title: Padua

text: Padua appears twice in the UNESCO World Heritage List: for its Botanical Garden, the most ancient of the world, and the 14th-century Frescoes, situated in different buildings of the city centre. (An example is the Scrovegni Chapel painted by Giotto at the beginning of 1300.)


title: Padua

text: The city is picturesque, with a dense network of arcaded streets opening into large communal "piazze", and many bridges crossing the various branches of the Bacchiglione, which once surrounded the ancient walls like a moat.


title: Padua

text: Saint Anthony, the patron saint of the city, was a Portuguese Franciscan who spent part of his life in the city and died there in 1231.


title: Padua

text: The city hosts the famous University of Padua, which was founded in 1222 when a group of students and professors decided to leave the University of Bologna to have more freedom of expression. At the University of Padua, Galileo Galilei was a lecturer between 1592 and 1610.


title: Padua

text: Padua is the setting for most of the action in Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew". There is a play by the Irish writer Oscar Wilde entitled "The Duchess of Padua".


title: Padua

text: It is also known as ""the city of the three withouts"" by its inhabitants as it homes the "Cafe without doors" (Pedrocchi Café, as it never closed in the past), "the meadow without grass" (Prato della Valle, in ancient time a bog, now one of the biggest squares in Europe) and the "Saint without a name" (referred to St. Anthony's Church, called by the Paduani simply "the Saint")


title: Padua

text: The original significance of the Roman name "Patavium" () is uncertain. It may be connected with "Padus", the ancient name of the River Po. Additionally, the Indo-European root "pat-" may refer to a wide open plain as opposed to nearby hills. (In Latin this root is present in the word "patera" which means "plate" and the verb "patere" meaning "to open".) The suffix "-av" (also found in names of rivers such as "Timavus" and "Tiliaventum") is likely of Venetic origin, precisely indicating the presence of a river, which in the case of Padua is the Brenta. The ending "-ium" signifies the presence of villages that have united themselves together.


title: Padua

text: According to another theory, "Patavium" probably derives from Gaulish "padi" which means "pine," in reference to the pine forests thereabouts.


title: Padua

text: Padua claims to be among the oldest cities in northern Italy. According to a tradition dated at least to the time of Virgil's "Aeneid" and to Livy's "Ab Urbe Condita", Padua was founded around 1183 BC by the Trojan prince Antenor.


title: Padua

text: After the Fall of Troy, Antenor led a group of Trojans and their Paphlagonian allies, the Eneti or Veneti, who lost their king Pylaemenes to settle the Euganean plain in Italy. Thus, when a large ancient stone sarcophagus was exhumed in the year 1274, officials of the medieval commune declared the remains within to be those of Antenor. An inscription by the native humanist scholar Lovato Lovati placed near the tomb reads:


title: Padua

text: Nevertheless, archeological remains confirm an early date for the foundation of the center of the town to between the 11th and 10th centuries B.C. By the 5th century BC, Padua, rose on the banks of the river Brenta, which in the Roman era was called "Medoacus Maior" and probably until AD 589 followed the path of the present-day Bacchiglione ("Retrone"). Padua was one of the principal centers of the Veneti.


title: Padua

text: The Roman historian Livy records an attempted invasion by the Spartan king Cleonimos around 302 BC. The Spartans came up the river but were defeated by the Veneti in a naval battle and gave up the idea of conquest. Still, later, the Veneti of Padua successfully repulsed invasions by the Etruscans and Gauls. According to Livy and Silius Italicus, the Veneti, including those of Padua, formed an alliance with the Romans by 226 BC against their common enemies, first the Gauls and then the Carthaginians. Men from Padua fought and died beside the Romans at Cannae.


title: Padua

text: With Rome's northwards expansion, Padua was gradually assimilated into the Roman Republic. In 175 BC, Padua requested the aid of Rome in putting down a local civil war. In 91 BC, Padua, along with other cities of the Veneti, fought with Rome against the rebels in the Social War. Around 49 (or 45 or 43) BC, Padua was made a Roman "municipium" under the "Lex Julia Municipalis" and its citizens ascribed to the Roman tribe, "Fabia". At that time the population of the city was perhaps 40,000. The city was reputed for its excellent breed of horses and the wool of its sheep. In fact, the poet Martial remarks on the thickness of the tunics made there. By the end of the first century BC, Padua seems to have been the wealthiest city in Italy outside of Rome.


title: Padua

text: The city became so powerful that it was reportedly able to raise two hundred thousand fighting men. However, despite its wealth, the city was also renowned for its simple manners and strict morality. This concern with morality is reflected in Livy's "Roman History" (XLIII.13.2) wherein he portrays Rome's rise to dominance as being founded upon her moral rectitude and discipline. Still later, Pliny, referring to one of his Paduan protégés' Paduan grandmother, Sarrana Procula, lauds her as more upright and disciplined than any of her strict fellow citizens (Epist. i.xiv.6). Padua also provided the Empire with notable intellectuals. Nearby Abano was the birthplace, and after many years spent in Rome, the death place of Livy, whose Latin was said by the critic Asinius Pollio to betray his "Patavinitas" (q.v. Quintilian, "Inst. Or." viii.i.3).


title: Padua

text: Christianity was introduced in Padua and in most of the Veneto region by Saint Prosdocimus. He is venerated as the first bishop of the city. His deacon, the Jewish convert Daniel, is also a saintly patron of the city.


title: Padua

text: The history of Padua during Late Antiquity follows the course of events common to most cities of north-eastern Italy. Padua suffered from the invasion of the Huns and was savagely sacked by Attila in 450. A number of years afterward, it fell under the control of the Gothic kings Odoacer and Theodoric the Great. It was reconquered for a short time by the Byzantine Empire in 540 during the Gothic War. However, depopulation from plague and war ensued. The city was again seized by the Goths under Totila, but was restored to the Eastern Empire by Narses only to fall under the control of the Lombards in 568. During these years, many Paduans sought safety in the countryside and especially in the nearby lagoons of what would become Venice.


title: Padua

text: In 601, the city rose in revolt against Agilulf, the Lombard king who put the city under siege. After enduring a 12-year-long bloody siege, the Lombards stormed and burned the city. Many ancient artifacts and buildings were seriously damaged. The remains of an amphitheater (the "Arena") and some bridge foundations are all that remain of Roman Padua today. The townspeople fled to the hills and later returned to eke out a living among the ruins; the ruling class abandoned the city for the Venetian Lagoon, according to a chronicle. The city did not easily recover from this blow, and Padua was still weak when the Franks succeeded the Lombards as masters of northern Italy.


title: Padua

text: At the Diet of Aix-la-Chapelle (828), the duchy and march of Friuli, in which Padua lay, was divided into four counties, one of which took its title from the city of Padua.


title: Padua

text: The end of the early Middle Ages in Padua was marked by the sack of the city by the Magyars in 899. It was many years before Padua recovered from this ravage.


title: Padua

text: During the period of episcopal supremacy over the cities of northern Italy, Padua does not appear to have been either very important or very active. The general tendency of its policy throughout the war of investitures was Imperial (Ghibelline) and not Roman (Guelph); and its bishops were, for the most part, of Germanic extraction.


title: Padua

text: Under the surface, several important movements were taking place that were to prove formative for the later development of Padua.


title: Padua

text: At the beginning of the 11th century, the citizens established a constitution, composed of a general council or legislative assembly and a "credenza" or executive body.


title: Padua

text: During the next century, they were engaged in wars with Venice and Vicenza for the right of water-way on the Bacchiglione and the Brenta. The city grew in power and self-confidence and in 1138, the government was entrusted to two consuls.


title: Padua

text: The great families of Camposampiero, Este and Da Romano began to emerge and to divide the Paduan district among themselves. The citizens, in order to protect their liberties, were obliged to elect a podestà in 1178. Their choice first fell on one of the Este family.


title: Padua

text: The temporary success of the Lombard League helped to strengthen the towns. However, their civic jealousy soon reduced them to weakness again. In 1214–1216, Padua was involved in a conflict with Venice, which it lost. In 1236 Frederick II found little difficulty in establishing his vicar Ezzelino III da Romano in Padua and the neighbouring cities, where he practised frightful cruelties on the inhabitants. Ezzelino was unseated in June 1256 without civilian bloodshed, thanks to Pope Alexander IV.


title: Padua

text: Padua then enjoyed a period of calm and prosperity: the basilica of the saint was begun; and the Paduans became masters of Vicenza. The University of Padua (the second university in Italy, after Bologna) was founded in 1222, and as it flourished in the 13th century, Padua outpaced Bologna, where no effort had been made to expand the revival of classical precedents beyond the field of jurisprudence, to become a center of early humanist researches, with first-hand knowledge of Roman poets that was unrivalled in Italy or beyond the Alps.


title: Padua

text: However, the advances of Padua in the 13th century finally brought the commune into conflict with Can Grande della Scala, lord of Verona. In 1311 Padua had to yield to the Scaligeri of Verona.


title: Padua

text: Jacopo da Carrara was elected lord ("signore") of Padua in 1318, at that point the city was home to 40,000 people. From then till 1405, nine members of the Carraresi family, including Ubertino, Jacopo II, and Francesco il Vecchio, succeeded one another as lords of the city, with the exception of a brief period of Scaligeri overlordship between 1328 and 1337 and two years (1388–1390) when Giangaleazzo Visconti held the town. The period of the "signoria" is covered down to 1358 in the chronicle of Guglielmo Cortusi.


title: Padua

text: The Carraresi period was a long period of restlessness, for the Carraresi were constantly at war. Under Carraresi rule the early humanist circles in the university were effectively disbanded: Albertino Mussato, the first modern poet laureate, died in exile at Chioggia in 1329, and the eventual heir of the Paduan tradition was the Tuscan Petrarch.


title: Padua

text: In 1387 John Hawkwood won the Battle of Castagnaro for Padua, against Giovanni Ordelaffi, for Verona. The Carraresi period finally came to an end as the power of the Visconti and of Venice grew in importance.


