title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe's foreign policy during his tenant as Prime Minister pushed closer relations with the west. He expected their economical backing to overcome the economic crisis. He also largely took assistance, especially from Norway, to resolve the ongoing ethnic problem in Sri Lanka. In July 2002 he was able to meet George W. Bush, the President of the United States during that period. It was the first time after 18 years a Sri Lankan leader met the US leader in the White House. This visit was primarily focused on building new relationships based on economical links between United States and Sri Lanka. Furthermore, the US government pledged to support his peace efforts with LTTE. He also met the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Japan Junichiro Koizumi and the Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe believed a political solution based on a United Sri Lanka was the permanent solution to the ethnic problem in the country. He also believed that such a solution could be reached through a peaceful negotiation process with LTTE. Three months after the election Ranil Wickremesinghe's government entered into a ceasefire agreement (CFA) with LTTE. The agreement was signed on 22 February 2002 at different locations in the war zone by both parties and the Norwegian Ambassador to Sri Lanka Jon Westborg acted as the facilitator. It was said that the main objective of this agreement was to find a negotiated solution to the ongoing ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Both parties agreed to halt all offensive military operations. An international monitoring mission called Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM) was formed to inquire into any instance of violation of the terms and conditions of this agreement. In the aftermath of signing the CFA, the island was deemed a safe place once again, after decades of war. Especially the tourism industry experienced a significant escalation where the number of tourists arriving in the country was suddenly increased. The A9 Highway was reopened up to Kilinochchi on 15 February 2002 after 18 years.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: A few days after LTTE proposed the Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA), President Chandrika Kumaratunga sacked three ministers of the cabinet and took over the ministries using her constitutional powers, ending the uneasy coalition between her and the Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe while he was out of the country. Addressing the nation she claimed that this decision was taken in the interest of national security. Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna also decided to ally with PA to defeat the Ranil Wickremesinghe's government which they claimed as a threat to the sovereignty of the country. Consequently, President Chandrika Kumaratunga dissolved the parliament on 7 February 2004 which effectively ended Ranil Wickremesinghe's regime.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: After signing CFA, Ranil Wickremesinghe held a few rounds of peace talks with LTTE between 2002 and 2003. Prof. G. L. Peiris, minister Milinda Moragoda and minister Rauff Hakeem led the government delegation and LTTE theoretician Anton Balasingham, LTTE political wing leader S.P. Thamilselvan and military leader Karuna Amman led the LTTE faction during the peace talks. The Norwegian government acted as the chief facilitator during the peace talks. There were six rounds of peace talks which were held at different locations around the world:


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: After the Oslo round of peace talks in December 2003, a concluding statement was declared by the Norwegian facilitators which later became known as Oslo Declaration. In this statement it was stated that "both parties have decided to explore a political solution founded on internal self-determination based on a federal structure within a united Sri Lanka". This was considered one of the most significant incidents in the history of finding a political solution to the ethnic problem in Sri Lanka.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: After the sixth round of peace talks in March 2003, LTTE abruptly withdrew from the peace talks. However, in October 2003 LTTE again showed some intentions of entering into the peace process, calling for an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA). The proposal was handed over to the government through Norwegian Ambassador Hans Brattskar.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Analysts saw Wickremesinghe was fanning the internecine feuds among the Tigers and systematically weakening them and a foreign policy intended to tighten the global dragnet against the LTTE. Agreements were signed with the US which allowed Sri Lanka to get assistance in terms of military training, military technology, intelligence, special training in counter-terrorism and direct monetary assistance for military development. During the ceasefire period United States Pacific Command assessment team conducted a study from 12–2 Sep, 002 to 24 October 2002, which made several recommendations to strengthen the capabilities of the Sri Lanka Army, Sri Lanka Navy and Sri Lanka Air Force in case of the peace process failing. After studying the weakness of the military the study recommended the use of cluster bombs (Which weren't banned until 2010 when the Cluster Munitions Convention came into effect)to destroy unarmoured area targets and recommended arming Kafirs and Mi-24 gunships with guided weapons in case of fighting close to enemy forces. The US also donated the SLNS Samudura during this time.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: The opposition and the nationalistic movements of the country strongly opposed CFA and the overall peace process of Ranil Wickremesinghe's regime. They continuously criticized and protested against CFA claiming it as a threat to the sovereignty of the country which ultimately leads the way to a separate state for LTTE, so-called Eelam. It was later claimed by Karuna Amman who defected from the LTTE during Ranil Wickremesinghe's regime that the LTTE dragged the peace talks to smuggle weapons and ammunition including aircraft.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: LTTE continuously violated CFA in great many occasions. In August 2007 SLMM agreed that LTTE had violated CFA in total 3830 occasions while government of Sri Lanka had violated CFA in only 351 occasions. Several Sri Lankan Army intelligence operatives were allegedly killed by LTTE during this period.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In the 2004 Parliamentary Elections held on 2 April Ranil Wickremesinghe's UNF lost governmental office. Despite the expectation of a full six-year term, and planned projects cut short by the defeat, the UNP was optimistic that it could regain power in a future election. Within 14 months of UPFA's victory, the radical JVP wing's (composed of over 30 members) parting of ways with the government, left the UPFA's parliamentary composition well short of the required majority. He remained in the post of the Opposition Leader until 2015, when Maithripala Sirisena who was sworn in as the President, appointed him as the Prime Minister.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In December 2004, Wickremesinghe was chosen by the United National Party as its presidential candidate for Presidential Elections due in late 2005. The Supreme Court decided in August 2005 that the elections should be held that year despite the President's argument that her term would end in 2006. Mahinda Rajapaksa, then Prime Minister, was nominated as the Presidential candidate of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party. In the presidential election held on 17 November 2005, Wickremesinghe was defeated narrowly by Mahinda Rajapaksa, who gained 50.29% of the vote to Wickremesinghe's 48.43%. A large number of the minority Tamil population in the Northern and Eastern parts of the country, who were largely expected to back Wickremesinghe were prevented from voting by the LTTE, which had enforced a boycott of the polls.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: With the success in defeating LTTE in war, the government held a series of provincial elections in 2008 and 2009 for 8 provincial councils (Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, North Western, Central, Western, Uva, and Southern). On all occasions, UNP was soundly defeated by a large margin by UPFA. Of all the elections UNP obtained only 30% of the total polled and UPFA was able to gain 59% of the total polled. The margin was 2,527,783compared to 180,786 in Presidential Election in 2005.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Ranil Wickremesinghe signed an Alliance Agreement with twelve other opposition parties in November 2009 and he announced that a common candidate would be fielded for the presidential election which would be held in 2010. Later, he announced that the former Army Commander, Sarath Fonseka had been selected as the common candidate and pledged to support him.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In August 2012, Minister of Health and SLFP general secretary Maithripala Sirisena alleged that during the 1994 presidential election campaign, all campaign details concerning the UNP presidential candidate Gamini Dissanayake were being secretly passed on to his opponent, Chandrika Kumaratunga by Wickremesinghe. Minister Sirisena made this disclosure while addressing an election committee meeting held at Siripura, Polonnaruwa. Sirisena asserted that he has ample proof to validate his claim and allegations. Consequently, both parties started to challenge each other for open media debates.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: UNP along with several other parties and civil organizations signed an Understanding Agreement and decided to field the then Secretary-General of Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Maithripala Sirisena as the Common Candidate for the presidential election and the Common Candidate pledged to appoint Ranil Wickremesinghe, as the Prime Minister if he would win the election. In the elections held on 8 January 2015, Common Candidate Maithripala Sirisena was selected as the 6th President of Sri Lanka and on 9 January 2015 when he was sworn in, he appointed Ranil Wickremesinghe as the Prime Minister of the Sri Lankan Parliament.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: After the defeat in the 2004 parliamentary election, a senior member of UNP and a former minister of Ranil Wickremesinghe's 2001–2004 government, Rohitha Bogollagama, switched sides and allied with the government. Soon after the defeat in the presidential election in 2005, Mahinda Samarasinghe and Keheliya Rambukwella defected to the government.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In 2007, Wickremesinghe established a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Mahinda Rajapaksa government agreeing to UNP's collaboration with the government on issues of national interest. However, shortly afterwards, 17 of the UNP's 60 members in parliament, including the group who had challenged Wickremesinghe's leadership, led by deputy leader Karu Jayasuriya crossed over to the governing UPFA ranks in parliament and were given ministerial appointments. The group consisted of senior members of UNP and many of them were former ministers of Ranil Wickremesinghe's 2001–2004 government: Karu Jayasuriya (Deputy Leader of UNP), M. H. Mohamed (former speaker of the parliament), Milinda Moragoda, G. L. Peiris, Bandula Gunawardane, Lakshman Yapa Abeywardena, Gamini Lokuge, P. Dayaratna, Mano Wijeyeratne, Rajitha Senaratne, R.A.D. Sirisena, Mahinda Wijesekara, Naween Dissanayake, Hemakumara Nanayakkara, R. M. Dharmadasa Banda, Neomal Perera and Chandrasiri Sooriyaarachchi. The defection of the party stalwarts to join the government continued thereafter with several members such as; Susantha Punchinilame, Mahinda Ratnatilaka, Nandimithra Ekanayake, Thilanga Sumathipala, R. Duminda Silva, Ravindra Randeniya and Ashoka Wadigamangawa. However, in late 2008, Jayasuriya crossed over once again to the opposition and was given back the deputy leader post.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In February 2008, Wickremesinghe was under pressure to step down from the party leadership to accept an advisory position, from a majority of the UNP's parliamentary group. In March, the UNP working committee decided to create a new post called Senior Leader of the party and appointed Wickremesinghe to the post. This was amid discussion with the UNP's parliamentary group about the need for the Wickremesinghe to relinquish his post (of party leader) so that a new leader could be appointed. However, in late March the party working committee decided that he should remain as the party leader.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe was accused of being a dictator in UNP during his time as opposition leader. Udugama Sri Buddharakkitha Thero said that Wickremesinghe was acting like a dictator. On 2010, UNP MP Dayasiri Jayasekara accused that within the constitution of the UNP, Ranil Wickremesinghe Rajapaksa is not a democratic leader but a dictator. Former minister and UNP MP Mahinda Wijesekara commented that "We don't need a dictator in the party," saying that Wickremesinghe opposed party reforms.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: More than 60 UNP MPs allegedly left the party during Wickremesinghe's leadership as opposition leader.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Following the 2015 presidential election's UNP-led common candidate Maithripala Sirisena having won 51.28% of votes and under Memorandum of Understanding agreement, Wickremesinghe was appointed as prime minister for the 100-day program plan and this was his third term as Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. UNP/UNFGG-led by Wickremesinghe won the General Parliamentary Elections held on 17 August 2015, making himself the Prime Minister for his 4th term, with 106 seats in 225-member Parliament of Sri Lanka forming the government (though short of 7 seats to secure the simple majority of the Parliament) defeating the political rivalry UPFA leader and former President Mahinda Rajapaksa in his bid to return as prime minister after his defeat as president. Wickremesinghe also scored the highest preferential votes in the election with 500,556 votes, beating his rival Rajapaksa by a considerable margin whilst setting a new record as the candidate with the highest number of preferential votes in Sri Lankas' elections history.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe vowed to regain the majority in the Parliament and make it as the United National Party's Government, at the same time he also promised to secure the futures of younger generations and instantly confirmed that the Government will launch 1 million jobs for the youth as well advancement for the education and health sectors will maintain as promised. He also took steps to develop the former war-zones by touring the affected areas and met civil activists to discuss the issues faced by the Jaffna civilians and schools and to expedite investigations of missing persons. He also took steps to uplift Northern Province communities and to improve their standard of living.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe also restarted the Megapolis plan which he started in when he was PM in 2001–2004. Surbana was consulted to revise the master plan to suit newer needs. The Ministry of Megapolis and Western development was created for project and the project which expects to convert the currently unplanned Western Province into a major megapolis by 2030 with an estimated population of 8.4 million and expects to solve the issues concerning traffic congestion, waste management and slum dwellers in urban areas. Wickremesinghe also showed interest in Surbana creating a similar plan for Trincomalee in the Eastern province and an agreement was later signed with Surbana for the purpose.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe proposed major economic reforms and proposed a knowledge based social market economy which will be built on social justice principles that will also focus on the availability of global opportunities for education and strengthening of the health system to face health concerns of the 21st century. He also planned on reducing high income disparity levels in the domestic economy and increasing exports. He launched a plan to reform state-owned enterprise, enter into trade agreements with India and China to increase market access and regain GSP+ to regain EU markets, restructure key investment promotion agencies, develop tourism, attract high spending tourists, and develop the rural economy. Special economic zones and a special financial and business hub in Colombo were also proposed. Wickremesinghe also organized the Sri Lanka Economic forum 2016 with the presence of international investor and Founder Chairman of Open Society George Soros and Nobel Laureate Economist Joseph Stiglitz and many other experts such as Ricardo Hausmann. The forum was seen as a boost to the Sri Lankan economy and during the forum Soros decided to invest in Sri Lanka the initial investments were expected to be around $300 Million. He also launched a loan and grant scheme for small and medium enterprises named "Swa Shakthi" empower rural entrepreneurs and develop the rural economy. However, in 2017, during his tenure Sri Lanka recorded just 3.1% economic growth rate, the lowest for 16 years.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: During the Rajapaksa regime which oversaw the rise of lawlessness and abuse of state power by Rajapaksa's government ministers and officers after the defeat of the regime, Prime Minister Wickremesinghe decided to set up the Financial Crimes Investigation Division. This led to arrest Basil Rajapaksa the younger brother of Mahinda Rajapaksa and his political henchmen who were involved in large-scale corruption also were arrested within months after forming the committee. However several family members and friends of Rajapaksa were questioned by the FCID, Rajapaksa fears that his entire family and friends could be prosecuted and brought down to justice. Former President Rajapaksa asked President Sirisena over the pending charges against his family members and political associations be dropped. However, President Sirisena refused to drop the charges that were ongoing, The meeting between President Sirisena and former President Rajapaksa ended up unsuccessful over the President's refusal to consider the key demands of Rajapaksa to be appointed as Prime Ministerial candidate and the charges against his family members and close associations to be dropped. Rajapaksa's faction in SLFP criticised that the FCID were used as a tool to revenge on his associations and threatened to take legal action against FCID.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: The United National Party led by Wickramasinghe suffered a landslide defeat in the 2018 local authority elections. His party was only able to secure 34 councils out of 340 total councils. Mahinda Rajapaksa’s proxy Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna won 231 councils. After the election defeat some MPs of UNP and party members asked Ranil Wickramasinghe Rajapaksa to resign from the party leadership and Prime Minister position. Some media reported that President Maithripala Sirisena also urged Ranil Wickramasinghe Rajapaksa to resign from his position. On the evening of 26 October 2018, President Maithripala Sirisena appointed Mahinda Rajapaksa as Prime Minister after the United People's Freedom Alliance withdrew from the unity government. He also informed Ranil Wickremesinghe was removed from office. Wickremesinghe said he refused to accept the dismissal claiming that it was unconstitutional which triggered a constitutional crisis. Following rulings by the Supreme court and the Appeal court, Rajapaksa backed down and Wickremesinghe was re-instated at prime minister on 16 December 2018.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Following many internal party negotiations Wickremesinghe agreed to back Sajith Premadasa as the party candidate for the 2019 Sri Lankan presidential election. Premadasa was defeated by Gotabaya Rajapaksa who gained 52.25% of the votes against 41.99% by Premadasa.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: His foreign policy in his third premiership was aimed at re-balancing relations with India and the West that were strained during the previous regime and keeping good relations with China as well. He also chose to restart discussions to solve the Indo-Sri Lanka fishing dispute but strongly defended the Sri Lankan navy's right to shoot Indian fishermen that fish in Sri Lankan waters, stating:


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: His foreign policy was seen as moving away from the Rajapaksa government's isolationist policies, which distanced Sri Lanka from the western world. His policies were seen to attract investments and financial aid.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: He also worked to develop relations with Japan and Singapore, choosing them as his second and third foreign state visits after being elected as prime minister. During his visit to Japan, he promised to support Japan's bid to secure a seat on the United Nations Security Council and entered to a "comprehensive partnership" with Japan covering political, economic and security issues. During his visit to Singapore, in an interview with "The Straits Times" he invited Singaporean submarines and frigates to visit Sri Lanka.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Following his defeat, Premadasa left the party to form his own party, Samagi Jana Balawegaya from which he contested the 2020 Sri Lankan parliamentary election. Wickremesinghe led the remaining party members in the parliamentary election which was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2020 parliamentary elections resulted in a landslide victory of the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna led by Mahinda Rajapaksa gaining 59.09% of the votes and securing 145 seats in parliament and the Samagi Jana Balawegaya gained 23.90% of votes and 54 seats. The United National Party suffering the worst defeat in its history received a total of 249,435 votes, which was 2.15% of votes cased. For the first time in its history, it failed to win a single seat in parliament, having only gained one national list seat. Wickremesinghe was sworn in as the national list member of parliament of the UNP on 23 June 2021.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe actively continued to serve as vice chairman of the International Democrat Union and chairman of the Asia Pacific Democrat Union.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: By May 2022, the country was in sovereign default and facing hyperinflation, leading to political and social unrest. With events leading to Mahinda Rajapaksa's resignation on 9 May 2022, due to the 2022 Sri Lankan protests, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa appointed Wickremesinghe as prime minister on 12 May 2022. He was assured the support of the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna members of parliament, while other parties refused to join his cabinet initially.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Reuters described Wickremesinghe as an "economic liberal who has experience dealing with the International Monetary Fund". Wickremesinghe has stated that he intends to form a national government with the participation of all political parties in the parliament and lead the country through the worst economic crisis in its history with less than one million USD in foreign reserves and unable to import essential fuel, food, and medicines, calling the months to come the most difficult in the country's history.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: On 25 May, Wickremesinghe was appointed Minister of Finance, Economic Stability and National Policies.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: On 9 July, Prime Minister's office announced that Wickremesinghe was ready to resign to make way for an all-party government as protesters stormed and burned his residence that day. Later in the evening, protesters broke into the 115 Fifth Lane– Wickremesinghe's private residence in Colombo and set it on fire.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: On 13 July, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fled the country to Maldives, with Wickremesinghe claiming the charge of presidency in an acting capacity due to his premiership and imposing a state of emergency in Sri Lanka. Following Rajapaksa's official resignation, Wickremesinghe was sworn in as the acting president of Sri Lanka before Chief Justice Jayantha Jayasuriya on 15 July. Wickremesinghe, who had formerly been a National List MP with his party represented by only one seat in the Parliament, became the President, Prime Minister, Minister of Defense, Minister of Technology, and Minister of Finance all at the same time. Upon becoming the acting President, Wickremesinghe prohibited the usage of "His Excellency" as an honorific prefix for the President and officially abolished the usage of a Presidential flag.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: On 20 July, he was elected as the 9th President of Sri Lanka by the Parliament of Sri Lanka in a secret ballot to serve the remainder of Rajapaksa's term, which was supposed to end in November 2024. He defeated his main rival, Dullus Alahapperuma, with 134 votes to 82. On 21 July, he sworn in as the ninth (eighth executive) President of Sri Lanka at Parliament premises before Chief Justice Jayantha Jayasuriya. A day later, he appointed Dinesh Gunawardena as the Prime Minister.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In September 2022 Wickremesinghe visited the UK as the head of state to attend the funeral of Queen Elizabeth II, at the invitation of King Charles III.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: It was alleged by the People's Alliance government that Wickremesinghe, as Minister, was the political authority behind an illegal detention centre in the Batalanda housing and industrial complex outside Colombo between 1988 and 1990 which was allegedly run by a government-backed counter-subversive unit as part of the state's operation to put down an armed insurgency by the JVP. The People's Alliance government of President Chandrika Kumaratunga, appointed a Special Presidential Commission of Inquiry to investigate activities of Batalanda and on 3 September 1997 Wickremesinghe was summoned to testify before the commission. The commissions report was released on 12 April 1998. The commission was a fact-finding mission and had no judicial powers, however it recommended the government to "bring the guilty to book". One of its findings was that "Wickremesinghe and the SSP Nalin Delgoda, are indirectly responsible for the maintenance of places of unlawful detention and torture chambers in houses at the Batalanda Housing Scheme". It further stated that Wickremesinghe held "unauthorised meetings of police officers involved in counter-insurgency operations in the housing complex, and that as such, he had abused his authority". No criminal proceedings took place thereafter.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: In February 2015 CBSL advertised the sale of Rs. 1 billion in 30 year government bonds at a coupon of 12.5%, though several accounts erroneously cite an indicative rate of 9.5%. The sale was oversubscribed with 36 bids totaling Rs. 20 billion. The majority of bidders, 26, bidded for Rs. 100 million or less at a rate of 9.5%–10.5%. However, a few bidders, including Perpetual Treasuries Limited, wanted interest rates of 11%–12%. On 27 February 2015 the CBSL accepted Rs. 10 billion in bids at rates of 9.5%–12.5%. The issuing of ten times the advertised bonds, and at a higher than expected rate, was alleged to cost the Sri Lankan government an additional Rs. 1.6 billion ($10.6 million), though this was disputed by the Leader of the House of Parliament. A petition was lodged in the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka contesting the methodology used to allege such a loss. Perpetual Treasuries was issued, directly and indirectly, with Rs. 5 billion in bonds at 12.5%. Perpetual Treasuries was one of the primary dealers in the sale and is owned by son-in-law of the Governor of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka Arjuna Mahendran, who was appointed by Wickremesinghe.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: On 28 October 2016 the Committee On Public Enterprises, after a lengthy investigation, found Mahendran responsible for the bond issue scam and recommended legal action be taken against him. However, President Maithripala Sirisena announced that he had appointed a Special Presidential Commission of Inquiry to further investigate the case. The commission handed over the report on Central Bank bond issuance to Sirisena on 30 December 2017, and the Presidential Secretariat made available the full report in PDF form from its website for public viewing. During the investigation Wickramesinghe had to appear before the Special Presidential Commission of Inquiry. A group of ministers from the President's party along with opposition MPs failed in a recent attempt to pass a motion of no-confidence against the Prime Minister in Sri Lanka's Parliament. On 15 March 2018 Colombo Fort Magistrate's Court issued an arrest warrant on Arjuna Mahendra on charges of criminal breach of trust for allegedly providing confidential information of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka to Perpetual Treasuries Limited.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Soon after he was appointed as the president, Wickremesinghe vowed to crack down on the 2022 anti-government protests. Wickremesinghe claimed the protestors to be "fascists". Security forces raided the protest site in Galle Face Green in the early hours of 22 July, a day after Wickremesinghe's swearing-in. 50 protestors were injured and two were hospitalised. BBC journalists were also attacked in the raid. Saliya Pieris, president of the Bar Association of Sri Lanka, criticised the raid. British High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, Sarah Hulton, also expressed concerns.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: Wickremesinghe married Maithree Wickremesinghe, Sri Lankan academic and Professor of English in 1994. Wickremesinghe has made several efforts to keep his private life out of politics. His personal life is rarely publicized or discussed. Maithree Wickremesinghe avoided the political spotlight until Wickremesinghe's re-election as prime minister in 2015.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: His paternal grandfather was Cyril Leonard Wickremesinghe, of the Ceylon Civil Service who was the first Sinhalese Land Commissioner and his grandmother was Esme Moonemalle Goonewardene, daughter of Proctor Edward Goonewardene and Ada Moonemalle of Moonemalle Walawwa, Kurunegala whose brother was Theodore Barcroft L. Moonemalle Proctor and Member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: His maternal grandfather was D. R. Wijewardena son of Muhandiram Tudugalage Don Philip Wijewardena and Helena Wijewardena nee Dep Weerasinghe. His grandmother was Alice Ruby Meedeniya, daughter of J. H. Meedeniya Adigar of Meedeniya Walawwa, Ruwanwella and Corneliya Magdleine Senanayake whose mother was Corneliya Regina Senanayake nee Obeyesekere, sister of Lambertus Obeyesekere Maha Mudaliyar of Kataluwa Walawwa.


