title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo people traditionally used the "gadaa" system as the primary form of governance. A leader is elected by the "gadaa" system and their term lasts eight years, with an election taking place at the end of those eight years. Although most modern Oromos are Muslims and Christians, about 3% practice Waaqeffanna, the native ancient monotheistic religion of Oromos.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo people are one of the oldest cushitic peoples inhabiting the Horn of Africa, as there is still no correct estimate of the history of their settlement in the region, but many indications suggest that they have been living in north Kenya and south-east Ethiopia for more than 7000 years until the great expansion in 1520 where then they expanded to the south-west and some locations in the north. An evidence is given that they are the womb from which most of the eastern Cushitic peoples emerged , such as the Somalis, Afaris, and the Saho in Eritrea and Sudan.


title: Oromo people

text: Both older and subsequent colonial era documents mention and refer to the Oromo people as "Galla", which has now developed derogatory connotations, but these documents were generally written by members of other ethnic groups. The first verifiable record mentioning the Oromo people by a European cartographer is in the map made by the Italian Fra Mauro in 1460, which uses the term "Galla".


title: Oromo people

text: However, Fra Mauro's term "Galla" was the most used until the early 20th century. The term, stated Juxon Barton in 1924, was in use for Oromo people by Abyssinians and Arabs. It was a term for a river and a forest, as well as for the pastoral people established in the highlands of southern Ethiopia. This historical information, according to Mohammed Hassen, is consistent with the written and oral traditions of the Somalis. A journal published by the International African Institute suggests it is an Oromo word (adopted by neighbors), for there is a word, , meaning 'wandering' or 'to go home' in their language.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo never called themselves "Galla" and resist its use because the term is considered derogatory. They traditionally identified themselves by one of their clans ("s") and now use the common umbrella term of "Oromo" which connotes "free born people". The word Oromo is derived from meaning '[The] Children of Orma', or 'Sons of Strangers', or 'Man, stranger'. The first known use of the word "Oromo" to refer to the ethnic group is traceable to 1893.


title: Oromo people

text: After Fra Mauro's mention, there is a profusion of literature about the peoples of this region, including the Oromo, particularly mentioning their wars and resistance to religious conversion, primarily by European explorers and Catholic Christian missionaries. The earliest primary account of Oromo ethnography is the 16th-century "History of Galla" by Christian monk Bahrey who comes from the Sidama country of Gammo, written in the Ge'ez language. According to an 1861 book by D'Abbadie, the Oromo are mentioned as the Galla in several maps and historical events. One mention of the Oromo before the Oromo expansion was when the Oromo led a campaign against the Sultanate of Ifat, the campaign being named Meeshii Dir Dhabi. The Oromo led an expedition against the Issa Dir clan who inhabited the great city. The Cisse clan would be victorious, ending the campaign. The Cisse would rule the city for the next two centuries till the expansion/Migration of the Oromo. One inscription of the Oromo from the 14th century notes that the Oromo inhabited Ethiopia long before the Oromo migration and founded several civilisations, including the Wej, Bale, Arsi, and Dawaro. Sihabudin also mentioned that the Werra Qallo, who now inhabit Hararghe, were living in Dawaro long before the Oromo migration. Historical evidence suggests that the Oromo people were already established in the southern highlands in or before the 15th century and that at least some Oromo people were interacting with other Ethiopian ethnic groups. According to Alessandro Triulzi, the Oromo would get in contact and interact with the Nilo Saharan Groups.


title: Oromo people

text: Historical linguistics and comparative ethnology studies suggest that the Oromo people probably originated around the lakes Lake Chew Bahir and Lake Chamo. They are a Cushitic people who have inhabited the East and Northeast Africa since at least the early 1st millennium. The aftermath of the sixteenth century Ethiopian–Adal war led to Oromos to move to the north. The Harla were assimilated by the Oromo in Ethiopia. While Oromo people have lived in the region for a long time, the ethnic mixture of peoples who have lived here is unclear. The Oromos increased their numbers through Oromization ("Meedhicca", "Mogasa" and "Gudifacha"), assimilation, and forced assimilation of other ethnic groups, as well as the inclusion of mixed peoples ("Gabbaro"). The native ancient names of the territories were replaced by the name of the Oromo clans who conquered it while the people were made Gabbaros.


title: Oromo people

text: The earliest known documented and detailed history of the Oromo people was by the Ethiopian monk Bahrey who wrote "Zenahu lä Galla" in 1593, though the synonymous term "Gallas" was mentioned in maps or elsewhere much earlier. After the 16th century, they are mentioned more often, such as in the records left by Abba Paulos, Joao Bermudes, Jerónimo Lobo, Galawdewos, Sarsa Dengel and others. These records suggest that the Oromo were pastoral people in their history who stayed together. Their animal herds expanded rapidly, and they needed more grazing lands. They began migrating, not together, but after separating. They lacked kings, and had elected leaders called based on a system of government instead. By the late 16th century, two major Oromo confederations emerged: Afre and Sadaqa, which respectively refer to "four" and "three" in their language, with Afre emerging from four older clans, and Sadaqa out of three. These Oromo confederations were originally located in southern Ethiopia, specifically the northwest of the Borena Zone near Lake Abaya, but started moving north in the 16th century in what is termed as the "Great Oromo Migration".


title: Oromo people

text: According to Richard Pankhurst, a British-born Ethiopian historian, this migration is linked to the first incursions into inland Horn of Africa by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim. According to historian Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst, the migration was one of the consequences of the fierce Ethiopian–Adal war which killed a lot of people and depopulated the regions near the Galla lands, but also probably a result of droughts in their traditional homelands. Further, they acquired horses and their system helped coordinate well-equipped Oromo warriors who enabled fellow Oromos to advance and settle into newer regions starting in the 1520s. This expansion continued through the 17th century.


title: Oromo people

text: Historically, Afaan Oromo-speaking people used their own Gadaa system of governance. Oromos also had a number of independent kingdoms, which they shared with the Sidama people. Among these were the Gibe region kingdoms of Gera, Gomma, Garo, Gumma, Jimma, Leeqa-Nekemte and Limmu-Ennarea.


title: Oromo people

text: They would also establish dynasties such as the Yejju dynasty that would be de-facto rulers of Ethiopian Empire from 1769-1855 this period was known as Zemene Mesafint, they would particularly have control over the provinces of Begemder and Gojjam. Notable rulers such as Gugsa of Yejju found cities like Debre Tabor and for a period even change the official language of the empire from Amharic to Oromiffa during the rule of the half-Oromo emperor Iyoas I.


title: Oromo people

text: Oromos would also establish several Muslim states and dynasties in what was Wollo Province: six to be exact; this included Qallu, House of the Borana and Gattiroch, the Arreloch, and the two longest and the most important ones: the Yejju dynasty and the Warra Himano, also called the Mahammadoch dynasty.


title: Oromo people

text: The Warra Himano (1700–1916) would use Islam as a resistance ideology with vigorous, creative ways to resist the Christian Abyssinian territorial expansion and cultural encroachment. This was the second Muslim Oromo state to be established in Wollo, the first to declare jihad in the name and interest of Islam, the first to adopt the title of "imam" for its rulers and the longest lasting one. It reached its zenith of power under Imam Muhammad Ali (1771–1785), a far sighted leader, a resourceful politician and a fervent Muslim who made Sharia the basis of the law in the state.


title: Oromo people

text: Under another ruler, Amade II (1815–1838), Wollo would become the most active centre of Islamic teachings in the Horn of Africa. Amade is even reported to have asked Muhammad Ali of Egypt to help him conquer and convert northern Ethiopia and its peoples. He was considered by many to be one of the most important, if not the most important, Muslim ruler of Ethiopia. By his time, Wollo had become a veritable Islamic state in the heartland of Christian Ethiopia; the rise of Muslim Oromo power in Wollo was instrumental in the revival of Christian nationalism in Abyssinia.


title: Oromo people

text: The Warra Himano dynasty would convert many Amhara Christians to Islam during its rule, and at the zenith of its power Mammadoch dynasty had their hegemony accepted in the various parts of Wollo: Ambasel, Qallu, Borena, Wore-Illu and Amhara Sayint. The territory extended from the Abbay river in the west to the Qallu and Garfa area in the east and the Wänchit and Jama rivers in the south. Moreover, under the leadership of Kollasse Amade, the Mammedoch had even started to take part in the power struggle among the lords of northern Ethiopia at Gonder.


title: Oromo people

text: Notable rulers such as Ras Mikael of Wollo King of Wollo and the uncrowned emperor of Ethiopia, Lij Iyasu (1913–1916), descend from this ruling family.


title: Oromo people

text: Both peaceful integration and violent competition between Oromos and other neighboring ethnicities such as the Amhara, Sidama, Afar and the Somali affected politics in the Oromo community. Between 1500 and 1800, there were waves of wars and struggle between highland Christians, coastal Muslims and the polytheist population in the Horn of Africa. This caused a major redistribution of populations. The northern, eastern and western movement of the Oromos from the south around 1535 mirrored the large-scale expansion by Somalis inland. The 1500–1800 period also saw relocation of the Amhara people, and helped influence contemporary ethnic politics in Ethiopia.


title: Oromo people

text: According to oral and literary evidence, the Borana Oromo clan and Garre Somali clan mutually victimized each other in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly near their eastern borders. There were also periods of relative peace.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromos are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia (34.9% of the population), numbering about 37 million. They are predominantly concentrated in the Oromia Region in central Ethiopia, the largest region in the country by both population and area. They speak Afaan Oromoo, the official language of Oromia. Oromos constitute the third most populous ethnic group among Africans as a whole and the most populous among Horners specifically.


title: Oromo people

text: Oromo also have a notable presence in northern Kenya in the Marsabit County, Isiolo County and Tana River County Totaling to about 656,636: 276,236 Borana 141,200 Gabra 158,000 Orma 45,200 Sakuye 20,000 Waata 16,000 Munyo Yaya. There are also Oromo in the former Wollo and Tigray provinces of Ethiopia.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo consist of two major branches that break down into an assortment of clan families. From west to east: the Borana Oromo, also called the "Booranaa", are a semi-pastoralist group living in southern Oromia and northern Kenya. The Borana inhabit the Borena Zone of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia and the former Northern Frontier District (now northern Kenya) of Northern Kenya. They speak a dialect of Afaan Oromo, the Oromo language.


