulsword and takes over Limbo as its new ruler. While wielding the Soulsword she manifests horns, a tail and fangs. She banishes Belasco from Limbo and claims S'ym as her servant. She then returns to Earth a decade older, although no time has passed on Earth since her kidnapping. She subsequently joins the New Mutants.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik misguides one of her teleportation discs through the space-time continuum and strands herself and Mirage in ancient Egypt. There, Illyana meets Storm's ancestor Ashake, an Egyptian priestess. Together, they defeat an evil sorcerer, Heka-Nut, who sought an ancient mystical sword called the Sword of Bone using Magik's Soulsword. Ashake helps Illyana and Mirage return to the present, with Mirage's memory of the incident erased in the process.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: A strange armor begins to appear on her body each time she wields the Soulsword. The armor appears only on one of her shoulders and arms at first, but appears on more of her body each time that she wields the sword. Illyana's skill as a sorceress grows, and she battles other beings with mystical powers such as Baba Yaga, the Enchantress, Forge, Spiral, and Heka-Nut. A routine trip through Limbo goes awry, leaving the New Mutants stuck in Limbo. To open an escape route for her teammates, Illyana embraces her demonic nature and opens a colossal teleportation disc between Earth and Limbo, which N'astirh holds open, triggering an invasion of Earth by demons from Limbo. Ashamed of herself, she flees into Limbo, and decides to end the demonic invasion by assuming rule of Limbo. However, her teammate Rahne Sinclair persuades her against this, and she instead gives up her demonic powers by creating a massive stepping disc that banishes the demons back to Limbo, then throws her Soulsword in after them to seal the portal shut. Afterwards, the New Mutants find a seven-year-old Illyana inside the husk of her eldritch armor. She still possesses the bloodstone locket.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Because of the mystic bond she shares with the Shadowcat from the Limbo dimension, the Soulsword passes on to Earth's Shadowcat in England. It embeds itself in a stone near Excalibur's lighthouse headquarters, waiting for Shadowcat to claim it and become its new wielder. After a conflict with the necromancer Gravemoss, the Soulsword is acquired by Amanda Sefton, who would claim Illyana's mantle as Magik, ruler of Limbo and wielder of the Soulsword.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana returns to Russia where she lives with her parents for some months until they are murdered by the Russian government to secure Illyana's abilities to defeat a psionic being known as the Soul Skinner. Illyana then returns to the X-Mansion to live with her brother and the other X-Men.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Not long afterwards, Illyana contracts the Legacy Virus, and dies in the X-Mansion, despite all efforts to save her made by Charles Xavier and Moira MacTaggert.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana's spirit returns to Colossus, who had recently returned to the United States with Shadowcat and Nightcrawler following the disbanding of Excalibur. When investigating odd occurrences inside the Mansion, Colossus locates one of the stepping disks that Illyana had magically bound to the school. He is transported to a pocket world, which holds a memory imprint of Illyana. Illyana's memory convinces him to make one final sacrifice. When the cure for the Legacy Virus turned out to need the death of one mutant, he secretly gave his life, so nobody else would have to die like Illyana did. Colossus is later resurrected by an alien race.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Belasco eventually deposes Amanda Sefton and, after seeing Illyana reappear during the 2005 "House of M" and realizing he carries a torch for her, creates a powerful spell to return her to him. The spell pulls forth the remaining essence of Illyana still held within Limbo's dimension, taking shape as the Darkchilde, the semi-demonic version of Illyana corrupted and transformed by dark magic. Belasco is not satisfied with his creation, claiming that it is not the true Illyana Rasputin (due to her lack of Illyana's soul) and banishes her to the outer parts of Limbo.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana, now with her Darkchilde persona, discovers some of the teenage New X-Men being attacked by a horde of demons. After aiding the mutants against the demons, she uses a spell to immobilize them and steal a portion of Pixie's soul, in the hopes of creating both a bloodstone and a new Soulsword, as Illyana felt Pixie had the most innocent of souls present. Anole breaks free from Illyana's confinement and dispatches her. Pixie's soul extraction is partially successful however, creating one part of a bloodstone pendant and a soul dagger. Illyana attempts to complete the process and destroy those who wished to interfere, but Rockslide thwarts her, and causes Illyana's human memories of her friends and life among the X-Men to return to her.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Although only a part of Pixie's soul was taken, Pixie is now capable of performing magic, the hole in her soul having been filled with black magic. Since Belasco had sealed his castle from her own magic and powers, Illyana teaches Pixie a teleportation spell, with which the New X-Men attack and defeat Belasco.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana succumbs to her Darkchilde persona and announces her desire to create several more bloodstones to become god-like in power. She is interrupted by the arrival of Colossus, investigating Illyana's apparent return to life. A pained Illyana rejects her brother's offers of help, and sends everyone back to Earth, before reclaiming Limbo's throne and informing S'ym and N'astirh, now once more her servants, that her next move is to reclaim her soul. Motivated by her friendship with Shadowcat and love for Colossus, Illyana tries to reclaim her soul through love and teleports to the Xavier Institute, only to find it destroyed and abandoned.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: While in Limbo, Illyana attacks various demons in her search for the Bloodstone amulet. Her activities are noticed by Mephisto, Blackheart, Satannish, Dormammu and Hela. Belasco's daughter, Witchfire appears during the meeting and reveals she is the current owner of Illyana's Bloodstone amulet and vows to take her father's place as ruler of Limbo. Back at the X-Men's base in San Francisco, Pixie accidentally discovers Magik's Soulsword is hidden inside Nightcrawler. Sensing its presence, Illyana teleports in and reclaims her sword, transforming from the Darkchilde into her Magik persona. She strikes Colossus when he enters the Danger Room and calls out to her, realizing that something is wrong when she does not feel any emotions, and returns to Limbo. Witchfire has conquered Limbo and Magik's armies during her absence. Claiming everything that Belasco ever owned, Witchfire captures Magik, takes her bloodstone and adds it to the amulet.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: The X-Men arrive at the castle; Nightcrawler finds Illyana chained to a pillar. At her direction, he stabs her with Pixie's soul dagger, re-releasing the Soulsword inside of her. Witchfire completes the set of Bloodstones via another portion of Pixie's soul and releases the Elder Gods. Illyana and the other mutants hold back Witchfire and the Elder Gods. Using a combination of magic and the powers of the Soulsword and Souldagger, Illyana and Pixie remove one of Pixie's bloodstones. The Elder Gods are swept back to their dimension, along with Witchfire and the remaining bloodstones. Pixie's Souldagger merges with the bloodstone that was pried loose by Ilyana. Saddened by the loss of her and Pixie's remaining bloodstones, Illyana teleports the mutants back to the X-Base, and they convince her to stay with them.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: However, the younger mutants are still very distrustful of her. Illyana seems to have undergone a personality change since her return from the future, becoming more detached emotionally in most cases, possibly due to the further loss of most of her soul.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Later, Cyclops sends Illyana to team up (unknowingly) with X-Force to locate Wolverine and teleport them to Alcatraz to rescue any mutants taken prisoner by Norman Osborn's forces. Along with Pixie, they teleport all the X-Men from San Francisco to their new home, Utopia.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: When Hope Summers and Cable return to the present during the 2010 "" storyline, Bastion begins eliminating all mutant teleporters to trap the mutant population on Utopia. While trying to bring Hope and Cable to Utopia, Illyana is fired upon by one of the Purifiers with a supernatural weapon that opens a portal to Limbo that she cannot control; she is drawn into the portal by a cluster of demonic tentacles. She is eventually freed from her restraints by Pixie, and Illyana and her rescue team return to Earth.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In a reversal of fortune, Pixie is kidnapped by Project Purgatory, and Magik returns to Limbo with the New Mutants to rescue her. While in Limbo, the New Mutants encounter the "Inferno Babies" - mutants who were taken as infants by the government and raised and trained in Limbo. This now-adult team attacks and overwhelms the New Mutants. While the rest of the team is captured, Magik escapes to Earth with Karma and Pixie. After hiding the Soulsword inside Karma, Magik teleports the rest of the X-Men to Portal Epsilon, Project Purgatory's gateway to Limbo, for what the X-Men believe to be a rescue mission. They arrive just as Limbo's Elder Gods breach the gateway to Earth. Karma releases Legion's mind with the soulsword, freeing him to use his powers to destroy the Elder Gods and return the bloodstones belonging to Magik and Pixie, thus restoring their souls. Confronted by Cyclops afterward, Magik admits to putting the world in danger and manipulating the X-Men for the sake of a personal vendetta against the Elder Gods. Cyclops decides that she must be restrained. While she remains unrepentant, she accepts his decision.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik is placed in the X-Brig 2, a newly constructed, ultra-high security prison 500 ft. below sea level. She is controlled by devices that detect and prevent the use of teleportation and magic. During a visit Magik accepts the blame for her incarceration when Colossus tries to comfort her. Magik is temporarily released by Colossus and Kitty to get her help in defeating Juggernaut.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Following the events of , Magik is selected to be a member of Cyclops' "Extinction Team." Despite this status, she remains a prisoner. She is only released from the X-Brig for missions, and while in the field, her suit contains lethal fail-safes that prevent her escape.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana is chosen as one of the "Phoenix Five," a group of X-Men granted additional powers by the Phoenix Force. After Ms. Marvel is defeated by Rogue, Magik appears and gags the Avenger before teleporting her into Limbo, trapping her and terrifying Rogue. Following the defeat of Cyclops, Magik and the other former members of the Phoenix Five are reported to have fled. Magik joins Cyclops' team of X-Men at the New Xavier School at the old Weapon X facility. The Phoenix apparently has damaged Magik's powers, like it apparently did to the other five; Illyana initially thinks her ability to channel increased energies from Limbo is a power upgrade, but Dormmamu pulls her into Limbo, and demonstrates that her newfound ability to effortlessly summon Limbo energies is destroying Limbo. Dormmamu later pulls the entire Uncanny team into Limbo, intending to kill them in front of Magik before he kills her. They fight back and Illyana absorbs all of Limbo's mystic energy, causing it and its creatures to disappear. She sends the X-Men back to Earth, and travels back through time to become the protégé of a past version of Doctor Strange, explaining that she needs a greater understanding of magic, so as to better control her mutant powers.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: It is eventually discovered that Magik along with Cyclops, Emma Frost, Magneto and Colossus were actually infected with nano-sentinels by Dark Beast, after the incident with the Phoenix Force, and that was the real cause for their broken powers or sudden upgrade. She has since regained total control over her powers and was able to recreate Limbo.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: She later helps Doctor Strange defeat the Empirikul, a science cult focused on destroying magic in every dimension.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik is employed by Karma to lead a new New Mutants team along with Wolfsbane, Rictor, Strong Guy, Prodigy and Boom-Boom.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik has the mutant ability to teleport herself and others through time and space from one location to another. She initially did this by summoning what she calls "stepping discs," which were part of a dimension known as Limbo. Claremont wrote dialogue for Kitty Pryde that identified Magik's powers with science fiction author Larry Niven's stepping disks, a concept that first appeared in his 1970 novel "Ringworld".


