title: Masterpiece

text: The practice of producing a masterpiece has continued in some modern academies of art, where the general term for such works is now reception piece. The Royal Academy in London uses the term "diploma work" and it has acquired a fine collection of diploma works received as a condition of membership.


title: Masterpiece

text: In modern use, a masterpiece is a creation in any area of the arts that has been given much critical praise, especially one that is considered the greatest work of a person's career or to a work of outstanding creativity, skill, profundity, or workmanship. For example, the novel "David Copperfield" by Charles Dickens is generally considered a literary masterpiece. The term is often used loosely, and some critics, such as Edward Douglas of "The Tracking Board", feel it is overused in describing recent films.


title: Lamia

text: Lamia (; ), in ancient Greek mythology, was a child-eating monster and, in later tradition, was regarded as a type of night-haunting spirit ("daemon").


title: Lamia

text: In the earliest stories, Lamia was a beautiful queen of Ancient Libya who had an affair with Zeus. Upon learning this, Zeus's wife Hera robbed Lamia of her children, the offspring of her affair with Zeus, either by kidnapping or by killing them. The loss of her children drove Lamia insane, and in vengeance and despair, Lamia snatched up any children she could find and devoured them. Because of her cruel acts, her physical appearance changed to become ugly and monstrous. Zeus gave Lamia the power of prophecy and the ability to take out and reinsert her eyes, possibly because she was cursed by Hera with insomnia or because she could no longer close her eyes, so that she was forced to always obsess over her lost children.


title: Lamia

text: The lamiai () also became a type of phantom, synonymous with the empusai who seduced young men to satisfy their sexual appetite and fed on their flesh afterward. An account of Apollonius of Tyana's defeat of a lamia-seductress inspired the poem "Lamia" by John Keats.


title: Lamia

text: Lamia has been ascribed serpentine qualities, which some commentators believe can be firmly traced to mythology from antiquity; they have found analogues in ancient texts that could be designated as "lamiai" (or "lamiae") which are part-serpent beings. These include the half-woman, half-snake beasts of the "Libyan myth" told by Dio Chrysostom, and the monster sent to Argos by Apollo to avenge Psamathe (Crotopus).


title: Lamia

text: In previous centuries, Lamia was used in Greece as a bogeyman to frighten children into obedience, similar to the way parents in Spain, Portugal and Latin America used the Coco.


title: Lamia

text: A scholiast to Aristophanes claimed that Lamia's name derived from her having a large throat or gullet (; "laimós"). Modern scholarship reconstructs a Proto-Indo-European stem *"", "nocturnal spirit", whence also comes "lemures".


title: Lamia

text: In the myth, the Lamia was originally a beautiful woman beloved of Zeus, but Zeus's jealous wife Hera robbed her of her children, either by kidnapping and hiding them away, killing them, or causing Lamia herself to kill her own offspring. She became disfigured from the torment, transforming into a terrifying being who hunted and killed the children of others.


title: Lamia

text: Diodorus Siculus ( 1st century BC) gave a de-mythologized account of Lamia as a queen of Libya who ordered her soldiers to snatch children from their mothers and kill them, and whose beauty gave way to bestial appearance due to her savageness. The queen, as related by Diodorus, was born in a cave. Heraclitus Paradoxographus (2nd century) also gave a rationalizing account.


title: Lamia

text: Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" (vii.5) refers to the lore of some beastly lifeform in the shape of a woman, which tears the bellies of pregnant mothers and devours their fetuses. An anonymous commentator on the passage states this is a reference to the Lamia, but muddlingly combines this with Aristotle's subsequent comments and describes her as a Scythian of the Pontus (Black Sea) area.


title: Lamia

text: According to one myth, Hera deprived Lamia of the ability to sleep, making her constantly grieve over the loss of her children, and Zeus provided relief by endowing her with removable eyes. He also gifted her with a shapeshifting ability in the process.


title: Lamia

text: Diodorus's rationalization was that the Libyan queen in her drunken state was as if she could not see, allowing her citizens free rein for any conduct without supervision, giving rise to the folk myth that she places her eyes in a vessel. Heraclitus's euhemerized account explains that Hera, consort of Zeus, gouged the eyes out of the beautiful Lamia.


title: Lamia

text: According to the same source, Lamia was taken by Zeus to Italy, and that Lamos, the city of the man-eating Laestrygonians, was named after her. A different authority remarks that Lamia was once queen of the Laestrygonians.


title: Lamia

text: Aristophanes wrote in two plays an identically worded list of foul-smelling objects which included the "Lamia's testicles", thus making Lamia's gender ambiguous. This was later incorporated into Edward Topsell's 17th-century envisioning of the lamia.


title: Lamia

text: It is somewhat uncertain if this refers to the one Lamia or to "a Lamia" among many, as given in some translations of the two plays; a generic is also supported by the definition as some sort of a "wild beast" in the "Suda".


title: Lamia

text: The "Lamia" was a bogeyman or bugbear term, invoked by a mother or a nanny to frighten children into good behavior. Such practices are recorded by the 1st century Diodorus, and other sources in antiquity.


title: Lamia

text: Numerous sources attest to the Lamia being a "child-devourer", one of them being Horace. Horace in "Ars Poetica" cautions against the overly fantastical: "[nor should a story] draw a live boy out of a Lamia's belly". Lamia was in some versions thus seen as swallowing children alive, and there may have existed some nurse's tale that told of a boy extracted alive out of a Lamia.


title: Lamia

text: The Byzantine lexicon "Suda" (10th century) gave an entry for "lamia" (Λαμία), with definitions and sources much as already described. The lexicon also has an entry under "mormo" (Μορμώ) stating that Mormo and the equivalent "mormolykeion" are called lamia, and that all these refer to frightful beings.


title: Lamia

text: Other bogeys have been listed in conjunction with "Lamia", for instance, the Gorgo, the eyeless giant Ephialtes, a Mormolyce named by Strabo.


title: Lamia

text: In later classical periods, around the 1st century A. D., the conception of this Lamia shifted to that of a sultry seductress who enticed young men and devoured them.


title: Lamia

text: It purports to give a full account of the capture of "Lamia of Corinth" by Apollonius, as the general populace referred to the legend. An apparition ("phasma" ) which in the assumed guise of a woman seduced one of Apollonius's young pupils.


title: Lamia

text: Here, Lamia is the common vulgar term and "empousa" the proper term. For Apollonius in speech declares that the seductress is "one of the "empousai", which most other people would call "lamiai" and "mormolykeia"". The use of the term "lamia" in this sense is however considered atypical by one commentator.


title: Lamia

text: Regarding the seductress, Apollonius further warned, "you are warming a snake ("ophis") on your bosom, and it is a snake that warms you". It has been suggested from this discourse that the creature was therefore "literally a snake". The "empousa" admits in the end to fattening up her victim (Menippus of Lycia) to be consumed, as she was in the habit of targeting young men for food "because their blood was fresh and pure". The last statement has led to the surmise that this lamia/empusa was a sort of blood-sucking vampiress.


title: Lamia

text: Another aspect of her powers is that this empusa/lamia is able to create an illusion of a sumptuous mansion, with all the accoutrements and even servants. But once Apollonius reveals her false identity at the wedding, the illusion fails her and vanishes.


title: Lamia

text: A longstanding joke makes a word play between Lamia the monster and Lamia of Athens, the notorious "hetaira" courtesan who captivated Demetrius Poliorcetes (d. 283 BC). The double-entendre sarcasm was uttered by Demetrius's father, among others. The same joke was used in theatrical Greek comedy, and generally. The word play is also seen as being employed in Horace's "Odes", to banter Lucius Aelius Lamia the praetor.


title: Lamia

text: In Apuleius's "The Golden Ass" there appear the Thessalian "witches" Meroe and her sister Panthia, who are called "lamiae" in one instance.


title: Lamia

text: Meroe has seduced a man named Socrates, but when he plots to escape, the two witches raid his bed, thrust a knife in the neck to tap the blood into a skin bag, eviscerate his heart, and stuff the hole back with sponge.


title: Lamia

text: Some commentators, despite the absence of actual blood-sucking, find these witches to share "vampiric" qualities of the "lamiae" ("lamiai") in Philostratus's narrative, thus offering it up for comparison.


title: Lamia

text: Lamia's possible kindred kind appear in Classical works, but may be known by other names except for isolated instance which calls it a "lamia". Or they may be simply unnamed or differently named. And those analogues that exhibit a serpentine form or nature have been especially noted.


title: Lamia

text: One such possible lamia is the avenging monster sent by Apollo against the city of Argos and killed by Coroebus. It is referred to as Poine or Ker in classical sources, but later in the Medieval period, one source does call it a lamia (First Vatican Mythographer, c. 9th to 11th century).


title: Lamia

text: The story surrounds the tragedy of the daughter of King Crotopus of Argos named Psamathe, whose child by Apollo dies and she is executed for suspected promiscuity. Apollo as punishment then sends the child-devouring monster to Argos.


title: Lamia

text: In Statius' version, the monster had a woman's face and breasts, and a hissing snake protruding from the cleft of her rusty-colored forehead, and it would slide into children's bedrooms to snatch them. According to a scholiast to Ovid, it had a serpent's body carrying a human face.


title: Lamia

text: In Pausanias's version, the monster is called "Poinē" (), meaning "punishment" or "vengeance", but there is nothing about a snake on her forehead.


title: Lamia

text: One evidence this may be a double of the Lamia comes from Plutarch, who equates the word "empousa" with "poinē".


title: Lamia

text: A second example is a colony of man-eating monsters in Libya, described by Dio Chrysostom. These monsters had a woman's torso, the lower extremities of a snake, and beastly hands. The idea that these creatures were "lamiai" seems to originate with Alex Scobie (1977), and accepted by other commentators.