title: Oromo people

text: Barentu/Barentoo or (older) "Baraytuma" is the other moiety of the Oromo people. The Barentu Oromo inhabit the eastern parts of the Oromia Region in the Zones of West Hararghe, Arsi Zone, Bale Zone, Dire Dawa city, the Jijiga Zone of the Somali Region, Administrative Zone 3 of the Afar Region, Oromia Zone of the Amhara Region, and are also found in the Raya Azebo Aanaas in the Tigray Region.


title: Oromo people

text: Oromo is written with Latin characters known as "Qubee". The Sapalo script was invented by the Oromo scholar Sheikh Bakri Sapalo (also known by his birth name, Abubaker Usman Odaa) during the 1950s. Oromo serves as one of the official languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari, Dire Dawa, Benishangul-Gumuz and Addis Ababa and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along with Tigrinya.


title: Oromo people

text: More than 33.8% of Ethiopia's population are Oromo mother-tongue speakers, which makes it the most widely spoken primary language in Ethiopia. It is also the most widely spoken Cushitic language and the fourth-most widely spoken language of Africa, after Arabic, Hausa and Swahili. Oromo is spoken as a first language by more than 37 million Oromo people in Ethiopia and by an additional half-million in parts of northern and eastern Kenya. It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries, such as South Africa, Libya, Egypt and Sudan.


title: Oromo people

text: Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language, such as the Omotic-speaking Bambassi and the Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kwama in western Ethiopia.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo followed their traditional religion, Waaqeffanna, and were resistant to religious conversion before assimilation in sultanates and Christian kingdoms. The influential 30-year war from 1529 to 1559 between the three parties – the Oromo, the Christians and the Muslims – dissipated the political strengths of all three. The religious beliefs of the Oromo people evolved in this socio-political environment. In the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, Protestant or Catholic missionaries' efforts spread Christianity among the Oromo. Organizations included the Sudan Interior Mission, the Bible Churchmen's Missionary Society, the Seventh-Day Adventists, the United Presbyterian Mission of the USA, the Church Mission to the Jews, Evangeliska Fosterlands-Stiftelsen, Bibeltrogna Vänner, and the Hermannsburg Mission.


title: Oromo people

text: In the mid and late 19th century, the Ethiopian emperors were faced with widespread rifts and disputes in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and crippling ethnic and religious divisions that plagued the empire and exposed it to the intervention and meddling of neighboring Muslims (especially Egypt and the Ottoman Empire) and European powers. The emperors that ruled in that period, Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menelik II, thus strove to suppress disunion and schism both within and without the Ethiopian Church and were often intolerant towards other religions. The Wollo Oromo, the Arsi Oromo, and the Tulama Oromo were among those who violently clashed with the Ethiopian expansion in the region in the 19th century and the empire's attempts at enforcing unity through the propagation of Orthodox Christianity, as the majority of these groups were not Christian at the time.


title: Oromo people

text: In the 2007 Ethiopian census for Oromia region, which included both Oromo and non-Oromo residents, there was a total of 13,107,963 followers of Christianity (8,204,908 Orthodox, 4,780,917 Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 12,835,410 followers of Islam, 887,773 followers of traditional religions, and 162,787 followers of other religions. Accordingly, the Oromia region is 48.1% Christian (8,204,908 or 30.4% Orthodox, 4,780,917 or 17.7% Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 47.6% Muslim and 3.3% followers of traditional religions


title: Oromo people

text: According to a 2016 estimate by James Minahan, about half of the Oromo people are Sunni Muslim, a third are Ethiopian Orthodox, and the rest are mostly Protestants or follow their traditional religious beliefs. The traditional religion is more common in southern Oromo populations and Christianity more common in and near the urban centers, while Islam is more common near the Somali border and in the north.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromos' cuisine consists of various vegetable and meat side dishes and entrées. Oromo do not eat pork. Ancestors of today's Oromo people in a region of Oromia in Ethiopia were the first to cultivate the coffee plant and recognise the energising effect of coffee.


title: Oromo people

text: Oromo people governed themselves in accordance with the Gadaa system long before the 16th century. The system regulates the political, economic, social and religious activities of the community. Oromo were traditionally a culturally homogeneous society with genealogical ties. A male born in the Oromo clan went through five stages of eight years, where his life established his role and status for consideration to a "Gadaa" office. Every eight years, the Oromo would choose by consensus nine leaders for the office. A leader elected by the "Gadaa" system remains in power only for eight years, with an election taking place at the end of those eight years.


title: Oromo people

text: There are three "Gadaa" organs of governance: Gadaa Council, Gadaa General Assembly (), and the Qallu Assembly. The Gadaa Council is considered the collective achievement of the members of the Gadaa class. It is responsible for coordinating irreecha. The Gadaa General Assembly is the legislative body of the Gadaa government, while the Qallu Assembly is the religious institution.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo people developed a lunisolar calendar; different geographically and religiously distinct Oromo communities use the same calendar. This calendar is sophisticated and similar to ones found among the Chinese, the Hindus and the Mayans. It was tied to the traditional religion of the Oromos, and used to schedule the "Gadaa" system of elections and power transfer.


title: Oromo people

text: The Borana Oromo calendar system was once thought to be based upon an earlier Cushitic calendar developed around 300 BC found at Namoratunga. Reconsideration of the Namoratunga site led astronomer and archaeologist Clive Ruggles to conclude that there is no relationship. The new year of the Oromo people, according to this calendar, falls in the month of October. The calendar has no weeks but a name for each day of the month. It is a lunar-stellar calendar system.


title: Oromo people

text: Some modern authors such as Gemetchu Megerssa have proposed the concept of , or 'Oromoness' as a cultural common between Oromo people. The word is derived by combining "Oromo" with the Arabic term "ummah" (community). However, according to Terje Østebø and other scholars, this term is a neologism from the late 1990s and its link Oromo ethno-nationalism and Salafi Islamic discourse has been questioned, in their disagreement with Christian Amhara and other ethnic groups.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo people, depending on their geographical location and historical events, have variously converted to Islam, to Christianity, or remained with their traditional religion (Waaqeffanna). According to Gemetchu Megerssa, the subjective reality is that "neither traditional Oromo rituals nor traditional Oromo beliefs function any longer as a cohesive and integral symbol system" for the Oromo people, not just regionally but even locally. The cultural and ideological divergence within the Oromo people, in part from their religious differences, is apparent from the constant impetus for negotiations between broader Oromo spokespersons and those Oromo who are Ahl al-Sunna followers, states Terje Østebø. The internally evolving cultural differences within the Oromos have led some scholars such as Mario Aguilar and Abdullahi Shongolo to conclude that "a common identity acknowledged by all Oromo in general does not exist".


title: Oromo people

text: Like other ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa and East Africa, Oromo people regionally developed social stratification consisting of four hierarchical strata. The highest strata were the nobles called the ; below them were the (some 17th- to 19th-century Ethiopian texts refer them as the ). Below these two upper castes were the despised castes of artisans, and at the lowest level were the slaves.


title: Oromo people

text: In the Islamic Kingdom of Jimma, the Oromo society's caste strata predominantly consisted of endogamous, inherited artisanal occupations. Each caste group has specialized in a particular occupation such as iron working, carpentry, weapon making, pottery, weaving, leather-working and hunting.


title: Oromo people

text: Each caste in the Oromo society had a designated name. For example, were smiths, were potters, were tanners and leatherworkers, were weavers, were beekeepers and honey-makers, and were hunters and foragers. While slaves were a stratum within the society, many Oromos, regardless of caste, were sold into slavery elsewhere. By the 19th century, Oromo slaves were sought after and a major part of slaves sold in Gondar and Gallabat slave markets at Ethiopia-Sudan border, as well as the Massawa and Tajura markets on the Red Sea.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo people are engaged in many occupations. The southern Oromo (specifically the Borana Oromo) are largely pastoralists who raise goats and cattle. Other Oromo groups have a more diverse economy which includes agriculture and work in urban centers. Some Oromo also sell many products and food items like coffee beans (coffee being a favorite beverage among the Oromo) at local markets.


title: Oromo people

text: In December 2009, a 96-page report titled "Human Rights in Ethiopia: Through the Eyes of the Oromo Diaspora", compiled by the Advocates for Human Rights, documented human rights violations against the Oromo in Ethiopia under three successive regimes: the Ethiopian Empire under Haile Selassie, the Marxist Derg and the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), dominated by members of the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and which was accused to have arrested approximately 20,000 suspected OLF members, to have driven most OLF leadership into exile, and to have effectively neutralized the OLF as a political force in Ethiopia.


title: Oromo people

text: According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Oromia Support Group (OSG) recorded 594 extrajudicial killings of Oromos by Ethiopian government security forces and 43 disappearances in custody between 2005 and August 2008.


title: Oromo people

text: Starting in November 2015, during a wave of mass protests, mainly by Oromos, over the expansion of the municipal boundary of the city of Addis Ababa into Oromia, over 500 people have been killed and many more have been injured, according to human-rights advocates and independent monitors. The protests have since spread to other ethnic groups and encompass wider social grievances. Ethiopia declared a state of emergency in response to Oromo and Amhara protests in October 2016.


title: Oromo people

text: With the rising political unrest, there was ethnic violence involving the Oromo such as the Oromo–Somali clashes between the Oromo and the ethnic Somalis, leading to up to 400,000 displaced in 2017. Gedeo–Oromo clashes between the Oromo and the Gedeo people in the south of the country and continued violence in the Oromia-Somali border region led to Ethiopia having the largest number of people in the world fleeing their homes in 2018, with 1.4 million newly displaced people. In September 2018, in the minority protest that took place in Oromia near Addis Ababa, 23 people were killed following the deaths of 43 Oromos in the Addis Ababa neighborhood of Saris Abo. Some have blamed the rise in ethnic violence in the Oromia Special Zone Surrounding Finfinne on the Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed for giving space to groups formerly banned by previous Tigrayan-led governments, such as the Oromo Liberation Front and Ginbot 7.