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: When Illyana called for a stepping disc she had to use Limbo as a midway point before she could teleport to an alternate location. Magik has succeeded in teleporting herself across continents, from one continent to another, and even interplanetary and intergalactic distances on occasion.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Unlike most teleporters in the Marvel Universe, Magik can teleport through time as well as space. She has teleported moments, days or centuries into the past or future. Especially early on, she had difficulty modulating this ability and would often inadvertently travel through time and space when intending to teleport only through space. The greater the distance over which she teleported, the greater the possible margin of error in terms of her arriving at the point of time she intended.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: After Illyana absorbed all of Limbo, the stepping discs ceased to exist; now when Illyana teleports, hellish images of ghosts, dragons, or other supernatural creatures appear.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In Limbo, Magik is able to cast any magic spell that Belasco could, having had access to his store of sorcerous knowledge. Her sorcery is a unique mix of black magic that she learned from Belasco and white magic she was taught by an alternative-reality Ororo Munroe.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: On Earth, her magic was limited to astral projection, sensing mystical presences, scrying, and casting very simple spells. In "X-Infernus", she uses magic of a seemingly greater strength than she could previously use in Earth's dimension. Since absorbing Limbo and becoming Doctor Strange's disciple, Illyana's magic on Earth has been considerably stronger, such as when she used spells she learned from Doctor Strange to destroy advanced Sentinels.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: The more Magik uses her magical power, the more mystical armor appears on her body, in addition to demonic features such as horns and hooves. The armor deflects or limits attacks, both physical and magical. Illyana's armor also provides protection from the Transmode Virus. The armor also provides Illyana with super-strength, which she displayed by being able to toss the giant demon S'ym off of her several feet.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: The Soulsword was created by Illyana Rasputin during her imprisonment in Limbo. Illyana magically caused her own life force energy to manifest before her. Once this happened she cast her hand into a pool of eldritch energy and imagined a weapon in her mind. When she withdrew her hand she was holding the Soulsword, created from her own soul. A simple looking blade upon its origin, it develops intricate designs and forms upon itself the more Illyana uses it, becoming more powerful with each use.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Magik's Soulsword disrupts magical energies, constructs, and creatures. It also augments the power level of any magic user who holds it. The Soulsword generally has no physical effect, but disrupts even the most powerful magic as it passes through. Since Illyana's resurrection, the Soulsword seems to affect psychic beings like Legion's personalities, whereas in the past the sword only affected magical creatures and spells. The only exception to this has been Kitty Pryde, who can still be cut by the Soulsword even when Pryde is using her phasing power to become intangible. Illyana can make her Soulsword appear and vanish at will. After "Avengers vs. X-Men", Illyana has used her Soulsword against physical beings, including a Sentinel.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana has formidable psionic shields, which block anyone from reading her mind, even such powerful telepaths as Professor X, the Shadow King, and Rachel Summers. Since her revival, Illyana is able to lower her psionic shields.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Due to Belasco creating the magical bloodstones with their souls, Illyana has a psychic bond with X-Man Kitty Pryde. Because of this, a similar connection could be considered between Illyana and Storm.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Sara Century of "Syfy" referred to Magik as "one of the X-Men's most surprisingly popular characters," asserting, "Illyana's story often involves her teetering on the edge between good and evil. She is a character who has been forced to make no-win choices since her early childhood, and those decisions have gone on to define much of her arc. However, Illyana is also a brave, dynamic character whose hope was crushed out of her by a much older man when she was only a child. The trauma she underwent is extreme, even by X-Men standards. Though she finds her ability to hope has been crushed, Illyana's saving grace is that she does everything in her power to keep her friends safe from harm. No longer trusting herself, she surrounds herself with good people and puts her faith in them, instead. For anyone who has been made to feel like a lesser person for the abuse they've undergone, Illyana is a surprisingly poignant character. Her continuous struggle against her evil impulses might not always work out to everyone's advantage, but the fact that she continues to try even when all hope seems to be lost is still inspirational." David Harth of "CBR.com" labelled Magik as "Marvel's best magic user," stating, "Some Marvel heroes are vastly underrated and are deserving of more attention and time in the spotlight. Marvel's heroes run the gamut from the amazingly powerful to non-superpowered vigilantes. For years, the A-list heroes have fronted books and teams, their names becoming a part of the pantheon of greatest superheroes of all times. However, there are plenty of heroes out there who never got the chance to shine. These underrated heroes have vocal fans and are always on the cusp of stardom. [...] Magik has a long and storied history. A member of the powerful Rasputin family, Magik's teleportational abilities allow her to travel through space and time, but it's her magic powers that have made her so formidable. She's conquered the magical realm of Limbo and is a fearless combatant. She looks great, with her anime-inspired costume and giant swords making her a memorable visual. The magic side of Marvel is pretty much just her, Doctor Strange, and Scarlet Witch, and she's a more fun character than either of them. Magik has got it all: she's powerful, entertaining, looks cool, and can handle herself in battles against supervillains, demons, and dark gods." Alex Schlesinger of "Screen Rant" wrote, "The powerful mutant Magik, sister of the long time X-Men member Colossus, has not only seen a meteoric rise to fame over the past decade, but also has the best long-term character arc of any hero in Marvel Comics. First introduced in 1975's "Giant-Size X-Men #1" as the young, unnamed sister of Piotr Rasputin, Illyana was eventually kidnapped and brought to America by the villain Arcade before she was taken to the realm of Limbo by the evil demon lord Belasco. Since then Magik has dealt with the trauma she experienced at the hands of Belasco and his henchman S'ym in Limbo, losing her soul, and becoming the Queen of Limbo. [...] Magik's story powerfully shows that trauma is not necessary for growth or empowerment, but one can also not undo the trauma of their past. Instead, the path forward is to reconcile your past with your present and gain strength from the freedom you have desperately fought for. Magik's story of heroic redemption, escape from abuse, and acceptance of one's identity has given this X-Men fan-favorite the best character arc in Marvel Comics." Michileen Martin of "Looper" said, "Illyana Rasputin, aka Magik, isn't quite like her New Mutants teammates. Yeah, she's a mutant, but her teleportation powers are just the beginning of her extraordinary abilities. Illyana is the earliest New Mutant to appear in the X-Men comics, showing up seven years before the New Mutants original graphic novel that introduced the team to readers. She's part-demon queen, a powerful sorceress, sister to a classic X-Men hero, and a star of 2020's superhero/horror hybrid The New Mutants. Plus, of the classic New Mutants line-up, she's proven the most willing to commit the kind of dark acts most superheroes shun. Over the years, Illyana has become a staple of the New Mutants. While not a founding member, once she joins, she's one of its most powerful assets and later proves an equally irreplaceable member of the X-Men. Unfortunately, the mystical origins of Illyana's powers occasionally threaten to make her a liability, as she's got a demonic dark half that's dangerously easy to corrupt. With both mutant and magical abilities, Illyana is a fascinating character."