title: Ranil Wickremesinghe

text: A number of Wickremesinghe's close relations were active in the government. His cousins Ruwan Wijewardene was the State Minister of Defence, Wasantha Senanayake was the State Minister of Foreign Affairs and his aunt Amari Wijewardene was the Sri Lanka High Commissioner to the United Kingdom.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The Mercedes-Benz W222 is the sixth generation of the S-Class produced from 2013 to 2020, the successor of the W221 S-Class and the predecessor of the W223 S-Class. The W222 was designed during 2009. The original design proposal of the car was created by Il-hun Yoon, a Korean designer, who was inspired by the Mercedes-Benz F700 concept car. The exterior design was developed by a team of designers under the direction of Robert Lešnik. W222 has a similar design theme to the C-Class (W205) and E-Class (W213).


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: In Europe, sales of the S 400 Hybrid, S 350 BlueTEC, S 350 BlueTEC Hybrid, and S 500 began in September 2013. US sales of the S 550 also began in September; the 4Matic four-wheel drive model went on sale in November, 2013. Additional models, including V12 models and those from AMG were released in 2014.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The newest S-Class debuted on 15 May 2013 in Hamburg, Germany and entered production in Sindelfingen, Germany in June 2013.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The production of W222 ended in September 2020 with the introduction of its successor, S-Class (W223), which made its world premiere on 2 September 2020 at the brand-new Factory 56 in Sindelfingen.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Mercedes' hydropneumatic, active suspension "Active Body Control" has been updated with a system dubbed "Magic Body Control" (MBC) that is fitted with a road-sensing system ("Road surface scan") that pre-scans the road for uneven surfaces, potholes and bumps. Using a stereo camera, the system scans the road surface up to 15 meters ahead of the vehicle at speeds up to , and it adjusts the shock damping at each wheel to account for imperfections in the road. Magic Body Control is not available on any of the 4-Matic models, as of Model Year 2017.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The vehicle was unveiled at Airbus in Hamburg-Finkenwerder. followed by Shanghai's Mercedes-Benz Arena, and the 2013 Osaka Motor Show (S 400 HYBRID). The new S-Class has been available to order since the middle of May 2013 with official arrival at Mercedes-Benz dealers on 20 July 2013. Early models included S 400 Hybrid, S 500, S 350 BlueTEC, followed by S 300 BlueTEC Hybrid in early 2014.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: US models went on sale as 2014 model year vehicles; the lineup initially included only the long-wheelbase "S 550" (S 500 in Europe) in September 2013, and long-wheelbase S 550 4Matic which arrived in November 2013. Auto Bild measured the LWB as the quietest among cars like Rolls-Royce Ghost and Bentley Flying Spur in 2014. Additional models, including V12 models and those from AMG arrived in early 2014.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Europe models went on sale at the end of July 2013, followed by China at the end of September 2013, the USA in October 2013.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Japan models went on sale and delivery began in November 2013. Early models include the S 400 Hybrid (right-hand-drive), S 400 Hybrid Exclusive (right steering), S 550 long (left/right steering), S 63 AMG long (right steering), S 63 AMG 4Matic long (left-hand-drive). The S 300 BlueTEC HYBRID, S 350 BlueTEC 4MATIC, S 600, and S 65 AMG Saloon arrived at dealer showrooms in March 2014.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: There is also the "S 500 Intelligent Drive", which is a self-driving version of the S 500 sedan, using sensors that are also available in the production version of the S-Class. The car uses the sensors to capture the massive amounts of data in traffic. The vehicle was unveiled in the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Available in short (S 63 AMG only) and long wheelbases, they are versions of the S-Class saloon with Mercedes-Benz M157 engine rated at 5,500 rpm and at 2,250-3,750 rpm, 10-spoke or Siena 5 twin spokes AMG forged light-alloy wheels (8.5x19 front and 9.5x19 rear) with 255/45 R 19 front and 285/40 R 19 rear tyres (optional titanium grey and polished 8.5x19 front and 9.5x19 rear wheels with 255/40 R 20 front and 285/35 R 20 rear tyres), lightweight 78 Ah lithium-ion battery (from SLS AMG Coupé Black Series), a weight-optimised AMG high-performance composite brake system, aluminium body panels, a spare wheel recess made of carbon fibre, AMG sports exhaust system, AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT 7-speed sports transmission, ESP Curve Dynamic Assist, 2 suspension types (AMG RIDE CONTROL sports suspension, AIRMATIC with the Adaptive Damping System ADS PLUS in S 63 AMG 4Matic; "Magic Body Control" with Crosswind stabilization in S 63 AMG with rear-wheel drive), front apron with three large air dams with grille in high-gloss black, flics in high-gloss black on the side air intakes, side sill panels with three-dimensional inserts in silver chrome, AMG sports steering wheel. Other features include AMG door sill panels, AMG floor mats, AMG sports pedals in brushed stainless steel with rubber studs, Ambient lighting, Attention Assist, Collision Prevention Assist, COMAND Online, 10 loudspeakers with Frontbass, Metallic paintwork, Pre-Safe Plus, Tyre pressure loss warning system, LED High-Performance headlamps, DISTRONIC PLUS (Driving Assistance package Plus, Night View Assist Plus).