title: Lamia

text: By the Early Middle Ages, "lamia" (pl. "lamiai" or "lamiae") was being glossed as a general term referring to a class of beings. Hesychius of Alexandria's lexicon ( 500 A.D.) glossed "lamiai" as apparations, or even fish. Isidore of Seville defined them as beings that snatched babies and ripped them apart.


title: Lamia

text: The Vulgate used "lamia" in Isaiah xxxiv:14 to translate "Lilith" of the Hebrew Bible. Pope Gregory I (d. 604)'s exegesis on the Book of Job explains that the lamia represented either heresy or hypocrisy.


title: Lamia

text: Christian writers also warned against the seductive potential of "lamiae". In his 9th-century treatise on divorce, Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, listed "lamiae" among the supernatural dangers that threatened marriages, and identified them with "geniciales feminae", female reproductive spirits.


title: Lamia

text: This Lamia of Libya has her double in Lamia-Sybaris of the legend around Delphi, both indirectly associated with serpents. Strong parallel with the Medusa has also been noted. These, and other considerations have prompted modern commentators to suggest she is a dragoness.


title: Lamia

text: Another double of the Libyan Lamia may be Lamia, daughter of Poseidon. Lamia by Zeus gave birth to a Sibyl according to Pausanias, and this would have to be the Libyan Lamia, yet there is a tradition that Lamia the daughter of Poseidon was the mother of a Sibyl. Either one could be Lamia the mother of Scylla mentioned in the Stesichorus (d. 555 BC) fragment, and other sources. Scylla is a creature depicted variously as anguipedal or serpent-bodied.


title: Lamia

text: Diodorus Siculus ( 1st century BC), for instance, describes Lamia of Libya as having nothing more than a beastly appearance. Diodorus, Duris of Samos and other sources which comprise the sources for building an "archetypal" picture of Lamia do not designate her as a dragoness, or give her explicit serpentine descriptions.


title: Lamia

text: In the 1st-century "Life of Apollonius of Tyana" the female "empousa-lamia" is also called "a snake", which may seem to the modern reader to be just a metaphorical expression, but which Daniel Ogden insists is a literal snake. Philostratus's tale was reworked by Keats in his poem "Lamia", where it is made clear she bears the guise of a snake, which she wants to relinquish in return for human appearance.


title: Lamia

text: Modern commentators have also tried to establish that she may have originally been a dragoness, by inference. Daniel Ogden argues that one of her possible reincarnations, the monster of Argos killed by Coroebus had a "scaly gait", indicating she must have had an anguipedal form in an early version of the story, although the Latin text in Statius merely reads "inlabi" (declension of "labor") meaning "slides".


title: Lamia

text: One of the doubles of Lamia of Libya is the Lamia-Sybaris, which is described only as a giant beast by Antoninus Liberalis (2nd century). It is noted that this character terrorized Delphi, just as the dragon Python had.


title: Lamia

text: Close comparison is also made with the serpentine Medusa. Not only is Medusa identified with Libya, she also had dealings with the three Graeae who had the removable eye shared between them. In some versions, the removable eye belonged to the three Gorgons, Medusa and her sisters.


title: Lamia

text: Some commentators have also equated Lamia with Hecate. The basis of this identification is the variant maternities of scylla, sometimes ascribed to Lamia (as already mentioned), and sometimes to Hecate. The identification has also been built (using transitive logic) since each name is identified with empousa in different sources.


title: Lamia

text: A foul odor has been pointed out as a possible common motif or attribute of the lamiai. The examples are Aristophanes's reference to the "lamia's testicles", the scent of the monsters in the Libyan myth which allowed the humans to track down their lair, and the terrible stench of their urine that lingered in the clothing of Aristomenes, which they showered upon him after carving out his friend Sophocles's heart.


title: Lamia

text: Renaissance writer Angelo Poliziano wrote "Lamia" (1492), a philosophical work whose title is a disparaging reference to his opponents who dabble in philosophy without competence. It alludes to Plutarch's use of the term in "De curiositate", where the Greek writer suggests that the term "Lamia" is emblematic of meddlesome busybodies in society. Worded another way, Lamia was emblematic of the hypocrisy of such scholars.


title: Lamia

text: From around the mid-15th century into the 16th century, the lamia came to be regarded exclusively as witches.


title: Lamia

text: In Edward Topsell's "History of Four-footed Beasts" (1607), the lamia is described as having the upper body (i.e., the face and breasts) of a woman, but with goatlike hind quarters with large and filthy "stones" (testicles) that smell like sea-calves, on authority of Aristophanes. It is covered with scales all over.


title: Lamia

text: John Keats's "Lamia" in his "Lamia and Other Poems" is a reworking of the tale in Apollonius's biography by Philostratus, described above. In Keats's version, the student Lycius replaces Menippus the Lycian. For the descriptions and nature of the Lamia, Keats drew from Burton's "The Anatomy of Melancholy". August Enna wrote an opera called "Lamia".


title: Lamia

text: English composer Dorothy Howell composed a tone poem "Lamia" which was played repeatedly to great acclaim under its dedicatee Sir Henry Wood at the London Promenade concerts in the 1920s. It has been recorded more recently by Rumon Gamba conducting the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra for Chandos Records in a 2019 release of British tone poems.


title: Lamia

text: The 1982 novel "Lamia" by Tristan Travis sees the mythological monster relocated to 1970s Chicago, where she takes bloody vengeance on sex offenders while the cops try to figure out the mystery.


title: Lamia

text: Lamia, also known as Ramia, also appears as a boss in the Nintendo DS action role-playing game "Deep Labyrinth".


title: Lamia

text: Lamia is the main antagonist in the 2009 horror movie "Drag Me to Hell" voiced by Art Kimbro. In the movie, Lamia is described as "the most feared of all Demons" and having the head and hooves of a goat. A gypsy curse associated with him have Lamia torment the victim for three days before having its minions drag them into Hell to burn in its fires for all eternity.


title: Lamia

text: Lamia appears in Rick Riordan's "The Demigod Diaries", appearing in its fourth short story "The Son of Magic". She is depicted as having glowing green eyes with serpentine slits, shriveled-up hands with lizard-like claws on them, and crocodile-like teeth.


title: Lamia

text: Lamia are featured in the progressive rock album "The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway" by Genesis on the track "The Lamia." They are depicted as female creatures with 'snake-like' bodies and seduce the protagonist Rael in an attempt to devour him, but as soon as they 'taste' Rael's body, the blood that enters the lamias' body causes their death.


title: Lamia

text: "Raised by Wolves" features a character named Lamia, an android mother, who has removable eyes and the ability to shapeshift.


title: Lamia

text: In modern Greek folk tradition, the Lamia has survived and retained many of her traditional attributes. John Cuthbert Lawson remarks "the chief characteristics of the Lamiae, apart from their thirst for blood, are their uncleanliness, their gluttony, and their stupidity". The contemporary Greek proverb, "της Λάμιας τα σαρώματα" ("the Lamia's sweeping"), epitomises slovenliness; and the common expression, "τό παιδί τό 'πνιξε η Λάμια" ("the child has been strangled by the Lamia"), explains the sudden death of young children.


title: Lamia

text: Later traditions referred to many "lamiae"; these were folkloric monsters similar to vampires and succubi that seduced young men and then fed on their blood.


title: Lamia

text: In a 1909 painting by Herbert James Draper, the Lamia who moodily watches the serpent on her forearm appears to represent a "hetaera". Although the lower body of Draper's Lamia is human, he alludes to her serpentine history by draping a shed snakeskin about her waist. In Renaissance emblems, Lamia has the body of a serpent and the breasts and head of a woman, like the image of hypocrisy.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (22 November 1428 – 14 April 1471), known as Warwick the Kingmaker, was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander. The eldest son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, he became Earl of Warwick through marriage, and was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer of his age, with political connections that went beyond the country's borders. One of the leaders in the Wars of the Roses, originally on the Yorkist side but later switching to the Lancastrian side, he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings, which led to his epithet of "Kingmaker".