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: According to Marvel Comics, "X-Men: Return of Magik" #1 sold out in September 2008. According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "X-Men: Return of Magik" #1 was the 128th best selling comic book in September 2008.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "What If Magik" #1 was the 115th best selling comic book in October 2018.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Matt Lune of "CBR.com" asserted, "Sometimes there are issues of "What If" that are so outrageous, they'd never be possible in the regular canon. Other stories, however, take already established plotlines and give them a little tweak, then show us the Butterfly Effect that this small change causes. "What If Magik" #1 definitely falls into the latter category, giving us a look at the life of Illyana Rasputin had she walked away from the New Mutants at a pivotal moment. [...] There's so much to enjoy in this issue that it's a shame that it's out of continuity. Williams does an excellent job of using the somewhat reluctant pairing to enrich and deepen both central characters in a way that seems almost wasted in this one-off issue. If it weren't for the fact that this early time in Magik's life was already fully explored by Claremont, this would make a perfect retcon flashback that could set up a future relationship between Illyana and Strange. As it stands, this is an effective examination of the two characters in a way that manages to find new things to say about both of them." Jamie Lovett of "Comicbook.com" gave "What If? Magik" #1 a grade of 5 out of 5, saying, ""What If? Magik" packs a novel's worth of story into a single comic book. Leah Williams and Felipe Andrade use Magik's history to tell a story of trauma, abusive relationships, and the road to recovery and reclamation and it is exquisitely told. Williams knows exactly when to zoom into a moment with personal dialogue and when to zoom out to let the narration carry the reader. Andrade does a great job of building his layouts around the dialogue and narration. Both Williams writing and Andrade's artwork present strong characterizations of Magik and Doctor Strange. There are two small quibbles, however. Andrade's expressive faces sometimes verge on the cartoonish, which is at odds with the tone of the story. The issue also begs for one last splash page to really drive home just how far Illyanna has come by the end. Regardless, this is an expertly crafted single-issue tale." Alan Kistler of "Polygon" included "What If Magik" #1 in their "The greatest What If...? stories in Marvel history" list.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In the "Age of Apocalypse" timeline, after Apocalypse's attacks on Russia, her friends and family believed that Illyana had died when in fact she was taken to the slave camp known as the Core located in Seattle, which provides energy for Apocalypse's empire. Colossus, Shadowcat and Generation NeXt rescue her, at the cost of the lives of every single member of Generation NeXt. Illyana then helps Bishop go back in time to prevent the Age of Apocalypse from occurring in the mainstream Earth-616 timeline. In the 2000 "Blink" limited series, it is revealed via flashback that Sugar Man was at one point the abusive jailer in charge of cellmates Illyana Rasputin and Blink (before she was rescued as a young girl by Weapon-X and Sabretooth) in a prison facility.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: During "Excalibur"'s "Cross-Time Caper" storyline, the team encounters a childlike version of Illyana, clothed in the regalia of Doctor Strange, who runs an organized crime cartel in partnership with her friend Shadowcat. When Alistaire Stuart and a near comatose Rachel Summers are threatened by the authorities, Illyana grants them sanctuary; however, she merely intends to use her guests in a bid for dominance over the world. When the authorities once more attempt to search Illyana's apartment, an altercation occurs and she is shot dead but merely resurrects into her fully demonic form. That world's Captain Britain and Psylocke arrive on the scene to help stop Illyana. Psylocke psychically restores Phoenix, who performs an exorcism on Illyana and restores her to her human state.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana from Earth-4210 is also a member of The Exiles. Illyana replaces Blink when the Timebroker sends her home. She is led to believe that had she not become an Exile, she would murder her family. This universe's Magik is much more temperamental and ruthless than the Earth-616 Magik and clashes with the team from the beginning. Shortly after the Timebroker returns Blink to the team, he decrees that half the members of the combined Exiles and Weapon X group have to die. Fearing for her life, Magik tries to join King Hyperion and tells him of the mission Exiles and Weapon X were given. To corroborate her claims, Hyperion snaps Magik's neck to see if a replacement Exile is sent.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Not a true alternate earth as such, House of M is a temporary recreation of Earth-616 by the Scarlet Witch in which mutants are dominant on Earth. Magik is a member of a S.H.I.E.L.D. squadron of young mutants called the Hellions. Like most of the other Hellions, she eventually joins the side of the New Mutants, a team being groomed as future leaders, in fighting the establishment of the House of M in Japan. This version of Magik teleports to Limbo before the Scarlet Witch restores reality to its former state. This results in Belasco's resurrection of Illyana in Earth-616. In this reality, she can speak Japanese.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In the Shattershot crossover, a reality was shown in which Illyana was regressed in the same way as in Earth-616 but never succumbs to the Legacy Virus. She grows up to master her mutant and mystical powers, calls herself Darkchild and joins X-Force alongside Sunspot and Cannonball.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: In another reality in which Illyana is an adult, her son is trapped in an incorporeal form. She makes a deal with Mephisto to provide him with a body, at the cost of all mutants' lives, but her son ultimately rejects the offer.