title: Oromo people

text: Protests broke out across Ethiopia, chiefly in the Oromia region, following the assassination of musician Hachalu Hundessa on 29 June 2020, leading to the deaths of at least 200 people. On 30 June 2020, a statue of former Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie in London was destroyed by Oromo protestors in response to the killing of popular singer Hachalu Hundessa and grievances of the Oromo language being banned from education, and the use in administration under the Haile Selassie regime.


title: Oromo people

text: The Oromo have played a major role in the internal dynamics of Ethiopia. Accordingly, Oromos played major roles in all three main political movements in Ethiopia (centralist, federalist and secessionist) during the 19th and 20th century. In addition to holding high powers during the centralist government and the monarchy, the Raya Oromos in the Tigray regional state played a major role in the Weyane revolt, challenging Emperor Haile Selassie I 's rule in the 1940s. Simultaneously, both federalist and secessionist political forces developed inside the Oromo community.


title: Oromo people

text: At present a number of ethnic-based political organizations have been formed to promote the interests of the Oromo. The first was the Mecha and Tulama Self-Help Association was founded in January 1963, but was disbanded by the government after several increasingly tense confrontations in November 1966. Later groups include the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (OFDM), the United Liberation Forces of Oromia (ULFO), the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Oromia (IFLO), the Oromia Liberation Council (OLC), the Oromo National Congress (ONC, recently changed to OPC) and others. Another group, the Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO), is one of the four parties that form the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) coalition. The ONC, for example, was part of the United Ethiopian Democratic Forces coalition that challenged the EPRDF in the Ethiopian general elections of 2005.


title: Oromo people

text: A number of these groups seek to create an independent Oromo nation, some using armed force. Meanwhile, the ruling OPDO and several opposition political parties in the Ethiopian parliament believe in ethnic federalism. However, most Oromo opposition parties in Ethiopia condemn the economic and political inequalities in the country. Progress has been very slow, with the Oromia International Bank established in 2008, though the Oromo-owned Awash International Bank started in the early 1990s.


title: Oromo people

text: Radio broadcasts began in the Oromo language in Somalia in 1960 by Radio Mogadishu. Within Kenya there has been radio broadcasting in Oromo (in the Borana dialect) on the Voice of Kenya since at least the 1980s. Broadcasting in Oromo thought in Ethiopia as it would break radio until 1974 revolution in which Radio Harar began broadcasting. The first private Afaan Oromoo newspaper in Ethiopia, "Jimma Times", also known as , was recently established, but it has faced a lot of harassment and persecution from the Ethiopian government since its beginning. Abuse of Oromo media is widespread in Ethiopia and reflective of the general oppression Oromos face in the country.


title: Oromo people

text: Various human rights organizations have publicized the government persecution of Oromos in Ethiopia for decades. In 2008, the OFDM opposition party condemned the government's indirect role in the death of hundreds of Oromos in western Ethiopia. According to Amnesty International, "between 2011 and 2014, at least 5000 Oromos have been arrested based on their actual or suspected peaceful opposition to the government. These include thousands of peaceful protestors and hundreds of opposition political party members. The government anticipates a high level of opposition in Oromia, and signs of dissent are sought out and regularly, sometimes pre-emptively, suppressed. In numerous cases, actual or suspected dissenters have been detained without charge or trial, killed by security services during protests, arrests and in detention."


title: Oromo people

text: According to Amnesty International, there is a sweeping repression in the Oromo region of Ethiopia. On 12 December 2015, the German broadcaster Deutsche Welle reported violent protests in the Oromo region of Ethiopia in which more than 20 students were killed. According to the report, the students were protesting against the government's re-zoning plan named 'Addis Ababa Master Plan'.


title: Oromo people

text: On 2 October 2016, between 55 and 300 festival-goers were massacred at the most sacred and largest event among the Oromo, the Irreechaa cultural thanksgiving festival. In just one day, dozens were killed and many more injured in what will go down in history as one of the darkest days for the Oromo people. Every year, millions of Oromos, the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, gather in Bishoftu for this annual celebration. That year, however, the festive mood quickly turned chaotic after Ethiopian security forces responded to peaceful protests by firing tear gas and live bullets at over two million people surrounded by a lake and cliffs. In the week that followed, angry youth attacked government buildings and private businesses. On 8 October, the government responded with an abusive and far-reaching state of emergency, which was lifted in August 2017. During the state of emergency, security forces arbitrarily detained over 21,000 people.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Zackary Thomas Steffen (born April 2, 1995) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a goalkeeper for EFL Championship club Middlesbrough, on loan from Premier League club Manchester City, and the United States national team.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen began his youth career with West Chester United before joining the Philadelphia Union in 2012. In May 2013, Steffen committed to playing college soccer for the Maryland Terrapins. He established himself as the starting goalkeeper, spending two seasons with the Terrapins before joining German club SC Freiburg, being assigned to play with the reserves. In July 2016, Steffen returned to the United States with the Columbus Crew, joining United Soccer League club Pittsburgh Riverhounds on loan the following month. From the next season, Steffen would establish himself as the starting goalkeeper for the Columbus Crew, winning the Goalkeeper of the Year Award in 2018.


title: Zack Steffen

text: In December 2018, Steffen agreed to join Premier League club Manchester City. He signed in July 2019 before immediately being loaned to Bundesliga side Fortuna Düsseldorf for the 2019–20 season. He was the starting goalkeeper but was then sidelined for the remainder of the loan due to injuries. He returned to Manchester City the following season, serving as a backup to Ederson. In April 2021, Steffen won his first career championship, starting in the final of the EFL Cup. He kept a clean sheet as Manchester City beat Tottenham Hotspur 1–0.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen had represented the United States youth teams before being called into the senior squad in May 2016. He made his senior debut in January 2018 against Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was the starting goalkeeper for the United States during the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup, leading the side into the final where they were defeated 1–0 by Mexico. He then served as backup to Brad Guzan through the Nations League but then became the starting keeper in the finals. Steffen started the final against Mexico but was substituted in the 69th minute by Ethan Horvath after suffering a knee injury. The United States would go on to win 3–2 in extra time, earning Steffen his first international honor.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Born in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, Steffen began playing soccer at the age of five with local rec league West Bradford Youth Athletics (WBYA). He began his travel soccer career as a defender with local club West Chester United. He switched to become a goalkeeper at the age of 10 after his team's keeper couldn't make it to a game. He joined FC DELCO in 2008, playing for the club in the U.S. Soccer Development Academy through high school. Steffen attended Malvern Preparatory School for his freshman and sophomore years before transferring to Downingtown West High School, appearing for the Whippets in the fall and playing with DELCO in the spring. With Downingtown, he was named the Ches-Mont League MVP as a senior while earning all-PIAA and all-American honors.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen was one of the first players to come through the Philadelphia Union Academy, playing for the Union U17 team in 2012. He was part of the team that won the 2012 Generation Adidas Cup, defeating the Toronto FC Academy in a penalty shootout; the squad also included future pros Connor Maloney, Zach Pfeffer, Drew Skundrich, Brian White, and Zach Zandi, as well as future Penn State kicker Joey Julius, and was coached by Jim Curtin. Steffen was ranked as the no. 1 goalkeeper in the nation by TopDrawerSoccer.com and committed to play collegiately for coach Sasho Cirovski and the Maryland Terrapins, part of a class that ranked third nationally and also included Alex Crognale, Daniel Johnson, and Chris Odoi-Atsem.


title: Zack Steffen

text: On May 29, 2013, Steffen was officially unveiled as part of Maryland's 2013 recruiting class. He made his collegiate debut on August 30, making three saves as part of a 3–3 draw with no. 20 Stanford. Steffen went on to play every minute of the Terrapins' 26 games, tallying a career-high seven saves in a 1–1 draw with Old Dominion on September 24. He brought his hot form into the postseason, making five saves to help Maryland win the 2013 ACC Men's Soccer Tournament and earning himself an All-Atlantic Coast Conference Freshman Team selection. In the 2013 NCAA Division I Men's Soccer Tournament, Steffen made 18 saves in the Terrapins' five matches, helping Maryland make a run to the national championship game; they fell there to Notre Dame by a 2–1 scoreline. He was named as the tournament's Most Outstanding Defensive Player and earned a spot on the College Cup All-Tournament Team.


title: Zack Steffen

text: As Maryland transitioned to the Big Ten Conference in 2014, Steffen kept his place and again played every minute in goal for the Terrapins over their 22 matches. He conceded just 19 goals on the season, keeping nine shutouts as the Terrapins claimed the Big Ten regular season title in their first year in the conference. Steffen made nine saves in the 2014 Big Ten Conference Men's Soccer Tournament, as well as two denials during a penalty shootout in the semifinals, and was tabbed as the tournament's Most Valuable Defensive Player. His last collegiate game, however, saw the Terrapins eliminated in the first round of the 2014 NCAA Division I Men's Soccer Tournament by UMBC. Steffen left the school in December 2014 to sign professionally in Germany, departing Maryland after playing in 48 games for the Terrapins.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Following his sophomore season at Maryland, Steffen departed the Terrapins and signed a professional contract with German club SC Freiburg. He arrived at the club midway through the 2014–15 season and was assigned to SC Freiburg II, the club's reserve team playing in the fourth-tier Regionalliga Südwest. Steffen was named to the bench twice for Freiburg II, but did not make his debut for the reserves until the following season.