title: Padua

text: Padua came under the rule of the Republic of Venice in 1405, and mostly remained that way until the fall of the republic in 1797.


title: Padua

text: There was just a brief period when the city changed hands (in 1509) during the wars of the League of Cambrai. On 10 December 1508, representatives of the Papacy, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Ferdinand V of Castile concluded the League of Cambrai against the Republic. The agreement provided for the complete dismemberment of Venice's territory in Italy and for its partition among the signatories: Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I of the House of Habsburg was to receive Padua in addition to Verona and other territories. In 1509 Padua was held for just a few weeks by Imperial supporters. Venetian troops quickly recovered it and successfully defended Padua during its siege by Imperial troops.


title: Padua

text: The city was governed by two Venetian nobles, a podestà for civil affairs and a captain for military affairs. Both of them were elected for sixteen months. Under these governors, the great and small councils continued to discharge municipal business and to administer the Paduan law, contained in the statutes of 1276 and 1362. The treasury was managed by two chamberlains; and every five years the Paduans sent one of their nobles to reside as nuncio in Venice, and to watch the interests of his native town.


title: Padua

text: Venice fortified Padua with new walls, built between 1507 and 1544, with a series of monumental gates.


title: Padua

text: In 1797 the Venetian Republic came to an end with the Treaty of Campo Formio, and Padua, like much of the Veneto region, was ceded to the Habsburgs. In 1806 the city passed to the French puppet Kingdom of Italy until the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, when the city became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, part of the Austrian Empire.


title: Padua

text: Austrian rule was unpopular with progressive circles in northern Italy, but the feelings of the population (from the lower to the upper classes) towards the empire were mixed. In Padua, the year of revolutions of 1848 saw a student revolt which on 8 February turned the University and the Caffè Pedrocchi into battlegrounds in which students and ordinary Paduans fought side by side. The revolt was however short-lived, and there were no other episodes of unrest under the Austrian Empire (nor previously had there been any), as in Venice or in other parts of Italy; while opponents of Austria were forced into exile.


title: Padua

text: Under Austrian rule, Padua began its industrial development; one of the first Italian rail tracks, Padua-Venice, was built in 1845.


title: Padua

text: In 1866 the Battle of Königgrätz gave Italy the opportunity, as an ally of Prussia, to take Veneto, and Padua was also annexed to the recently formed Kingdom of Italy.


title: Padua

text: Annexed to Italy during 1866, Padua was at the centre of the poorest area of Northern Italy, as Veneto was until the 1960s. Despite this, the city flourished in the following decades both economically and socially, developing its industry, being an important agricultural market and having a very important cultural and technological centre like the University. The city hosted also a major military command and many regiments.


title: Padua

text: When Italy entered World War I on 24 May 1915, Padua was chosen as the main command of the Italian Army. The king, Vittorio Emanuele III, and the commander in chief, Cadorna, went to live in Padua for the period of the war. After the defeat of Italy in the battle of Caporetto in autumn 1917, the front line was situated on the river Piave. This was just from Padua, and the city was now in range of the Austrian artillery. However, the Italian military command did not withdraw. The city was bombed several times (about 100 civilian deaths). A memorable feat was Gabriele D'Annunzio's flight to Vienna from the nearby San Pelagio Castle air field.


title: Padua

text: A year later, the threat to Padua was removed. In late October 1918, the Italian Army won the decisive Battle of Vittorio Veneto, and the Austrian forces collapsed. The armistice was signed at Villa Giusti, Padua, on 3 November 1918.


title: Padua

text: During the war, the industry grew rapidly, and this provided Padua with a base for further post-war development. In the years immediately following World War I, Padua developed outside the historical town, enlarging and growing in population, even if labor and social strife were rampant at the time.


title: Padua

text: As in many other areas in Italy, Padua experienced great social turmoil in the years immediately following World War I. The city was shaken by strikes and clashes, factories and fields were subject to occupation, and war veterans struggled to re-enter civilian life. Many supported a new political way, fascism. As in other parts of Italy, the National Fascist Party in Padua soon came to be seen as the defender of property and order against revolution. The city was also the site of one of the largest fascist mass rallies, with some 300,000 people reportedly attending one speech by Benito Mussolini.


title: Padua

text: New buildings, in typical fascist architecture, sprang up in the city. Examples can be found today in the buildings surrounding Piazza Spalato (today Piazza Insurrezione), the railway station, the new part of City Hall, and part of the Bo Palace hosting the University.


title: Padua

text: Following Italy's defeat in the Second World War on 8 September 1943, Padua became part of the Italian Social Republic, a puppet state of the Nazi occupiers. The city hosted the Ministry of Public Instruction of the new state, as well as military and militia commands and a military airport. The Resistenza, the Italian partisans, was very active against both the new fascist rule and the Nazis. One of the main leaders of the Resistenza in the area was the University vice-chancellor, Concetto Marchesi.


title: Padua

text: From December 1943 to the end of the war, Padua was bombed 24 times by Allied aircraft; the heaviest raids were the ones on 16 and 30 December 1943 (each of which caused 300 victims), 7 February 1944 (300 victims), 11 March 1944 (over 300 tons of bombs dropped by 111 bombers), 22 and 23 March 1944, 20 April 1944 (180 victims), 22 February and 12 March 1945. The worst-hit areas were the railway station (the target of most raids) and the northern district of Arcella, where 96% of all buildings were destroyed; overall, 950 homes were destroyed and 1,400 damaged. During one of these bombings, the Church of the Eremitani, with frescoes by Andrea Mantegna, was destroyed, considered by some art historians to be Italy's biggest wartime cultural loss. The Cathedral and the University also suffered damage. Some 2,000 inhabitants of Padua were killed by the raids.


title: Padua

text: On 26 April 1945, the partisans started the final insurrection against the Germans and Fascists; in the subsequent fighting, 224 partisans and 497 Germans were killed. 5,000 German troops, including three generals, surrendered to the partisans in Padua, and another 10,000 in the surrounding area; on 28 April New Zealand troops (2nd New Zealand Division) of the British Eighth Army entered the city. A small Commonwealth War Cemetery is located in the west part of the city, commemorating the sacrifice of these troops.


title: Padua

text: After the war, the city developed rapidly, reflecting Veneto's rise from being the poorest region in northern Italy to one of the richest and most economically active regions of modern Italy.


title: Padua

text: Padua experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa") characteristic of northern Italy, modified by the nearby Adriatic Sea.


title: Padua

text: Padua's historic core, includes numerous churches of significant architecture and arts. These include:


title: Padua

text: Padua has long been acclaimed for its university, founded in 1222. Under the rule of Venice the university was governed by a board of three patricians, called the "Riformatori dello Studio di Padova".


title: Padua

text: The list of notable professors and alumni is long, containing, among others, the names of Bembo, Sperone Speroni, the anatomist Vesalius, Copernicus, Fallopius, Fabrizio d'Acquapendente, Galileo Galilei, William Harvey, Pietro Pomponazzi, Reginald, later Cardinal Pole, Scaliger, Tasso and Jan Zamoyski.


title: Padua

text: It is also where, in 1678, Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia became the first woman in the world to graduate from university.


title: Padua

text: The university also hosts the oldest botanical garden (1545) in the world. The botanical garden Orto Botanico di Padova was founded as the garden of curative herbs attached to the University's faculty of medicine. It still contains an important collection of rare plants.


title: Padua

text: The place of Padua in the history of art is nearly as important as its place in the history of learning. The presence of the university attracted many distinguished artists, such as Giotto, Fra Filippo Lippi and Donatello; and for native art there was the school of Francesco Squarcione, whence issued Mantegna.


title: Padua

text: Padua is also the birthplace of the celebrated architect Andrea Palladio, whose 16th-century villas in the area of Padua, Venice, Vicenza and Treviso are among the most notable of Italy and they were often copied during the 18th and 19th centuries; and of Giovanni Battista Belzoni, adventurer, engineer and egyptologist.


title: Padua

text: The sculptor Antonio Canova produced his first work in Padua, one of which is among the statues of Prato della Valle (presently a copy is displayed in the open air, while the original is in the Musei Civici).


title: Padua

text: The Antonianum is settled among Prato della Valle, the Basilica of Saint Anthony and the Botanic Garden. It was built in 1897 by the Jesuit fathers and kept alive until 2002. During World War II, under the leadership of P. Messori Roncaglia SJ, it became the center of the resistance movement against the Nazis. Indeed, it briefly survived P. Messori's death and was sold by the Jesuits in 2004.


title: Padua

text: Padua also plays host to the majority of "Taming of the Shrew" by William Shakespeare and in "Much Ado About Nothing" Benedick is named as "Signior Benedick of Padua".


title: Padua

text: Paolo De Poli, painter and enamellist, author of decorative panels and design objects, 15 times invited to the Venice Biennale was born in Padua. The electronic musician Tying Tiffany was also born in Padua.


title: Padua

text: In 2007, there were 210,301 people residing in Padua, located in the province of Padua, Veneto, of whom 47.1% were male and 52.9% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 14.87% of the population compared to pensioners who number 23.72%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Padua residents is 45 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Padua grew by 2.21%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%. The current birth rate of Padua is 8.49 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.


title: Padua

text: , 90.66% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group comes from other European nations (the largest being Romanians, Moldovans, and Albanians): 5.14%, sub-saharan Africa 1.08%, and East Asia: 1.04%. The city is predominantly Roman Catholic, but due to immigration now has some Orthodox Christian, Muslim and Hindu followers.


title: Padua

text: Since local government political reorganization in 1993, Padua has been governed by the City Council of Padua. Voters elect directly 33 councilors and the Mayor of Padua every five years.


title: Padua

text: The current Mayor of Padua is Sergio Giordani (independent, supported by the PD), elected on 26 June 2017.