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Through fortunes of marriage and inheritance, Warwick emerged in the 1450s at the centre of English politics. Originally, he was a supporter of King Henry VI; however, a territorial dispute with Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, led him to collaborate with Richard, Duke of York, in opposing the king. From this conflict, he gained the strategically valuable post of Captain of Calais, a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come. The political conflict later turned into full-scale rebellion, where in battle York was slain, as was Warwick's father Salisbury. York's son, however, later triumphed with Warwick's assistance, and was crowned King Edward IV. Edward initially ruled with Warwick's support, but the two later fell out over foreign policy and the king's choice to marry Elizabeth Woodville. After a failed plot to crown Edward's brother, George, Duke of Clarence, Warwick instead restored Henry VI to the throne. The triumph was short-lived, however: on 14 April 1471, Warwick was defeated by Edward at the Battle of Barnet, and killed.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Warwick's historical legacy has been a matter of much dispute. Historical opinion has alternated between seeing him as self-centred and rash, and regarding him as a victim of the whims of an ungrateful king. It is generally agreed, however, that in his own time he enjoyed great popularity in all layers of society, and that he was skilled at appealing to popular sentiments for political support.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: The Neville family, an ancient Durham family, came to prominence in England's fourteenth-century wars against the Scots. In 1397, King Richard II granted Ralph Neville the title of Earl of Westmorland. Ralph's son Richard, the later Earl of Warwick's father, was a younger son by a second marriage, and not heir to the earldom. He received a favourable settlement, however, and became "jure uxoris" ("by right of his wife") Earl of Salisbury through his marriage to Alice, daughter and heiress of Thomas Montagu, 4th Earl of Salisbury.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Salisbury's son Richard, the later Earl of Warwick, was born on 22 November 1428; little is known of his childhood. At the age of eight, in 1436, Richard was married to Lady Anne Beauchamp, daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, and of his wife Isabel Despenser. This made him heir not only to the earldom of Salisbury, but also to a substantial part of the Montague, Beauchamp, and Despenser inheritance.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Circumstances would, however, increase his fortune even further. Beauchamp's son Henry, who had married the younger Richard's sister Cecily, died in 1446. When Henry's daughter Anne died in 1449, Richard also found himself "jure uxoris" Earl of Warwick.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Richard's succession to the estates did not go undisputed, however. A protracted battle over parts of the inheritance ensued, particularly with Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who had married a daughter from Richard Beauchamp's first marriage. The dispute centred on land, not on the Warwick title, as Henry's half-sisters were excluded from the succession.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: By 1445 Richard had become a knight, probably at Margaret of Anjou's coronation on 30 May that year; also around this time, his illegitimate daughter, Margaret (who married Richard Huddleston on 12 June 1464) was born.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: He is visible in the historical record of service of King Henry VI in 1449, which makes mention of his services in a grant. He performed military service in the north with his father, and might have taken part in the war against Scotland in 1448–1449. When Richard, Duke of York, unsuccessfully rose up against the king in 1452, both Warwick and his father rallied to the side of King Henry VI.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: In June 1453, Somerset was granted custody of the lordship of Glamorgan—part of the Despenser heritage held by Warwick until then—and open conflict broke out between the two men. Then, in the summer of that year, King Henry fell ill. Somerset was a favourite of the king and Queen Margaret, and with the king incapacitated he was virtually in complete control of government. This put Warwick at a disadvantage in his dispute with Somerset, and drove him into collaboration with York. The political climate, influenced by the , then started turning against Somerset. On 27 March 1454, a group of royal councillors appointed the Duke of York protector of the realm. York could now count on the support not only of Warwick, but also of Warwick's father Salisbury, who had become more deeply involved in disputes with the House of Percy in the north of England.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: York's first protectorate did not last long. Early in 1455 the king rallied sufficiently to return to power, at least nominally, with Somerset again wielding real power. Warwick returned to his estates, as did York and Salisbury, and the three started raising troops. Marching towards London, they encountered the king at St Albans, where the two forces clashed. The battle was brief and not particularly bloody, but it was the first instance of armed hostilities between the forces of the Houses of York and Lancaster in the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. It was also significant because it resulted in the capture of the king, and the death of Somerset.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: York's second protectorate that followed was even shorter-lived than the first. At the parliament of February 1456 the king—now under the influence of Queen Margaret—resumed personal government of the realm. By this time Warwick had taken over Salisbury's role as York's main ally, even appearing at that same parliament to protect York from retributions. This conflict was also a pivotal period in Warwick's career, as it was resolved by his appointment as Constable of Calais. The post was to provide him with a vital power base in the following years of conflict. The continental town of Calais, conquered from France in 1347, was not only of vital strategic importance, it also held what was England's largest standing army. There were some initial disputes, with the garrison and with the royal wool monopoly known as the staple, over payments in arrears, but in July Warwick finally took up his post.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: After the recent events, Queen Margaret still considered Warwick a threat to the throne, and cut off his supplies. In August 1457, however, a French attack on the English seaport of Sandwich set off fears of a full-scale French invasion. Warwick was again funded to protect the garrison and patrol the English coast. In disregard of royal authority, he then conducted highly successful acts of piracy, against the Castilian fleet in May 1458, and against the Hanseatic fleet a few weeks later. He also used his time on the Continent to establish relations with Charles VII of France and Philip the Good of Burgundy. Developing a solid military reputation and with good international connections, he then brought a part of his garrison to England, where he met up with his father and York in the autumn of 1459.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: In September 1459 Warwick crossed over to England and made his way north to Ludlow to meet up with York and Salisbury, the latter fresh from his victory over Lancastrians at the Battle of Blore Heath. At nearby Ludford Bridge their forces were scattered by the king's army, partly because of the defection of Warwick's Calais contingent under the command of Andrew Trollope. As it turned out, the majority of the soldiers were still reluctant to raise arms against the king. Forced to flee the country, York left for Dublin, Ireland, with his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, while Warwick and Salisbury sailed to Calais, accompanied by the Duke's son, Edward, Earl of March (the future King Edward IV). Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, was appointed to replace Warwick as Captain of Calais, but the Yorkists managed to hold on to the garrison.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: In March 1460 Warwick visited York in Ireland to plan the way ahead, and returned to Calais. Then, on 26 June, he landed at Sandwich with Salisbury and March, and from here the three earls rode north to London. Salisbury was left to besiege the Tower of London, while Warwick took March with him in pursuit of the king. At Northampton, on 10 July, King Henry was taken captive, while the Duke of Buckingham and others were killed in battle.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: In September York arrived from Ireland, and at the parliament of October that year, the Duke walked up to the throne and put his hand on it. The act, signifying usurpation, left the assembly in shock. It is unclear whether Warwick had prior knowledge of York's plans, though it is assumed that this had been agreed upon between the two in Ireland the previous March. It soon became clear, however, that this regime change was unacceptable to the lords in parliament, and a compromise was agreed. The Act of Accord of 25 October 1460 stated that while Henry VI was allowed to stay on the throne for the remainder of his life, his son Edward, Prince of Wales, was to be disinherited. Instead, York would succeed the king, and act as protector.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: This solution was not ideal to either party, and further conflict was inevitable. On 30 December, at the Battle of Wakefield, York was killed, as were York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, and Warwick's younger brother Thomas. Salisbury was executed a day later. Warwick marched north to confront the enemy, but was defeated and forced to flee at the Second Battle of St Albans. He then joined forces with Prince Edward of York, the new Yorkist claimant to the crown, who had just won an important victory at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: While Queen Margaret was hesitating to make her next move, Warwick and Edward hastened to London. The citizens of the capital were scared by the brutal conduct of the Lancastrian forces, and were sympathetic to the House of York. On 4 March the prince was proclaimed King Edward IV by an assembly that gathered quickly. The new king now headed north to consolidate his title, and met with the Lancastrian forces at Towton in Yorkshire. Warwick had suffered an injury to the leg the day before, in the Battle of Ferrybridge, and may have played only a minor part in the battle that followed. The unusually bloody battle resulted in a complete victory for the Yorkist forces, and the death of many important men on the opposing side, such as Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and Andrew Trollope. Queen Margaret managed to escape to Scotland, with Henry and Prince Edward. Edward IV returned to London for his coronation, while Warwick remained to pacify the north.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Warwick's position after the accession of Edward IV was stronger than ever. He had now succeeded to his father's possessions—including his vast network of retainers—and in 1462 he also inherited his mother's lands and the Salisbury title. Altogether he had an annual income from his lands of over £7,000 far more than any other man in the realm but the king. Edward confirmed Warwick's position as Captain of Calais, and made him High Admiral of England and Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster, along with several other offices. His brothers also benefited: John Neville, Lord Montagu, was made Warden of the East March in 1463, and the next year created Earl of Northumberland. George Neville, Bishop of Exeter, was confirmed in his post as chancellor by King Edward, and in 1465 promoted to the archbishopric of York.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: By late 1461, risings in the north had been put down, and in the summer of 1462, Warwick negotiated a truce with Scotland. In October the same year, Margaret of Anjou invaded England with troops from France, and managed to take the castles of Alnwick and Bamburgh. Warwick had to organise the recapture of the castles, which was accomplished by January 1463. The leaders of the rebellion, including Sir Ralph Percy, were pardoned and left in charge of the retaken castles. At this point, Warwick felt secure enough to travel south; in February he buried the remains of his father and brother at Bisham Priory, and in March he attended parliament at Westminster.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: That same spring, however, the north rose up in rebellion once more, when Ralph Percy laid siege to Norham Castle. Warwick returned to the north and rescued Norham in July, but the Lancastrians were left in possession of Northumberland, and the government decided on a diplomatic approach instead. Separate truces were negotiated with Scotland and France by late 1463, which allowed Warwick to retake the Northumbrian castles held by the Lancastrian rebels in the spring of 1464. This time no clemency was given, and around thirty of the rebel leaders were executed.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: At the negotiations with the French, Warwick had intimated that King Edward was interested in a marriage arrangement with the French crown, the intended bride being Louis XI's sister-in-law, Bona, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy. This marriage was not to be, however, because in September 1464, Edward revealed that he was already married, to Elizabeth Woodville. The marriage caused great offence to Warwick: not only due to the fact that his plans had been sabotaged, but also the secrecy with which the king had acted. The marriage—contracted on 1 May of the same year—was not made public before Warwick pressed Edward on the issue at a council meeting, and in the meanwhile Warwick had been unknowingly deceiving the French into believing the king was serious about the marriage proposal. For Edward the marriage may very well have been a love match, but in the long run he sought to build the Woodville family into a powerhouse independent of Warwick's influence. The marriage of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville caused Warwick to lose his power and influence. He accused Elizabeth, and her mother Jacquetta of Luxembourg, of witchcraft to try and restore the power that he had lost.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: This was not enough to cause a complete fallout between the two men, though from this point on Warwick increasingly stayed away from court. The promotion of Warwick's brother George to Archbishop of York shows that the earl was still in favour with the king. In July 1465, when Henry VI was once more captured, it was Warwick who escorted the fallen king to his captivity in the Tower.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Then, in the spring of 1466, Warwick was sent to the continent to carry out negotiations with the French and Burgundians. The negotiations centred around a marriage proposal involving Edward's sister Margaret. Warwick increasingly came to favour French diplomatic connections. Meanwhile, Edward's father-in-law, Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers, who had been created treasurer, was in favour of a Burgundian alliance. This set up internal conflict within the English court, which was not alleviated by the fact that Edward had signed a secret treaty in October with Burgundy, while Warwick was forced to carry on sham negotiations with the French. Later, George Neville was dismissed as chancellor, while Edward refused to contemplate a marriage between Warwick's oldest daughter Isabel, and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence. It became increasingly clear that Warwick's position of dominance at court had been taken over by Rivers.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: In the autumn of 1467, there were rumours that Warwick was now sympathetic to the Lancastrian cause, but even though he refused to come to court to answer the charges, the king accepted his denial in writing. In July 1468, it was revealed that Warwick's deputy in Calais, John, Lord Wenlock, was involved in a Lancastrian conspiracy, and early in 1469 another Lancastrian plot was uncovered, involving John de Vere, Earl of Oxford. It was becoming clear that the discontent with Edward's reign was widespread, a fact that Warwick could exploit.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Warwick now orchestrated a rebellion in Yorkshire while he was away, led by a "Robin of Redesdale". Part of Warwick's plan was winning over King Edward's younger brother, George Plantagenet, possibly with the prospect of installing him on the throne. The nineteen-year-old George had shown himself to share many of the abilities of his older brother, but was also jealous and overambitious. In July 1469, the two sailed over to Calais, where George was married to Warwick's daughter, Lady Isabel Neville. From there, they returned to England, where they gathered the men of Kent to join the rebellion in the north. Meanwhile, the king's forces were defeated at the Battle of Edgecote, where William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, was killed. The other commander, Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon, was caught in flight and lynched by a mob. Later, Earl Rivers and his son, Sir John Woodville, were also apprehended and murdered. With his army now defeated, King Edward IV was taken under arrest by George Neville. Warwick then imprisoned the king in Warwick Castle, and in August, the king was taken north to Middleham Castle. In the long run, however, it proved impossible to rule without the king, and continuing disorder forced Warwick to release King Edward IV in September 1469.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: A "modus vivendi" had been achieved between Warwick and the king for some months, but the restoration of Henry Percy to Montagu's earldom of Northumberland prevented any chance of full reconciliation. A trap was set for the king when disturbances in Lincolnshire led him north, where he could be confronted by Warwick's men. Edward, however, discovered the plot when Robert, Lord Welles, was routed at Losecote Field in Rutland in March 1470, and gave away the plan.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Warwick soon gave up, and once more fled the country with Clarence. Denied access to Calais, they sought refuge with King Louis XI of France. Louis arranged a reconciliation between Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, and as part of the agreement, Margaret and Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales, would marry Warwick's daughter Anne. The objective of the alliance was to restore Henry VI to the throne. Again Warwick staged an uprising in the north, and with the king away, he and Clarence landed at Dartmouth and Plymouth on 13 September 1470. Among the many who flocked to Warwick's side was his brother Montagu, who had not taken part in the last rebellion, but was disappointed when his loyalty to the king had not been rewarded with the restoration of his earldom. This time the trap set up for the king worked; as Edward hurried south, Montagu's forces approached from the north, and the king found himself surrounded. On 2 October he fled to Flanders, a part of the Duchy of Burgundy. King Henry was now restored, with Warwick acting as the true ruler in his capacity as lieutenant. At a parliament in November, Edward was attainted of his lands and titles, and Clarence was awarded the Duchy of York.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: At this point, international affairs intervened. Louis XI declared war on Burgundy, and Charles the Bold responded by granting an expeditionary force to Edward IV, in order to reclaim his throne. On 14 March 1471 Edward landed at Ravenspurn in Yorkshire, with the acquiescence of the Earl of Northumberland. Warwick was still waiting for Queen Margaret and her son Edward, who were supposed to bring reinforcements from France, but were kept on the continent by bad weather. At this point, Edward received the support of his brother Clarence, who realised that he had been disadvantaged by the new agreement with the Lancastrians. Clarence's defection weakened Warwick, who nevertheless went in pursuit of Edward. On 14 April 1471 the two armies met at Barnet. Fog and poor visibility on the field led to confusion, and the Lancastrian army ended up attacking its own men. In the face of defeat Warwick attempted to escape the field, but was struck off his horse and killed.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Warwick's body—along with that of his brother Montagu, who had also fallen at Barnet—was displayed in London's St Paul's Cathedral to quell any rumours of their survival. Then they were handed over to Archbishop Neville, to be buried in the family vault at Bisham Priory near the river Thames in Berkshire. No trace now remains of either the tomb or the church in which it was housed. On 4 May 1471, Edward IV defeated the remaining Lancastrian forces of Queen Margaret and Prince Edward at the Battle of Tewkesbury, where the prince was killed. Soon afterwards, it was reported that King Henry VI had also died in the Tower. With the direct Lancastrian line exterminated, Edward could reign safely until his death in 1483.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Warwick had no sons. His offices were divided between King Edward's brothers George, Duke of Clarence (who had married Warwick's daughter Isabel Neville), and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the future Richard III (who would marry Warwick's daughter Anne Neville). Clarence received the chamberlainship of England and the lieutenancy of Ireland, while Gloucester was made Admiral of England and Warden of the West March. Clarence also received the earldoms of Warwick and Salisbury. The earl's land had been forfeited and taken into the king's custody. When Gloucester married Warwick's younger daughter Anne in 1472, who had been recently widowed by the death of Prince Edward, a dispute broke out between the two princes over the Beauchamp and Despenser inheritances. A compromise was eventually reached, whereby the land was divided, but Clarence was not pacified. In 1477 he once again plotted against his brother. This time the king could no longer act with lenience, and the next year the Duke of Clarence was executed.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: Early sources on Richard Neville fall into two categories. The first are the sympathetic chronicles of the early Yorkist years, or works based on these, such as the "Mirror for Magistrates" (1559). The other category originates with chronicles commissioned by Edward IV after Warwick's fall, such as the "Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV", and take a more negative view of the earl. The "Mirror" portrayed Warwick as a great man: beloved by the people, and betrayed by the man he helped raise to the throne. The other perspective can be found in Shakespeare's "Henry VI" trilogy: a man driven by pride and egotism, who created and deposed kings at will.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: In time, however, it is the latter view that dominated. The Enlightenment, or Whig historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, decried anyone who impeded the development towards a centralised, constitutional monarchy, the way Warwick did in his struggles with Edward. David Hume called Warwick "the greatest, as well as the last, of those mighty barons who formerly overawed the crown, and rendered the people incapable of any regular system of civil government." Later writers were split between admiration for some of Warwick's character traits, and condemnation of his political actions. The romantic novelist Lord Lytton picked up on Hume's theme in his "The Last of the Barons". Though Lytton portrayed Warwick as a tragic hero who embodied the ideals of chivalry, he was nevertheless one whose time was past. The late-nineteenth-century military historian Charles Oman acknowledged the earl's ability to appeal to popular sentiments, yet pointed out his deficiencies as a military commander. Oman found Warwick a traditional strategist, "not attaining the heights of military genius displayed by his pupil Edward." Paul Murray Kendall's popular biography from 1957 took a sympathetic view of Warwick, but concluded that he had ultimately fallen victim to his own overreaching ambition.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: More recent historians, such as Michael Hicks and A. J. Pollard, have tried to see Warwick in light of the standards of his own age, rather than holding him up to contemporary constitutional ideals. The insults Warwick suffered at the hands of King Edward—including Edward's secret marriage, and the refusal of the French diplomatic channel—were significant. His claim to prominence in national affairs was not a product of illusions of grandeur; it was confirmed by the high standing he enjoyed among the princes on the continent. Furthermore, Warwick's cause was not considered unjust by his contemporaries, which can be seen by the earl's popularity exceeding that of the king at the time of his first rebellion in 1469. On the other hand, while Warwick could not easily suffer his treatment by the king, it was equally impossible for Edward to accept the earl's presence on the political scene. As long as Warwick remained as powerful and influential as he was, Edward could not fully assert his royal authority, and eventual confrontation became inevitable.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: However, the memories written in Burgundy had a negative view of him. For example, according to Philippe de Commynes and Olivier de la Marche, Georges Chastellain, who all mention Edward's popularity and character, Warwick was sage and cunning, and much richer than Edward, but he was very hated. In addition, unlike his brother John Nevill and Edward, he was not brave. A Burgundy historian Jean de Wavrin criticized him more bitterly than other Burgundians.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: The Earl of Warwick's coat of arms was unusually complex for the period, with seven different quarterings in unusual order. The first grand quarter consists of the arms of his father-in-law, Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, who bore his arms quartering Despenser (the arms of his wife Isabel le Despenser) with an inescutcheon of De Clare, which Warwick showed in the fourth quarter. The second grand quarter showed the arms of Montagu (quartering Monthermer). The third grand quarter showed the arms of Neville differenced - rather honourably augmented - by a label "compony argent and azure" for Beaufort (House of Lancaster) to signify the royal descent from Warwick's father Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, who was the eldest son and heir of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his wife, Lady Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, third son of King Edward III and great-grandfather of the last Lancastrian King Henry VI.