title: Zack Steffen

text: On August 1, 2015, Steffen debuted for the Freiburg reserves with a start against 1. FC Saarbrücken; he kept a clean sheet in a 0–0 draw. He earned his first victory with the side on September 26, marking his fifth appearance with a 2–0 victory over SV Saar 05 Saarbrücken. Steffen went on to make 14 appearances for Freiburg II during the 2015–16 season, although the club finished in 15th place in the Regionalliga Südwest and was relegated to the Oberliga. Ahead of the 2016–17 SC Freiburg season, Steffen was training with the senior team; reports out of Germany stated that he would be Freiburg's third-choice goalkeeper for the upcoming season, behind presumed starter Alexander Schwolow and Patric Klandt.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen returned to the United States on July 22, 2016, signing with Major League Soccer club Columbus Crew SC as a Discovery Signing. Although he had previously played for the Union Academy, he had not logged enough training time with Philadelphia to qualify as a Homegrown Player and had never been offered a contract by the Union. Steffen joined the Crew after third-string goalie Matt Pacifici had his season ended by concussions, but was still behind Steve Clark and Brad Stuver on the depth chart. After appearing once on the bench for the Crew, Steffen was sent on loan to United Soccer League club Pittsburgh Riverhounds on August 13. The loan was on a match-by-match basis for the remainder of the 2016 season. He made his Riverhounds debut that same day, making six saves in a 2–1 victory over Bethlehem Steel FC, and would go on to make nine appearances on the year for Pittsburgh. Steffen additionally was named to the bench three times for the Crew without making an appearance.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Ahead of the 2017 season, Steffen was named as the Crew's starting goalkeeper after beating out Stuver and Logan Ketterer to win the job. He made his club debut in the season opener, making two saves in a 1–1 draw against Chicago Fire. He wouldn't relinquish the job, starting all 34 regular season games for the Crew and leading the club to an MLS Cup Playoffs berth after missing out in 2016. Along the way, he twice tallied a career-high seven saves: against Orlando City on August 19 and New York City FC on October 22. In the knockout round of the 2017 MLS Cup Playoffs, Steffen "had the game of his life" against Atlanta United. He made eight saves through 120 minutes of regulation and extra time, then saved two shots during the shoot-out as the Crew advanced 3–1 on penalties. Steffen made 39 total appearances on the season as the Crew were eliminated in the conference finals by Toronto FC.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen missed time during the 2018 season due to international commitments, as well as a mid-season knee injury, but still went on to make 32 total appearances on the year. In one nine-match stretch, ranging from a victory over San Jose Earthquakes on April 28 to a defeat against Atlanta on June 13, Steffen recorded a 525-minute shutout streak, the longest in Crew history. He appeared in seven of those nine matches, missing two while on international duty. He was named to the roster for the 2018 MLS All-Star Game against Italian club Juventus, the first Crew player selected to take part in the All-Star Game since Wil Trapp in 2016. Steffen replaced starting goalie Brad Guzan at halftime and made two saves, but failed to make a stop in the penalty shoot-out as Juventus scored on all five kicks. In the 2018 MLS Cup Playoffs, Steffen repeated his heroics from the previous year: against D.C. United in the knockout round, he saved two kicks in the penalty shoot-out as the Crew advanced. After tallying a career-high 10 clean sheets on the season, Steffen was named as the 2018 MLS Goalkeeper of the Year and earned a spot on the MLS Best XI.


title: Zack Steffen

text: During the summer of 2018, Steffen had been the subject of a $3.9 million offer from English club Bristol City; the Crew turned down the offer, however, saying that replacing Steffen midseason "would have been difficult, if not impossible." Following the season, however, a bid starting at £7 million arrived from fellow English club and defending Premier League champions Manchester City and was accepted by the Crew. As per the agreement, Steffen would remain in Columbus through the opening of the summer transfer window in Major League Soccer. He appeared 13 times in his final half-season with the Crew, playing his final game for the club on June 1, 2019, against New York City FC. Steffen departed Columbus with 26 clean sheets from 84 total appearances.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen signed for English club Manchester City on July 9, 2019. The transfer, for a fee that was estimated at $7 million, was agreed by the two clubs on December 11, 2018. Steffen remained with Columbus until the opening of the summer transfer window in Major League Soccer before moving abroad. Although the exact fee was not reported, Crew SC said it was "the largest in club history and most ever received by an MLS club for a goalkeeper".


title: Zack Steffen

text: It was announced on July 9, 2019, that Steffen would be sent on loan to Fortuna Düsseldorf in the Bundesliga for the 2019–20 season. Düsseldorf sporting director, Lutz Pfannenstiel, noted that Steffen was the "perfect example of a modern goalkeeper" while discussing that he had been scouting the player since he worked at TSG 1899 Hoffenheim.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Throughout the first half of the season Steffen's abilities were noted and his performances for Düsseldorf were described as "outstanding". Steffen started the club's first 17 matches, but suffered an injury to his patellar tendon that kept him out of action throughout the Bundesliga winter break and the COVID-19 pandemic stoppage. While getting back to fitness and preparing to come back from his injury, Steffen suffered another knee injury that prematurely ended his season. Steffen had the second highest number of saves behind the third worst defense in the league before his injuries, and it was thought that Düsseldorf may have avoided relegation if not for his injury.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen and Düsseldorf were in discussions to extend his loan with the club for another season, however, Düsseldorf's relegation ended this possibility.


title: Zack Steffen

text: After City's second choice goalkeeper Claudio Bravo's contract expired, Steffen returned from his loan spell and was named in City's first team for the upcoming 2020–21 season. Steffen was included in the City squad for the first time in the opening game of the season against Wolves and made his debut only three days later, starting against Bournemouth in the League Cup third round, winning 2–1 at the Etihad Stadium. Steffen made his UEFA Champions League debut on December 9, 2020, against Olympique de Marseille in the last game of the group stage, keeping a clean sheet in a 3–0 win.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen made his Premier League debut in a 3–1 away win over Chelsea, replacing Ederson who had tested positive for COVID-19. He then went on to make his debut in the third round of the FA Cup a week later, keeping a clean-sheet in a 3–0 home win over Championship side Birmingham City.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen kept a clean sheet for City in their EFL Cup final win over Tottenham Hotspur on April 25, 2021. He became just the fifth American, and fourth goalkeeper, to win the League/EFL Cup.


title: Zack Steffen

text: On November 4, 2021, Steffen signed a new long-term contract with City, keeping him at the club until 2025. On October 16, 2021, Steffen played his first league match of the season when City won against Burnley with 2–0 at home. On December 7, he made his second appearance in the Champions League during his career when City lost 2–1 to RB Leipzig at Red Bull Arena. On April 16, 2022, Steffen started in the FA Cup semi final at Wembley against Liverpool. He made a high-profile error, being tackled by Sadio Mané to give Liverpool a 2–0 lead. Liverpool would go on to win 3–2.


title: Zack Steffen

text: On July 19, 2022, he joined EFL Championship club Middlesbrough on a season-long loan from Manchester City.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen was the starting goalkeeper for the United States under-20 side at the 2015 CONCACAF U-20 Championship and the 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup. On June 10, 2015, his save on a penalty kick attempted by Jarlan Barrera helped the U.S. to an upset of Colombia in the Round of 16 of the World Cup.


title: Zack Steffen

text: On May 16, 2016, Steffen received his first callup to the United States national team for a camp based in Puerto Rico. Steffen did not make an appearance, but in January 2018, he was called again into camp for a friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina, against which he made his debut. He made his second appearance in a friendly against Paraguay, recording his first clean sheet in a 1–0 victory, on March 27, 2018, at WakeMed Soccer Park in Cary, North Carolina. On June 9, 2018, at the Parc Olympique Lyonnais in Lyon, Steffen notched seven saves against eventual 2018 FIFA World Cup champions France, including back-to-back saves in the dying seconds of stoppage time against Nabil Fekir and Ousmane Dembélé, as the United States drew France 1–1.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen's sister, Katy, played college softball at Penn State University's Brandywine campus. His other sister, Lexy, briefly played collegiate soccer at West Chester University, appearing in one game in 2015 as a goalkeeper. Zack Steffen has the phrase "forever my family", as well as four German words, tattooed on his rib cage in honor of his four younger siblings. He majored in marketing while at Maryland. He is the oldest of five children, with the others being brothers Ben and Cole.


title: Zack Steffen

text: Steffen is a co-founder of "VOYCENOW Foundation", a non-profit organization that brings athletes and fans together to help Black communities in America and fight for equality.


title: Business administration

text: Business administration, also known as business management, is the administration of a commercial enterprise. It includes all aspects of overseeing and supervising the business operations of an organization. From the point of view of management and leadership, it also covers fields that include office building administration, accounting, finance, designing, development, quality assurance, data analysis, sales, project management, information-technology management, research and development, and marketing.


title: Business administration

text: The administration of a business includes the performance or management of business operations and decision-making, as well as the efficient organization of people and other resources to direct activities towards common goals and objectives. In general, "administration" refers to the broader management function, including the associated finance, personnel and MIS services.


title: Business administration

text: Administration can refer to the bureaucratic or operational performance of routine office tasks, usually internally oriented and reactive rather than proactive. Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions to meet an organization's goals. Henri Fayol (1841-1925) described these "functions" of the administrator as "the five elements of administration". According to Fayol, the five functions of management are planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.


title: Business administration

text: The Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA, B.B.A., BSBA, B.S.B.A., BS, B.S., or B.Sc.) or Bachelor of Commerce (Bcom. or BComm) is a bachelor's degree in commerce and business administration. The duration of the degree is four years in the United States and three years in Europe. The degree is designed to give a broad knowledge of the functional aspects of a company and their interconnection, while also allowing for specialization in a particular area. The degree also develops the student's practical, managerial and communication skills, and business decision-making capability to succeed in the competitive world. Many programs incorporate training and practical experience, in the form of case projects, presentations, internships, industrial visits, and interaction with experts from industry.


title: Business administration

text: The Master of Business Administration (MBA or M.B.A.) is a master's degree in business administration with a significant focus on management. The MBA degree originated in the United States in the early-20th century, when the nation industrialized and companies sought scientific approaches to management. The core courses in an MBA program cover various areas of business such as accounting, finance, marketing, human resources, and operations in a manner most relevant to management analysis and strategy. Most programs also include elective courses.