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: AMG Performance Studio options include AMG Exterior Carbon-Fibre package, AMG ceramic high-performance composite brake system, AMG carbon-fibre engine cover, AMG performance steering wheel in black Nappa leather / DINAMICA, AMG trim in carbon fibre/black piano lacquer, red brake callipers.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Other options include Air-Balance package, Burmester surround sound system, Burmester high-end 3D surround sound system, Business Telephony in the rear, Chauffeur package, designo appointments packages, Executive seat, Exclusive package, First-Class rear suite, Folding tables in the rear, LED Intelligent Light System, Seat Comfort package including ENERGIZING massage function, Warmth Comfort package.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The vehicles were unveiled in the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show and were set to go on sale in September 2013.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: US model of S 63 AMG 4Matic included increased top speed of , and was set to go on sale in November 2013.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: It is a version of the long wheelbase S-Class sedan with an AMG 6.0-litre V12 biturbo engine rated at 4,800 rpm and at 2,300-4,300 rpm, exclusive carbon-fibre/aluminium engine cover, 2 AMG logos on left and right with a centrally positioned Mercedes star, seven-speed automatic transmission, 78 Ah lithium-ion battery, AMG sports suspension with MAGIC BODY CONTROL with Crosswind stabilization, ESP Dynamic Cornering Assist, electromechanical AMG speed-sensitive sports steering with variable steering ratio, 20x8.5/20x9.5-inch front/rear ceramic high-gloss polished AMG 16-spoke light-alloy wheels (optional 10-spoke forged wheels in polished titanium grey or matt black with a high-sheen rim flange and screw-in fully integrated wheel bolt cover, 5-twin-spoke forged wheels in titanium grey with a high-sheen finish and a black wheel bolt cover), 255/40 R 20 and 285/35 R 20 tyres, optional AMG ceramic high-performance composite braking system (front brake discs with a diameter of 420 millimetres, "AMG Carbon Ceramic" logo at brake callipers), V12 radiator grille with six twin louvres in high-gloss chrome, front apron with three large cooling air intakes, grilles and flics (air deflectors) on the side air intakes in high-gloss chrome and dark paint colours, side sill panels in high-gloss chrome, high-gloss black rear diffuser insert (optional grilles and flics in high-gloss black), "V12 BITURBO" lettering on the wings and the "S 65 AMG" model badge on the boot lid in modern typography, AMG sports exhaust system with two chrome-plated separate twin tailpipes, interior upholstery in exclusive nappa leather with seat upholstery layout in an exclusive diamond-pattern design, delineated perforations in the leather upholstery of the AMG sports seats, no perforations in the nappa leather wherever there is contrasting topstitching, nappa leather roof liner, leather-lined dashboard, door centre panels in a diamond-pattern design, leather-clad roof grab handles, additional wood trim, AMG stainless-steel door sill panels illuminated in white, choice of 5 colour schemes for Exclusive nappa leather upholstery (black, satin beige/espresso brown, nut brown/black, porcelain/black and crystal grey/seashell grey), newly contoured seat cushions and backrests, AMG badges on all four seat backrests, embossed AMG emblems on the front and rear centre console, AMG emblems on the trim of the seat backs, 2-spoke AMG sports steering wheel, contoured steering wheel rim is covered with nappa leather with perforated leather in the grip area, insert with AMG lettering, aluminium shift paddles, analogue clock in an exclusive IWC design (three-dimensional, milled metal hands and genuine metal appliqués on the dial), chrome-plated door pins with AMG logo, AMG instrument cluster with two animated round dials on TFT colour display (AMG-specific lettering and the needles in red/silver, AMG logo in the speedometer with scale (left) and the "V12 BITURBO" lettering in the rev counter (right), animated AMG start-up display is shown on the right-hand display, AMG main menu with digital speedometer and a permanent gear display in the upper section), head-up display, 6.5 x 4.5 centimetres touchpad integrated into the handrest with a cover for the keypad.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: AMG Performance Studio options include AMG Exterior Carbon-Fibre package, AMG ceramic high-performance composite braking system, AMG performance steering wheel in Nappa leather/DINAMICA (black), AMG trim in carbon-fibre/black piano lacquer, red brake callipers.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Other options include 360° camera, Business Telephony in the rear, designo appointments packages, executive seat, First-Class rear suite, Individual Entertainment System in the rear, folding tables in the rear, Warmth Comfort package.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The vehicle was unveiled in the 2013 Los Angeles International Auto Show and the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show, followed by the 2013 Osaka Motor Show.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: On 24 February 2019, Mercedes-Benz announced the S 65 Final Edition with a limited run of 130 units and unveiled the final edition at the Geneva Auto Salon on 2 March 2019. This will end the era of the V12 engine in the Mercedes-AMG model; however, the M279 V12 engine could continue in Mercedes-Benz S 600 as well as Mercedes-Maybach S 650 (S 680 for the Chinese market) and possible GLS 680 for the foreseeable time. The Final Edition is finished in Obsidian Black metallic paint with bronze highlights in the front and rear bumpers and underneath the doors as well as bronze-coloured 20-inch alloy wheels. The special AMG emblems are affixed to the C-pillars. The interior is trimmed in black Exclusive Nappa leather, with special carbon ornamental elements, and bronze-stitching black foot mats. Production ended in November 2019.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The S 500 e is a plug-in hybrid version of the long wheelbase S-Class sedan with a 3.0-litre V6 twin turbo engine rated and , electric motor rated and , externally rechargeable battery, 4 hybrid operating modes (HYBRID, E‑MODE, E-SAVE and CHARGE), second generation recuperative braking system, haptic accelerator pedal, pre-entry climate control of the interior, Intelligent HYBRID with (dis)charging management based on COMAND Online navigation data, and 8.7kWh battery pack.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The all electric range is about under the New European Driving Cycle. Under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tests, the S 500 e has an all-electric range of , with some gasoline consumption (0.1 gal/100 mi), so the actual all-electric range is rated between .


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The EPA, under its five-cycle tests, rated the 2015 model year S 500 e energy consumption in all-electric mode at 59 kWh per 100 miles, which translates into a combined city/highway fuel economy of 58 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) (4.1 L/100 km; 70 mpg gasoline equivalent). When powered only by the gasoline engine, EPA's official combined city/highway fuel economy is .


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The production vehicle was unveiled in Toronto in 2013, followed by the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show. Deliveries began in September 2014 in Europe, starting at a price of (~). The U.S. launch is slated for early 2015. A total of 17 units have been registered in Germany . According to JATO Dynamics, a total of 38 units have been registered in Europe through September 2014.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: It is a version of long wheelbase S-Class sedan with 6.0-litre V12 biturbo engine rated and at 1,900 rpm, ECO start/stop function, optional touchpad, optional head-up display, Collision Prevention Assist plus, optional electric windscreen heating. The vehicle was unveiled in the 2014 North American International Auto Show. The vehicle went on sale in March 2014.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: In 2015, Mercedes brought back the Maybach name as a sub-brand of the Mercedes lineup, representing advanced luxury. The first model produced was the Mercedes-Maybach S-Class, designed to be pitched against the Bentley Mulsanne and Rolls-Royce Phantom VIII. At long with a wheelbase of , the new model is approximately greater in both dimensions compared to the long-wheelbase S-Class models.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The Mercedes-Maybach is available as S 500 and S 600 models (the US received Mercedes-Maybach S 550 4MATIC and S 600 models, with the S 550 having the same 4.7L engine as the S 500 Mercedes-Maybach elsewhere), with 4MATIC optional with the V8 engine and V12 for the latter. Mercedes also claims that the S Class is the world's quietest production car. The basic car has colour options, and the choice between a rear bench seat or 2 reclining rear seats. Options include air-conditioned, heated and massaging seats; heated armrests; a system to pump agarwood scent, ionised air around the cabin; First class suite for the rear cabin and a 24-speaker, 1,540 watt Burmester High-End 3D surround sound system.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The Maybach S 500 assembly started in Pune, India in September 2015 and is the second country to produce a Maybach.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: In 2017 with the facelift S 600 was discontinued, while S 650 introduced (with the engine of former S 65 AMG).