title: Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick

text: The chart below shows, in abbreviated form, the family background of Richard Neville and his family connections with the houses of York and Lancaster. Anne Neville is shown with her two husbands, in order from right to left.


title: Doug Liman

text: Douglas Eric Liman (; born July 24, 1965) is an American film director and producer. He is known for directing the films "Swingers" (1996), "Go" (1999), "The Bourne Identity" (2002), "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" (2005), "Jumper" (2008), "Edge of Tomorrow" (2014), and "American Made" (2017).


title: Doug Liman

text: Most of his career has been associated with the production company Hypnotic. He is co-owner with Dave Bartis, whom he met as an undergraduate at Brown University where they co-founded Brown Television (BTV) and the National Association of College Broadcasters (NACB).


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman is on the advisory board of the Legal Action Center and the Arthur Liman Public Interest Program at Yale Law School.


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman was born in New York City, the son of Ellen ("née" Fogelson), a painter and writer, and Arthur L. Liman, a lawyer well known for his public service, which included serving as chief counsel for the Senate Iran-Contra hearings. Liman is Jewish, from a prominent New York family.


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman began making short films while still in junior high school and studied at International Center of Photography in New York City. While attending Brown University, he helped to co-found the student-run cable television station BTV and served as its first station manager. He also co-founded the NACB, the first trade association geared to student-staffed radio and television stations, in 1988.


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman attended the graduate program at University of Southern California, where he was tapped to helm his first project in 1993, the comedy film "Getting In".