title: Padua

text: Padua hosts consulates for several nations, including those of Canada, Croatia, Ivory Coast, Peru, Poland, Switzerland and Uruguay. A consulate for South Korea was planned in 2014 and a consulate for Moldova was opened on 1 August 2014.


title: Padua

text: The industrial area of Padova was created in the eastern part of the city in 1946; it is now one of the biggest industrial zones in Europe, having an area of 11 million sqm. The main offices of 1,300 industries are based here, employing 50,000 people. In the industrial zone, there are two railway stations, one fluvial port, three truck terminals, two highway exits and a lot of connected services, such as hotels, post offices and directional centres.


title: Padua

text: By car, there are 2 motorways (autostrade in Italian): A4 Brescia-Padova, connecting it to Verona (then to Brenner Pass, Innsbruck and Bavaria) and Milan (then Switzerland, Turin and France); A4 Padova-Venezia, to Venice then Belluno (for Dolomites holiday resorts like Cortina) Trieste and Tarvisio (for Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and Eastern Europe); A13 Bologna-Padova, to Ferrara and Bologna (then Central and South Italy). Roads connect Padua with all the large and small centers of the region. A motorway with more than 20 exits surrounds the city, connecting districts and the small towns of the surrounding region.


title: Padua

text: Padua has two railway stations open to passengers. The main station "Stazione di Padova" has 11 platforms and is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Padova Centrale"; it is one of the biggest stations in Italy. More than 450 trains per day leave Padova. The station is used by over 20 million passengers per year. Other railway stations are "Padova Ponte di Brenta" (soon to be closed), Padova San Lazzaro (planned), Padova Campo di Marte, with no passenger service once used as a freight station which could become one of the stations of the "Servizio Ferroviario Metropolitano Regionale". From Padova, high speed trains connect to Milan, Rome, Bologna, Florence and Venice; one can reach Milan in 1h and 51 min, Rome in 3 hours an 0 min and Venice in 20 min. There are also international day trains to Zurich and Munich, and overnight sleeper services to Munich and Vienna (ÖBB).


title: Padua

text: The station was opened in 1842 when the service started on the first part of the Milan–Venice railway (the "Imperial Regia Ferrovia Ferdinandea") built from Padua to Marghera through Mestre. Porta Marghera is a major port of the Venetian area.


title: Padua

text: Railways enthusiasts can visit the Signal Box A (Cabina A), preserved by the "Società Veneta Ferrovie" (a society named after the former public works and railway company, based in "Piazza Eremitani" in Padua) association.


title: Padua

text: Padua is approximately away from Venice Marco Polo Airport which is the nearest airport with regular commercial service. Padua is also serviced by the Verona Villafranca Airport, Treviso Airport and Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport.


title: Padua

text: The Gino Allegri, or "Aeroporto civile di Padova "Gino Allegri"", is no longer served by regularly scheduled flights. Padua is, however, the home of one of Italy's four area control centres.


title: Padua

text: Urban public transport includes public buses together with a new Translohr guided tramway (connecting Albignasego, in the south of Padua, with Pontevigodarzere in the north of the city, thanks to the new line built in 2009) and private taxis.


title: Padua

text: The city centre is partly closed to vehicles, except for residents and permitted vehicles. There are some car parks surrounding the district. In this area, as well, there are some streets and squares restricted to pedestrian and bicycle use only.


title: Padua

text: The Veneto Region is building a regional rail line (S-Bahn-like system) around the city with 15 new stations. Its name will be "SFMR" and it will reach the province of Venice.


title: Padua

text: The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Padova, Vicenza e Verona, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 46 min. 5% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 13 min, while 30% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 4.7 km, while 4% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.


title: Padua

text: Padua is the home of Calcio Padova, an association football team that currently plays in Italy's Serie C, and who played 16 Serie A championships (last 2 in 1995 and 1996, but the previous 14 between 1929 and 1962); the Petrarca Padova rugby union team, winner of 12 national championships (all between 1970 and 2011) and 2 national cups, and now plays in the Top12 league; and the Pallavolo Padova volleyball club, once called Petrarca Padova as well, which plays in the Italian second division (A2) and who won a CEV cup in 1994. Basketball, cycling (Padua has been for several years home of the famous Giro del Veneto), rowing (two teams among the best ones in Italy, Canottieri Padova and Padova Canottaggio), horseback-riding, and swimming are popular sports too.


title: Padua

text: The venues of these teams are: Stadio Euganeo for football and athletics, about 32,000 seats; Stadio Plebiscito for rugby union, about 9,000 seats; Palazzetto dello Sport San Lazzaro for volleyball and basketball, about 5,000 seats, and has just been restored; Ippodromo Breda – Le Padovanelle for horse races. The old and glorious Stadio Appiani, which hosted up to 21,000 people, presently reduced to 10,000 for security reasons twenty years ago, and near to Prato della Valle in the city central area, is almost abandoned and is to be restored. A small ice stadium for skating and hockey is about to be completed, with about 1,000 seats.


title: Padua

text: Since 2012 the city also has its own Gaelic football club, Padova Gaelic Football. Later that year they had the honour of taking part in the first official GAA match in Italy when they played Ascaro Rovigo GFC in the Adige Cup. The team colours are red and white.


title: Padua

text: The F1 racing driver Riccardo Patrese (runner-up 1992, 3rd place in 1989 and 1991; held the world record for having started the most Formula One races, beaten by Rubens Barrichello during the 2008 season) was born and lives in Padova; the racing driver Alex Zanardi also lives in Padova.


title: Padua

text: Italy international rugby players Mauro and Mirco Bergamasco, Marco Bortolami, Andrea Marcato and Leonardo Ghiraldini were all born in Padua. All of them started their careers in Petrarca Padova.


title: Padua

text: Well known footballers from Padua were Francesco Toldo, who was born here, and Alessandro Del Piero, who started his professional career in the Calcio Padova.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic cannabinoids are a class of designer drug molecules that bind to the same receptors to which cannabinoids (THC, CBD and many others) in cannabis plants attach. These novel psychoactive substances should not be confused with synthetic phytocannabinoids (THC or CBD obtained by chemical synthesis) or synthetic endocannabinoids from which they are in many aspects distinct.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Typically, synthetic cannabinoids are sprayed onto plant matter and are usually smoked, although they have also been ingested as a concentrated liquid form in the US and UK since 2016. They have been marketed as herbal incense, or "herbal smoking blends", and sold under common names like K2, spice, and synthetic marijuana. They are often labeled "not for human consumption" for liability defense. A large and complex variety of synthetic cannabinoids are designed in an attempt to avoid legal restrictions on cannabis, making synthetic cannabinoids designer drugs.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Most synthetic cannabinoids are agonists of the cannabinoid receptors. They have been designed to be similar to THC, the natural cannabinoid with the strongest binding affinity to the CB receptor, which is linked to the psychoactive effects or "high" of marijuana. These synthetic analogs often have greater binding affinity and greater potency to the CB receptors. There are several synthetic cannabinoid families (e.g. AM-"xxx", , HU-"xx", JWH-"xxx") which are classified by the creator of the substance (e.g. JWH stands for John W. Huffman), which can include several substances with different base structures such as classical cannabinoids and unrelated naphthoylindoles.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic marijuana compounds began to be manufactured and sold in the early 2000s. From 2008 to 2014, 142 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists were reported to the European Monitoring-Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA).


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Reported user negative effects include palpitations, paranoia, intense anxiety, nausea, vomiting, confusion, poor coordination, and seizures. There have also been reports of a strong compulsion to re-dose, withdrawal symptoms, and persistent cravings. There have been several deaths linked to synthetic cannabinoids. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that the number of deaths from synthetic cannabinoid use tripled between 2014 and 2015. In 2018, the United States Food and Drug Administration warned of significant health risks from synthetic cannabinoid products that contain the rat poison brodifacoum, which is added because it is thought to extend the duration of the drugs' effects. Severe illnesses and death have resulted from this contamination.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic cannabinoids reagent testing kits recently became economical. It is often difficult to determine what is in these products without reagent testing because masking agents, such as tocopherol (or vitamin E acetate that causes vaping-associated pulmonary injury), eugenol, and fatty acids, are added to confound identification. Just as the synthetic used differ between each synthetic cannabinoid product sold, so do the other contents of the counterfeit product.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic cannabinoids appear in many CBD brands in products such as gummy bears and vape cartridges.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Most blends consist of synthetic cannabinoids sprayed onto inert vegetable matter, but some contain other psychoactive substances, including psychoactive herbs, e.g., "Wild Dagga" and "Indian Warrior," and psychoactive alkaloids, e.g., betonicine, aporphine, leonurine, nuciferine, and nicotine. Some synthetic cannabinoids products have also been found to contain synthetic opioids. For example, in 2010, nine people died due to the combination of "O"-desmethyltramadol, a μ-opioid agonist and analgesic drug, and Kratom, an Asiatic medicinal plant containing mitragynine, another μ-opioid agonist, in a synthetic cannabinoid product called "Krypton." And in 2013, AH-7921 was detected in smoking blends in Japan. In 2018, there was an outbreak of synthetic cannabinoids contaminated with anticoagulants, mainly brodifacoum, in at least 11 states in the US that caused coagulopathy (prolonged or excessive bleeding) and resulted in the treatment of over 300 people and at least eight deaths.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: One of the most common non-cannabinoid ingredients in these products is oleamide, a fatty acid derivative that acts similarly to a cannabinoid and has hypnotic properties. Analysis of 44 products synthetic cannabinoid revealed oleamide in 7 of the products tested. Other non-cannabinoid ingredients that have been found in synthetic cannabinoid blends include harmine and harmaline, reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, which have been found with myristicin and asarone; substituted cathinone derived stimulant drugs such as 4-methylbuphedrone and 4'-methyl-alpha-PPP; and psychedelic tryptamine derivatives such as 4-OH-DET.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Packages of synthetic cannabinoid products can claim to contain a wide array of plants. However, oftentimes, none of the listed ingredients have been detectable.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Many of the early synthetic cannabinoids that were synthesized for use in research were named after either the scientist who first synthesized them or the institution or company where they originated.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Some of the names of synthetic cannabinoids synthesized for recreational use were given names to help market the products. For example, AKB-48 (also known as APINACA) is also the name of a popular Japanese girl band; 2NE1 (also known as APICA) is also a South Korean girl band; and XLR-11 was named after the first USA-developed liquid fuel rocket for aircraft. Now many synthetic cannabinoids are assigned names derived from their four main structural components, core, tail, linker, and linked group, where the name is formatted as LinkedGroup-TailCoreLinker. For example, in 5F-MDMB-PINACA (also known as 5F-ADB), "5F" stands for the terminal fluorine or "fluorine on carbon 5" of the pentyl chain; "MDMB" stands for "methyl-3,3-dimethyl butanoate", the linked group; and "PINACA" stands for "pentyl chain (tail) indazole (core) carboxamide (linker)".