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The Mercedes-Maybach S 600 and S 650 were also available in a Pullman version, a chauffeur-driven sedan which includes a partition-separated ultra-luxurious rear passenger compartment with two sets of paired facing seats. This version is equipped with the V12 dual-turbocharger gasoline engine, the seven-speed automatic transmission, and rear-wheel drive. The same vehicle is additionally available as an armoured version, known as the Pullman Guard.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: At the 2017 Shanghai Motor Show, a new Chinese-only Mercedes-Maybach S 680 was introduced for the model year 2018 and onward. The number 8 is very auspicious in China and Asian countries, closely associated with luck and wealth. S 680 is essentially the same as S 650 in equipment level and such.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: A mid-cycle refresh was introduced in the summer 2017 for the 2018 model year. The refresh introduces the new 48-volt integrated starter/alternator, ENERGIZING Comfort Control, updated autonomous driving technologies. The grille is updated to differentiate between six and eight cylinder engine versions and long wheelbase and V12 versions. The headlamps and taillamps are revised with new enhanced LED technology.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: The new range of six-cylinder inline petrol and diesel engines are offered with electrification (20 kilowatts/22 horsepower). This marks the return of six-cylinder inline engines to the S-Class since the last one was offered in 2005. The engine is for both petrol and diesel engines. The sole gas V6 engine is in the S 560 e with a plug-in hybrid system. The four-cylinder inline engine with a hybrid system (S 300 h) was removed from the S-Class model range. Additionally, the old 4.7-litre V8 petrol engine is replaced by the new AMG-engineered 4.0-litre biturbo V8, consolidating the V8 engine range to one size now. 2019 marks the final year of S 65 AMG with 130 units to be finished in obsidian black metallic paint with bronze highlights on the body and alloy wheels. However, the 6.0-litre V12 AMG carries on in Maybach S 650 after the production end of S 65 AMG. Only S 600 continues unchanged.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: Inline 6 and V8 engines are now paired with the 9-speed 9G-TRONIC automatic transmission (AMG Speedshift MCT for S 63 AMG 4MATIC+) while V12 engines continue to use the 7G-TRONIC PLUS transmission.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)

text: S 63 AMG 4MATIC+ became the sole choice for the V8 version of S-Class from AMG, eliminating the previous rear-wheel-drive version.


title: Boundaries between the continents of Earth

text: Determining the boundaries between the continents of Earth is generally a matter of geographical convention. Several slightly different conventions are in use. The number of continents is most commonly considered seven (in English-speaking countries) but may range as low as four when Afro-Eurasia and the Americas are both considered a single continent. An island can be considered to be associated with a given continent by either lying on the continent's adjacent continental shelf (e.g. Singapore, the British Isles) or being a part of a microcontinent on the same principal tectonic plate (e.g. Madagascar and Seychelles). An island can also be entirely oceanic while still being associated with a continent by geology (e.g. Bermuda, the Australian Indian Ocean Territories) or by common geopolitical convention (e.g. Ascension Island, the South Sandwich Islands). Another example is the grouping into Oceania of the Pacific Islands with Australia and Zealandia.


text: While today the isthmus between Asia and Africa is navigable via the Suez Canal, and that between North and South America via the Panama Canal, these artificial channels are not generally accepted as continent-defining boundaries in themselves. The Suez Canal happens to traverse the isthmus between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, dividing Africa and Asia. The continental boundaries are considered to be within the very narrow land connections joining the continents.


text: The remaining boundaries concern the association of islands and archipelagos with specific continents, notably:


text: Historically in Greco-Roman geography, "Africa" meant Ancient Libya, and its eastern extent was taken to be around Marmarica, at the "Catabathmus Magnus", placing Egypt in Asia entirely. The idea of Egypt being an "African" country seems to develop in around the mid-19th century; the term "Africa" was classically reserved for what is now known as the Maghreb, to the explicit exclusion of Egypt, but with the exploration of Africa, the shape of the African landmass (and Egypt's "natural" inclusion in that landmass) became apparent. In 1806, William George Browne still titled his travelogue "Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria". Similarly, James Bruce in 1835 published "Travels through part of Africa, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia". On the other hand, as early as 1670 John Ogilby under the title "Africa" published ""an accurate Description of the Regions of Egypt, Barbary, Libya, and Billedulgerid, the Land of Negroes, Guinea, Æthiopia, and the Abyssines, with all the adjacent Islands, either in the Mediterranean, Atlantic, Southern, or Oriental Seas, belonging thereunto"".


text: The usual line taken to divide Africa from Asia today is at the Isthmus of Suez, the narrowest gap between the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Suez, the route today followed by the Suez Canal. This makes the Sinai Peninsula geographically Asian, and Egypt a transcontinental country. Less than 2% of Egyptian population live on the Sinai Peninsula, and hence Egypt, even though technically transcontinental, is usually considered an African country entirely and not partly Asian. But when discussing the geopolitical region of the Middle East and North Africa, Egypt is usually grouped with the Western Asian countries as part of the Middle East, while Egypt's western neighbor Libya is grouped with the remaining North African countries as the Maghreb. Both are members of the African Union.


text: The Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles are island countries in the Indian Ocean which are nominally associated with Africa. The Socotra Archipelago may be considered African as it lies on its continental shelf, but is politically a part of Yemen, an Asian country.


text: The African and European mainlands are non-contiguous, and the delineation between these continents is thus merely a question of which islands are to be associated with which continent.


text: The Portuguese Atlantic island possession of the Azores is from Europe and from Africa, and is sometimes grouped with Europe. By contrast, the Canary Islands and the Madeira islands (the latter of which also include the Desertas Islands and the Savage Islands) off the Atlantic coast of Morocco are much closer to, and usually grouped with, Africa; the Canary Islands are only from the African mainland at their closest point but from the European mainland, while Madeira is from the African mainland and from the European mainland. In his 1895 book "Africa: Volume 2", author Augustus Henry Keane remarked, "In the North Atlantic there are four insular groups — Madeira, the Canaries, Cape Verde and Azores — which are usually assigned to Africa, although the Canaries and Cape Verde alone belong geographically to that continent, the Azores are lost, so to say, in mid-Atlantic."


text: The Mediterranean island country of Malta is about from the coast of Sicily - much closer than the distance to the African mainland. The nearby Italian island of Lampedusa (principal island of the Pelagie Islands) is from Sicily while just from the African mainland; similarly, Pantelleria is from Sicily and just from the African mainland. All of these Mediterranean islands, including Malta and Sicily, are actually located on the African Plate, and could be considered part of the African continent geologically. However, for political and cultural reasons, maps generally display them as part of Europe instead.


text: A single Spanish islet, known as Alboran Island, is also debatably located on either the African Plate or the Eurasian Plate. This island is located in the Alboran Sea, 50 km (31 mi) north of the Moroccan coast and 90 km (56 mi) south of Spain.


text: There are six definitive occurrences of territories unequivocally being a part of the African continent, but legally being administered by a European state. Three of these are administered by France, and three of these are administered by Spain. The existence of these territories further blurs the line between the borders of Africa and Europe, in particular with regard to the Spanish territories which lie immediately adjacent to and/or connected to the African mainland. The French territories lie within the Indian Ocean, and, consequently, are more dislocated from the principal boundary between the two continents.


text: The uninhabited Spanish unincorporated overseas minor territories, known as the plazas de soberanía ("Localities of Sovereignty"), are small islands that lie immediately adjacent to the North African coastline, with the exception of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, which was originally an island like the other 'localities' but has subsequently become directly connected to the Moroccan (African) mainland. The two other Spanish territories are the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, which are two populated coastal cities located directly on the African mainland, both bordering only Morocco.


text: Two of the French territories are the inhabited overseas departments and regions of Mayotte and Réunion. Mayotte is an island territory located west of the island country of Madagascar within the Mozambique Channel. Réunion is an island territory located near the island country of Mauritius and to the east of Madagascar (both nominally considered part of the African continent). The final territory is the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean, administratively a part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. This French territory consists of a range of minor uninhabited atolls in the Indian Ocean, located in the deep sea surrounding Madagascar.


text: Antarctica along with its outlying islands have no permanent population. All land claims south of 60°S latitude are held in abeyance by the Antarctic Treaty System.


text: Australia's Heard Island and McDonald Islands (an external territory) and the French Kerguelen Islands are located on the Kerguelen Plateau, on the Antarctic continental plate. Both are still within the bounds of the Indian Ocean. The United Nations categorizes Heard Island and McDonald Islands, which are politically affiliated with Australia, as being part of Oceania. The islands are 4,000 km from Perth in Australia, and have never been inhabited by indigenous peoples of Oceania or any other humans. Heard Island has only been visited 240 times throughout its entire history, and the McDonald Islands have only ever been visited twice, in 1971 and 1980. The World Factbook categorizes these islands as part of Antarctica rather than Oceania.


text: The French Crozet Islands, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and the Norwegian Bouvet Island are also located on the Antarctic continental plate, and are not often associated with other continents. The United Nations categorize Bouvet Island as part of South America, while the World Factbook categorizes it as part of Antarctica.


text: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are closer to Antarctica than to any other continent. However, they are politically associated with the Falkland Islands, which are less geographically isolated from South America. Furthermore, Argentina, a South American country, maintains its irredentist claims on all of these islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom. The United Nations consider them to be part of South America. Definitions of South America that exclude the Galápagos Islands and Juan Fernández Islands (both oceanic in nature) still generally include the Falklands, which share biographical affinities to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and which are located on the South American continental shelf. The Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans, with some theorizing that the Falklands were visited by Indigenous peoples of the Americas during prehistoric times. These theories are usually considered dubious, as there is no archaeological evidence indicating prehistoric human inhabitation on the Falklands. South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands do not have any permanent residents. The Falkland Islands have historically had a British population, with a distinct culture to that of mainland South America. There was a violent war between Argentina and the United Kingdom regarding ownership of the islands in 1982, and the residents of the Falklands do not currently wish to be associated with South America, despite their geographical proximity.