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman's first major success was "Swingers", released in 1996. The film, written by Jon Favreau and based on Favreau's life, is a comedy about struggling actors amid the L.A. club milieu. Liman raised the funding and the film was made on the cheap, starring Favreau and his friends (Vince Vaughn, Ron Livingston, and Patrick Van Horn), ultimately cost $250,000. The film was a critical success, and jump-started the careers of Liman and the featured actors. Liman sold the film to Miramax for $5.5 million.


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman next directed "Go" (1999), which tracks the events of a drug deal gone wrong through three different points of view as plot lines diverge and reconverge; Liman was also the film's cinematographer. The film was an indie hit and made a profit at the box office grossing $28.4 million worldwide against a $20 million budget.


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman next directed the 2002 action thriller "The Bourne Identity" starring Matt Damon, an adaptation of the 1980 Robert Ludlum novel. The film was a box office success, earning over $200 million, and began a "Bourne" film franchise that has since included four additional films. Liman only directed the first "Bourne" film, but served as an executive producer for three of the four sequels (2004's "The Bourne Supremacy", 2007's "The Bourne Ultimatum" and 2016's "Jason Bourne").


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman executive-produced and directed the first two episodes ("Premiere" and "The Model Home") of the successful Fox prime time drama "The O.C." (2003–2007). Liman produced and directed a series of comedy shorts for the Chrysler Film Project and Cannes Film Festival entitled "Indie Is Great".


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman also directed "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" (2005), a comedic thriller about an increasingly distant married couple, both secretly assassins, who are hired to kill each other. The film was Liman's most commercially successful to date, and is well known for the off-screen romance that developed between stars Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie after making the film.


title: Doug Liman

text: In 2005, Liman signed on to direct the pilot episode of NBC's television series "Heist", which is about a season-long attempt to rob three jewelry stores on Beverly Hills' swanky Rodeo Drive. Also that same year, the production company Hypnotic has struck a deal with NBC Universal Television Studio. Shortly afterwards, he renamed the production company from Hypnotic to Dutch Oven.


title: Doug Liman

text: In 2009, he co-founded the website "30ninjas.com" which is geared towards fans of action movies and television, gaming, extreme sports and viral videos. He also maintains a blog on the site.


title: Doug Liman

text: Liman directed 2010's "Fair Game", about the Plame affair, which competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Doug Liman

text: In 2011, Liman directed and produced "I Just Want My Pants Back", a television series that aired on MTV. He produced "Covert Affairs" and "Suits", two original series on the USA Network. He directed the film adaptation of the Hiroshi Sakurazaka novel, "All You Need is Kill", released as "Edge of Tomorrow" (2014), starring Tom Cruise. In 2017, he directed Aaron Taylor-Johnson and John Cena in the military thriller "The Wall", and directed Cruise again, in the crime-action film "American Made", a biopic of pilot Barry Seal.


title: Doug Liman

text: In August 2016, Liman signed on to direct "Dark Universe", a film set within the DC Extended Universe and based on superhero team Justice League Dark after leaving the adaptation of "Gambit." However, Liman has departed from the project due to schedule conflicts with the film "Chaos Walking" (2021), that Liman was working on that time.


title: Doug Liman

text: In January 2020, Liman announced that the "Edge of Tomorrow" sequel, "Live Die Repeat and Repeat", was currently in its early planning stages.


title: Doug Liman

text: In May 2020, it was reported that Liman would be directing, writing, and producing a fictional movie shot in outer space. Tom Cruise is set to star and produce. Both will fly to space and to the International Space Station as part of the SpaceX Axiom Space-2 mission.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: Maryam Nawaz Sharif (Punjabi and ; born 28 October 1973), also known as Maryam Safdar, is a Pakistani politician and the daughter of former Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif. She was initially involved in the family's philanthropic organisations. However, in 2012, she entered politics and was put in charge of the election campaign during the 2013 general election. In 2013, she was appointed the Chairperson of the Prime Minister's Youth Programme. However, she resigned in 2014 after her appointment was challenged in the Lahore High Court.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: Maryam was born on 28 October 1973<ref name="dawn/19jan2018"></ref> in Lahore, Pakistan,<ref name="dailypakistan/26dec2016"></ref> to Nawaz Sharif and Kulsoom Butt.<ref name="dawn/11march2018"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: She received her early education from the Convent of Jesus and Mary, Lahore.<ref name="nytimes/27oct2017"></ref><ref name="dnaindia/15dec2013"></ref> She wanted to become a doctor, hence she enrolled in King Edward Medical College in the late 1980s; however, after a controversy over illegal admission arose, she had to leave the college without completing her degree.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In 1992, she married Safdar Awan<ref name="tribune/17jan2017"></ref> at the age of 19 and assumed her husband's surname as "Mariam Safdar". Awan was serving as captain in the Pakistan Army at that time and was the security officer of Nawaz Sharif during the latter's tenure as Prime Minister of Pakistan. She has three children with Safdar Awan: One son, Junaid, and two daughters, Mahnoor and Mehr-un-Nisa.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In 2015, on the invitation of Nawaz Sharif, Narendra Modi attended the wedding of Maryam's daughter in Pakistan.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: She completed undergraduate studies from the University of Punjab, from where she received a master's degree in literature. In 2012, she was doing her Ph.D. degree on post-9/11 radicalization in Pakistan.<ref name="newsweekpakistan/23mar2012"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In 2014, her degrees in M.A. (English Literature) and Ph.D. in Political Science were questioned by the Lahore High Court.<ref name="dawn1/12nov2014"></ref> It was unclear whether her Ph.D. degree was earned or honorary.<ref name="dawn/12nov2014"></ref> In 2018, she only declared her master's degree in English Literature while submitting records to the Election Commission of Pakistan.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: Following the 1999 Pakistani coup d'état, she remained under house arrest for four months before being sent to exile in Saudi Arabia together with the members of the Sharif family.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: Prior to entering politics, she remained involved in the family's philanthropic organisation<ref name="tribune/22march2017"></ref> and served as the chairperson of Sharif Trust, Sharif Medical City, and Sharif Education Institutes.<ref name="tribune/22nov2013"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In November 2011, Nawaz Sharif granted her permission to enter politics after she expressed her intention to do so. During her political debut, she began visiting educational institutes to give speeches on education and women's rights.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In January 2012, she tweeted "I'm only assisting Nawaz Sharif to monitor their cyber cell. No intentions of getting into electoral or practical politics".<ref name="herald/24july2018"></ref> She was put in charge of Nawaz Sharif's election campaign during the 2013 Pakistani general election where she reportedly played a prominent role.<ref name="bbc/21march2017"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: She was regarded as "heir apparent" of Nawaz Sharif and the "presumed future leader" of the PML-N.<ref name="ibtimes/27aug2012"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In November 2013, she was appointed the chairperson of the Prime Minister's Youth Programme. However, her appointment was called into question by the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) which termed the appointment a case of nepotism and moved the Lahore High Court in October 2014. PTI also accused her of misusing government funds for her own image-building.<ref name="dawn/13nov2014"></ref> On 12 November 2014, the Lahore High Court ordered the federal government to remove her. The next day, Maryam resigned from the post of the chairpersonship.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In March 2017, she was selected as one of the BBC's 100 Women. In December 2017, she was featured on "The New York Times" list of 11 Powerful Women Around the World for the year 2017.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: She became politically active in 2017 after her father Nawaz Sharif was disqualified and convicted by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in relation to the Panama Papers case and money laundering through having an employment in UAE. She campaigned for her mother, Kulsoom Nawaz, during the by-elections in Constituency NA-120.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In June 2018, she was allocated a PML-N ticket to contest the 2018 general election from Constituency NA-127 (Lahore-V) and PP-173. In July, she was sentenced to 7 years' jail on corruption charges in Avenfield reference filed by the National Accountability Bureau. As a result, she was disqualified from contesting elections for 10 years. Following which PML-N nominated Ali Pervaiz and Malik Irfan Shafi Khokhar to contest the 2018 elections in constituency NA-127 and PP-173, respectively.<ref name="dawn/7july2018"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: On 8 August 2019, she was arrested by the National Accountability Bureau Lahore over the Chaudhry Sugar Mills corruption charges. In November 2019, she was released on bail by the Lahore High Court over the Chaudhry Sugar Mills Corruption charges.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: On 3 April 2016, the Panama Papers were leaked and Maryam was named in it along with her two brothers, Hussain Nawaz and Hassan Nawaz. According to records uncovered by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ), Maryam was described as the owner of the British Virgin Islands-based firms Nielsen Enterprises Limited and Nescoll Limited, and allegedly the owner of the properties in the United Kingdom owned jointly by her brothers. In reaction, Maryam denied owning any company or property outside Pakistan and said, "My brother has made me a trustee in one of his corporations which only entitles me to distribute assets to my brother Hussain's family/children if needed".


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In September 2016, the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) filed a petition in the Supreme Court of Pakistan asking for action against Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and his family members for their alleged involvement in the Panama Papers scandal. In January 2017, Maryam submitted her statement to the Supreme Court saying she has not been dependent on her father Nawaz Sharif since her marriage in 1992. On 16 February 2017, the lawyer of Maryam admitted before the Supreme Court that Maryam owned four flats in London for at least six months in 2006. On 20 April, the Supreme Court announced a split verdict and ordered the formation of the joint investigation team (JIT) to investigate the Sharif family's assets for irregularities. On 10 July, the JIT submitted its report to the Supreme Court in which it maintained that the Sharif family has assets beyond known sources of income. In its report, the JIT noted that Maryam misled the Supreme Court by presenting fake documents and stated that the Calibri font used on the declaration dated 2006 produced by Maryam was not commercially available before January 31, 2007. The scandal was widely referred to as "Fontgate".