title: Business administration

text: The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA, D.B.A., DrBA, or Dr.B.A.) is a research doctorate awarded on the basis of advanced study and research in the field of business administration. The D.B.A. is a terminal degree in business administration, and is equivalent to the Ph.D. in Business Administration.


title: Business administration

text: The PhD in Management is the highest academic degree awarded in the study of business management. The degree is intended for those seeking academic research- and teaching-careers as faculty or professors in the study of management at business schools worldwide.


title: Business administration

text: A newer form of a management doctorate is the Doctor of Management (D.M., D.Mgt., DBA, or DMan). It is a doctoral degree conferred upon an individual who is trained through advanced study and research in the applied science and professional practice of management. This doctorate has elements of both research and practice relative to social and managerial concerns within society and organizations.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: The First Battle of Kiev was the German name for the operation that resulted in a huge encirclement of Soviet troops in the vicinity of Kiev during World War II. This encirclement is considered the largest encirclement in the history of warfare (by number of troops). The operation ran from 7 July to 26 September 1941, as part of Operation Barbarossa, the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: Much of the Southwestern Front of the Red Army (commanded by Mikhail Kirponos) was encircled, but small groups of Red Army troops managed to escape the pocket days after the German panzers met east of the city, including the headquarters of Marshal Semyon Budyonny, Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and Commissar Nikita Khrushchev. Kirponos was trapped behind German lines and was killed while trying to break out.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: The battle was an unprecedented defeat for the Red Army, exceeding even the Battle of Białystok–Minsk of June–July 1941. The encirclement trapped 452,700 soldiers, 2,642 guns and mortars, and 64 tanks, of which scarcely 15,000 had escaped from the encirclement by 2 October. The Southwestern Front suffered 700,544 casualties, including 616,304 killed, captured, or missing during the battle. The 5th, 37th, 26th, 21st, and 38th armies, consisting of 43 divisions, were almost annihilated and the 40th Army suffered many losses. Like the Western Front before it, the Southwestern Front had to be recreated almost from scratch.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: After the rapid progress of Army Group Centre through the central sector of the Eastern front, a huge salient developed around its junction with Army Group South by late July 1941. On 7–8 July 1941, the German forces managed to break through the fortified Stalin Line, in the southeast portion of Zhytomyr Oblast, which ran along the 1939 Soviet border. By 11 July 1941, the Axis ground forces reached the Dnieper tributary Irpin River ( to the west from Kiev). The initial attempt to enter the city right away was thwarted by troops of the Kiev ukrep-raion (KUR, Kiev fortified district) and counter offensive of 5th and 6th armies. Following that the advance on Kiev was halted and main effort shifted towards the Korosten ukrep-raion where the Soviet 5th Army was concentrated. At the same time the 1st Panzer Army was forced to transition to defense due to a counteroffensive of the Soviet 26th Army. A substantial Soviet force, nearly the entire Southwestern Front, positioned in and around Kiev was located in the salient. By the end of July, the Soviet front lost some of its units due to the critical situation of the Southern Front (6th and 12th armies) caused by the German 17th army.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: While lacking mobility and armor, due to high losses in tanks at the Battle of Uman, on 3 August 1941, they nonetheless posed a significant threat to the German advance and were the largest single concentration of Soviet troops on the Eastern Front at that time. Both Soviet 6th and 12th armies were encircled at Uman, where some 102,000 Red Army soldiers and officers were taken prisoner.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: On 30 July 1941, the German forces resumed their advance onto Kiev, with the German 6th army attacking positions between the Soviet 26th army and the Kiev ukrep-raion troops. On 7 August 1941, their advance was halted again by the Soviet 5th, 37th, and 26th armies, supported by the Pinsk Naval Flotilla. With the help of the local population around the city of Kiev, anti-tanks ditches were dug and other obstacles were installed, including the establishment of 750 pillboxes and 100,000 mines planted along the frontline segment. Some 35,000 soldiers were mobilized from local population along with some partisan detachments and two armored trains.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: On 19 July, Adolf Hitler had issued Directive No. 33, which cancelled the assault on Moscow in favor of driving south to complete the encirclement of Soviet forces surrounded in Kiev. On 12 August 1941, Supplement to Directive No. 34 was issued. This directive represented a compromise between Hitler, who was convinced the correct strategy was to clear the salient occupied by Soviet forces on right flank of Army Group Center, in the vicinity of Kiev, before resuming the drive to Moscow, and Franz Halder, Fedor von Bock and Heinz Guderian, who advocated an advance on Moscow, as soon as possible. The compromise required 2nd and 3rd Panzer Groups of Army Group Centre, which were redeploying in order to aid Army Group North and Army Group South respectively, be returned to Army Group Centre, together with the 4th Panzer Group of Army Group North, once their objectives were achieved. Then the three Panzer Groups, under the control of Army Group Center, would lead the advance on Moscow. Initially, Halder, chief of staff of the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH), and Bock, commander of Army Group Center, were satisfied by the compromise, but soon their optimism faded as the operational realities of the plan proved too challenging.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: On 18 August, the OKH submitted a strategic survey ("Denkschrift") to Hitler, regarding the continuation of operations in the East. The paper made the case for the drive to Moscow, arguing once again that Army Groups North and South were strong enough to accomplish their objectives without any assistance from Army Group Center. It pointed out that there was enough time left before winter to conduct only a single decisive operation against Moscow.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: On 20 August, Hitler rejected the proposal based on the idea that the most important objective was to deprive the Soviet Union of its industrial areas. On 21 August, Alfred Jodl of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) issued a directive, which summarized Hitler's instructions, to Walther von Brauchitsch, commander-in-chief of the Army. The paper reiterated that the capture of Moscow, before the onset of winter, was not a primary objective. Rather, that the most important missions before the onset of winter were to seize the Crimea, and the industrial and coal region of the Don River; isolate the oil-producing regions of the Caucasus from the rest of the Soviet Union, and in the north, to encircle Leningrad, and link up with the Finns. Among other instructions, it also instructed that Army Group Center is to allocate sufficient forces to ensure the destruction of the "Russian 5th Army" and, at the same time, to prepare to repel enemy counterattacks in the central sector of its front. Hitler referred to the Soviet forces in the salient collectively as the "Russian 5th Army". Halder was dismayed, and later described Hitler's plan as "utopian and unacceptable", concluding that the orders were contradictory and Hitler alone must bear the responsibility for inconsistency of his orders and that the OKH can no longer assume responsibility for what was occurring; however, Hitler's instructions still accurately reflected the original intent of the Barbarossa directive of which the OKH was aware all along. Gerhard Engel, in his diary for 21 August 1941, simply summarized it as, "it was a black day for the Army". Halder offered his own resignation and advised Brauchitsch to do the same. Brauchitsch declined, stating Hitler would not accept the gesture, and nothing would change anyhow. Halder withdrew his offer of resignation.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: On 23 August, Halder convened with Bock and Guderian, in Borisov, in Belorussia, and afterwards flew with Guderian to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia. During a meeting between Guderian and Hitler, with neither Halder nor Brauchitsch present, Hitler allowed Guderian to make the case for advancing on to Moscow, and then rejected his argument. Hitler claimed his decision to secure the northern and southern sectors of western Soviet Union were "tasks which stripped the Moscow problem of much of its significance" and was "not a new proposition, but a fact I have clearly and unequivocally stated since the beginning of the operation." Hitler also argued that the situation was even more critical because the opportunity to encircle the Soviet forces in the salient was "an unexpected opportunity, and a reprieve from past failures to trap the Soviet armies in the south." Hitler also declared, "the objections that time will be lost and the offensive on Moscow might be undertaken too late, or that the armoured units might no longer be technically able to fulfil their mission, are not valid." Hitler reiterated that once the flanks of Army Group Center were cleared, especially the salient in the south, then he would allow the army to resume its drive on Moscow; an offensive, he concluded, which "must not fail". Guderian returned to the 2nd Panzer Group and began the southern thrust in an effort to encircle the Soviet forces in the salient.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: The bulk of the 2nd Panzer Group and the 2nd Army were detached from Army Group Centre and sent south. Its mission was to encircle the Southwestern Front, commanded by Semyon Budyonny, in conjunction with the 1st Panzer Group, of Army Group South, under Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist, which was advancing from a southeasterly direction.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: Following the crossing of the Dnieper river by German forces on 22 August 1941, the city of Kiev came under threat of encirclement. The command of the Southwestern Front appealed to the Stavka to allow for a withdrawal of forces from Kiev. The Red Army Chief of Staff, Boris Shaposhnikov, wrote a letter to the Southwestern Front on September 17, authorising a withdraw from Kiev, when the encirclement was already completed at Lokhvytsia, in Poltava region.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: The Panzer armies made rapid progress. On 12 September, Ewald von Kleist's 1st Panzer Group, which had by now turned north and crossed the Dnieper river, emerged from its bridgeheads at Cherkassy and Kremenchuk. Continuing north, it cut across the rear of Semyon Budyonny's Southwestern Front. On 16 September, it made contact with Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group, advancing south, at the town of Lokhvitsa, east of Kiev. Budyonny was now trapped and soon relieved by Joseph Stalin's order of 13 September, and Budyonny was replaced by Semyon Timoshenko, in command of the Southwestern Direction.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: After that, the fate of the encircled Soviet armies was sealed. With no mobile forces or supreme commander left, there was no possibility to effect a breakout. The infantry of the German 17th and 6th Armies, of Army Group South, soon arrived, along with the 2nd Army, also on loan from Army Group Center, and marching behind Guderian's tanks. They systematically began to reduce the pocket, assisted by the two Panzer armies. The encircled Soviet armies at Kiev did not give up easily. A savage battle in which the Soviets were bombarded by artillery, tanks, and aircraft had to be fought before the pocket had finally fallen.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: By 19 September, Kiev had fallen, but the encirclement battle continued. After 10 days of heavy fighting, the last remnants of troops east of Kiev surrendered on 26 September. Several Soviet armies, namely the 5th, 37th, and 26th, were now encircled, as well as separate detachments of 38th and 21st armies. The Germans claimed to have captured 600,000 Red Army soldiers (up to 665,000), although these claims have included a large number of civilians suspected of evading capture.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: During withdrawal from Kiev, on 20–22 September 1941, at Shumeikove Hai, near Dryukivshchyna, (today in Lokhvytsia Raion) several members of headquarters staff were killed, including Mikhail Kirponos (commander), Mykhailo Burmystenko (a member of military council), and Vasiliy Tupikov (chief of staff). Some 15,000 Soviet troops managed to break through the encirclement.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: By virtue of Guderian's southward turn, the Wehrmacht destroyed the entire Southwestern Front east of Kiev during September. It inflicted nearly 700,544 casualties on the Red Army, while Soviet forces west of Moscow conducted many attacks on Army Group Centre. Although most of these attacks failed, the Soviet attacks in the Yelnya Offensive succeeded with the German forces abandoning the town, and resulted in the first major defeat for the Wehrmacht in Operation Barbarossa. With its southern flank secured, Army Group Center launched Operation Typhoon, in the direction of Vyazma, in October.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: Over the objections of Gerd von Rundstedt, Army Group South was ordered to resume the offensive and overran nearly all of the Crimea and Left-bank Ukraine before reaching the edges of the Donbas industrial region. However, after four months of continuous operations, his forces were at the brink of exhaustion, and suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Rostov. Army Group South's infantry fared little better and failed to capture the vital city of Kharkov, before nearly all of its factories, skilled laborers, and equipment were evacuated east of the Ural Mountains.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: After the occupation of Kiev by German troops, a series of explosions of Soviet radio-mines occurred in the city, as a result of which German soldiers and local civilians were killed.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: Immediately after World War II ended, prominent German commanders argued that had operations at Kiev been delayed, and had Operation Typhoon been launched in September, rather than October, the German Army would have reached and captured Moscow before the onset of winter.