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Use of the term "synthetic marijuana" to describe products containing synthetic cannabinoids is controversial and, according to Lewis Nelson, a medical toxicologist at the NYU School of Medicine, a mistake. Nelson claims that relative to marijuana, products containing synthetic cannabinoids "are really quite different, and the effects are much more unpredictable. It's dangerous". Since the term "synthetic" does not apply to the plant, but rather to the cannabinoid that the plant contains (THC), the term "synthetic cannabinoid" is more appropriate.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Nearly 700 "herbal incense" blends exist. They are often called "synthetic marijuana", "natural herbs", "herbal incense", or "herbal smoking blends" and often labeled "not for human consumption". In some Spanish-speaking countries, such as Chile and Argentina, such preparations are often referred to as .


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: According to the Psychonaut Web Mapping Research Project, synthetic cannabinoids, sold under the brand name Spice, were first released in 2005 by the now-dormant company the Psyche Deli in London. In 2006, the brand gained popularity. According to the "Financial Times", the assets of the Psyche Deli rose from £65,000 in 2006 to £899,000 in 2007. The EMCDDA reported in 2009 that Spice products were identified in 21 of the 30 participating countries.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Because of these controversies, and in particular the difficulty to distinguish natural cannabinoids obtained in laboratory (for example, CBD or synthetic THC) from artificial novel synthetic cannabinoid analog compounds not present in nature (like nabilone, Spice, the HU, JWH series, etc.), the term "neocannabinoid" has been proposed to name the latter.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic cannabinoids were made for cannabinoid research focusing on tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinoid receptors, and the endocannabinoids that activate them in the body. Synthetic cannabinoids were needed partly due to legal restrictions on natural cannabinoids, which make them difficult to obtain for research. Many have been useful because they bind selectively to either the CB1 or CB2 receptors, whereas THC has a similar affinity for both. Tritium-labelled cannabinoids such as CP-55,940 were instrumental in discovering the cannabinoid receptors in the early 1990s.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Some early synthetic cannabinoids were also used clinically. Nabilone, a first generation synthetic THC analog, has been used as an antiemetic to combat vomiting and nausea since 1981. Synthetic THC (marinol, dronabinol) has been used as an antiemetic since 1985, and an appetite stimulant since 1991, although synthetic THC is often not listed among the "synthetic cannabinoids" but as a "synthetic phytocannabinoid."


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: In the early 2000s, synthetic cannabinoids began to be used for recreational drug use in an attempt to get similar effects to cannabis. Because synthetic cannabinoid molecular structures differ from THC and other illegal cannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids were not technically illegal. Since the discovery of the use of synthetic cannabinoids for recreational use in 2008, some synthetic cannabinoids have been made illegal, but new analogs are continually synthesized to avoid the restrictions. Synthetic cannabinoids have also been used recreationally because they are inexpensive and are typically not revealed by the standard marijuana drug tests. Unlike nabilone, the synthetic cannabinoids found being used for recreational use did not have any documented therapeutic effects.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Because they activate the cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, many of the effects of synthetic cannabinoids are similar to those of THC. These are achieved at lower doses, because many synthetic cannabinoids are more potent than marijuana, and users are often unaware of exactly what they are getting and how potent it is. For example, Δ-THC has an EC of 250 nM at CB and 1157 nM at CB, whereas PB-22 has an EC of 5.1 nM at CB and 37 nM at CB. Adverse effects observed due to synthetic cannabinoid use include acute kidney injury, cardiac toxicity, seizure, stroke, tremor, hypokalemia, and rhabdomyolysis. Some negative effects of 5F-PB-22 reported by users included nausea, vomiting, confusion, poor coordination, anxiety, and seizures. Some of the negative effects of 5F-AKB-48 reported by users included palpitations, paranoia, intense anxiety, and a taste like burned plastic. In addition, while there are no fatal overdose cases linked to marijuana, there are deaths linked to synthetic cannabinoids each year. The most common mechanisms leading to death following synthetic cannabinoid use include behavioral risks, such as self-harm and suicide, falling from a height, and wandering into traffic; cardiovascular effects; and central nervous system depression.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Researchers have pointed out a few ways that synthetic cannabinoids differ from marijuana, and therefore may be more dangerous. First, they often have greater intrinsic activity. Many of the synthetic cannabinoids are full agonists of the cannabinoids receptors, CB and CB, compared to THC, which is only a partial agonist. Secondly, they may have other actions in the body, in addition to activating cannabinoid receptors. Some may work on NMDA glutamate receptors. Some may also work on serotonin, either indirectly by inhibiting MAO and increasing 5-HT1A receptor expression, or by directly binding to serotonin receptors, including the 5-HT1A and 5-HT3 subtypes; some researchers speculate that this activity may be because the indole moiety that some synthetic cannabinoids possess is similar to the structure of serotonin. Third, synthetic cannabinoids may break down into metabolites, or create other by-products when heated, that may differ from marijuana. Phase 1 metabolism of JWH-018 results in at least nine monohydroxylated metabolites, three of which have been shown to be full agonists of the CB receptors, compared to the metabolism of THC, which only results in one psychoactive monohydroxylated metabolite. The metabolite N-(3-hydroxypentyl) JWH-018 was found to have toxic effects that its parent compound does not. Some metabolites even appear to be cannabinoid antagonists. Lastly, they may contain unwanted substances, be mislabeled, or contain different doses than advertised (in one analysis, a difference of one log unit was found).