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: The Supreme Court announced its decision on 28 July 2017 and disqualified Nawaz Sharif from holding public office as he had been dishonest in not disclosing his employment in the Dubai-based Capital FZE company in his nomination papers. The court also ordered the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) to file a reference against Sharif and his family members against corruption charges.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In September 2017, the NAB filed three corruption references against Nawaz Sharif and his three children including Maryam in compliance with the Supreme Court verdict in the Panama Papers case. In October, an accountability court indicted Maryam, Nawaz Sharif, and Maryam's husband in the Avenfield reference—one of three corruption references filed by the NAB—which pertains to the ownership of the Sharif family's four flats at Avenfield, an apartment on Park Lane in London. After conducting 107 hearings of the Avenfield case since September 2017, the accountability court reserved its verdict in the case on 3 July 2018.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: On 6 July 2018, she was sentenced to seven years in jail and two million pounds by the NAB on corruption charges in the Avenfield reference case. She was given seven years for abetment and one year for non-cooperation with the NAB. Both sentences will run concurrently. As a result, she was disqualified from contesting in elections for 10 years. The court held that the trust deeds presented by Maryam before the apex court were fake and had been tampered with. Her father, Nawaz Sharif, and her husband were also sentenced to ten years and one year in prison, respectively. The court also ordered the seizure of the Avenfield flats of the Sharif family.<ref name="geo/6july2018"></ref>


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: The next day, Maryam announced that she would return to Pakistan on 13 July to file an appeal against the decision. The same day, the NAB announced their intention to arrest her and Nawaz Sharif upon their arrival in Pakistan and obtained the required arrest warrant. She, along with Nawaz Sharif, was taken into custody by the NAB on 13 July upon their arrival at Lahore's Allama Iqbal International Airport and were airlifted to Rawalpindi's Adyala jail. On 26 July, she challenged her sentence in the Islamabad High Court and filed a petition for bail. The next day, the Islamabad High Court rejected her request for release on bail and adjourned the hearing until the end of the 2018 Pakistani general election. During her time in detention, she spent significant amounts of time reading books.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: On 21 August 2018, the Imran Khan-led federal government placed her on the Exit Control List in order to prevent her from leaving Pakistan. On 11 September, her mother, Kulsoom Nawaz, died in London. Maryam along with her father and husband were released from Adyala jail on parole. They were flown to Lahore to attend the funeral of her mother. Reportedly, Maryam and her father initially refused to be released on parole. The funeral of Kulsoom Nawaz was held on 14 September 2018. On 17 September, Maryam, together with her father and husband, was shifted to Adiala jail.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: On 19 September 2018, the Islamabad High Court announced its verdict on the bail petition and suspended the prison sentences against Maryam, her father, and her husband, and ordered their release on bail. The court ordered them to pay Rs 500,000 each as surety bonds before their release. They were released from the Adiala jail the same day and were flown to Lahore.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In 2011 on a TV show with Pakistani Anchor Sana Bucha, Maryam said she owned no properties in central London let alone in Pakistan. It was later revealed in 2017 by a Joint Investigation Team that "she was the beneficiary of the London flats and she purposely never declared the ownership of these overseas properties, submitted fake documents, and misled the Supreme Court of Pakistan".


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: In 2018 in her affidavit to the Election Commission of Pakistan, Maryam declared her assets to be worth . She owns 1,506 Kanals (188 acres) of agricultural land and has invested millions into companies.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: Throughout the years, multiple audios of Maryam Nawaz have been leaked. Most recently on 24 September 2022, an audio was leaked where her uncle, who is the current Prime Minister of Pakistan, Shahbaz Sharif can be heard speaking to an unidentified man. In the audio the unidentified man is telling Maryam's uncle, Shahbaz Sharif, that Maryam is asking for a power plant from India to be imported for her son-in-law's business. Shahbaz Sharif then tells the unidentified man about the issues of importing a plant from India because it would be used against his government by the Former Prime Minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: A corruption conviction against Maryam, and her husband Muhammad Safdar has been reversed by an Islamabad High Court on 29 September 2022. Maryam Nawaz, the daughter of three-time former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, is now qualified to run for office following the Court's acquittal.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: For assisting and aiding her father in the purchase of London flats that were acquired via dishonest means, Maryam had been given a seven-year prison sentence in July 2018. Safdar had also received a one-year sentence. Despite receiving a 10-year prison term for himself, Nawaz Sharif was granted bail in 2019 so he could travel to the United Kingdom for medical care. He hasn't been back since.


title: Maryam Nawaz

text: Maryam Nawaz, who was also granted bail in 2019, appealed the accountability court's 2018 decision before the Islamabad High Court in October of last year. After the decision on 29 September 2022, Maryam addressed the media and said that her father had endured more persecution than any other leader in the history of the nation.


title: ContraPoints

text: Natalie Wynn (born October 21, 1988) is an American YouTuber, political commentator, and cultural critic. She is best known for her YouTube channel, ContraPoints, where she creates video essays exploring a wide range of topics such as politics, gender, ethics, race, and philosophy.


title: ContraPoints

text: Her videos often provide counterargument to right-wing extremists and classical liberals and talk about modern social issues such as class inequality, LGBTQ rights (particularly trans rights), cancel culture, and modern internet culture. Her videos have received widespread media coverage for their intricately designed sets and costumes and for their darkly humorous tone, which has led "The Verge" to call her "the Oscar Wilde of YouTube"."" In recognition of her videos, Wynn won a Streamy Award for "Commentary" in 2020, and was nominated in the same category at the 2021 Streamy Awards.


title: ContraPoints

text: Wynn was born on October 21, 1988, in Arlington, Virginia, and raised in the same state. Her father is a psychology professor and her mother is a doctor. After studying piano at Berklee College of Music, she attended Georgetown University and studied philosophy, then enrolled at Northwestern University to pursue a PhD in philosophy, also serving as an instructor. She left Northwestern with a master's degree, saying, "The idea of being an academic for the rest of my life became boring to the point of existential despair," and moved to Baltimore, Maryland for a relationship, which ended up failing. After quitting her PhD program, Wynn taught piano, and worked as a paralegal, Uber driver, copywriter, and would-be novelist, eventually deciding to begin making video responses to the alt-right and Gamergate on YouTube.


title: ContraPoints

text: Wynn started publishing YouTube videos in 2008, initially focusing on criticism of religion and her position as an atheist and skeptic. In 2016, she began the ContraPoints channel in reaction to the Gamergate controversy and the increasing prevalence of right-wing YouTubers, shifting her content to countering their arguments. Early ContraPoints videos also covered subjects such as race, racism, and online radicalization.


title: ContraPoints

text: In her videos, Wynn utilizes philosophy and personal anecdotes to not only explain left-wing ideas, but to also criticize common conservative, classical liberal, alt-right, and fascist talking points. Wynn's videos often have a combative but humorous tone, containing dark and surreal humor, sarcasm, and sexual themes. She often illustrates concepts by playing different characters who debate one another. The videos have been noted for her production choices such as dramatic lighting, elaborate costumes, and vibrant aesthetics. She borrows some aesthetic cues from drag performance, joking in a 2019 interview that if conservatives were going to call her a drag queen anyway, she might as well "be the most extravagant drag queen on YouTube." In a 2018 interview for "The Verge", Katherine Cross notes a significant difference between Wynn in-person and how she presents on YouTube, explaining that the YouTube channel portrays an image of being "blithe, aloof, decadent and disdainful", whereas personally Wynn "can be earnest—and she cares deeply, almost too much."


title: ContraPoints

text: The video channel is financed through the crowdfunding platform Patreon, where Wynn has been among the top 20 creators on the site. As of May 2022, Wynn had about 11,000 Patreon supporters.


title: ContraPoints

text: Wynn's videos have been praised for their clarity, nuance, and attention-grabbing sense of humor. Jake Hall, writing for "Vice", called Wynn "one of the most incisive and compelling video essayists on YouTube". In an article contrasting her personal sincerity and her ironic sense of humor, "The Verge" describes her as the "Oscar Wilde of YouTube." "New York" magazine states, "ContraPoints is very good. Regardless of the viewer's interest or lack thereof in internet culture wars, YouTube Nazis, or any of the other wide-ranging subjects covered in its videos, they're funny, bizarre, erudite, and compelling." Nathan J. Robinson of "Current Affairs" calls ContraPoints a "one-woman blitzkrieg against the YouTube right," describing her videos as "unlike anything I've ever seen ... She shows how debate should be done: not by giving an inch to poisonous ideas, but by bringing superior smarts, funnier jokes, and more elegant costumes to the fight."


title: ContraPoints

text: Media often describe the channel's content as uniquely suited to a millennial audience, due to its humorous style and its direct attention to online culture. Her analysis of fascists' use of memes and coded symbols has been cited by the Southern Poverty Law Center in an article explaining the right-wing use of the OK sign. Journalist Liza Featherstone recommends the channel as well, saying that she does a "fabulous job" acknowledging her opponents' valid points while debunking weak arguments and revealing the influence of a sometimes unacknowledged far-right political agenda.


title: ContraPoints

text: In November 2018, after a ContraPoints video about incels reached over one million views, "The New Yorker" released a profile of the channel, describing Wynn as "one of the few Internet demi-celebrities who is as clever as she thinks she is, and one of the few leftists anywhere who can be nuanced without being boring." "The Atlantic" praised Wynn's use of "lush sets, moody lighting, and original music by the composer Zoë Blade" and opined of her videos that "The most spectacular attraction [...] is Wynn herself." "Polygon" named her video on incels one of the 10 best video essays of the year 2018. In May 2019, she topped the "Dazed 100" list, which ranks people who "dared to give culture a shot in the arm."