title: Magik (Illyana Rasputina)

text: Illyana Rasputin / Magik appears in "The New Mutants", portrayed by Anya Taylor-Joy as a young adult and Colbi Gannett as a child. This version was sold into child slavery, is at odds with terrifying creatures called the Smiling Men, and is accompanied by Lockheed.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Carl Schmitt (; 11 July 1888 – 7 April 1985) was a German jurist, political theorist, and prominent member of the Nazi Party. Schmitt wrote extensively about the effective wielding of political power. A conservative theorist, he is noted as a critic of parliamentary democracy, liberalism, and cosmopolitanism, and his work has been a major influence on subsequent political theory, legal theory, continental philosophy, and political theology, but its value and significance are controversial, mainly due to his intellectual support for and active involvement with Nazism. Schmitt's work has attracted the attention of numerous philosophers and political theorists, including Giorgio Agamben, Hannah Arendt, Walter Benjamin, Susan Buck-Morss, Jacques Derrida, Waldemar Gurian, Carlo Galli, Jaime Guzmán, Jürgen Habermas, Friedrich Hayek, Reinhart Koselleck, Chantal Mouffe, Antonio Negri, Leo Strauss, Adrian Vermeule, and Slavoj Žižek, among others.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: According to the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Schmitt was an acute observer and analyst of the weaknesses of liberal constitutionalism and liberal cosmopolitanism. But there can be little doubt that his preferred cure turned out to be infinitely worse than the disease."


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt was born in Plettenberg, Westphalia, German Empire. His parents were Roman Catholics from the German Eifel region who had settled in Plettenberg. His father was a minor businessman. Schmitt studied law at Berlin, Munich and Strasbourg and took his graduation and state examinations in then-German Strasbourg during 1915. His 1910 doctoral thesis was titled "Über Schuld und Schuldarten" ("On Guilt and Types of Guilt").


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt volunteered for the army in 1916. The same year, he earned his habilitation at Strasbourg with a thesis under the title "Der Wert des Staates und die Bedeutung des Einzelnen" ("The Value of the State and the Significance of the Individual"). He then taught at various business schools and universities, namely the University of Greifswald (1921), the University of Bonn (1921), the Technische Universität München (1928), the University of Cologne (1933), and the University of Berlin (1933–45).


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In 1916, Schmitt married his first wife, Pavla Dorotić, a Croatian woman who pretended to be a countess. They divorced, but no annulment was granted by a Catholic Church tribunal, so that his 1926 marriage to Duška Todorović (1903–1950), a Serbian, was not deemed valid under Catholic law. Schmitt was excommunicated by the Church due to his second marriage.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt and Todorović have a daughter, Anima, who in 1957 married Alfonso Otero Varela (1925–2001), a Spanish law professor at the University of Santiago de Compostela and a member of the ruling Spanish Falange party in Francoist Spain. She translated several of her father's works into Spanish. Letters from Schmitt to his son-in-law have been published.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: As a young man, Schmitt was "a devoted Catholic until his break with the church in the mid twenties." From around the end of the First World War, he began to describe his Catholicism as "displaced" and "de-totalised". Consequently, Gross argues that Schmitt's work "cannot be reduced to Roman Catholic theology given a political turn. Rather, Schmitt should be understood as carrying an atheistic political-theological tradition to an extreme."


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt met Mircea Eliade, a Romanian religion historian, in Berlin in the summer of 1942 and later spoke to his friend Ernst Jünger of Eliade and his interest in Eliade's works.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt remarked on 31 January 1933 that with Adolf Hitler's appointment as Chancellor, "one can say that 'Hegel died. Richard Wolin observes:


title: Carl Schmitt

text: it is Hegel qua philosopher of the "bureaucratic class" or Beamtenstaat that has been definitely surpassed with Hitler's triumph... this class of civil servants—which Hegel in the Rechtsphilosophie deems the "universal class"—represents an impermissible drag on the sovereignty of executive authority. For Schmitt... the very essence of the bureaucratic conduct of business is reverence for the norm, a standpoint that could not but exist in great tension with the doctrines of Carl Schmitt... Hegel had set an ignominious precedent by according this putative universal class a position of preeminence in his political thought, insofar as the primacy of the bureaucracy tends to diminish or supplant the prerogative of sovereign authority.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: The Nazis forced through the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933 in March, which changed the Weimar Constitution to allow the "present government" to rule by decree, bypassing both the President, Paul von Hindenburg, and the Reichstag.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Alfred Hugenberg, the leader of the German National People's Party, one of the Nazis' partners in the coalition government that was being squeezed out of existence, hoped to slow the Nazi takeover of the country by threatening to quit his ministry position in the Cabinet. Hugenberg reasoned that by doing so, the government would thereby be changed, and the Enabling Act would no longer apply, as the "present government" would no longer exist. A legal opinion by Schmitt prevented this maneuver from succeeding. At the time well known as a constitutional theorist, Schmitt declared that "present government" did not refer to the Cabinet's makeup when the act was passed, but to the "completely different kind of government"—that is, different from the democracy of the Weimar Republic—that Hitler's cabinet had brought into existence.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: During 1921, Schmitt became a professor at the University of Greifswald, where he published his essay "Die Diktatur" (on dictatorship).


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In 1922 he published "Politische Theologie" (political theology) while working as a professor at the University of Bonn. Schmitt changed universities in 1926, when he became professor of law at the Handelshochschule in Berlin, and again in 1932, when he accepted a position in Cologne. His most famous paper, ""Der Begriff des Politischen"" ("The Concept of the Political") was based on lectures at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik in Berlin.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In 1932, Schmitt was counsel for the Reich government in the case "Preussen contra Reich" ("Prussia v. Reich"), in which the Social Democratic Party of Germany-controlled government of the state of Prussia disputed its dismissal by the right-wing Reich government of Franz von Papen. Papen was motivated to do so because Prussia, by far the largest state in Germany, served as a powerful base for the political left and provided it with institutional power, particularly in the form of the Prussian police. Schmitt, Carl Bilfinger and Erwin Jacobi represented the Reich and one of the counsel for the Prussian government was Hermann Heller. The court ruled in October 1932 that the Prussian government had been suspended unlawfully but that the Reich had the right to install a commissar. In German history, the struggle resulting in the "de facto" destruction of federalism in the Weimar republic is known as the "Preußenschlag".