text: The Prince Edward Islands are located between Africa and Antarctica, and are the territory of South Africa, an African country.


text: Macquarie Island and the Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Islands are all uninhabited, and located between Australia and New Zealand and Antarctica. The Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Islands are politically part of New Zealand, while Macquarie Island has been integrated into the Australian state of Tasmania. None are discrete political entities like Heard Island and McDonald Islands. As such, they are likely considered to also be part of Oceania by the United Nations. The Auckland Islands could be considered part of Oceania on cultural grounds rather than mere political grounds, as they are believed to be the southernmost island group to have been settled by Polynesians during prehistoric times. The islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans, but archaeological traces have since been found to indicate Polynesian settlement, dating to the 13th century, on Enderby Island. Macquarie Island is theorized to have possibly had contact with Polynesians, although there is no archaeological evidence to support this.


text: The continental boundary between Asia and Australia is somewhere in the Wallacean region of the Malay Archipelago. The boundary is frequently divided along the anthropologic Melanesian Line or the biogeographic Weber's Line. Two provinces of Indonesia are located at the western half of New Guinea, geologically a part of the Australian continent. The eastern half of the island is a part of Papua New Guinea which is considered to be a part of Oceania. Indonesia is commonly referred to as one of the Southeast Asian countries. Indonesia's current ownership of Western New Guinea makes it a transcontinental country; Western New Guinea is often considered part of Oceania because of its Indigenous Melanesian inhabitants and geological association with the Australian continental landmass. East Timor, an independent state that was formerly a part of Indonesia, is classified by the United Nations as a part of the South-eastern Asia subregion. It is expected to join the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, having been involved as an ASEAN Regional Forum member since independence, and has participated in the Southeast Asian Games since 2003.


text: Occasionally, all of the Malay Archipelago is included in Oceania, although this is extremely rare, especially as most of the archipelago lies on the Asian continental shelf. The Malay Archipelago was more frequently associated with Oceania during the 19th century, when the term was first coined. Many inhabitants in the Malay Archipelago are Austronesians, sharing genetic and linguistic affinities to the Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian inhabitants of Oceania, who also fall under the Austronesian umbrella. However, the Austronesians of the Malay Archipelago had significant contact with mainland Asia during prehistoric times, unlike with the Austronesians and Indigenous Australians of Oceania, who were isolated from the culture of Asia and the eastern world. Epeli Hauʻofa, a scholar of Tongan and Fijian descent, considered the Malay Archipelago separate from Oceania for this very reason. He wrote, "Before the advent of Europeans into the Pacific, our cultures were truly oceanic, in the sense that the sea barrier shielded us for millennia from the great cultural influences that raged through continental land masses and adjacent islands. This prolonged period of isolation allowed for the emergence of distinctive oceanic cultures with the only non-oceanic influences being the original cultures that the earliest settlers brought with them when they entered the vast, uninhabited region. Scholars of antiquity may raise the issue of continental cultural influences on the western and northwestern border islands of Oceania, but these are exceptions, and the Asian mainland influences were largely absent until the modern era. On the eastern extremity of the region there were some influences from the Americas, but these were minimal. It is for these reasons that Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania. This definition of our region delineates us clearly from Asia and the pre-Columbian Americas and is based on our own historical developments, rather than on other people’s perceptions of us."


text: The United Nations and The World Factbook categorize the Australian Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (both geographically adjacent to Java) as being part of Oceania, rather than Asia. The islands lie within the bounds of the Australian Plate, and were uninhabited prior to European discovery in the 17th century. They have oceanic geology, making them distinct from both mainland Asia and mainland Australia.


text: Japan possesses the Bonin Islands (also known as the Ogasawara Islands), the Volcano Islands, and three remote islets (Nishinoshima, Minami-Tori-shima and Okinotorishima), all governed collectively as Ogasawara Village, which is an administrative division consisting of scattered island atolls located in the Pacific Ocean. These mostly uninhabited islands are located at some distance southeast of the Japanese archipelago. Owing to the location and oceanic nature of these islands, they are sometimes considered to be a part of Oceania as well. The islands are within the Oceanian biogeographical realm, unlike the rest of Japan, and may have been inhabited by Micronesians around 2,000 years ago. Their official discovery came much later in the 16th century, through Europeans. The most remote island within this group, Minami-Tori-shima (also known as Marcus Island) is nearly 2,000 km removed from Tokyo, and is geographically closer to the Micronesian territories of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands. Inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands, on the periphery of the main Japanese archipelago, are sometimes associated with Austronesians. The islands are geologically and historically linked with Asia, and are excluded from most definitions of Oceania, along with the similarly non-oceanic Japanese archipelago, which is not associated with Austronesians. To the north of Japan is the disputed Kuril Islands, currently administered by Russia. Usually, these islands are associated with the Russian Far East. This is primarily as a result of their non-tropical biogeography, and their inhabitants, who are mostly white Russian mainlanders.


text: Australia has a more developed economy than neighboring Pacific Island nations, and is occasionally associated with mainland Asia as a result of this, despite being geologically distinct and having no cultural links to it prior to European discovery. It has historically been included in definitions of Oceania, ever since the term was first coined in the early 1810s. In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially-based subdivisions; "Australasia", "Malaysia" (encompassing the Malay Archipelago), "Melanesia", "Micronesia" and "Polynesia". Australia, Guam and Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), with Australia and Northern Mariana Islands having originally been part of the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC). Guam was never an official OFC member, although they exclusively played against teams from Oceania prior to joining the AFC. The presence of these teams in the AFC is not necessarily related to geography or politics, but rather because the Asian Football Confederation have far more resources than the Oceania Football Confederation. All three are members of the Pacific Islands Forum, the major governing body for the Oceania region, with Australia being a founding member in 1971. Guam and Northern Mariana Islands have had similar histories to the rest of Micronesia, and are biogeographically and geologically distinct from mainland Asia. Palau made an unsuccessful attempt to join the Asian Football Confederation in 2009. They too share much of the same history as the rest of Micronesia, and are a member of the Pacific Islands Forum.


text: Taiwan has at times been associated with Oceania, not only because of their loose status as a Pacific Island, but also because of their indigenous population, who are related to the natives of Oceania. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in "The Journal of Pacific History" that "a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago." Definitions of Oceania which include Taiwan are extremely rare, due to their historical ties to mainland Asia, their proximity to China (being 180 km removed), and the fact that they lie on the continental shelf of Asia. Taiwan was formerly a member of the Oceania Football Confederation; this was for political reasons: It was forced to compete against teams from Oceania because China, its political administrator, did not recognize its sovereignty and would not compete against them. It was a member from 1975 to 1989, but now competes as part of the Asian Football Confederation. Taiwan, Japan and most of the nations in the Malay Archipelago are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership, only Australia, New Zealand and the island states in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia do.


text: The boundary between Asia and Europe is unusual among continental boundaries because of its largely mountain-and-river-based characteristics north and east of the Black Sea. The reason is historical, the division of Asia and Europe going back to the early Greek geographers.


text: In the modern sense of the term "continent", Eurasia is more readily identifiable as a "continent", and Europe has occasionally been described as a subcontinent of Eurasia.


text: The threefold division of the Old World into Africa, Asia, and Europe has been in use since the 6th century BC, due to early Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus.


text: Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni in Georgia in the Caucasus Mountains), from Rioni mouth in Poti on the Black Sea coast, through the Surami Pass and along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BC.


text: As geographic knowledge of the Greeks increased during the Hellenistic period, this archaic convention was revised, and the boundary between Asia and Europe was now considered to be the Tanais (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy.


text: Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Asia and Europe, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and the Don (known in antiquity as the Tanais). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers.


text: Philip Johan von Strahlenberg in 1725 was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary by drawing the line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between the Ural and Volga rivers) and then north along the Ural Mountains. The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified circa 1773 by a German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that, once upon a time, connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents.


text: By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a controversy in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the best possible, citing support from various modern geographers.


text: In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906. In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between Asia and Europe be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of the Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych Depression, thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe. However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest and this became the standard convention in the latter 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps.


text: The modern border between Asia and Europe is a historical and cultural construct, and for that reason, its definition has varied. One commonly accepted border follows the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles–Sea of Marmara–Bosporus (together known as the Turkish Straits), the Black Sea, along the watershed of the Greater Caucasus, the northwestern portion of the Caspian Sea, and along the Ural River and Ural Mountains to the Kara Sea, as mapped and listed in most atlases including that of the National Geographic Society and as described in The World Factbook. According to this particular definition, Georgia is a transcontinental country with some of its northern portions (such as Kazbegi Municipality, Khevsureti, and Tusheti) geographically located in Eastern Europe, north of the Greater Caucasus Watershed, whereas the country's south is arguably in Asia. Due to historical, cultural, religious, and political reasons, the country is regarded as a European country. Similarly, according to this one particular definition, Azerbaijan is a transcontinental country with some northern portions (e.g. Khachmaz, Quba, Qusar, Shabran, and Siazan) located north of the Greater Caucasus Watershed and thus geographically in Europe, whereas the rest arguably falls under Asia.