title: ContraPoints

text: In September 2019, Wynn described on Twitter feelings of awkwardness when asked in some contexts to describe her preferred gender pronouns. The tweets were criticized as dismissive of non-binary people who use pronouns other than "he/him" and "she/her". Linguistics professor Lal Zimman said about pronoun introductions, "Wynn is absolutely right that people engage with that practice in ways that can be somewhat problematic". Following constant negative harassment, Wynn deactivated her Twitter account for a week, then posted an apology. Shortly after, Wynn's video "Opulence" featured a quote from John Waters read by transsexual pornographic actor Buck Angel, whose views on transgender and non-binary people have attracted criticism, including by some who see Angel's views as being transmedicalist. She was criticized for featuring Angel, including by journalist Ana Valens. Wynn, as well as other YouTubers associated with her channel, were widely harassed.


title: ContraPoints

text: Wynn's January 2020 video "Canceling" addressed both criticism and harassment of her, and the broader context of cancel culture. It was praised by Robby Soave of "Reason". In a "Guardian" interview on her January 2021 video "J.K. Rowling", in which she addressed cancel culture again in the context of trans-exclusionary radical feminists, she expressed that she is generally not interested in canceling anyone, and said that valid criticism needs to be handed out constructively so as to educate people.


title: ContraPoints

text: Wynn is a transgender woman, a matter prominently featured in her videos; she began her gender transition in 2017. She previously identified as genderqueer. She is a feminist and has called herself a democratic socialist and social democrat. She endorsed Bernie Sanders in the 2020 Democratic presidential primaries and supports Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez. , she resides in Baltimore, Maryland. In 2020, she came out as a lesbian in her video "Shame".


title: ContraPoints

text: The following list of ContraPoints's videos includes only the ones which are still accessible on the "ContraPoints" YouTube channel. In February 2020, Wynn set all her videos from before August 2017—when she began her gender transition—to private, stating that they "no longer represent the person I've become". She posted transcripts of the majority of these older videos on her website.


title: Carnivore

text: A carnivore , or meat-eater (Latin, "caro", genitive "carnis", meaning meat or "flesh" and "vorare" meaning "to devour"), is an animal or plant whose food and energy requirements derive from animal tissues (mainly muscle, fat and other soft tissues) whether through hunting or scavenging.


title: Carnivore

text: The technical term for mammals in the order Carnivora is "carnivoran", and they are so-named because most member species in the group have a carnivorous diet, but the similarity of the name of the order and the name of the diet causes confusion.


title: Carnivore

text: Many but not all carnivorans are meat eaters; a few, such as the large and small cats (felidae) are "obligate" carnivores (see below). Other classes of carnivore are highly variable. The Ursids, for example: While the Arctic polar bear eats meat almost exclusively (more than 90% of its diet is meat), almost all other bear species are omnivorous, and one species, the giant panda, is nearly exclusively herbivorous.


title: Carnivore

text: Dietary carnivory is not a distinguishing trait of the order: Many mammals with highly carnivorous diets are "not" members of the order Carnivora. Cetaceans, for example, all eat other animals, but are paradoxically members of the almost exclusively plant-eating hooved mammals.


title: Carnivore

text: Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient requirements are called "hypercarnivores" or "obligate carnivores", while those that also consume non-animal food are called "mesocarnivores", or "facultative carnivores", or "omnivores" (there are no clear distinctions). A carnivore at the top of the food chain (adults not preyed upon by other animals) is termed an apex predator, regardless of whether it is an "obligate" or "facultative" carnivore.


title: Carnivore

text: Outside the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing carnivorous plants (predominantly insectivores) and several phyla containing carnivorous fungi (preying mostly on microscopic invertebrates, such as nematodes, amoebae, and springtails).


title: Carnivore

text: Carnivores are sometimes characterized by their type of prey. For example, animals that eat mainly insects and similar invertebrates are called "insectivores", while those that eat mainly fish are called "piscivores".


title: Carnivore

text: Carnivores may alternatively be classified according to the percentage of meat in their diet. The diet of a hypercarnivore consists of more than 70% meat, that of a mesocarnivore 30–70%, and that of a hypocarnivore less than 30%, with the balance consisting of non-animal foods, such as fruits, other plant material, or fungi.


title: Carnivore

text: Omnivores also consume both animal and non-animal food, and apart from their more general definition, there is no clearly defined ratio of plant vs. animal material that distinguishes a "facultative carnivore" from an "omnivore".


title: Carnivore

text: Obligate or "true" carnivores are those whose diet requires nutrients found only in animal flesh. While obligate carnivores might be able to ingest small amounts of plant matter, they lack the necessary physiology required to fully digest it. Some obligate carnivorous mammals will ingest vegetation as an emetic, to self-induce vomiting the food that upset its stomach.


title: Carnivore

text: Obligate carnivores are diverse. The amphibian axolotl consumes mainly worms and larvae in its environment, but if necessary will consume algae. All felids, including the domestic cat, require a diet of primarily animal flesh and organs. Specifically, cats have high protein requirements and their metabolisms appear unable to synthesize essential nutrients such as retinol, arginine, taurine, and arachidonic acid; thus, in nature, they must consume flesh to supply these nutrients.


title: Carnivore

text: Characteristics commonly associated with carnivores include strength, speed, and keen senses for hunting, as well as teeth and claws for capturing and tearing prey. However, some carnivores do not hunt and are scavengers, lacking the physical characteristics to bring down prey; in addition, most hunting carnivores will scavenge when the opportunity arises. Carnivores have comparatively short digestive systems, as they are not required to break down the tough cellulose found in plants.


title: Carnivore

text: Many hunting animals have evolved eyes facing forward, enabling depth perception. This is almost universal among mammalian predators, while most reptile and amphibian predators have eyes facing sideways.


title: Carnivore

text: "Predation" (the eating of one living creature by another for nutrition) predates the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. Indeed: It began with single-celled organisms, before multicellular creatures, and so carnivory predates the clear distinction between plants and animals (herbivory / carnivory).


title: Carnivore

text: The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the earliest fossil record is the poorest, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7 Gya (billion years ago).


title: Carnivore

text: The rise of eukaryotic cells at around 2.7 Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2 Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600 Mya – 2 Gya, probably around 1 Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior, and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to small predator species.


title: Carnivore

text: Among more familiar species, the first vertebrate carnivores were fish, and then amphibians that moved on to land. Early tetrapods were large amphibious piscivores.


title: Carnivore

text: The first tetrapods, or land-dwelling vertebrates, were piscivorous amphibians called "labyrinthodonts". They gave rise to insectivorous vertebrates and, later, to predators of other tetrapods.


title: Carnivore

text: Some scientists assert that "Dimetrodon" "was the first terrestrial vertebrate to develop the curved, serrated teeth that enable a predator to eat prey much larger than itself." While amphibians continued to feed on fish and later insects, reptiles began exploring two new food types: tetrapods (carnivory) and then plants (herbivory). Carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation; in contrast, a complex set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials.


title: Carnivore

text: In the Mesozoic, some theropod dinosaurs such as "Tyrannosaurus rex" are thought probably to have been obligate carnivores.


title: Carnivore

text: Though the theropods were the larger carnivores, several carnivorous mammal groups were already present. Most notable are the gobiconodontids, the triconodontid "Jugulator", the deltatheroideans and "Cimolestes". Many of these, such as "Repenomamus", "Jugulator" and "Cimolestes", were among the largest mammals in their faunal assemblages, capable of attacking dinosaurs.


title: Carnivore

text: In the early-to-mid-Cenozoic, the dominant predator forms were mammals: hyaenodonts, oxyaenids, entelodonts, ptolemaiidans, arctocyonids and mesonychians, representing a great diversity of eutherian carnivores in the northern continents and Africa. In South America, sparassodonts were dominant, while Australia saw the presence of several marsupial predators, such as the dasyuromorphs and thylacoleonids. From the Miocene to the present, the dominant carnivorous mammals have been carnivoramorphs.


title: Carnivore

text: Most carnivorous mammals, from dogs to "deltatheridiums", share several dental adaptations, such as carnassialiforme teeth, long canines and even similar tooth replacement patterns. Most aberrant are thylacoleonids, with a diprodontan dentition completely unlike that of any other mammal; and eutriconodonts like gobioconodontids and "Jugulator", with a three-cusp anatomy which nevertheless functioned similarly to carnassials.


title: Trie

text: In computer science, a trie, also called digital tree or prefix tree, is a type of "k"-ary search tree, a tree data structure used for locating specific keys from within a set. These keys are most often strings, with links between nodes defined not by the entire key, but by individual characters. In order to access a key (to recover its value, change it, or remove it), the trie is traversed depth-first, following the links between nodes, which represent each character in the key.


title: Trie

text: Unlike a binary search tree, nodes in the trie do not store their associated key. Instead, a node's position in the trie defines the key with which it is associated. This distributes the value of each key across the data structure, and means that not every node necessarily has an associated value.


title: Trie

text: All the children of a node have a common prefix of the string associated with that parent node, and the root is associated with the empty string. This task of storing data accessible by its prefix can be accomplished in a memory-optimized way by employing a radix tree.


title: Trie

text: Though tries can be keyed by character strings, they need not be. The same algorithms can be adapted for ordered lists of any underlying type, e.g. permutations of digits or shapes. In particular, a bitwise trie is keyed on the individual bits making up a piece of fixed-length binary data, such as an integer or memory address. The key lookup complexity of a trie remains proportional to the key size. Specialized trie implementations such as compressed tries are used to deal with the enormous space requirement of a trie in naive implementations.


title: Trie

text: The idea of a trie for representing a set of strings was first abstractly described by Axel Thue in 1912. Tries were first described in a computer context by René de la Briandais in 1959.


title: Trie

text: The idea was independently described in 1960 by Edward Fredkin, who coined the term "trie", pronouncing it (as "tree"), after the middle syllable of "retrieval". However, other authors pronounce it (as "try"), in an attempt to distinguish it verbally from "tree".


title: Trie

text: Tries are a form of string-indexed look-up data structure, which is used to store a dictionary list of words that can be searched on in a manner that allows for efficient generation of completion lists. A prefix trie is an ordered tree data structure used in the representation of a set of strings over a finite alphabet set, which allows efficient storage of words with common prefixes.