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt joined the Nazi Party on 1 May 1933. Within days, he supported the party in the burning of books by Jewish authors, rejoiced in the burning of "un-German" and "anti-German" material, and called for a much more extensive purge, to include works by authors influenced by Jewish ideas. From June 1933, he was in the leadership council of Hans Frank's Academy for German Law and served as chairman of the Committee for State and Administrative Law. In July, Hermann Göring appointed him to the Prussian State Council, and in November he became the president of the Association of National Socialist German Jurists. He also replaced Heller as a professor at the University of Berlin, a position he held until the end of World War II. He presented his theories as an ideological foundation of the Nazi dictatorship and a justification of the "Führer" state concerning legal philosophy, particularly through the concept of "auctoritas".


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In June 1934, Schmitt was appointed editor-in-chief of the Nazi newspaper for lawyers, the "" ("German Jurists' Journal"). In July he published in it "The Leader Protects the Law ("Der Führer schützt das Recht")", a justification of the political murders of the Night of the Long Knives with Hitler's authority as the "highest form of administrative justice ("höchste Form administrativer Justiz")". Schmitt presented himself as a radical antisemite and was the chairman of an October 1936 law teachers' convention in Berlin at which he demanded that German law be cleansed of the "Jewish spirit ("jüdischem Geist")" and that all Jewish scientists' publications be marked with a small symbol.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Nevertheless, in December 1936, the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) publication "Das Schwarze Korps" accused Schmitt of being an opportunist, a Hegelian state thinker, and a Catholic, and called his antisemitism a mere pretense, citing earlier statements in which he criticized the Nazis' racial theories. After this, Schmitt resigned as "Reichsfachgruppenleiter" (Reich Professional Group Leader) but retained his professorship in Berlin and his title "Prussian State Councillor". Schmitt continued to be investigated into 1937, but Göring stopped further reprisals.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: During the German occupation of Paris a "round-table" of French and German intellectuals met at the Georges V Hotel, including Schmitt, the writers Ernst Jünger, Paul Morand, Jean Cocteau, and Henry Millon de Montherlant, and the publisher Gaston Gallimard.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In 1945, American forces captured Schmitt and, after spending more than a year in an internment camp, he returned to his home town of Plettenberg and later to the house of his housekeeper Anni Stand in Plettenberg-Pasel. He remained unrepentant for his role in the creation of the Nazi state, and refused every attempt at denazification, which barred him from academic jobs. Despite being isolated from the mainstream of the scholarly and political community, he continued his studies, especially of international law, from the 1950s on, and frequently received visitors, both colleagues and younger intellectuals, well into his old age. Important among these visitors were Ernst Jünger, Jacob Taubes and Alexandre Kojève.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In 1962, Schmitt gave lectures in Francoist Spain, two of which resulted in the publication, the next year, of "Theory of the Partisan", in which he characterized the Spanish Civil War as a "war of national liberation" against "international Communism". Schmitt regarded the partisan as a specific and significant phenomenon which, during the latter half of the 20th century, indicated the emergence of a new theory of warfare.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In his essay "Die Diktatur" (on dictatorship) he discussed the foundations of the newly established Weimar Republic, emphasising the office of the "Reichspräsident". In this essay, Schmitt compared and contrasted what he saw as the effective and ineffective elements of the new constitution of his country. He saw the office of the president as a comparatively effective element, because of the power granted to the president to declare a state of exception ("Ausnahmezustand"). This power, which Schmitt discussed and implicitly praised as dictatorial, was more in line with the underlying mentality of executive power than the comparatively slow and ineffective processes of legislative power reached through parliamentary discussion and compromise.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt was at pains to remove what he saw as a taboo surrounding the concept of "dictatorship" and to show that the concept is implicit whenever power is wielded by means other than the slow processes of parliamentary politics and the bureaucracy:


title: Carl Schmitt

text: For Schmitt, every government capable of decisive action must include a dictatorial element within its constitution. Although the German concept of "Ausnahmezustand" is best translated as "state of emergency", it literally means "state of exception" which, according to Schmitt, frees the executive from any legal restraints to its power that would normally apply. The use of the term "exceptional" has to be underlined here: Schmitt defines sovereignty as the power to "decide" to initiate a state of exception, as Giorgio Agamben has noted. According to Agamben, Schmitt's conceptualization of the "state of exception" as belonging to the core-concept of sovereignty was a response to Walter Benjamin's concept of a "pure" or "revolutionary" violence, which did not enter into any relationship whatsoever with right. Through the state of exception, Schmitt included all types of violence under right, in the case of the authority of Hitler leading to the formulation "The leader defends the law" (""Der Führer schützt das Recht"").


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt opposed what he termed "commissarial dictatorship", or the declaration of a state of emergency in order to save the legal order (a temporary suspension of law, defined itself by moral or legal right): the state of emergency is limited (even if "a posteriori", by law) to "sovereign dictatorship", in which law was suspended, as in the classical state of exception, not to "save the Constitution", but rather to create another constitution. This is how he theorized Hitler's continual suspension of the legal constitutional order during the Third Reich (the Weimar Republic's Constitution was never abrogated, emphasized Giorgio Agamben; rather, it was "suspended" for four years, first with the 28 February 1933 Reichstag Fire Decree, with the suspension renewed every four years, implying a continual state of emergency).


title: Carl Schmitt

text: "On Dictatorship" was followed by another essay in 1922, titled "Politische Theologie" (political theology); in it, Schmitt, gave further substance to his authoritarian theories with the now notorious definition: "Sovereign is he who decides on the exception." By "exception", Schmitt means stepping outside the rule of law under the state of exception ("Ausnahmezustand") doctrine he first introduced in "On Dictatorship" for the purpose of managing some crisis, which Schmitt defines loosely as "a case of extreme peril, a danger to the existence of the state, or the like." For this reason, the "exception" is understood as a "borderline concept" for Schmitt because it is not within the purview of the normal legal order. Schmitt opposes this definition of sovereignty to those offered by contemporary theorists on the issue, particularly Hans Kelsen, whose work is criticized at several points in the essay. The state of exception is a critique of "normativism", a positivist concept of law developed by Kelsen of law as the expression of norms that are abstract and generally applicable, in all circumstances.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: A year later, Schmitt supported the emergence of totalitarian power structures in his paper ""Die geistesgeschichtliche Lage des heutigen Parlamentarismus"" (roughly: "The Intellectual-Historical Situation of Today's Parliamentarianism", translated as "The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy" by Ellen Kennedy). Schmitt criticized the institutional practices of liberal politics, arguing that they are justified by a faith in rational discussion and openness that is at odds with actual parliamentary party politics, in which outcomes are hammered out in smoke-filled rooms by party leaders. Schmitt also posits an essential division between the liberal doctrine of separation of powers and what he holds to be the nature of democracy itself, the identity of the rulers and the ruled. Although many critics of Schmitt today, such as Stephen Holmes in his "The Anatomy of Anti-Liberalism", take exception to his fundamentally authoritarian outlook, the idea of incompatibility between liberalism and democracy is one reason for the continued interest in his political philosophy.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: In chapter 4 of his "State of Exception" (2005), Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben argued that Schmitt's "Political Theology" ought to be read as a response to Walter Benjamin's influential essay "Towards the Critique of Violence".


title: Carl Schmitt

text: The book's title derives from Schmitt's assertion (in chapter 3) that "all significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts"—in other words, that political theory addresses the state (and sovereignty) in much the same manner as theology does God.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: For Schmitt, "the political" is not equal to any other domain, such as the economic (which distinguishes between profitable and not profitable), but instead is the most essential to identity. While churches are predominant in religion or society is predominant in economics, the state is usually predominant in politics. Yet, for Schmitt, the political was not autonomous or equivalent to the other domains, but rather the existential basis that would determine any other domain should it reach the point of politics (e.g. religion ceases to be merely theological when it makes a clear distinction between the "friend" and the "enemy").