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: No official studies have been conducted on the effects of synthetic cannabinoids on humans (as is often the case with illegal and potentially toxic compounds); however, user reports and the effects experienced by patients seeking medical care after taking synthetic cannabinoids have been published. Each of the many different synthetic cannabinoids can have different effects at different dosages. The CDC described synthetic cannabinoid overdoses between 2010 and 2015 and of 277 drug overdose patients who reported synthetic cannabinoid as the sole agent, 66.1% reported problems in the central nervous system (e.g., agitation, coma, toxic psychosis), 17% reported cardiovascular problems (e.g., tachycardia, bradycardia), 7.6% reported pulmonary problems (5.4% of which had respiratory depression), and 4% reported acute kidney injury.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Four postmortem cases linked to the synthetic cannabinoids 5F-PB-22 have been reviewed. The postmortem blood specimens contained a range of 1.1-1.5 ng/mL of 5F-PB-22. Three of the four cases were sudden episodes and the symptoms leading to death included acute shortness of breath; vasocongestion in the liver, spleen, and kidneys; bilateral pulmonary edema; dead inflamed tissue (necrotizing granulomatous inflammation); and congestion of most internal organs. The fourth case presented to the hospital with severe problems that deteriorated over the course of a day, ending with circulatory, respiratory, central nervous system, and renal failure.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: There have been reports of a strong compulsion to re-dose, withdrawal symptoms, and persistent cravings lasting up to a week after taking synthetic cannabinoids, indicating that synthetic cannabinoids may be more addictive than marijuana.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Studies are currently available that suggest an association between synthetic cannabinoids and psychosis. The use of synthetic cannabinoids can be associated with psychosis and physicians are beginning to investigate if some patients with inexplicable psychotic symptoms may have at one point used synthetic cannabinoids. In contrast to most other recreational drugs, the dramatic psychotic state induced by use of synthetic cannabinoids has been reported, in multiple cases, to persist for several weeks, and in one case for seven months, after complete cessation of drug use. Some studies suggest that not only can synthetic cannabinoids induce psychosis, but they can worsen previously stable psychotic disorders and might trigger a chronic (long-term) psychotic disorder among vulnerable individuals such as those with a family history of mental illness. Individuals with risk factors for psychotic disorders are often counseled against using synthetic cannabinoids. Psychiatrists have suggested that the lack of an antipsychotic chemical, like CBD in natural cannabis, may make synthetic cannabinoids more likely to induce psychosis than natural cannabis.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: There are five major categories for synthetic cannabinoids: classical cannabinoids, non-classical cannabinoids, hybrid cannabinoids, aminoalkylindoles, and eicosanoids. Classical cannabinoids are analogs of THC that are based on a dibenzopyran ring. They were developed starting in the 1960s, following the isolation of THC, and were originally the only cannabinoids synthesized. Classical cannabinoids include nabilone and dronabinol, and one of the best known synthetic classical cannabinoids is HU-210. HU-210 is a chiral compound first synthesized by Raphael Mechoulam at Hebrew University in the 1980s. It was discovered in herbal incense products by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection in January 2009; however, classical cannabinoids are not often seen in synthetic cannabinoid blends for recreational use, likely because they are difficult to synthesize.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Non-classical cannabinoids include cyclohexylphenols (CP), which were first synthesized in the late 1970s to 1980s by Pfizer as potential analgesics. The C8 homologue of CP-47,497 (CP-47,497-C8) was one of the first synthetic cannabinoids being used recreationally. CP-47,497-C8 is made by extending the dimethylheptyl side chain of CP-47,497 to a dimethyloctyl side chain. It was discovered by forensic scientists in an herbal blend known as "Spice" in 2008, along with JWH-018, an aminoalkylindole.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Hybrid cannabinoids have a combination of classical and non-classical cannabinoid structural features. For example, AM-4030, a derivative of HU-210, is a hybrid cannabinoid because it has the dibenzopyran ring common of classical cannabinoids and an aliphatic hydroxyl group common in the CP family of nonclassical cannabinoids.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Aminoalkylindoles are structurally dissimilar to THC and include naphthoylindoles (JWH-018), phenylacetylindoles (JWH-250), and benzoylindoles (AM-2233). Aminoalkylindoles are considered to be the most common synthetic cannabinoids found in synthetic cannabinoid blends, likely due to the fact that these molecules are easier to synthesize than classical and non-classical cannabinoids. The JWH molecules were first synthesized by John William Huffman at Clemson University in the late 1990s. The FBI concluded in a 2012 memo that as a result of the publication of J.W. Huffman's research, people searching for a "marijuana-like-high" would follow his recipes and methods.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Eicosanoid synthetic cannabinoids are analogs of endocannabinoids, such as anandamide. Endocannabinoids are cannabinoids naturally occurring in the body. One of the best known synthetic analogs of anandamide is methanandamide.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: The synthetic cannabinoids that have emerged recently have even greater structural diversity, possibly to subvert legal regulations on earlier generations of synthetic cannabinoids. There are a few different structural classifications of synthetic cannabinoids that include many of the new structures, some of which are shown in table one. The indazole carboxamide group, including APINACA (AKB-48), an adamantyl indazole carboxamide, and AB-PINACA, an aminocarbonyl indazole carboxamide, is an example of a new group of synthetic cannabinoids. Most clandestine manufacturers and producers only make small changes to the structure of a synthetic cannabinoid, such as changing an indole to indazole structure (AM-2201 to THJ-2201) or terminal fluorine replacement; however, one group that was unprecedented when discovered by forensic scientists in 2013, was the quinolinyl ester synthetic cannabinoids.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: PB-22 and 5F-PB-22 were the first synthetic cannabinoids to include a quinoline substructure and an ester linkage. These compounds are thought to have been synthesized with the intention of making a synthetic cannabinoid prodrug, which might improve absorption and confound detection. Ester bonds are easily biodegradable through spontaneous or endogenous, nonspecific esterase hydrolysis, which has been commonly used in medicinal chemistry to make ester prodrugs. The reason for the change to the quinolone substructure is unknown, but it may have been found to be a suitable replacement for the naphthoyl moiety that is currently regulated by US scheduling laws.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Although most synthetic cannabinoids are not direct analogs of THC, they share many common features with THC. Most are lipid-soluble, non-polar, small molecules (usually 20-26 carbon atoms) that are fairly volatile, making them "smokable," like THC. Another common feature of most synthetic cannabinoids and THC is a side-chain of five to nine saturated carbon atoms. It has been found that this chain of carbons is required for optimal psychotropic activity from binding CB receptors. Also, most synthetic cannabinoids are agonists of both cannabinoid receptors, CB and CB, like THC; however, they often have greater binding affinity and therefore greater potency than THC, as seen in table two. Due to the greater potency, the standard doses of many synthetic cannabinoids may be less than 1 mg.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Most classical, non-classical, and hybrid synthetic cannabinoids have stereospecificity (one stereoisomer is usually much more potent than the ). For example, HU-210 is the (–) enantiomer of 11-OH-Δ-THC-DMH and a full agonist of the CB receptor; the (+) enantiomer of 11-OH-D-THC-DMH, known as HU-211, is a NMDA receptor antagonist and is largely inactive as a cannabinoid. On the other hand, aminoalkylindoles, eicosanoids, and the other new synthetic cannabinoid groups typically do not have an asymmetric center, so they are usually not stereospecific.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Recently there has been an increase in the emergence of terminally fluorinated synthetic cannabinoids, such as 5F-PB-22 (fluorinated version of PB-22) and XLR-11 (fluorinated version of UR-144). South Korea's National Forensic Service reported that 90% of all seized synthetic cannabinoids in 2013 were fluorinated, compared to no fluorinated synthetic cannabinoids reported in 2010. 5F-derivations (terminal fluorination) of the synthetic cannabinoids have been found to be about 2-5 times more potent at CB receptors than their un-fluorinated counterparts, as shown in table two.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic cannabinoids are typically not identified by the standard marijuana drug tests including the immunoassay test (EMIT), GC-MS screening, and multi-target screening by LC-GC/MS because those tests only detect the presence of THC and its metabolites. Although most synthetic cannabinoids are analogs of THC, they are structurally different enough that, for example, the specific antibodies in the EMIT for marijuana do not bind to them. Also, due to their high potency, a very small dose of synthetic cannabinoids is used; moreover, synthetic cannabinoids are highly metabolized by the body, so the window to detect the parent drug (the synthetic cannabinoid itself) in blood and oral fluid is very small.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Serum concentrations of synthetic cannabinoids are generally in the 1–10 μg/L range during the first few hours after recreational usage and the metabolites are usually present in urine at similar concentrations. Little to no parent drug is present in urine, so there is a lot of research to try and identify the major urinary metabolites that could be used as markers of synthetic cannabinoid intake. The major urinary metabolites in most cases are formed by oxidation of the alkyl side-chain to an alcohol and carboxylic acid followed by glucuronide conjugation and also by N-dealkylation and aromatic hydroxylation. For example, the main metabolites of JWH-018, of which there are over 20, include carboxylated, monohydroxylated, dihydroxylated, and trihydroxylated metabolites, but they are mostly excreted in urine as glucuronide conjugates. The presence of synthetic cannabinoids or their metabolites in bodily fluids may be determined using specifically targeted commercially available immunoassay screening methods (EMIT), while liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is most often used for confirmation and quantitation. There are commercially available EMIT kits for the screening of the synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018, JWH-073, JWH-398, JWH-200, JWH-019, JWH-122, JWH-081, JWH-250, JWH-203, CP-47,497, CP-47,497-C8, HU-210, HU-211, AM-2201, AM-694, RCS-4, and RCS-8 through companies like NMS Labs, Cayman Chemical, and Immunoanalysis Corporation.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: On October 20, 2011, the Louisiana State University football program announced that it had suspended three players, including star cornerback Tyrann Mathieu, who tested positive for synthetic cannabinoids.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: In the autumn of 2014, more than two thousand Spice consumers in Russia sought medical attention, one-thousand were admitted to hospitals, and 40 people died.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: On July 12, 2016, 33 people were intoxicated by an herbal "incense" product called "AK-47 24 Karat Gold," and dozens overdosed, in Brooklyn. 18 people were transported to local hospitals. The herbal "incense" product was determined to be a synthetic cannabinoid called AMB-FUBINACA.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Since March 2018, Illinois, Wisconsin, Maryland, and 8 other states in the United States have had an outbreak of severe bleeding caused by a synthetic cannabinoid contaminated with brodifacoum, a rat poison that causes bleeding. Illinois was hit the hardest and on April 5, 2018, the CDC issued a Clinical Action alert to health care providers across the United States advising of 89 confirmed cases of "serious unexplained bleeding" in Illinois. The cases are still being studied; however, 63 of the patients reported synthetic cannabinoid use, and laboratory analysis confirmed brodifacoum was present in at least 18 patients. As of April 24, 2018, 153 cases, including four deaths, linked to this outbreak have been reported to the Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH) since March 7, 2018. On September 18, 2018, the Wisconsin Department of Health Services confirmed 16 more cases, bringing the total number of people affected by the outbreak in Wisconsin to 80 people since March 2018, including one death in July 2018.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: In August 2018, there were almost one hundred overdose cases reported over two days in New Haven, Connecticut from a bad batch of K2. The synthetic cannabinoid was believed to have been mixed with fentanyl, although no fentanyl was identified in samples of the drug tested by the DEA.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: In September 2018, at least 10 people overdosed on a synthetic cannabinoid, either AMB-FUBINACA or AB, in Christchurch, New Zealand over two days. Some of the people are in critical condition in the Intensive Care Unit.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: From September 21–22, 2018, almost 50 people overdosed and two people died in the Kensington area of Philadelphia. Officials believed the cause to be a combination of heroin or fentanyl and a synthetic cannabinoid. This same area in Philadelphia had 155 people overdose and 10 people die from a combination of heroin, fentanyl, and a synthetic cannabinoid called 5F-ADB over one weekend in July 2018. The Department of Public Health released that they believe "5F-ADB was the primary cause of the cluster of patients with these adverse drug reactions."


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: On December 10, 2021, the Hillsborough County, Florida department of health reported cases of "rat poison" contaminated synthetic blends linked to symptoms associated with coagulopathy, a condition where the blood's ability to clot is impaired. 2 deaths and over 41 hospitalizations have been directly linked to this specific outbreak as of December 16, 2021.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic cannabinoids have been speculated to be involved in vaping-associated pulmonary injury (VAPI).