title: Trie

text: Tries can be efficacious on string-searching algorithms such as predictive text, approximate string matching, and spell checking in comparison to a binary search trees. A trie can be seen as a tree-shaped deterministic finite automaton.


title: Trie

text: Tries support various operations: insertion, deletion, and lookup of a string key. Tries are composed of formula_1 that contain "links" that are either references to other child suffix child nodes, or formula_2 . Except for "root", each node is pointed to by just one other node, called the "parent". Each node contains formula_3 links, where formula_3 is the cardinality of the set of alphabets, although tries have a substantial number of formula_2 links. In most cases, the size of formula_6 array is bitlength of the character encoding - 256 in the case of (unsigned) ASCII.


title: Trie

text: A basic structure type of nodes in the trie is as follows; formula_9 may contain an optional formula_11, which is associated with each key stored in the last character of string, or terminal node.


title: Trie

text: Searching a formula_11 in a trie is guided by the characters in the search string key, as each node in the trie contains a corresponding link to each possible character in the given string. Thus, following the string within the trie yields the associated formula_11 for the given string key. A formula_2 link within search execution indicates the inexistence of the key.


title: Trie

text: Following pseudocode implements the search procedure for a given string key (formula_15) in a rooted trie (formula_16).


title: Trie

text: In the above pseudocode, formula_16 and formula_15 correspond to the pointer of trie's root node and the string key respectively. The search operation, in a standard trie, takes formula_19, formula_20 is the size of the string parameter formula_15, and formula_22 corresponds to the alphabet size. Binary search trees, on the other hand, take formula_23 on the worst case, since the search depends on the height of the tree (formula_24) of the BST (in case of balanced trees), where formula_25 and formula_20 being number of keys and the length of the keys.


title: Trie

text: Tries occupy less space in comparison with BST if it encompasses a large number of short strings, since nodes share common initial string subsequences and stores the keys implicitly on the structure. The terminal node of the tree contains a non-nil formula_11, and it is a "search hit" if the associated value is found in the trie, and "search miss" if it isn't.


title: Trie

text: Insertion into trie is guided by using the character sets as the indexes into the formula_6 array until last character of the string key is reached. Each node in the trie corresponds to one call of the radix sorting routine, as the trie structure reflects the execution of patten of the top-down radix sort.


title: Trie

text: If a formula_2 link is encountered prior to reaching the last character of the string key, a new formula_9 is created, such along lines 3-5. formula_31 gets assigned to input formula_32; if formula_31 wasn't formula_2 at the time of insertion, the value associated with the given string key gets substituted with the current one.


title: Trie

text: Deletion of a key–value pair from a trie involves finding the terminal node with the corresponding string key, marking the terminal indicator and value to "false" and formula_2 correspondingly.


title: Trie

text: Following is a recursive procedure for removing a string key (formula_15) from rooted trie (formula_16).


title: Trie

text: The procedures begins by examining the formula_15; formula_2 denotes the arrival of a terminal node or end of string key. If terminal and if it has no children, the node gets removed from the trie (line 14 assign the character index to formula_2). However, an end of string key without the node being terminal indicates that the key does not exist, thus the procedure does not modify the trie. The recursion proceeds by incrementing formula_15's index.


title: Trie

text: However, tries are less efficient than a hash table when the data is directly accessed on a secondary storage device such as a hard disk drive that has higher random access time than the main memory. Tries are also disadvantageous when the key value cannot be easily represented as string, such as floating point numbers where multiple representations are possible (e.g. 1 is equivalent to 1.0, +1.0, 1.00, etc.), however it can be unambiguously represented as a binary number in IEEE 754, in comparison to two's complement format.


title: Trie

text: Tries can be represented in several ways, corresponding to different trade-offs between memory use and speed of the operations. Using a vector of pointers for representing a trie consumes enormous space; however, memory space can be reduced at the expense of running time if a singly linked list is used for each node vector, as most entries of the vector contains formula_2.


title: Trie

text: Techniques such as "alphabet reduction" may alleviate the high space complexity by reinterpreting the original string as a long string over a smaller alphabet i.e. a string of bytes can alternatively be regarded as a string of four-bit units and stored in a trie with sixteen pointers per node. However, lookups need to visit twice as many nodes in the worst-case, although space requirements go down by a factor of eight. Other techniques include storing a vector of 256 ASCII pointers as a bitmap of 256 bits representing ASCII alphabet, which reduces the size of individual nodes dramatically.


title: Trie

text: Bitwise tries are used to address the enormous space requirement for the trie nodes in a naive simple pointer vector implementations. Each character in the string key set is represented via individual bits, which are used to traverse the trie over a string key. The implementations for these types of trie use vectorized CPU instructions to find the first set bit in a fixed-length key input (e.g. GCC's codice_1 intrinsic function). Accordingly, the set bit is used to index the first item, or child node, in the 32- or 64-entry based bitwise tree. Search then proceeds by testing each subsequent bit in the key.


title: Trie

text: This procedure is also cache-local and highly parallelizable due to register independency, and thus performant on out-of-order execution CPUs.


title: Trie

text: Radix tree, also known as a compressed trie, is a space-optimized variant of a trie in which nodes with only one child get merged with its parents; elimination of branches of the nodes with a single child results in better in both space and time metrics. This works best under the following conditions where the trie remains static and set of keys stored are very sparse within their representation space.


title: Trie

text: One more approach is to "pack" the trie, in which a space-efficient implementation of a sparse packed trie applied to automatic hyphenation, in which the descendants of each node may be interleaved in memory.


title: Trie

text: Patricia trees are a particular implementation of compressed binary trie that utilize binary encoding of the string keys in its representation. Every node in a Patricia tree contains an index, known as a "skip number", that stores the node's branching index to avoid empty subtrees during traversal. A naive implementation of a trie consumes immense storage due to larger number of leaf-nodes caused by sparse distribution of keys; Patricia trees can be efficient for such cases.


title: Trie

text: A representation of a Patricia tree with string keys formula_47 is shown in figure 4, and each index value adjacent to the nodes represents the "skip number" - the index of the bit with which branching is to be decided. The skip number 1 at node 0 corresponds to the position 1 in the binary encoded ASCII where the leftmost bit differed in the key set formula_48. The skip number is crucial for search, insertion, and deletion of nodes in the Patricia tree, and a bit masking operation is performed during every iteration.


title: Trie

text: Trie data structures are commonly used in predictive text or autocomplete dictionaries, and approximate matching algorithms. Tries enable faster searches, occupy less space, especially when the set contains large number of short strings, thus used in spell checking, hyphenation applications and longest prefix match algorithms. However, if storing dictionary words is all that is required (i.e. there is no need to store metadata associated with each word), a minimal deterministic acyclic finite state automaton (DAFSA) or radix tree would use less storage space than a trie. This is because DAFSAs and radix trees can compress identical branches from the trie which correspond to the same suffixes (or parts) of different words being stored. String dictionaries are also utilized in natural language processing, such as finding lexicon of a text corpus.


title: Trie

text: Lexicographic sorting of a set of string keys can be implemented by building a trie for the given keys and traversing the tree in pre-order fashion; this is also a form of radix sort. Tries are also fundamental data structures for burstsort, which is notable for being the fastest string sorting algorithm as of 2007, accompanied for its efficient use of CPU cache.


title: Trie

text: A special kind of trie, called a suffix tree, can be used to index all suffixes in a text to carry out fast full-text searches.


title: Trie

text: A specialized kind of trie called a compressed trie, is used in web search engines for storing the indexes - a collection of all searchable words. Each terminal node is associated with a list of URLs—called occurrence list—to pages that match the keyword. The trie is stored in the main memory, whereas the occurrence is kept in an external storage, frequently in large clusters, or the in-memory index points to documents stored in an external location.


title: Trie

text: Tries are used in Bioinformatics, notably in sequence alignment software applications such as BLAST, which indexes all the different substring of length "k" (called k-mers) of a text by storing the positions of their occurrences in a compressed trie sequence databases.


title: Trie

text: Compressed variants of tries, such as databases for managing Forwarding Information Base (FIB), are used in storing IP address prefixes within routers and bridges for prefix-based lookup to resolve mask-based operations in IP routing.


title: Namco

text: Namco was founded by Masaya Nakamura on June 1, 1955, as beginning as an operator of coin-operated amusement rides. After reorganizing to Nakamura Seisakusho Co., Ltd. in 1959, a partnership with Walt Disney Productions provided the company with the resources to expand its operations. In the 1960s, it manufactured electro-mechanical arcade games such as the 1965 hit "Periscope". It entered the video game industry after acquiring the struggling Japanese division of Atari in 1974, distributing games such as "Breakout" in Japan. The company renamed itself Namco in 1977 and published "Gee Bee", its first original video game, a year later. Among Namco's first major hits was the fixed shooter "Galaxian" in 1979. It was followed by "Pac-Man" in 1980, the best-selling arcade game of all time. Namco prospered during the golden age of arcade video games in the early 1980s, releasing popular titles such as "Galaga", "Xevious", and "Pole Position".


title: Namco

text: Namco entered the home console market in 1984 with conversions of its arcade games for the MSX and the Nintendo Family Computer. Its American division majority-acquired Atari Games in 1985, before selling a portion of it in 1987 following disagreements between the two companies. Arguments over licensing contracts with Nintendo led Namco to produce games for competing platforms, such as the Sega Genesis, TurboGrafx-16, and PlayStation.


title: Namco

text: Namco continued to produce hit games in the 1990s, including "Ridge Racer", "Tekken", and "Taiko no Tatsujin". Namco endured numerous financial difficulties in the late 1990s and 2000s as a result of the struggling Japanese economy and diminishing arcade market. In 2005, Namco merged with Bandai to form Namco Bandai Holdings, a Japanese entertainment conglomerate. It continued producing games until it was merged into Namco Bandai Games in 2006.