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt, in perhaps his best-known formulation, bases his conceptual realm of state sovereignty and autonomy upon the distinction between "friend" and "enemy". Schmitt writes: The political enemy need not be morally evil or aesthetically ugly...But he is, nevertheless, the other, the stranger…" This distinction is to be determined "existentially", which is to say that the enemy is whoever is "in a specially intense way, existentially something different and alien, so that in the extreme case conflicts with him are possible". Such an enemy need not even be based on nationality: so long as the conflict is potentially intense enough to become a violent one between political entities, the actual substance of enmity may be anything. In this work, Schmitt makes the distinction between several different types of enemies one may make, stating that political enemies ought to be made out of a legitimate concern for the safety of the state rather than moral intuitions.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: The collectivization of friendship and enmity is, for Schmitt, the essence of politics. This theory of politics was influential in the Third Reich where the recognition and eradication of the enemy became a necessary component of the collective national identity. Similar views were shared by other Nazi legal theorists like Werner Best. Although there have been divergent interpretations concerning this work, there is broad agreement that "The Concept of the Political" is an attempt to achieve state unity by defining the content of politics as opposition to the "enemy". Additionally, the prominence of the state stands as an arbitrary force dominating potentially fractious civil society, whose various antagonisms must not be allowed to affect politics, lest civil war result.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt provided a positive reference for Leo Strauss, and approved his work, which was instrumental in winning Strauss the scholarship funding that allowed him to leave Germany. In turn, Strauss's critique and clarifications of "The Concept of the Political" led Schmitt to make significant emendations in its second edition. Writing to Schmitt during 1932, Strauss summarized Schmitt's political theology thus: "[B]ecause man is by nature evil, he therefore needs "dominion". But dominion can be established, that is, men can be unified only in a unity against—against other men. Every association of men is necessarily a separation from other men ... the political thus understood is not the constitutive principle of the state, of order, but a condition of the state." Some of the letters between Schmitt and Strauss have been published.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: "The Leviathan in the State Theory of Thomas Hobbes", with the subtitle "Meaning and Failure of a Political Symbol", is a 1938 work by Schmitt that revisits one of his most critical theoretical inspirations: Thomas Hobbes. Schmitt's work can be described as both a critique and appraisal of the controversial political theorist. This work also contains some of Schmitt's more anti-Semitic language. As contemporary writers on Schmitt have noted, his anti-Semitism may be read as more a kind of "anti-Judaism" as, unlike his Nazi allies, he did not attribute the dangers of Judaism to "biological" reasons but strictly religious ones. This work by Schmitt is also one of the most intimately involved by him with the concept of myth in a political setting.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: The text itself begins with an overview of the religious history of the mythical character "Leviathan". Schmitt traces this character as a unique subject of conflicting interpretations in Abrahamic doctrines, whereby the Leviathan, understood most pointedly as a "big fish," is occasionally interchangeable with that of a dragon or serpent, which Schmitt remarks have been "protective and benevolent deities" in the history of non-Jewish peoples. But, as Schmitt makes clear, Hobbes' Leviathan is very different from these interpretations, being illustrated firstly in his work "Leviathan" as a "huge man". The Leviathan as a "huge man" is used throughout Hobbes' work as a symbol of the sovereign person. Although the Leviathan is not the only allegory made by Hobbes of the sovereign, which gravitates throughout his work as "a huge man, a huge leviathan, an artificial being, an "animal artificiale", an "automaton", or a "machina"". Hobbes' concern was mainly to convey the sovereign person as a frightening creature that could instill fear into those chaotic elements of man that belong to his interpretation of the state of nature.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt's critique of Hobbes begins with Hobbes' understanding of the state as a "machine" which is set into motion by the sovereign. This, says Schmitt, is really just a continuation of Descartes' dualism of man between mind and body. For Hobbes to conceptualize the state as a machine whose soul is the sovereign renders it really as just a mechanic structure, carrying over the cartesian dualism into political theory: "As a totality, the state is body and soul, a "homo artificialis", and, as such, a machine. It is a manmade product... the soul thereby becomes a mere component of a machine artificially manufactured by man." Schmitt adds that this technical conception of the state is essential in the modern interpretation of government as a widespread administrative organ. Therefore, Schmitt attributes Hobbes' mechanistic and often also a legally positivist interpretation of the state (what is legitimate = what is legal) with the process of political neutralization. This is consistent with Schmitt's larger attitude toward attempts to apply technical principles to political matters.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Also, Schmitt critiques Hobbes' insistence that belief in miracles must only be outwardly consistent with the position of the state and can, privately, deviate into one's own opinion as to the validity of such "miracles". The belief in miracles was a relevant point in Hobbes' century for kings would regularly "bestow miracles" by touching the hands of those of ill health, supposedly healing them—obviously a consequence of the medieval belief that kings had a divine character. Hobbes' position was that "private reason" may disagree with what the state claims to be a miracle, but the "public reason" must by necessity agree to its position in order to avoid chaos. Schmitt's critique of Hobbes here is twofold. Firstly, Hobbes opens the crack toward a liberal understanding of individual rights (such as the right to "private reason") which Schmitt was a tireless critique of and, secondly, Hobbes guts the state of any "substantive truth" (such as the genuine belief of the individual, even in private, of the kings divine right) and renders the state into now simply a "justifiable external power". This opens up the elementary basis of liberal society which, for Schmitt, was pluralism. Such a pluralist society lacked ideological homogeneity and nationally bound group identity, both of which were fundamental premises of a democratic society to Schmitt. Despite his critiques, Schmitt, nonetheless, finishes the book with a celebration of Hobbes as a truly magnificent thinker, ranking him along with other theorists he values greatly like Niccolò Machiavelli and Giambattista Vico.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: "The Nomos of the Earth" is Schmitt's most historical and geopolitical work. Published in 1950, it was also one of his final texts. It describes the origin of the Eurocentric global order, which Schmitt dates from the discovery of the New World, discusses its specific character and its contribution to civilization, analyses the reasons for its decline at the end of the 19th century, and concludes with prospects for a new world order. It defends European achievements, not only in creating the first truly global order of international law, but also in limiting war to conflicts among sovereign states, which, in effect, civilized war. In Schmitt's view, the European sovereign state was the greatest achievement of Occidental rationalism; in becoming the principal agency of secularization, the European state created the modern age.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Notable in Schmitt's discussion of the European epoch of world history is the role played by the New World, which ultimately replaced the Old World as the centre of the Earth and became the arbiter in European and world politics. According to Schmitt, the United States' internal conflicts between economic presence and political absence, between isolationism and interventionism, are global problems, which today continue to hamper the creation of a new world order. But however critical Schmitt is of American actions at the end of the 19th century and after World War I, he considered the United States to be the only political entity capable of resolving the crisis of global order.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Published in 1956, "Hamlet or Hecuba: The Intrusion of the Time into the Play" was Schmitt's most extended piece of literary criticism. In it Schmitt focuses his attention on Shakespeare's "Hamlet" and argues that the significance of the work hinges on its ability to integrate history in the form of the taboo of the queen and the deformation of the figure of the avenger. Schmitt uses this interpretation to develop a theory of myth and politics that serves as a cultural foundation for his concept of political representation. Beyond literary criticism or historical analysis, Schmitt's book also reveals a comprehensive theory of the relationship between aesthetics and politics that responds to alternative ideas developed by Walter Benjamin and Theodor W. Adorno.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt's "Theory of the Partisan" originated in two lectures delivered during 1962, and has been seen as a rethinking of "The Concept of the Political". It addressed the transformation of war in the post-European age, analysing a specific and significant phenomenon that ushered in a new theory of war and enmity. It contains an implicit theory of the terrorist, which during the 21st century has resulted in yet another new theory of war and enmity. In the lectures, Schmitt directly tackles the issues surrounding "the problem of the Partisan" figure: the guerrilla or revolutionary who "fights irregularly" (p. 3). Both because of its scope, with extended discussions on historical figures like Napoleon Bonaparte, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, as well as the events marking the beginning of the 20th century, Schmitt's text has had a resurgence of popularity. Jacques Derrida, in his "Politics of Friendship" remarked:


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Despite certain signs of ironic distrust in the areas of metaphysics and ontology, "The Concept of the Political" was, as we have seen, a philosophical type of essay to 'frame' the topic of a concept unable to constitute itself on philosophical ground. But in "Theory of the Partisan", it is in the same areas that the topic of this concept is both radicalized and properly uprooted, where Schmitt wished to regrasp in history the event or node of events that engaged this uprooting radicalisation, and it is precisely there that the philosophical as such intervenes again.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt concludes "Theory of the Partisan" with the statement: "The theory of the partisan flows into the question of the concept of the political, into the question of the real enemy and of a new "nomos" of the earth." Schmitt's work on the Partisan has since spurred comparisons with the post-9/11 'terrorist' in recent scholarship.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Through Walter Benjamin, Giorgio Agamben, Andrew Arato, Chantal Mouffe and other writers, Schmitt has become a common reference in recent writings of the intellectual left as well as the right. These discussions concern not only the interpretation of Schmitt's own positions, but also matters relevant to contemporary politics: the idea that laws of the state cannot strictly limit actions of its sovereign, the problem of a "state of exception" (later expanded upon by Agamben).


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt's argument that political concepts are "secularized theological concepts" has also recently been seen as consequential for those interested in contemporary political theology. The German-Jewish philosopher Jacob Taubes, for example, engaged Schmitt widely in his study of Saint Paul, "The Political Theology of Paul" (Stanford Univ. Press, 2004). Taubes' understanding of political theology is, however, very different from Schmitt's, and emphasizes the political aspect of theological claims, rather than the religious derivation of political claims.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt is described as a "classic of political thought" by Herfried Münkler, while in the same article Münkler speaks of his post-war writings as reflecting an: "embittered, jealous, occasionally malicious man" ("verbitterten, eifersüchtigen, gelegentlich bösartigen Mann"). Schmitt was termed the "Crown Jurist of the Third Reich" ("Kronjurist des Dritten Reiches") by Waldemar Gurian.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Timothy D. Snyder has asserted that Schmitt's work has greatly influenced Eurasianist philosophy in Russia by revealing a counter to the liberal order.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: According to historian Renato Cristi in the writing of the 1980 Constitution of Chile, Pinochet collaborator Jaime Guzmán based his work on the "pouvoir constituant" concept used by Schmitt (as well as drawing inspiration in the ideas of market society of Friedrich Hayek). This way Guzmán would have enabled a framework for a dictatorial state combined with a free market economic system.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt's "state of exception" doctrine has enjoyed a revival in the 21st century. Formulated 10 years before the 1933 Nazi takeover of Germany, Schmitt claimed that urgency justified the following:


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Schmitt's doctrine helped clear the way for Hitler's rise to power by providing the theoretical legal foundation of the Nazi regime.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Some have argued that Schmitt has become an important influence on Chinese political theory in the 21st century, particularly since Xi Jinping became General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012. Leading Chinese Schmittians include the theologian Liu Xiaofeng, the public policy scholar Wang Shaoguang, and the legal theorist and government adviser Jiang Shigong. Schmitt’s ideas have proved popular and useful instruments in justifying the legitimacy of Communist Party rule.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: The first important wave of Schmitt's reception in China started with Liu's writings at the end of the 1990s. In the context of a transition period, Schmitt was used both by liberal, nationalist and conservative intellectuals to find answers to contemporary issues. In the 21st century, most of them are still concerned with state power and to what extent a strong state is required to tackle China's modernization. Some authors consider Schmitt's works as a weapon against liberalism. Others think that his theories are helpful for China's development.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: A critical reception of his use in a Chinese context does also exist. These differences go together with different interpretations of Schmitt's relation with fascism. While some scholars regard him as a faithful follower of fascism, others, such as Liu Xiaofeng, consider his support to the Nazi regime only as instrumental and attempt to separate his works from their historical context. According to them, his real goal is to pave a different and unique way for the modernization of Germany—precisely what makes him interesting for China. Generally speaking, the Chinese reception is ambivalent: quite diverse and dynamic, but also highly ideological. Other scholars are cautious when it comes to Schmitt's arguments for state power, considering the danger of totalitarianism, they assume at the same time that state power is necessary for the current transition and that a "dogmatic faith" in liberalism is unsuitable for China. By emphasizing the danger of social chaos, many of them agree with Schmitt—beyond their differences—on the necessity of a strong state.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Several scholars have noted the influence of Carl Schmitt on Vladimir Putin and Russia, specifically in defense of illiberal norms and exercising power, such as in disputes with Ukraine.


title: Carl Schmitt

text: Note: a complete bibliography of all English translations of Schmitt's books, articles, essays, and correspondence is available here.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Dichloromethane (DCM or methylene chloride, methylene bichloride) is an organochlorine compound with the formula . This colorless, volatile liquid with a chloroform-like, sweet odour is widely used as a solvent. Although it is not miscible with water, it is slightly polar, and miscible with many organic solvents.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Natural sources of dichloromethane include oceanic sources, macroalgae, wetlands, and volcanoes. However, the majority of dichloromethane in the environment is the result of industrial emissions.


title: Dichloromethane

text: DCM is produced by treating either chloromethane or methane with chlorine gas at 400–500 °C. At these temperatures, both methane and chloromethane undergo a series of reactions producing progressively more chlorinated products. In this way, an estimated 400,000 tons were produced in the US, Europe, and Japan in 1993.


title: Dichloromethane

text: The output of these processes is a mixture of chloromethane, dichloromethane, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride as well as hydrogen chloride as a byproduct. These compounds are separated by distillation.


title: Dichloromethane

text: DCM was first prepared in 1839 by the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault (1810–1878), who isolated it from a mixture of chloromethane and chlorine that had been exposed to sunlight.


title: Dichloromethane

text: DCM's volatility and ability to dissolve a wide range of organic compounds makes it a useful solvent for many chemical processes. In the food industry, it is used to decaffeinate coffee and tea as well as to prepare extracts of hops and other flavourings. Its volatility has led to its use as an aerosol spray propellant and as a blowing agent for polyurethane foams.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Methylene chloride is a Lewis acid that can hydrogen bond to electron donors. It is classified as a hard acid and is included in the ECW model. It is a solvent that has been used in many thermodynamic studies of donor-acceptor bonding. The donor hydrogen-bonding corrections of methylene chloride in these thermodynamic studies has been reported.