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: The Austrian Ministry of Health announced on December 18, 2008, that Spice would be controlled under Paragraph 78 of their drug-law on the grounds that it contains an active substance that affects the functions of the body, and the legality of JWH-018 is under review.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: JWH-018, CP 47,497 and the C6, C8, and C9 homologues of CP 47,497 have been illegal in Germany since January 22, 2009. Since November 26, 2016 about 80-90% of the substances belonging to the group of synthetic cannabinoids are illegal in Germany as the law does not cover all chemical structures.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: JWH-018, CP 47,497 (and its homologues), and HU-210 were all made illegal in France on February 24, 2009.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: JWH-018, JWH-073, CP 47,497 (and its homologues), and HU-210 as well as "leonotis leonurus" have been all banned in Latvia since 2005. After the first confirmed lethal case from the use of legal drugs in late 2013, parliament significantly increased the number of temporarily banned substances used in Spice and similar preparations. On April 3, 2014, parliament made selling of the temporarily banned substances a criminal offense.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: JWH-018 and many of the herbs mentioned on the ingredient lists of Spice and similar preparations were made illegal in May 2009. The bill was passed by Polish Sejm and Polish Senat and was signed by the President.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Spice was made illegal in Romania on February 15, 2010. As on 12 September 2018 Spice was made legal for personal use. A new law is being discussed to make spice illegal for personal use again.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: On April 9, 2009, the Chief Medical Officer of the Russian Federation issued a resolution on reinforcing control over the sales of smoking-blends. These blends, marketed under the trade names AM-HI-CO, Dream, Spice (Gold, Diamond), Zoom, Ex-ses, Yucatán Fire and others, have been declared to contain "Salvia divinorum", Hawaiian wood rose, and blue lotus, and are prohibited to be sold. These substances have been found to have "psychotropic, narcotic effects, contain poisonous components and represent potential threat for humans". The resolution does not mention JWH-018 or other synthetic cannabinoids. On January 14, 2010, the Russian government issued a statement including 23 synthetic cannabinoids found in smoking blends Hawaiian Rose and Blue Lotus on the list of prohibited narcotic and psychotropic substances.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: About 780 new psychoactive substances were added to the list from 2011 to 2014. The drug-makers avoided all the bans by making slight changes to the drugs. In the autumn of 2014, more than two-thousand Spice consumers in Russia sought medical attention, one-thousand were admitted to hospitals, and 40 people died On October 30, 2014, President Vladimir Putin brought in a bill that increased the penalty for selling or consuming smoking blends from a fine to up to eight years in prison.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Spice is legal in Slovakia. The National Anti-Drug Unit is considering adding it to the list of controlled substances. The latest anti-drug law version (468/2009) valid since January 2010 does not mention active compounds of Spice.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Spice is unregulated in Spain. For this reason, Spice is available in grow shop stores or cannabis related stores, and it can be bought and shipped online without any legal impediment from those kind of stores.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: CP 47,497-C6, CP 47,497-C7, CP 47,497-C8, CP 47,497-C9, JWH-018, JWH-073, and HU-210 were all made illegal in Sweden on September 15, 2009. The bill was accepted on July 30, 2009, and was put in effect on September 15, 2009.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Spice, which is colloquially called "bonzai" in Turkey, was added to the list of drugs and psychotropic substances on July 1, 2011, by the law numbered as 2011–1310 B.K.K. (February 13, 2011 and the Official Gazette No. 27845).


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: The UK controls synthetic cannabinoids by analog under the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 as Class B drugs. Until 2016, synthetic cannabinoids were legally sold in head shops, although the exact compounds available changed over time based on the legislation. The UK saw three generations of synthetic cannabinoids within five years where the second and third generations emerged in response to amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971, Order 2009 and Order 2013, which classified many first and second generation synthetic cannabinoids as Class B drugs. There were two additional amendments in 2016 and 2019, which included in the analog controls many of the most popular synthetic cannabinoids circulating at the time. In May 2016, the Psychoactive Substances Act was enacted, which made illegal the production, distribution, sale, supply, and possession in correctional institutions of any substance for human consumption with psychoactive effects. This stopped the open sale of synthetic cannabinoids in head shops, although they are still found in use.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Spice is not specifically prohibited in Canada, but synthetic cannabis mimics are listed as a schedule II drug. Schedule II to the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act makes reference to specific synthetic compounds JWH-XXX and AM-XXXX, although is not limiting to those identified. Health Canada is debating the subject. Schedule II has consisted entirely of synthetic cannabinoids since October 2018; these remain illegal following the removal from the schedule of cannabis and its constituents derived from nature.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: The case of David Mitchell Rozga, an American teenager from Indianola, Iowa, brought international attention to K2. Rozga shot himself in the head with a family-owned hunting rifle in an apparent suicide on June 6, 2010. After news of Rozga's death, it was reported by friends that they had smoked K2 with Rozga approximately one hour before his death. The nature of his death and reports from numerous family members, led investigators to suspect that Rozga was under the influence of a mind-altering substance when he died. The death of Rozga influenced political lobbying against K2, and other legal synthetic drugs such as bath salts. Following the incident, the "David Mitchell Rozga Act" to ban the use and distribution of K2 was introduced by Iowa Senator Chuck Grassley. It was passed by the United States Congress in June 2011. On July 10, 2012, President Barack Obama signed the Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012 into law. It banned synthetic compounds commonly found in synthetic marijuana, placing them under Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act.Prior to that, some synthetic cannabis compounds (HU-210) were scheduled in the US under federal law, while others (JWH-073) were temporarily scheduled until final determination of their status could be made. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) considered K2 to be a "drug of concern", citing "...a surge in emergency-room visits and calls to poison-control centers. Adverse health effects associated with its use include seizures, hallucinations, paranoid behavior, agitation, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, racing heartbeat, and elevated blood pressure."


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Several states independently passed acts making it illegal under state law, including Kansas in March 2010, Georgia and Alabama in May 2010, Tennessee and Missouri in July 2010, Louisiana in August 2010, Mississippi in September 2010, and Iowa. An emergency order was passed in Arkansas in July 2010 banning the sale of synthetic cannabis mimics. In October 2010, the Oregon Board of Pharmacy listed synthetic cannabinoid chemicals on its Schedule 1 of controlled substance, which means that the sale and possession of these substances is illegal under the Oregon Uniform Controlled Substances Act. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, several other states also considered legislation, including New Jersey, New York, Florida, and Ohio. Illinois passed a law on July 27, 2010, banning all synthetic cannabinoids as of January 1, 2011. Michigan banned synthetic cannabinoids in October 2010, and the South Dakota Legislature passed a ban on these products which was signed into law by Gov. Dennis Daugaard on February 23, 2012 (and which took immediate effect under an emergency clause of the state constitution). Indiana banned synthetic cannabinoids in a law which became effective in March 2012. North Carolina banned synthetic cannabis mimics by a unanimous vote of the state senate, due to concerns that its contents and effects are reasonably similar to cannabis, and may cause equal effects in terms of psychological dependency.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Following cases in Japan involving the use of synthetic cannabinoids by navy, army and marine corps personnel, they were officially banned. A punitive general order issued on January 4, 2010, by the Commander Marine Corps Forces, Pacific prohibits the actual or attempted possession, use, sale, distribution and manufacture of synthetic cannabis mimics as well as any derivative, analogue or variant of it. On June 8, 2010, the US Air Force issued a memorandum that banned the possession and use of Spice, or any other mood-altering substance except alcohol or tobacco, among its service members.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Usage among 8th, 10th, and 12th graders has been decreasing since 2011, while use of botanical marijuana has remained stable. There are important regional differences, with large declines in the Western and Southern US, and increases in the Northeast and Midwest.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: The Chilean Ministry of Health on April 24, 2009, declared the sale of synthetic cannabis mimics to be illegal.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: South Korea officially added JWH-018, CP 47,497 and HU-210 to the controlled substance list on July 1, 2009, effectively making these chemicals illegal.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: "Tembakau Gorilla" (Gorilla Tobacco), a catch-all term for synthetic cannabinoids blended in tobacco products, were listed as Class I Narcotics with no therapeutic use in 2017.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: The United Arab Emirates had stated that Spice is an illegal substance and possession or intent to sell is a jailable offense.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: On June 17, 2011, the Western Australian government banned all of the synthetic cannabinoids found in already existing products, including brands such as Kronic, Kalma, Voodoo, Kaos, and Mango Kush. Western Australia was the first state in Australia to prohibit the sale of certain synthetic cannabinoids. On June 18, 2013, an interim ban made a large list of product brands and synthetic substances illegal to sell anywhere in Australia. This ban lapsed on October 13, 2013, and a permanent ban has not been imposed. Synthetic cannabinoids and related products remain illegal in NSW, where a bill was passed on September 18, 2013, that bans entire families of synthetic drugs instead of only banning existing compounds that have been identified. The introduction of this law makes NSW the first state in Australia to completely ban substances with psychoactive properties.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: Synthetic Cannabinoids are illegal in New Zealand, it is classified as a Class A controlled drug. The New Zealand Parliament passed a law in July 2013 banning the sale of legal highs in dairies and supermarkets, but allowing some "low risk" drugs to continue to be sold through speciality licensed shops. Synthetic cannabinoids, as well as all other legal highs were outlawed at midnight on 7 May 2014, after a law was passed a week prior by the New Zealand government.


title: Synthetic cannabinoids

text: An analysis of 41 different synthetic cannabis mimic blends sold commercially in New Zealand, conducted by the Institute of Environmental Science and Research and released in July 2011, found 11 different synthetic cannabinoid ingredients used, including JWH-018, JWH-073, AM-694, AM-2201, RCS-4, RCS-4 butyl homologue, JWH-210, JWH-081, JWH-250 (or possibly JWH-302, isomer not determined), JWH-203, and JWH-122—with between one and five different active ingredients, though JWH-018 was present in 37 of the 41 blends tested. In two brands, the benzodiazepine anxiolytic drug phenazepam was also found, which is classified as a prescription medicine in New Zealand, and these brands were ordered to be removed from the market by emergency recall. Since this time, a further 15 cannabinoid compounds have been detected as ingredients of synthetic cannabis mimicking blends in New Zealand and banned as temporary class drugs. In 2013, another hypnotic medication, zaleplon, was found to have been used as an active ingredient in a blend that had been sold in New Zealand during 2011 and 2012.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: From Here to Eternity is a 1953 American drama romance war film directed by Fred Zinnemann, and written by Daniel Taradash, based on the 1951 novel of the same name by James Jones. The picture deals with the tribulations of three U.S. Army soldiers, played by Burt Lancaster, Montgomery Clift, and Frank Sinatra, stationed on Hawaii in the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Deborah Kerr and Donna Reed portray the women in their lives, and the supporting cast includes Ernest Borgnine, Philip Ober, Jack Warden, Mickey Shaughnessy, Claude Akins, and George Reeves.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The film won eight Academy Awards out of 13 nominations, including awards for Best Picture, Best Director (Fred Zinnemann), Adapted Screenplay, Supporting Actor (Frank Sinatra), and Supporting Actress (Donna Reed). The film's title originates from Rudyard Kipling's 1892 poem "Gentlemen-Rankers", about soldiers of the British Empire who had "lost [their] way" and were "damned from here to eternity".