title: Battle of Kiev (1941)

text: David Glantz argued that had Operation Typhoon been launched in September, it would have met greater resistance due to Soviet forces not having been weakened by their offensives east of Smolensk. The offensive would have also been launched with an extended right flank. Glantz also claims that regardless of the final position of German troops when winter came, they would have still faced a counteroffensive by the 10 reserve armies raised by the Soviets toward the end of the year, who would also be better equipped by the vast industrial resources in the area of Kiev. Glantz asserts that had Kiev not been taken before the Battle of Moscow, the entire operation would have ended in a disaster for the Germans.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The Wild Bunch is a 1969 American epic Revisionist Western film directed by Sam Peckinpah and starring William Holden, Ernest Borgnine, Robert Ryan, Edmond O'Brien, Ben Johnson and Warren Oates. The plot concerns an aging outlaw gang on the Mexico–United States border trying to adapt to the changing modern world of 1913. The film was controversial because of its graphic violence and its portrayal of crude men attempting to survive by any available means.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The screenplay was co-written by Peckinpah, Walon Green, and Roy N. Sickner. "The Wild Bunch" was filmed in Technicolor and Panavision, in Mexico, notably at the Hacienda Ciénaga del Carmen, deep in the desert between Torreón and Saltillo, Coahuila, and on the Rio Nazas.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: "The Wild Bunch" is noted for intricate, multi-angle, quick-cut editing using normal and slow motion images, a revolutionary cinema technique in 1969. The writing of Green, Peckinpah, and Sickner was nominated for a best screenplay Oscar, and the music by Jerry Fielding was nominated for Best Original Score. Additionally, Peckinpah was nominated for an Outstanding Directorial Achievement award by the Directors Guild of America, and cinematographer Lucien Ballard won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Cinematography.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 1999, the Library of Congress selected "The Wild Bunch" for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as "culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant". The film was ranked 80th in the American Film Institute's 100 best American films and the 69th most thrilling film. In 2008, the AFI listed 10 best films in 10 genres and ranked "The Wild Bunch" as the sixth-best Western.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 1913 Texas, Pike Bishop, the leader of a gang of aging outlaws, is seeking retirement after one final score: the robbery of a railroad payroll office containing a cache of silver. The gang is ambushed by Pike's former partner, Deke Thornton, who is leading a posse of bounty hunters hired by corrupt railroad agent Pat Harrigan. The bloody shootout that results kills more than half of the gang. Pike uses a serendipitous temperance union parade to shield their getaway, and many citizens are killed in the crossfire.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Pike rides off with the only survivors: his close friend Dutch Engstrom, brothers Lyle and Tector Gorch, and the inexperienced Angel (A fifth man is mercy-killed by Pike after being blinded by buckshot). They are dismayed when the loot from the robbery turns out to be nothing more than worthless steel washers planted by Harrigan. Needing money, the group heads for Mexico accompanied by the cantankerous Freddie Sykes. Crossing the Rio Grande, they take refuge that night in the rural village where Angel was born. The village elder warns them about General Mapache, a vicious Huertista officer in the Mexican Federal Army, who has been stealing food and animals from local villages to support his campaign against the forces of Pancho Villa.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Pike's gang visits the general at his headquarters in the town of Agua Verde, hoping to find a paying job. A jealous Angel spots Teresa, his former lover, in Mapache's arms and shoots her dead, angering the general and nearly getting them killed before Pike defuses the situation and offers their services. Mapache tasks the gang to steal a weapons shipment from a U.S. Army train so that Mapache can resupply his army's dwindling stocks of ammunition and appease Commander Mohr, his German military adviser, who wishes to obtain samples of American armaments. The reward will be a cache of gold coins.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Angel gives up his share of the gold to Pike in return for sending one crate of rifles and ammunition to a band of peasant rebels opposed to Mapache. The holdup goes largely as planned until Thornton's posse turns up on the train the gang has robbed. The posse chases them to the Mexican border; the robbers blow up a trestle bridge spanning the Rio Grande as they try to cross, dumping the entire posse into the river. The bounty hunters, despite being tired and exhausted, quickly resume their pursuit at Thornton's urging.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Pike, anticipating that Mapache might double-cross him, hides the goods and has his men sell them to Mapache in separate amounts. However, Mapache learns from Teresa's mother that Angel stole some of the weapons and reveals this as Angel and Dutch deliver the last of the weapons. Angel desperately tries to escape, only to be captured, beaten, and dragged through town on a rope tied to the back of Mapache's car. Mapache lets Dutch go after he states that Angel is a thief who deserves to be punished, and Dutch then tells Pike and the others what happened.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Sykes is wounded by Thornton's posse while securing spare horses. When Dutch criticizes Thornton for working with the railroad, Pike defends him, stating that he (Thornton) "gave his word" to the railroad and must see it through. Dutch refutes this, angrily declaring "That ain't what counts, it's who you give it to". Pike and the gang bury most of the gold and return to Agua Verde, where the townspeople and soldiers are drunkenly celebrating the weapons sale. Mapache refuses to sell Angel back to the gang, and after a period of reflection while visiting a brothel, Pike and the others arm themselves and decide to take their friend back by force.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Mapache initially agrees to release Angel, only to cut his throat at the last second. The gang instantly opens fire, and the general is gunned down. As the nearby soldiers are paralyzed with shock over the death of their commander, Pike calmly takes aim at Mohr and kills him, too. This results in a violent, bloody gunfight, during which Pike, Dutch, the remaining gang members, Mohr's aide, every member of Mapache's staff, and most of the assembled troops are killed.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Thornton finally catches up and finds that his quarry is already dead. However, he finds a loaded revolver on Pike's belt, taking it as a sign that the days of men like him are over. Feeling outdated and tired, Thornton allows the remaining posse members to greedily strip Pike and his men of their possessions before taking them back to Texas for the bounty, while he stays behind. After some time passes, Sykes arrives with the elder from Angel's village and a band of rebels, indicating that they caught up with the bounty hunters, avenged the gang's deaths, and buried them properly. Sykes invites Thornton to join the coming revolution against the Mexican government. Thornton smiles and rides off with them.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In April 1965, producer Reno Carrell optioned an original story and screenplay by Walon Green and Roy Sickner, called "The Wild Bunch".


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts producers Kenneth Hyman and Phil Feldman were interested in having Sam Peckinpah rewrite and direct an adventure film called "The Diamond Story". A professional outcast due to the production difficulties of his previous film, "Major Dundee" (1965), and his firing from the set of "The Cincinnati Kid" (1965), Peckinpah's stock had improved following his critically acclaimed work on the television film "Noon Wine" (1966).


title: The Wild Bunch

text: At the time, William Goldman's screenplay for "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" had recently been purchased by 20th Century Fox. An alternative screenplay available at the studio was "The Wild Bunch". It was quickly decided that "The Wild Bunch", which had several similarities to Goldman's work, would be produced to beat "Butch Cassidy" to the theaters.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: By the fall of 1967, Peckinpah was rewriting the screenplay and preparing for production. The principal photography was shot entirely on location in Mexico, most notably at the Hacienda Ciénaga del Carmen (deep in the desert between Torreón and Saltillo, Coahuila) and on the Rio Nazas. Peckinpah's epic work was inspired by his hunger to return to films, the violence seen in Arthur Penn's "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967), America's growing frustration with the Vietnam War, and what he perceived to be the utter lack of reality seen in Westerns up to that time. He set out to make a film which portrayed not only the vicious violence of the period but also the crude men attempting to survive the era. Multiple scenes attempted in "Major Dundee", including slow motion action sequences (inspired by Akira Kurosawa's work in "Seven Samurai" (1954), characters leaving a village as if in a funeral procession, and the use of inexperienced locals as extras, would become fully realized in "The Wild Bunch".


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Peckinpah considered many actors for the Pike Bishop role before casting William Holden, including Richard Boone, Sterling Hayden, Charlton Heston, Burt Lancaster, Lee Marvin, Robert Mitchum, Gregory Peck, and James Stewart. Marvin actually accepted the role but pulled out after he was offered more money to star in "Paint Your Wagon" (1969).