title: Dichloromethane

text: The chemical compound's low boiling point allows the chemical to function in a heat engine that can extract mechanical energy from small temperature differences. An example of a DCM heat engine is the drinking bird. The toy works at room temperature. It is also used as the fluid in jukebox displays and holiday bubble lights that have a colored bubbling tube above a lamp as a source of heat and a small amount of rock salt to provide thermal mass and a nucleation site for the phase changing solvent.


title: Dichloromethane

text: DCM chemically welds certain plastics. For example, it is used to seal the casing of electric meters. Often sold as a main component of plastic welding adhesives, it is also used extensively by model building hobbyists for joining plastic components together. It is commonly referred to as "Di-clo."


title: Dichloromethane

text: DCM is used in the material testing field of civil engineering; specifically it is used during the testing of bituminous materials as a solvent to separate the binder from the aggregate of an asphalt or macadam to allow the testing of the materials.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Dichloromethane extract of Asparagopsis taxiformis, a seaweed fodder for cattle, has been found to reduce their methane emissions by 79%.


title: Dichloromethane

text: It has been used as the principal component of paint stripper, but its use for this purpose is now prohibited in the United States and the European Union.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent in part because it is relatively inert. It does participate in reactions with certain strong nucleophiles however. Tert-butyllithium deprotonates DCM:


title: Dichloromethane

text: Even though DCM is the least toxic of the simple , it has serious health risks. Its high volatility makes it an acute inhalation hazard. It can also be absorbed through the skin.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Symptoms of acute overexposure to dichloromethane via inhalation include difficulty concentrating, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, headaches, numbness, weakness, and irritation of the upper respiratory tract and eyes. More severe consequences can include suffocation, loss of consciousness, coma, and death.


title: Dichloromethane

text: DCM is also metabolized by the body to carbon monoxide potentially leading to carbon monoxide poisoning. Acute exposure by inhalation has resulted in optic neuropathy and hepatitis. Prolonged skin contact can result in DCM dissolving some of the fatty tissues in skin, resulting in skin irritation or chemical burns.


title: Dichloromethane

text: It may be carcinogenic, as it has been linked to cancer of the lungs, liver, and pancreas in laboratory animals. Other animal studies showed breast cancer and salivary gland cancer. Research is not yet clear as to what levels may be carcinogenic. DCM crosses the placenta but fetal toxicity in women who are exposed to it during pregnancy has not been proven. In animal experiments, it was fetotoxic at doses that were maternally toxic but no teratogenic effects were seen.


title: Dichloromethane

text: In people with pre-existing heart problems, exposure to DCM can cause abnormal heart rhythms and/or heart attacks, sometimes without any other symptoms of overexposure. People with existing liver, nervous system, or skin problems may worsen after exposure to methylene chloride.


title: Dichloromethane

text: In February 2013, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health warned that at least 14 bathtub refinishers have died since 2000 from DCM exposure. These workers had been working alone, in poorly ventilated bathrooms, with inadequate or no respiratory protection, and no training about the hazards of DCM. OSHA has since then issued a DCM standard.


title: Dichloromethane

text: In the European Union, the European Parliament voted in 2009 to ban the use of DCM in paint-strippers for consumers and many professionals. The ban took effect in December 2010.


title: Dichloromethane

text: In Europe, the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limit Values (SCOEL) recommends for DCM an occupational exposure limit (8 h time-weighted average) of 100 ppm and a short-term exposure limit (15 min) of 200 ppm.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Concerns about its health effects have led to a search for alternatives in many of these applications.


title: Dichloromethane

text: On March 15, 2019, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a final rule to prohibit the manufacture (including importing and exporting), processing, and distribution of methylene chloride in all paint removers for consumer use, effective in 180 days. However, it does not affect other products containing methylene chloride, including many consumer products not intended for paint removal.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Dichloromethane is not classified as an ozone-depleting substance by the Montreal Protocol. The U.S. Clean Air Act does not regulate dichloromethane as an ozone depleter. Recent research shows that dichloromethane and other halogenated very short-lived substances (VSLSs), despite their short atmospheric lifetimes of less than 0.5 year, can contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion, particularly if emitted in regions where rapid transport to the stratosphere occurs. Atmospheric abundances of dichloromethane have been increasing in recent years.


title: Dichloromethane

text: Ozone concentrations measured at the midlatitudes from the ground up through the stratosphere from 1998 to 2016 have declined by 2.2 Dobson units, just under 1%. The reasons for this decline are unclear, but one unverified hypothesis is the presence of short-lived substances such as dichloromethane in the lower atmosphere.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: Lonesome Dove is a 1985 Western novel by American writer Larry McMurtry. It is the first published book of the "Lonesome Dove" series, but the third installment in the series chronologically.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: The story revolves around the relationships between several retired Texas Rangers and their adventures driving a cattle herd from Texas to Montana. Set in the closing years of the Old West, the novel explores themes of old age, death, unrequited love, and friendship.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: The novel was a bestseller and won the 1986 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. In 1989, it was adapted as a TV miniseries starring Tommy Lee Jones and Robert Duvall, which won both critical and popular acclaim. McMurtry went on to write a sequel, "Streets of Laredo" (1993), and two prequels, "Dead Man's Walk" (1995) and "Comanche Moon" (1997), all of which were also adapted as TV series.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: Following the success of "The Last Picture Show" in 1971, Peter Bogdanovich was keen to collaborate with McMurtry on a Western. Their original script was welcomed by the studio, but disliked by the actors McMurtry and Bogdanovich had in mind: Jimmy Stewart, Henry Fonda, and John Wayne. According to McMurtry, the script languished in development hell for 12 years before he bought the rights back for $35,000, to adapt the story as a novel. He spent several years working on it intermittently, between writing "Cadillac Jack" (1983) and "The Desert Rose", and eventually submitted it to his publishers in 1984.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: In the late 1870s, Captain Woodrow F. Call and Captain Augustus "Gus" McCrae, two famous retired Texas Rangers, run the Hat Creek Cattle Company and Livery Emporium in the small Texas border town of Lonesome Dove. Working with them are Joshua Deets, an excellent tracker and scout from their Ranger days; Pea Eye Parker, another former Ranger who is loyal and reliable, but unintelligent; Bolivar, a retired Mexican bandit who works as their cook; and Newt Dobbs, a 17-year-old boy whose mother was a prostitute named Maggie and whose father is widely thought by the outfit to be Call, though Call has never acknowledged this.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: Jake Spoon, another former Ranger, arrives in Lonesome Dove after an absence of more than 10 years, during which he has traveled widely across the United States. He reveals that he is on the run, having accidentally shot a dentist in Fort Smith, Arkansas. The dentist's brother happened to be the town's sheriff, July Johnson.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: Reunited with Gus and Call, Jake's description of the Montana Territory inspires Call to gather a herd of cattle and drive them north, to begin the first cattle ranch north of the Yellowstone River. Call, who has grown listless in retirement, is attracted to the romantic notion of settling pristine country. Gus is less enthusiastic, but changes his mind when reminded that the love of his life, Clara, lives on the Platte River near Ogallala, Nebraska, which would be on the route to Montana. The Hat Creek outfit rustles thousands of cattle from across the border in Mexico and recruits local cowboys in preparation for the drive.


title: Lonesome Dove

text: Ironically, Jake Spoon soon decides not to go at all, having made himself comfortable with the town's only prostitute, Lorena Wood, who is smitten with him after he promises to take her to San Francisco. At Lorena's insistence, however, Jake and she ultimately trail along behind the cattle drive.