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In 2002, "From Here to Eternity" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In 1941, bugler and career soldier Private Robert E. Lee Prewitt transfers from Fort Shafter to a rifle company at Schofield Barracks on the island of Oahu. Because Prewitt was also a boxer, Captain Dana "Dynamite" Holmes wants him on his regimental team. Prewitt refuses. Consequently, Holmes makes Prewitt's life miserable and ultimately orders First Sergeant Milton Warden to prepare a court-martial. Warden suggests doubling Prewitt's company punishment as an alternative. Prewitt is hazed by the other NCOs and is supported only by his close friend, Private Angelo Maggio.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Prewitt and Maggio join a social club where Prewitt becomes attracted to Lorene. Prewitt confides to her he quit boxing after blinding his sparring partner. At the club, Maggio has an argument with stockade Sergeant "Fatso" Judson. Later, at a local bar, Judson provokes Maggio and the two nearly come to blows before Warden intervenes.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Despite being warned, Warden risks prison when he starts seeing Holmes' wife Karen. Her marriage to Holmes is fraught with infidelity, exacerbated after the stillbirth of a child and Karen's subsequent infertility. Karen encourages Warden to become an officer, which would enable her to divorce Holmes and marry him.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Maggio is sentenced to the stockade after walking off guard duty and getting drunk, subjecting him to Judson's unqualified (and unauthorized) wrath. Prewitt discovers Lorene's name is really Alma and her goal is to make enough money at the club to go back to the mainland. Prewitt tells her his career is in the military, and the two wonder whether they have a future together.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: A member of Holmes' boxing team, Sgt. Galovitch, picks a fight with Prewitt. The fight is reported to Holmes who observes without intervening. Holmes is about to punish Prewitt again, but when he is told that Galovitch started the fight, Holmes does nothing. The regimental commander observes Holmes' conduct and, after an investigation, orders his resignation in lieu of a court martial. Holmes' replacement, Captain Ross, reprimands the other NCOs, demotes Galovitch to private, and affirms there will be no more promotions through boxing.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Maggio escapes from the stockade after a brutal beating from Judson and dies in Prewitt's arms. Seeking revenge, Prewitt engages Judson in a back alley knife fight. Prewitt kills Judson, but is badly wounded and stays with Lorene. Warden covers for Prewitt's absence.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Karen tells Warden that Holmes' resignation is forcing them back to the mainland, but Warden reveals he has no interest in becoming an officer, effectively ending their relationship. Warden promises her that they will meet somewhere some day.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The next morning, the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, forcing the men at Schofield into action. Despite Lorene's pleas to stay with her, Prewitt attempts to rejoin his company, but is shot dead by military police when he refuses to halt. Warden identifies him as a good soldier, but a hardhead.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Days later, Karen and Lorene coincidentally stand next to each other on a ship going to the mainland. Karen tosses her leis into the sea wondering if she will ever return to Hawaii. Lorene tells Karen she is not returning and that her "fiancé", whom she identifies as Prewitt, was a bomber pilot who died heroically during the Pearl Harbor attack and was awarded a silver star (none of which is true). Karen recognizes the name, but says nothing.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Hollywood legend has it that Frank Sinatra got the role in the film by means of his alleged Mafia connections, and it was the basis for a similar subplot in "The Godfather". However, that has been dismissed on several occasions by the cast and crew of the film. Director Fred Zinnemann commented that "the legend about a horse's head having been cut off is pure invention, a poetic license on the part of Mario Puzo, who wrote "The Godfather"". One explanation of Sinatra's casting is that his then-wife Ava Gardner persuaded studio head Harry Cohn's wife to use her influence with him; this version is related by Kitty Kelley in her Sinatra biography.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Joan Crawford and Gladys George were offered roles, but George lost her role when the director decided he wanted to cast the female roles against type, and Crawford's demands to be filmed by her own cameraman led the studio to take a chance on Deborah Kerr, also playing against type.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Kim Stanley heavily campaigned for the role of Lorene, which later garnered an Academy Award for Donna Reed.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The on-screen chemistry between Lancaster and Kerr may have spilled off-screen; it was alleged that the stars became involved romantically during filming.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The songs "Re-Enlistment Blues" and "From Here to Eternity" were written by Robert Wells and Fred Karger.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Several of the novel's controversial plot points were changed or eliminated for the film to satisfy the Production Code Office and the U.S. Army. Army cooperation was necessary in order to shoot on location at Schofield Barracks, use training aircraft, and obtain military footage of Pearl Harbor for use in the film, as well as for cost reasons. According to screenwriter Daniel Taradash, both the Code Office and the Army were impressed by his script, which reduced the number of censorship problems.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In the novel, Lorene was a prostitute at a brothel, but in the film, she is a hostess at a private social club. Karen's hysterectomy in the novel was caused by the unfaithful Holmes transmitting gonorrhea to her, but in the film, her hysterectomy resulted from a miscarriage, thus avoiding the topic of venereal disease. The changes were made to meet Code Office standards.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In the novel, several of the enlisted men fraternize with homosexuals, and one soldier commits suicide as a result, but homosexuality is not mentioned or directly explored in the film. Again, the change was made to satisfy the Code Office. However, J. E. Smyth has written that the film's treatment of Judson's behavior towards Maggio "has all the indications of sexual abuse, and therefore reintroduces the fear of homosexuality in the 1930s military that the rest of the script had to repress for obvious reasons of censorship".


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In the novel, Captain Holmes ironically receives his desired promotion, and is transferred out of the company. In the film, Holmes is forced to resign from the Army under threat of court-martial for his ill-treatment of Prewitt. The Army insisted on this change, which the filmmakers reluctantly made. Director Zinnemann later complained that the scene where Holmes is reprimanded was "the worst moment in the film, resembling a recruiting short", and wrote, "It makes me sick every time I see it."


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In the novel, Judson's systematic abuse of Maggio and other prisoners, including Prewitt himself at one point, is portrayed in detail. However, in the film, Maggio's abuse happens offscreen, and is told only verbally to Prewitt, who remains free. The Army required that the abuse of Maggio not be shown, and that Judson's behavior towards Maggio be portrayed as "a sadistic anomaly, and not as the result of Army policy, as depicted in Jones' book". The filmmakers agreed, seeing these changes as improvements. Maggio, who survives and is discharged in the novel, dies in the film, having been combined with two other prisoner characters from the novel (one of whom is killed by Judson in the novel) to add drama and make Maggio a stronger, more tragic figure. The Army was further pacified by the filmmakers' inclusion of a line suggesting that Maggio's death was partially caused by his falling off a truck during a prison break, rather than solely by Judson's beatings.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Opening to rave reviews, "From Here to Eternity" proved to be an instant hit with critics and public alike, the Southern California Motion Picture Council extolling: "A motion picture so great in its starkly realistic and appealing drama that mere words cannot justly describe it."


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The James Jones bestseller, "From Here to Eternity", has become an outstanding motion picture in this smash screen adaptation. It is an important film from any angle, presenting socko entertainment for big business. The cast names are exceptionally good, the exploitation and word-of-mouth values are topnotch, and the prospects in all playdates are very bright, whether special key bookings or general run.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Burt Lancaster, whose presence adds measurably to the marquee weight of the strong cast names, wallops the character of First Sergeant Milton Warden, the professional soldier who wet-nurses a weak, pompous commanding officer and the GIs under him. It is a performance to which he gives depth of character as well as the muscles which had gained marquee importance for his name. Montgomery Clift, with a reputation for sensitive, three-dimensional performances, adds another to his growing list as the independent GI who refuses to join the company boxing team, taking instead the 'treatment' dished out at the C.O.'s instructions. Frank Sinatra scores a decided hit as Angelo Maggio, a violent, likeable Italo-American GI. While some may be amazed at this expression of the Sinatra talent versatility, it will come as no surprise to those who remember the few times he has had a chance to be something other than a crooner in films.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The "New York Post" applauded Frank Sinatra, remarking, "He proves he is an actor by playing the luckless Maggio with a kind of doomed gaiety that is both real and immensely touching." "Newsweek" also stated that, "Frank Sinatra, a crooner long since turned actor, knew what he was doing when he plugged for the role of Maggio." John McCarten of "The New Yorker" concurred, writing that the film "reveals that Frank Sinatra, in the part of Mr. Clift's best friend who winds up in the stockade, is a first-rate actor."


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The cast agreed; Burt Lancaster commented in the book "Sinatra: An American Legend" that, "[Sinatra's] fervour, his bitterness had something to do with the character of Maggio, but also with what he had gone through the last number of years. A sense of defeat and the whole world crashing in on him... They all came out in that performance."