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Peckinpah's first two choices for the role of Deke Thornton were Richard Harris (who had co-starred in "Major Dundee") and Brian Keith (who had worked with Peckinpah on "The Westerner" (1960) and "The Deadly Companions" (1961)). Harris was never formally approached; Keith was asked, but he turned it down. Robert Ryan was ultimately cast in the part after Peckinpah saw him in the World War II action movie "The Dirty Dozen" (1967). Other actors considered for the role were Henry Fonda, Glenn Ford, Van Heflin, Ben Johnson (later cast as Tector Gorch), and Arthur Kennedy.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The role of Mapache went to Emilio Fernández, the Mexican film director, writer, actor, and friend of Peckinpah. Among those considered to play Dutch Engstrom were Charles Bronson, Jim Brown, Alex Cord, Robert Culp, Sammy Davis Jr., Richard Jaeckel, Steve McQueen, and George Peppard. Ernest Borgnine was cast based on his performance in "The Dirty Dozen" (1967). Robert Blake was the original choice to play Angel, but he asked for too much money. Peckinpah was impressed with Jaime Sánchez in Sidney Lumet's film adaptation of "The Pawnbroker" and demanded that he be cast as Angel.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Stage actor Albert Dekker was cast as Harrigan the railroad detective. "The Wild Bunch" was his last film, as he died just months after its final scenes were completed. Bo Hopkins had only a few television credits on his resume when he played the part of Clarence "Crazy" Lee. Warren Oates played Lyle Gorch, having previously worked with Peckinpah on the TV series "The Rifleman" and his previous films "Ride the High Country" (1962) and "Major Dundee" (1965).


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The film was shot with the anamorphic process. Peckinpah and his cinematographer, Lucien Ballard, also made use of telephoto lenses, that allowed for objects and people in both the background and foreground to be compressed in perspective. The effect is best seen in the shots where the Bunch makes the walk to Mapache's headquarters to free Angel. As they walk forward, a constant flow of people passes between them and the camera; most of the people in the foreground are as sharply focused as the Bunch.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: By the time filming wrapped, Peckinpah had shot of film with 1,288 camera setups. Lombardo and Peckinpah remained in Mexico for six months editing the picture. After initial cuts, the opening gunfight sequence ran 21 minutes. By cutting frames from specific scenes and intercutting others, they were able to fine-cut the opening robbery down to five minutes. The creative montage became the model for the rest of the film and would "forever change the way movies would be made".


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Peckinpah stated that one of his goals for the movie was to give the audience "some idea of what it is to be gunned down". A memorable incident occurred, to that end, as Peckinpah's crew were consulting him on the "gunfire" effects to be used in the film. Not satisfied with the results from the squibs his crew had brought for him, Peckinpah became exasperated and finally hollered: "That's not what I want! "That's not what I want!"" He then grabbed a real revolver and fired it into a nearby wall. The gun empty, Peckinpah barked at his stunned crew: "THAT'S the effect I want!!"


title: The Wild Bunch

text: He also had the gunfire sound effects changed for the film. Before, all gunshots in Warner Bros. movies sounded identical, regardless of the type of weapon being fired. Peckinpah insisted that each different type of firearm have its own specific sound effect when fired.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The editing of the film is notable in that shots from multiple angles were spliced together in rapid succession, often at different speeds, placing greater emphasis on the chaotic nature of the action and the gunfights.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Lou Lombardo, having previously worked with Peckinpah on "Noon Wine", was personally hired by the director to edit "The Wild Bunch". Peckinpah had wanted an editor who would be loyal to him. Lombardo's youth was also a plus, as he was not bound by traditional conventions.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: One of Lombardo's first contributions was to show Peckinpah an episode of the TV series "Felony Squad" he had edited in 1967. The episode, entitled "My Mommy Got Lost", included a slow motion sequence where Joe Don Baker is shot by the police. The scene mixed slow motion with normal speed, having been filmed at 24 frames per second but triple printed optically at 72 frames per second. Peckinpah was reportedly thrilled and told Lombardo: "Let's try some of that when we get down to Mexico!" The director would film the major shootouts with six cameras, operating at various film rates, including 24 frames per second, 30 frames per second, 60 frames per second, 90 frames per second, and 120 frames per second. When the scenes were eventually cut together, the action would shift from slow to fast to slower still, giving time an elastic quality never before seen in motion pictures up to that time.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Further editing was done to secure a favorable rating from the MPAA, which was in the process of establishing a new set of codes. Peckinpah and his editors cut the film to satisfy the new, expansive R-rating parameters which, for the first time, designated a film as being unsuitable for children. Without this new system in place, the film could not have been released with its explicit images of bloodshed.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Critics of "The Wild Bunch" note the theme of the end of the outlaw gunfighter era. For example, the character Pike Bishop advises: "We've got to start thinking beyond our guns. Those days are closing fast." The Bunch lives by an anachronistic code of honor that is out of place in 20th-century society. Also, when the gang inspects Mapache's new automobile, they perceive it marks the end of horse travel, a symbol also in Peckinpah's "Ride the High Country" (1962) and "The Ballad of Cable Hogue" (1970).


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The violence that was much criticized in 1969 remains controversial. Peckinpah noted it was allegoric of the American war in Vietnam, the violence of which was nightly televised to American homes at supper time. He tried showing the gun violence commonplace to the historic western frontier period, rebelling against sanitized, bloodless television Westerns and films glamorizing gunfights and murder: "The point of the film is to take this façade of movie violence and open it up, get people involved in it so that they are starting to go in the Hollywood television predictable reaction syndrome, and then twist it so that it's not fun anymore, just a wave of sickness in the gut ... it's ugly, brutalizing, and bloody awful; it's not fun and games and cowboys and Indians. It's a terrible, ugly thing, and yet there's a certain response that you get from it, an excitement, because we're all violent people." Peckinpah used violence as a catharsis, believing his audience would be purged of violence by witnessing it explicitly on screen. He later admitted to being mistaken, observing that the audience came to enjoy rather than be horrified by his films' violence, which troubled him.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Betrayal is the secondary theme of "The Wild Bunch". The characters suffer from their knowledge of having betrayed a friend and left him to his fate, thus violating their own honor code when it suits them ("$10,000 cuts an awful lot of family ties"). However, Bishop says, "When you side with a man, you stay with him, and if you can't do that you're like some animal." Such oppositional ideas lead to the film's violent conclusion, as the remaining men find their abandonment of Angel intolerable. Bishop remembers his betrayals, most notably when he deserts Deke Thornton (in flashback) when the law catches up to them and when he abandons Crazy Lee at the railroad office after the robbery (ostensibly to guard the hostages). Critic David Weddle writes that "like that of Conrad's "Lord Jim", Pike Bishop's heroism is propelled by overwhelming guilt and a despairing death wish."


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The film opened on June 18, 1969, at the Pix theatre in Los Angeles and grossed $39,200 in its first week. Produced on a budget of $6 million, the film grossed $10.5 million at the US box office in 1970 and another $638,641 in the US on its 1995 restored box-office release, making a total of $11,138,641. It was the 17th highest-grossing film of 1969.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 1993, Warner Bros. resubmitted the film to the MPAA ratings board prior to an expected re-release. To the studio's surprise, the originally R-rated film was re-rated NC-17, which delayed the release until the decision was appealed. The controversy was linked to 10 extra minutes added to the film, although none of this footage contained graphic violence. Warner Bros. trimmed some footage to decrease the running time to ensure additional daily screenings. When the restored film finally made it to the screen in March 1995, one reviewer noted:


title: The Wild Bunch

text: By restoring 10 minutes to the film, the complex story now fits together in a seamless way, filling in those gaps found in the previous theatrical release, and proving that Peckinpah was firing on all cylinders for this, his grandest achievement. ... And the one overwhelming feature that the director's cut makes unforgettable are the many faces of the children, whether playing, singing, or cowering, much of the reaction to what happens on-screen is through the eyes, both innocent and imitative, of all the children.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Almost all of the versions of the film include the missing scenes. Warner Bros. released a newly restored version in a two-disc special edition on January 10, 2006. It includes an audio commentary by Peckinpah scholars, two documentaries concerning the making of the film (one of them is the Oscar-nominated ""), and never-before-seen outtakes.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Vincent Canby began his review by calling the film "very beautiful and the first truly interesting American-made Western in years. It's also so full of violence—of an intensity that can hardly be supported by the story—that it's going to prompt a lot of people who do not know the real effect of movie violence (as I do not) to write automatic condemnations of it." He observed, "Although the movie's conventional and poetic action sequences are extraordinarily good and its landscapes beautifully photographed ... it is most interesting in its almost jolly account of chaos, corruption, and defeat". About the actors, he commented particularly on William Holden: "After years of giving bored performances in boring movies, Holden comes back gallantly in "The Wild Bunch". He looks older and tired, but he has style, both as a man and as a movie character who persists in doing what he's always done, not because he really wants the money but because there's simply nothing else to do."


title: The Wild Bunch

text: "TIME" also liked Holden's performance, describing it as his best since "Stalag 17" (a 1953 film that earned Holden an Oscar), noting Robert Ryan gave "the screen performance of his career", and concluding that ""The Wild Bunch" contains faults and mistakes" (such as flashbacks "introduced with surprising clumsiness"), but "its accomplishments are more than sufficient to confirm that Peckinpah, along with Stanley Kubrick and Arthur Penn, belongs with the best of the newer generation of American filmmakers."


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In a 2002 retrospective Roger Ebert, who "saw the original version at the world premiere in 1969, during the golden age of the junket, when Warner Bros. screened five of its new films in the Bahamas for 450 critics and reporters", said that, back then, he had publicly declared the film a masterpiece during the junket's press conference, prompted by comments from "a reporter from the "Reader's Digest" [who] got up to ask 'Why was this film ever made?'" He compared the film to "Pulp Fiction": "praised and condemned with equal vehemence."


title: The Wild Bunch

text: "What "Citizen Kane" was to movie lovers in 1941, "The Wild Bunch" was to cineastes in 1969," wrote film critic Michael Sragow, who added that Peckinpah had "produced an American movie that equals or surpasses the best of Kurosawa: the Gotterdammerung of Westerns".