text: However, the international geographic community has never reached a universal agreement on continental borders, especially with regard to the Caucasus region between the Black and Caspian seas. As Encyclopædia Britannica explains:


text: “The watershed of the Greater Caucasus, the backbone of the system, traditionally has been part of the line dividing Europe and Asia, but Europe's eastern boundary has been the subject of much debate. One widely accepted scheme draws the dividing line along the crest of the Greater Caucasus range, putting the portion of the region north of the line in Europe and the portion south of it in Asia. Another puts the western portion of the Caucasus region in Europe and the eastern part (the bulk of Azerbaijan and small portions of Armenia, Georgia, and Russia's Caspian Sea coast) in Asia. Still another scheme identifies the Aras River and the Turkish border as the line of continental demarcation, thereby locating Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia in Europe”


text: Russia and Turkey are transcontinental states with territory in both Asia and Europe. Russia is historically, culturally, and politically a European state, with a history of imperial conquests in Asia. Conversely, Turkey is an Asian state with imperial conquests in Europe. Kazakhstan is also a transcontinental state by this definition, with its West Kazakhstan and Atyrau provinces extending on either side of the Ural River. The Turkish city Istanbul is a transcontinental city due to its location on both sides of the Bosporus (one of the Turkish Straits). The Russian and Kazakhstani cities of Magnitogorsk, Orenburg, and Atyrau fall on the Ural River, making them transcontinental cities as well.


text: This Ural River delineation is the only segment not to follow a major mountain range or wide water body, both of which often truly separate populations. However, the Ural River is the most common division used by authorities, is the most prominent natural feature in the region, and is the "most satisfactory of those (options) proposed" which include the Emba River, a much smaller stream cutting further into Central Asian Kazakhstan. The Ural River bridges in Atyrau and Orenburg are even labeled with permanent monuments carved with the word "Europe" on one side, "Asia" on the other.


text: Due to the fact that the Kazakhs are an Asian people, after the collapse of the USSR, the option according to which the border of Europe runs from the Caspian Sea along the state border between Russia and Kazakhstan to the Ural River has also gained popularity.


text: The Kuma–Manych Depression (more precisely, the Manych River, the Kuma–Manych Canal, and the Kuma River) remains cited less commonly as one possible natural boundary in contemporary sources. This definition peaked in prominence in the 19th century; however, it has declined in usage over time, because it included traditionally European areas of Russia, such as Stavropol, Krasnodar, and even areas just south of Rostov-on-Don, in Asia.


text: One formal means by which states are grouped into one specified continental area or another is by using the definition used for statistical purposes by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD): According to UNSD,"assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories". Furthermore, the UNSD classification often differs from those of other United Nations organizations. For instance, while UNSD includes Georgia and Cyprus in Western Asia, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization and UNESCO include both states in Europe.


text: The Council of Europe includes transcontinental or Eurasian states, such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Russia, and Turkey as members. Cyprus is a member of the European Union, where as Georgia has been explicitly told that it is eligible to apply for EU membership “like any other European state”. The EU reiterated its stance with regard to Georgia in 2022, expressing readiness to grant Georgia candidate status once certain reforms are implemented.


text: Cyprus is an island of the Mediterranean located on the Asian continental shelf, geologically a part of the Anatolian Plate and adjacent to Asia Minor, by which it is sometimes associated with Asia (Western Asia), as in the United Nations geoscheme. Despite differences regarding its geographic affiliation, the Republic of Cyprus was nevertheless admitted to the Council of Europe in 1961 and joined the EU in 2004. The northern part of the island functions as the unrecognized (except by Turkey) Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.


text: The Greek North Aegean Islands and the Dodecanese lie on the coast of the Asian part of Turkey (on the Asian continental shelf). Thus, generally, these island groups could be considered part of Asia. More specifically, the small islands of Kastellorizo, Strongyli Megistis, and Ro (all these islands are still in the Dodecanese group) are directly to the south of the Turkish Anatolia coastline, of which they are directly adjacent. Additionally, they lie at some distance to the east of the rest of the Dodecanese group in the direction of Cyprus and the Turkish city of Antalya. Akin to Cyprus, these small islets would nominally be considered Asian if only the continental shelf were used to define the boundary, but due to their history and cultural influences they are considered a part of Europe.


text: Russia's Vaygach Island and Novaya Zemlya extend northward from the northern end of the Ural Mountains and are a continuation of that chain into the Arctic Ocean. While Novaya Zemlya was variously grouped with Europe or with Asia in 19th-century maps it is now usually grouped with Europe, the continental boundary considered to join the Arctic Ocean along the southern shore of the Kara Sea. The Russian Arctic archipelago of Franz Josef Land farther north is also associated with Europe.


text: The Bering Strait and Bering Sea separate the landmasses of Asia and North America, as well as forming the international boundary between Russia and the United States. This national and continental boundary separates the Diomede Islands in the Bering Strait, with Big Diomede in Russia and Little Diomede in the U.S. The Aleutian Islands are an island chain extending westward from the Alaskan Peninsula toward Russia's Komandorski Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula. Most of them are always associated with North America, except for the westernmost Near Islands group, which is on Asia's continental shelf beyond the North Aleutians Basin and on rare occasions could be associated with Asia, which could then allow the U.S. state of Alaska to be considered a transcontinental state. The Aleutian Islands are sometimes associated with Oceania, owing to their status as remote Pacific islands, and their proximity to the Pacific Plate. This is extremely rare however, due to their non-tropical biogeography, as well as their inhabitants, who have historically been related to Indigenous Americans.


text: St. Lawrence Island in the northern Bering Sea belongs to Alaska and may be associated with either continent but is almost always considered part of North America, as with the Rat Islands in the Aleutian chain. At their nearest points, Alaska and Russia are separated by only .


text: The geographical notion of a continent stands in opposition to islands and archipelagos. Nevertheless, there are some islands that are considered part of Europe in a political sense. This most notably includes the British Isles (part of the European continental shelf and during the Ice Age of the continent itself); the islands of the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Mediterranean that are part of the territory of a country situated on the European mainland; the Azores on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, part of Portugal; and usually also the island states of Iceland (part of Norway and/or Denmark from 13th to early 20th centuries) and Malta.


text: The Norwegian islands of Jan Mayen and Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean are usually associated with Europe.


text: South of the Arctic, Europe and North America are separated by the North Atlantic. In terms of associating its oceanic islands with either continent, the boundary is usually drawn between Greenland and Iceland and between Bermuda and the Azores' (Western Group)—all other North Atlantic islands are continental. Iceland and the Azores are protrusions of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and are associated with and peopled from Europe, even though they have areas on the North American Plate. (Definitions of "continents" are a physical and cultural construct dating back centuries, long before the advent or even knowledge of plate tectonics; thus, defining a "continent" falls into the realm of physical and cultural geography [i.e., Geopolitics ], while continental plate definitions fall under plate tectonics in the realm of geology.) Some definitions of the Europe – America continent boundary place it on (the northern half of) the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which would make Iceland a transcontinental country.


text: Greenland is geographically part of North America. Politically, however, it is more associated with Europe as it is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, although it has extensive home rule and EU law no longer applies there. The United Nations consider Greenland to be part of North America; this is unusual, as the United Nations categorize many nations and territories purely on political convention rather than geographical or cultural convention. The Greenland national football team, while not officially part of any confederation, has historically competed against teams from Europe, rather than North America.


text: Three islands in the Caribbean are legally a direct part of the Netherlands, that is the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius). Two islands in the Caribbean are legally a direct part of France, Guadeloupe and Martinique.


text: The border between North America and South America is at some point on the Isthmus of Panama. The most common demarcation in atlases and other sources follows the Darién Mountains watershed that divides along the Colombia–Panama border where the isthmus meets the South American continent (see Darién Gap). Virtually all atlases list Panama as a state falling entirely within North America and/or Central America.


text: Often the Caribbean islands are considered part of North America, but Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao (ABC islands), and Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America. On the other hand, the Venezuelan Isla Aves and the Colombian San Andrés and Providencia lie on the North American shelf. Additionally, the adjacent Venezuelan islands of Nueva Esparta and the islands of the Venezuelan Federal Dependencies can be considered to be a part of the Caribbean instead of part of South America. The circumstance of these islands is akin to that of the ABC islands, as both the ABC islands and the Venezuelan islands are at an equivalent range from the Venezuelan mainland. Thus, these Venezuelan lands could consequently be placed in North America instead.


text: The Galápagos Islands and Malpelo Island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean are possessions of Ecuador and Colombia, respectively. Malpelo Island, located 500 km from Colombia, is nominally associated with South America, while the Galápagos Islands, 1,000 km from Ecuador, are also sometimes associated with Oceania. The Galápagos Islands lie on the Nazca Plate and are thought of as being included in Oceania due to their geographical distance from South America in the Pacific Ocean, and their oceanic geology. Malpelo is one of only two islands on the Cocos Plate (with the other being Costa Rica's Cocos Island). It is among the easternmost and least remote of the oceanic island groups in the southeastern Pacific. The French possession of Clipperton Island lies on the Pacific Plate, about 1,000 km off the Mexican coast, and roughly 300 km to the south of Mexico's oceanic Revillagigedo Islands, which are also on the Pacific Plate. as well as with Oceania. Oceanic southeastern Pacific islands such as Clipperton and Galápagos were never inhabited by Indigenous peoples of the Americas, unlike with the Atlantic Ocean's Caribbean Islands. Clipperton remains uninhabited, and its marine fauna maintains interconnectivity to the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati's Line Islands, with the island being labelled as a stepping stone between the south central Pacific and the southeastern Pacific. The Galápagos Islands similarly share interconnectivity with French Polynesia. Until 2007, Clipperton was administratively part of French Polynesia (formerly French Oceania). It has historically had very little contact with the Americas.