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Despite the rivalry between their respective characters, Sinatra and Borgnine, both from Italian roots, became lifelong friends. They corresponded with each other at Christmas season by interchanging cards signed using their film character's names "Maggio" and "Fatso". At a Dean Martin Celebrity Roast honoring Sinatra, Borgnine mockingly reprised his Fatso Judson character.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: The film was number one in the United States for four weeks during September 1953 with a gross of $2,087,000. With a final gross of $30.5 million equating to earnings of $12.2 million, "From Here to Eternity" not only became one of the highest-grossing films of 1953, but also one of the ten highest-grossing films of the decade. Adjusted for inflation, its box office gross would exceed US$277 million in 2017 dollars.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: Despite the positive response of the critics and public, the Army was reportedly not pleased with its depiction in the finished film, and refused to let its name be used in the opening credits. The Navy also banned the film from being shown to its servicemen, calling it "derogatory of a sister service" and a "discredit to the armed services".


title: From Here to Eternity

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 88% from 96 reviews. The consensus summarizes: "It has perhaps aged poorly, but this languidly paced WWII romance remains an iconic, well-acted film, featuring particularly strong performances from Burt Lancaster and Montgomery Clift."


title: From Here to Eternity

text: William Holden, who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for "Stalag 17", felt that Lancaster or Clift should have won. Sinatra would later comment that he thought his performance of heroin addict Frankie Machine in "The Man with the Golden Arm" was more deserving of an Oscar than his role as Maggio.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: An unsuccessful 30 minute television pilot starring Darren McGavin as 1st Sgt Warden, Roger Davis as Pvt Pruitt, and Tom Nardini as Pvt Di Maggio was made in 1966.


title: From Here to Eternity

text: In 1979, William Devane starred as 1st Sgt Warden in a miniseries that became a television series in 1980.


title: Too Hot to Handle (season 3)

text: The third season of "Too Hot to Handle" premiered on January 19, 2022. The season was ordered by Netflix in January 2021, and was filmed amid the COVID-19 pandemic on the Turks and Caicos Islands, right after season 2 wrapped.


title: Too Hot to Handle (season 3)

text: In February 2021, Beaux Raymond, Harry Johnson, and Jackson Mawhinney caused a ruckus on a flight to the UK. They were fined £3,000 each and were arrested after landing.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 – after 1050) commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern geodesy", and the first anthropologist.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Al-Biruni was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist, and linguist. He studied almost all the sciences of his day and was rewarded abundantly for his tireless research in many fields of knowledge. Royalty and other powerful elements in society funded Al-Biruni's research and sought him out with specific projects in mind. Influential in his own right, Al-Biruni was himself influenced by the scholars of other nations, such as the Greeks, from whom he took inspiration when he turned to the study of philosophy. A gifted linguist, he was conversant in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, and also knew Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. He spent much of his life in Ghazni, then capital of the Ghaznavids, in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017 he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled "Tārīkh al-Hind" (History of India), after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India. He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on the customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title "al-Ustadh" ("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.


title: Al-Biruni

text: The name of al-Biruni is derived from the Persian word "bērūn/bīrūn" (meaning 'outskirts'), as he was born in an outlying district of Kath, the capital of the Afrighid Khwarazmshahs.


title: Al-Biruni

text: He was born in the outer district (Bīrūn) of Kath, the capital of the Afrighid dynasty of Khwarezm (Chorasmia) in Central Asia – now part of the autonomous republic of Karakalpakstan in the northwest of Uzbekistan.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Al-Biruni spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied Islamic jurisprudence, theology, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy and dabbled not only in the field of physics, but also in those of most of the other sciences. The Iranian Khwarezmian language, which was Biruni's mother tongue, survived for several centuries after Islam until the Turkification of the region – at least some of the culture of ancient Khwarezm endured – for it is hard to imagine that the commanding figure of Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, should have appeared in a cultural vacuum. He was sympathetic to the Afrighids, who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of Ma'munids in 995. He left his homeland for Bukhara, then under the Samanid ruler Mansur II the son of Nuh II. There he corresponded with Avicenna and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars.


title: Al-Biruni

text: In 998, he went to the court of the Ziyarid amir of Tabaristan, Qabus (). There he wrote his first important work, "al-Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qorun al-Khaliyya" (literally: "The remaining traces of past centuries" and translated as "Chronology of ancient nations" or "Vestiges of the Past") on historical and scientific chronology, probably around 1000 C.E., though he later made some amendments to the book. He also visited the court of the Bavandid ruler Al-Marzuban. Accepting the definite demise of the Afrighids at the hands of the Ma'munids, he made peace with the latter who then ruled Khwarezm. Their court at Gorganj (also in Khwarezm) was gaining fame for its gathering of brilliant scientists.


title: Al-Biruni

text: In 1017, Mahmud of Ghazni took Rey. Most scholars, including al-Biruni, were taken to Ghazni, the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty. Biruni was made court astrologer and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India, living there for a few years. He was forty-four years old when he went on the journeys with Mahmud of Ghazni. Biruni became acquainted with all things related to India. During this time he wrote his study of India, finishing it around 1030. Along with his writing, Al-Biruni also made sure to extend his study to science while on the expeditions. He sought to find a method to measure the height of the sun, and created a makeshift quadrant for that purpose. Al-Biruni was able to make much progress in his study over the frequent travels that he went on throughout the lands of India.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Belonging to the Sunni Ash'ari school, al-Biruni nevertheless also associated with Maturidi theologians. He was however, very critical of the Mu'tazila, particularly criticising al-Jahiz and Zurqan. He also repudiated Avicenna for his views on the eternality of the universe.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Ninety-five of 146 books known to have been written by Bīrūnī are devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like mathematical geography. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, when the Abbasid Caliphs promoted astronomical research, because such research possessed not only a scientific but also a religious dimension: in Islam worship and prayer require a knowledge of the precise directions of sacred locations, which can be determined accurately only through the use of astronomical data.


title: Al-Biruni

text: In carrying out his research, Al-Biruni used a variety of different techniques dependent upon the particular field of study involved.


title: Al-Biruni

text: His major work on astrology is primarily an astronomical and mathematical text; he states: "I have begun with Geometry and proceeded to Arithmetic and the Science of Numbers, then to the structure of the Universe and finally to Judicial Astrology, for no one who is worthy of the style and title of Astrologer who is not thoroughly conversant with these for sciences." In these earlier chapters he lays the foundations for the final chapter, on astrological prognostication, which he criticises. He was the first to make the semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology and, in a later work, wrote a refutation of astrology, in contradistinction to the legitimate science of astronomy, for which he expresses wholehearted support. Some suggest that his reasons for refuting astrology relate to the methods used by astrologers being based upon pseudoscience rather than empiricism and also to a conflict between the views of the astrologers and those of the orthodox theologians of Sunni Islam.


title: Al-Biruni

text: He wrote an extensive commentary on Indian astronomy in the "Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind" mostly translation of Aryabhatta's work, in which he claims to have resolved the matter of Earth's rotation in a work on astronomy that is no longer extant, his "Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy)":


title: Al-Biruni

text: [T]he rotation of the earth does in no way impair the value of astronomy, as all appearances of an astronomic character can quite as well be explained according to this theory as to the other. There are, however, other reasons which make it impossible. This question is most difficult to solve. The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving of the earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called "Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy)", in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter.


title: Al-Biruni

text: In his description of Sijzi's astrolabe he hints at contemporary debates about the movement of the Earth. He carried on a lengthy correspondence and sometimes heated debate with Ibn Sina, in which Biruni repeatedly attacks Aristotle's celestial physics: he argues by simple experiment that the vacuum state must exist; he is "amazed" by the weakness of Aristotle's argument against elliptical orbits on the basis that they would create a vacuum; he attacks the immutability of the celestial spheres.


title: Al-Biruni

text: In his major astronomical work, the "Mas'ud Canon", Biruni observed that, contrary to Ptolemy, the Sun's apogee (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed. He wrote a treatise on the astrolabe, describing how to use it to tell the time and as a quadrant for surveying. One particular diagram of an eight geared device could be considered an ancestor of later Muslim astrolabes and clocks. More recently, Biruni's eclipse data was used by Dunthorne in 1749 to help determine the acceleration of the moon, and his data on equinox times and eclipses was used as part of a study of Earth's past rotation.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Al-Biruni was the person who first subdivided the hour sexagesimally into minutes, seconds, thirds and fourths in 1000 while discussing Jewish months.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Like later adherents of the Ash'ari school, such as al-Ghazali, al-Biruni is famous for vehemently defending the majority Sunni position that the universe had a beginning, being a strong supporter of , specifically refuting the philosopher Avicenna in a multiple letter correspondence. Al-Biruni stated the following,


title: Al-Biruni

text: He further stated that Aristotle, whose arguments Avicenna uses, contradicted himself when he stated that the universe and matter has a start whilst holding on to the idea that matter is pre-eternal. In his letters to Avicenna, he stated the argument of Aristotle, that there is a change in the creator. He further argued that stating there is a change in the creator would mean there is a change in the effect (meaning the universe has change) and that the universe coming into being after not being is such a change (and so arguing there is no change – no beginning – means Aristotle believes the creator is negated). Al-Biruni was proud of the fact that he followed the textual evidence of the religion without being influenced by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Al-Biruni contributed to the introduction of the scientific method to medieval mechanics. He developed experimental methods to determine density, using a particular type of hydrostatic balance.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Bīrūnī devised a novel method of determining the Earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at Nandana in Pind Dadan Khan (present-day Pakistan). He used trigonometry to calculate the radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill. His calculated radius for the Earth of 3928.77 miles was 2% higher than the actual mean radius of 3847.80 miles. His estimate was given as 12,803,337 cubits, so the accuracy of his estimate compared to the modern value depends on what conversion is used for cubits. The exact length of a cubit is not clear; with an 18-inch cubit his estimate would be 3,600 miles, whereas with a 22-inch cubit his estimate would be 4,200 miles. One significant problem with this approach is that Al-Biruni was not aware of atmospheric refraction and made no allowance for it. He used a dip angle of 34 arc minutes in his calculations, but refraction can typically alter the measured dip angle by about 1/6, making his calculation only accurate to within about 20% of the true value.


title: Al-Biruni

text: In his "Codex Masudicus" (1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between Asia and Europe, or what is today known as the Americas. He argued for its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the Earth's circumference and Afro-Eurasia's size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, reasoning that the geological processes that gave rise to Eurasia must surely have given rise to lands in the vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that at least some of the unknown landmass would lie within the known latitudes which humans could inhabit, and therefore would be inhabited.


title: Al-Biruni

text: Biruni wrote a pharmacopoeia, the "Kitab al-saydala fi al-tibb" (Book on the Pharmacopoeia of Medicine). It lists synonyms for drug names in Syriac, Persian, Greek, Baluchi, Afghan, Kurdi, and some Indian languages.