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Today, the film holds a 91% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 8.8/10 based on reviews from 65 critics with its consensus stating, ""The Wild Bunch" is Sam Peckinpah's shocking, violent ballad to an old world and a dying genre".


title: The Wild Bunch

text: "The Wild Bunch" was cited as cinematographer Roger Deakins's favorite film, and film director Kathryn Bigelow named it as one of her five favorite films. In the 2012 BFI poll for The Greatest Films of All Time, "The Wild Bunch" received 27 votes from critics and directors such as Michael Mann, Paul Schrader and Edgar Wright.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: The film is ranked No. 94 on "Empire" magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Films of All Time. In 1999, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant. In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed "The Wild Bunch" as the 23rd best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: Sam Peckinpah and the making of "The Wild Bunch" were the subjects of the documentary "" (1996) directed and edited by Paul Seydor. The documentary was occasioned by the discovery of 72 minutes of silent, black-and-white film footage of Peckinpah and company on location in northern Mexico during the filming of "The Wild Bunch". Michael Sragow wrote in 2000 that the documentary was "a wonderful introduction to Peckinpah’s radically detailed historical film about American outlaws in revolutionary Mexico—a masterpiece that’s part bullet-driven ballet, part requiem for Old West friendship and part existential explosion. Seydor’s movie is also a poetic flight on the myriad possibilities of movie directing." Seydor and his co-producer Nick Redman were nominated in 1997 for the Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject).


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 2005, David Ayer was reported to be in final negotiations to direct and write a remake of "The Wild Bunch". Jerry Weintraub would produce and Mark Vahradian would executive produce. The remake would be a modern reinterpretation of the original, involving heists, drug cartels and the CIA.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: On January 19, 2011, it was announced by Warner Bros. that a remake of "The Wild Bunch" was in the works. Screenwriter Brian Helgeland was hired to develop a new script. The 2012 suicide of Tony Scott, who was scheduled to direct, put the project in limbo.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: On May 15, 2013, "The Wrap" reported that Will Smith was in talks to star in and produce the remake. The new version would involve drug cartels and follows a disgraced DEA agent who assembles a team to go after a Mexican drug lord and his fortune. No director has been chosen, and a new screenwriter is being sought.


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 2015, a Hollywood insider website announced that Jonathan Jakubowicz was set to write and direct a remake. "Our sources also tell us that the remake will update the story to a contemporary setting, revolving around the CIA, dangerous drug cartels, and a thrilling heist against the backdrop of the Southern California-Mexico border. Jakubowicz will be working from previous drafts submitted by David Ayer and Brian Helgeland."


title: The Wild Bunch

text: In 2018, it was announced that Mel Gibson would co-write and direct a new version of "The Wild Bunch".


title: Cushing's disease

text: Cushing's disease is one cause of Cushing's syndrome characterised by increased secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary (secondary hypercortisolism). This is most often as a result of a pituitary adenoma (specifically pituitary basophilism) or due to excess production of hypothalamus CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) (tertiary hypercortisolism/hypercorticism) that stimulates the synthesis of cortisol by the adrenal glands. Pituitary adenomas are responsible for 80% of endogenous Cushing's syndrome, when excluding Cushing's syndrome from exogenously administered corticosteroids. The equine version of this disease is Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction.


title: Cushing's disease

text: Patients with Cushing's disease usually present with one or more signs and symptoms secondary to the presence of excess cortisol or ACTH.


title: Cushing's disease

text: Although uncommon, some patients with Cushing's disease have large pituitary tumors (macroadenomas). In addition to the severe hormonal effects related to increased blood cortisol levels, the large tumor can compress adjacent structures. These tumors can compress the nerves that carry information from the eyes, causing a decrease in peripheral vision. Glaucoma and cataracts also may occur in Cushing's syndrome. In children, the two main symptoms are obesity and decreased linear growth.


title: Cushing's disease

text: The clinical diagnosis must be based on the presence of one or more of the symptoms listed below because the syndrome itself has no true pathognomonic signs or symptoms.


title: Cushing's disease

text: The most common symptoms seen in male patients are purple striae, muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, and kidney stones.


title: Cushing's disease

text: Diagnosis is made first by diagnosing Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism), which can be difficult to do clinically since the most characteristic symptoms only occur in a minority of patients. Some of the biochemical diagnostic tests used include salivary and blood serum cortisol testing, 24-hour urinary free cortisol (UFC) testing, the dexamethasone suppression test (DST). No single test is perfect and multiple tests should always be used to achieve a proper diagnosis. Diagnosing Cushing's disease is a multidisciplinary process involving doctors, endocrinologists, radiologists, surgeons, and chemical pathologists. Often, it is hard to differentiate true Cushing's from pseudo-Cushing's (non-neoplastic hypercortisolism).


title: Cushing's disease

text: Once Cushing's syndrome has been diagnosed, the first step towards finding the cause is measuring plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentration. A concentration consistently below 1.1 pmol/L is classified as corticotropin-independent and does not lead to a diagnosis of Cushing's disease. In such cases, the next step is adrenal imaging with CT.


title: Cushing's disease

text: If plasma corticotropin concentrations are consistently above 3.3 pmol/L, then corticotropin-dependent Cushing's syndrome is most likely. Any intermediate values need to be cautiously interpreted and a corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) test is advised in order to confirm corticotropin dependency. If corticotropin-dependent Cushing's syndrome is determined then the next step is to distinguish between Cushing's disease and ectopic corticotropin syndrome. This is done via a combination of techniques including CRH, high-dose DST, pituitary MRI and bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling (IPSS).


title: Cushing's disease

text: Two dexamethasone suppression tests (DSTs) are generally used, the overnight test and the 48 hour test. For both tests, a plasma cortisol level above 50 nmol/L is indicative of Cushing's disease. However, 3–8% of patients with Cushing's disease will test negative due to a retention of dexamethasone suppression abilities. For non-Cushing or healthy patients, the false-positive rate is 30%. The 48-h DST is advantageous since it is more specific and can be done by outpatients upon proper instruction. In the high-dose 48-h DST, 2 mg of dexamethasone is given every 6 hours for 48 hours or a single dose of 8 mg is given. This test is not needed if the 48-h low-dose DST has shown suppression of cortisol by over 30%. These tests are based on the glucocorticoid sensitivity of pituitary adenomas compared to non-pituitary tumors.


title: Cushing's disease

text: An ACTH stimulation test involving administration of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) or another agent can differentiate this condition from ectopic ACTH secretion. In a patient with Cushing's disease, the tumor cells will be stimulated to release corticotropin and elevated plasma corticotropin levels will be detected. This rarely occurs with ectopic corticotropin syndrome and thus is quite useful for distinguishing between the two conditions. If ectopic, the plasma ACTH and cortisol levels should remain unchanged; if this is pituitary related, levels of both would rise. The CRH test uses recombinant human or bovine-sequence CRH, which is administered via a 100μg intravenous bolus dose. The sensitivity of the CRH test for detecting Cushing's disease is 93% when plasma levels are measured after fifteen and thirty minutes. However, this test is used only as a last resort due to its high cost and complexity.


title: Cushing's disease

text: A CT or MRI of the pituitary may also show the ACTH-secreting tumor if present. However, in 40% of Cushing's disease patients MRI is unable to detect a tumor. In one study of 261 patients with confirmed pituitary Cushing's disease, only 48% of pituitary lesions were identified using MRI prior to surgery. The average size of tumor, both those that were identified on MRI and those that were only discovered during surgery, was 6 mm.


title: Cushing's disease

text: IPSS (inferior petrosal sinus sampling) or BIPSS (bilateral IPSS) is a more accurate but invasive test used to differentiate pituitary from ectopic or adrenal Cushing's syndrome. A corticotropin gradient sample via BIPSS is required to confirm diagnosis when pituitary MRI imaging and biochemical diagnostic tests have been inconclusive. A basal central:peripheral ratio of over 2:1, or a ratio over 3:1 when CRH is administered, is indicative of Cushing's disease. This test has been the gold standard for distinguishing between Cushing's disease and ectopic corticotropin syndrome, with a sensitivity and specificity of 94% for Cushing's disease, and a very low rate of complications.


title: Cushing's disease

text: Another diagnostic test used is the urinary free cortisol (UFC) test, which measures the excess cortisol excreted by the kidneys into the urine. Results of 4x higher cortisol levels than normal are likely to be Cushing's disease. This test should be repeated three times in order to exclude any normally occurring periods of hypercortisolism. The UFC test has a specificity of 81% and thus has a high rate of false-positives that are due to pseudo-Cushing states, sleep apnea, polycystic ovary syndrome, familial glucocorticoid resistance, and hyperthyroidism.


title: Cushing's disease

text: The late-night or midnight salivary cortisol test has been gaining support due to its ease of collection and stability at room temperature, therefore it can be assigned to outpatients. The test measures free circulating cortisol and have both a sensitivity and specificity of 95–98%. This test is especially useful for diagnosing children.


title: Cushing's disease

text: The first-line treatment of Cushing's disease is surgical resection of ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma; this surgery involves removal of the tumor via transsphenoidal surgery (TSS).


title: Cushing's disease

text: There are two possible options for access to the sphenoidal sinus, including of endonasal approach (through the nostril) or sublabial approach (through an incision under the upper lip); many factors such as the size of nostril, the size of the lesion, and the preferences of the surgeon cause the selection of one access route over the other.


title: Cushing's disease

text: Some tumors do not contain a discrete border between the tumor and pituitary gland; therefore, careful sectioning through the pituitary gland may be required to identify the location of the tumor. The probability of successful resection is higher in patients where the tumor was identified at initial surgery in comparison to patients where no tumor was found initially; the overall remission rates in patients with microadenomas undergoing TSS are in range of 65%–90%, and the remission rate in patients with macroadenomas are lower than 65%. Patients with persistent disease after initial surgery are treated with repeated pituitary surgery as soon as the active persistent disease is evident; however, reoperation has a lower success rate and increases the risk of pituitary insufficiency.