text: Easter Island, also known by its endonym "Rapa Nui", is a territory located on the Nazca Plate, and is roughly 3,500 km off the Chilean coast. Because of its original inhabitants, It is culturally part of the Oceania subregion Polynesia, though politically it came to be associated with South America. Easter Island was annexed by Chile in 1888, but their first major contact with South America came during the 1860s, when islanders were kidnapped by Peruvians for slavery. This was also the case with other Polynesian islands, including Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau, who lost significant amounts of their populations through the Peruvian kidnappings. Easter Island under Chilean rule has still made attempts to become politically involved with the rest of the South Pacific, and has considered gaining representation in the Pacific Islands Forum, which includes Australia, New Zealand and most of the Pacific Island nations/territories. Similar to Easter Island, and just to the northeast of it, is the nearby uninhabited Salas y Gómez Island of Chile, which is also considered to be geographically in Oceania while associated with South America politically. The island was never inhabited, yet it was known about by the natives of Easter Island during prehistoric times. The name for the island in their language was "Motu Motiro Hiva". Additionally, Chile has the oceanic Desventuradas Islands, 850 km removed from the country, and the Juan Fernández Islands, which are 650 km removed. Both are located on the Nazca Plate and to the east of Salas y Gómez and Easter Island. Akin to Clipperton and Galápagos, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands were uninhabited prior to European discovery. They too are associated with both the American continent and Oceania. The marine fauna of the Desventuradas Islands and Juan Fernández Islands shares great similarity with the south central Pacific, more so than with the nearing South America. Some consider the islands to be the easternmost areas of the Oceanian biogeographical realm. Scientific journal "PLOS One" describe Easter Island, the Desventurudas Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and Salas y Gómez (collectively titled Insular Chile) as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: The Legend of Heroes, known in Japan as is a series of role-playing video games developed by Nihon Falcom. First starting as a part of the "Dragon Slayer" series in the late 1980s, the series evolved into its own decade-spanning, interconnected series with fourteen entries, including several subseries. All games in the franchise released since 2004 are part of the "Trails" subseries, known as in Japan. The most recent entry, "", was released in 2022.


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: The series was created by Nihon Falcom. It began with the release of "" in 1989 as a part of "Dragon Slayer" franchise. It was released for various computer platforms, as well as consoles such as the Sega Genesis, Super NES, and the TurboGrafx-16. The latter would be the first and last game in the series released in English until 2005. In Japan however, the series continued with "", released in 1992 for a similar selection of platforms.


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: The third game in the series, "The Legend of Heroes III" (1994), later released in English as "", dropped "Dragon Slayer" from the title. It would be followed up by "The Legend of Heroes IV" (1996) and "The Legend of Heroes V" (1999), later known outside of Japan as respectively "" and "". The three games form the "Gagharv trilogy", a subseries following a shared narrative within the same world.


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: After the conclusion of the Gagharv trilogy, Falcom introduced a completely new world and story with their next game: "" (2004). The game, later dropping the VI from the title, received two sequels: "Trails in the Sky SC" (2006) and "Trails in the Sky the 3rd" (2007). The three games made up the first arc of a new subseries, known as in Japanese and "Trails" in English. "Trails" would end up becoming a major success for Falcom, with every "Legend of Heroes" game released since being a part of it.


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: The next two games in the series, "" (2010) and "Trails to Azure" (2011), form the "Crossbell" arc of the "Trails" narrative. The "Trails of Cold Steel" arc would follow, starting with "" in 2013 and ending with "Trails of Cold Steel IV" in 2018. "" is usually grouped into this arc. The ongoing arc, "Kuro no Kiseki", started with the release of "" in 2021.


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: A "Dragon Slayer: The Legend of Heroes" original video animation anime was released in 1992, the same year that "Dragon Slayer: The Legend of Heroes II" was released, loosely based on the story of the first game. In 1997, it was dubbed into English by Urban Vision and was released onto VHS in North America.


title: The Legend of Heroes

text: In 2009, three volumes of a "Trails in the Sky" manga were published in Japan by Kadokawa Shoten, which was followed next year by a sequel, "Trails from Zero: Pre-Story", published by ASCII Media Works. Two original video animation anime episodes of "Trails in the Sky" were respectively released in October 2011 and January 2012. "", an anime television series produced by Tatsunoko Production, is scheduled to begin airing in Japan in early 2023.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: Antônio Augusto Ribeiro Reis Júnior (born 30 January 1975), commonly known as Juninho Pernambucano or simply Juninho, is a Brazilian former professional footballer who was most recently the sporting director of French club Olympique Lyonnais. A dead-ball specialist noted for his bending free kicks, in particular the "knuckleball" technique which he developed, Juninho holds the record for the highest number of goals scored through free kicks and he is considered by many to be the greatest free kick-taker of all time.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: Juninho began his professional career in 1993 with Brazilian club Sport do Recife. Two years later he joined Vasco da Gama where he played over 100 matches and won six titles. In 2001, he joined Ligue 1 side Olympique Lyonnais where he played for the next eight years, winning seven consecutive league titles and scoring 100 goals in 343 official appearances for the club. Following his departure from Lyon in 2009, Juninho played in Qatar with Al-Gharafa and in the United States with New York Red Bulls. The latter stint was wedged between two spells back at Vasco, where he ultimately retired in 2013.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: Having made his international debut in 1999, Juninho played 40 games for the Brazilian national team and scored six goals. He represented Brazil at the 2001 Copa América and was part of the squad which won the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup before retiring from international football after the 2006 World Cup. From 2013 to 2018, Juninho was a football commentator for Brazilian sports network Rede Globo.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: Born in Recife, Juninho started his professional career at Sport Recife and quickly established himself as a rising star in Brazilian football. He won two regional titles with the club. According to Juninho, it was as a 13-year-old that he started to take free-kicks and began to develop his "knuckleball" technique, telling "FourFourTwo" magazine: “I started by copying free-kicks taken by Marcelinho, who played for Corinthians. He was one of my inspirations, and the first player I had ever seen hit the ball head on and make it dance in the air. Didi, who won the World Cup with Brazil in 1958 and 1962, was doing it back then, too. Everyone since has just been tweaking the formula.” It was when he got to France that Juninho says he mastered it.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: Juninho Pernambucano joined Vasco da Gama in 1995. He won several trophies during his first stint with the club, including the Brazilian Championship in 1997 and 2000, the Copa Libertadores in 1998, the Copa Mercosur in 2000, as well as the 2000 Brazilian Silver Ball award as one of the best Brazilian midfielders of the season. At that time, he was playing with Romário, Edmundo, and Juninho Paulista, and he became a favourite of the Vasco fans. Since that time he has been known as "Reizinho de São Januário" (The Little King of São Januário), a reference to Vasco da Gama's stadium, as well as "Reizinho da Colina" (The Little King of the Hill).


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: In 2001, the player won a preliminary injunction against Vasco da Gama, after which he became a free agent. Although he left Vasco for Lyon after a judicial fight, he is still considered a favourite of Vasco fans. Juninho has been cited in a classic chorus sung by the fans remembering his free-kick goal against River Plate at River Plate Stadium, during the 1998 Libertadores which helped the club reach the finals against Barcelona de Guayaquil, which they won. Juninho played 295 games for Vasco from 1995 to 2001.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: In 2001, Juninho moved abroad to play for French club Olympique Lyonnais. Before his arrival at Lyon, the club had never won the French championship. Starting out in his first season at the club, Olympique Lyonnais won seven league titles in a row; along with his former Lyon teammates Grégory Coupet and Sidney Govou, he holds the record for most Ligue 1 titles won (seven), along with Hervé Revelli and Jean-Michel Larqué of Saint-Étienne, as well as Thiago Silva and Marco Verratti of Paris Saint–Germain. At Lyon, Juninho made himself especially noted for his accurate, powerful and varied set pieces. As well as often being ranked the world's greatest free kick exponent, Juninho was a noted passer, providing many assists, and his leadership abilities prompted Lyon manager Gérard Houllier to name him team captain.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: Juninho Pernambucano scored 100 goals while at Lyon. Forty-four of those goals were scored from free-kicks, the last of which was a strike from long distance against Olympique de Marseille. He scored his 100th goal on his last game for Lyon, through a penalty kick against Caen. Juninho was also a prolific goalscorer in the Champions League, and he matched Sonny Anderson as the club's top goalscorer in European competitions with 16 goals, on a match against Steaua Bucharest in November 2008. He later became Lyon's top goalscorer in the Champions League with 18 goals, while reaching three quarter-finals in the competition.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: On 26 May 2009, Lyon chairman Jean-Michel Aulas announced in a press conference that the club had accepted Juninho's request to leave Lyon at the end of the season as a free agent, despite the fact that the player still had a year left in his contract. During the press conference, Juninho sat next to Aulas and left without saying a word.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: On 17 June 2009, Juninho signed a €2.5 million, two-year contract with Qatari club Al-Gharafa. In his first season with the club, Juninho captained the team to their seventh league title and wins in the Qatari Stars Cup and Qatar Crown Prince Cup, completing the treble. He finished the season with Player of the Year honours from the Qatar Football Association. Juninho played 66 games for Al-Gharafa and scored 25 goals.


title: Juninho Pernambucano

text: On 27 April 2011, Juninho rejoined his former club Vasco da Gama. He scored his first goal for them in his first game back, via a freekick against Corinthians. He scored another 2 free kicks and a penalty during the course of the Brazilian top flight season. On 28 March 2012, he played and scored a goal for a 4–1 lead in Edmundo's farewell game against Barcelona Sporting Club. Vasco went on to win this game 9–1. Juninho then scored a trademark free kick against Esporte Clube Bahia in the fourth round of the Campeonato Brasileiro; that goal was to be his 16th since returning to Vasco from Al-Gharafa.