title: Pagani Zonda

text: In 2019, during the Pagani dinner at which the Zonda Venti was unveiled, Pagani introduced the Zonda Oliver Roadster. Owned by the same owner as the coupe (Oliver Evolution), this One-Off creation is finished in exposed matte grey carbon with all the custom parts of the coupe but it is equipped with the 7-speed automated manual transmission and not the 6 speed manual of the coupe. This One-Off is based on Zonda S Roadster #76043. It participated in the 2021 Pagani Raduno in Italy.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Zonda Venti was unveiled at a Pagani client dinner during the 2019 Goodwood Festival of Speed. Venti, meaning twenty in Italian, was built to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Pagani Zonda. It is finished in British Racing Green with gold accents and a dark brown leather interior. It is equipped with a 6 speed manual gearbox. The owner, Jonathan Hui, also owns 3 other Zondas: the Fantasma Evo, a Roadster F, and a S.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Built in 2015 and unveiled the following year, Zonda MD is a One-Off built for Michael Dinan, the then-teenage son of American hedge fund billionaire Jamie Dinan. The car is almost entirely blue carbon fibre, both the exterior and interior. The seats are brown leather and grey alcantara. The car has a manual gearbox, large rear wing, and roof scoop. The car resided almost exclusively in London, UK from its delivery until late 2021 when it was finally imported to the United States where its owner resides.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Zonda Mileson, sometimes called Zonda by Mileson, is a One-Off commission by Mileson Guo, son of Guo Wengui. The car is blue carbon fibre and exposed carbon fibre with blue striping. There are orange flakes in the blue carbon fibre. The car has custom headlights and a large custom double-decker rear wing. The interior has black alcantara and blue leather. The car resides in London, UK.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: The Riviera is another addition to the One-Off series of the Zonda which is based on a Zonda F. The owner dispatched his yellow Zonda F to the factory to get the One-Off treatment. The exterior styling is inspired by the French Riviera (Côte d'Azur) as well as the Zonda Cinque, and includes the addition of a rear spoiler, a roof scoop, rear fin and front splitters. The car has white paint job with bare carbon at the centre along with blue accents throughout the car. The car was revealed in an online video from Pagani in 2017.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: This one-off was commissioned by the same owner of the Ferrari SP38 one-off. It was unveiled at the 2018 Pagani Raduno event in Italy and shares many parts from the Zonda Cinque but has some special features. The car also has door straps instead of normal door handles to save weight. The car sold for $6,812,500 (inclusive of applicable buyer's fee) in November 2019 at RM Sotheby's Abu Dhabi auction. The car is chassis 76131 and it had less than 1,400 km on its odometer when it sold. The car was purchased from auction by Bahraini construction magnate Khalid Abdulrahim and has been a part of his famous car collection in Hamad Town, Bahrain ever since.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Zonda Zun was introduced in 2019 and is a rebuild of a Zonda F Roadster that was completed in 2020. Features include a new carbon air extractors and a carbon fibre arrowhead nose plus a carbon aero package including special canards and a splitter. It is finished in purple carbon fibre.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: In 2019, a new One-Off was commissioned called the King by famous Hong Kong singer Aaron Kwok. It is a rebuilt variant of the Zonda F. The King is finished in exposed carbon with a black leather interior and features all standard 760-style parts with the 7-speed automated manual transmission.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Danubio was revealed during the 2019 Pagani Raduno in Italy. It was rebuilt from the owner's Zonda F and is finished in white with blue carbon body parts. It has a custom rear wing. It currently resides in Beijing, China under the ownership of the Chinese billionaire who formerly owned Zonda 760 Viola.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Introduced in 2018, the Unica Roadster was commissioned by a VIP client. It is finished in Blue carbon with gold accents, inspired by the Zonda Tricolore. It has a 6-speed manual gearbox and a 760-specification engine with aerodynamic parts shared with the Zonda Cinque.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Commissioned by a Chinese client, Zonda JC is a One-Off built from a new chassis rather than rebuilt. The car is entirely exposed carbon fibre and has China Pink accents. The car was designed with significant inspiration from the Zonda R, with parts including the front wheel arch with integrated aero flaps, the front and rear air ducts, the front bonnet air extractors, and the double rear wing spoiler with an added aero flap all being borrowed from the R. To complement the black and pink exterior, the interior is black leather with pink stitching. Zonda JC has 780 horsepower.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Commissioned by Japanese billionaire and founder of Zozotown Yusaku Maezawa, Zonda Zozo is painted in purple with exposed carbon portions. Zozo has a very distinct rear wheel cover and custom rear wing. The interior is clad with purple leather and grey alcantara. Zonda Zozo was crashed in 2016, when it ran into the back of Maybach 62S in Tokyo. The entire front of the car was destroyed in the crash. As is typical for wrecked Zondas, Zozo was sent back to the Pagani factory and rebuilt. It reappeared in Japan in early 2019 and is most often located at Bingo Sports, the Pagani dealer in Tokyo, where it is stored for the owner.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Zonda Sapphire was introduced in 2019. It is a rebuild of a Zonda F finished in exposed carbon from China, the Sapphire is finished in satin blue carbon with white accents. The interior is finished in blue and white leather. Sapphire is owned by the owner of Zonda Zun, a car with which it shares near-identical aero upgrades. However, being that it is a coupe, Sapphire has a longer roof scoop.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: The VR Roadster is finished and dark blue with light blue stripes and exposed carbon fiber. The car is on a British plate that reads "760 VR", despite not being a true Zonda 760.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: AY is a One-Off that was commissioned by a US customer finished in iridescent exposed carbon fiber with pink accents. This car is based on a Zonda F Roadster.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Diamante Verde is a One-Off that was at the heart of a legal battle between its first owner, Turkish multi-millionaire Tufan Kalman, and the dealership who sold him the car, Pagani UK. Given the legal issues with the car, it has been seen in public infrequently and was also not registered under Mr. Kalman's ownership and hence not legally able to be driven. In 2022, Diamante Verde was sold by Mr. Kalman to a new owner. Diamante Verde, meaning Green Diamond, has an exposed carbon fibre body with emerald green flakes in the carbon and green accent stripes. The interior is primarily black leather, with some green accents. The car is chassis 76133.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: Development of the Zonda GR started in December 2002. Tom Weickardt, owner of American Viperacing, Toine Hezemans, owner of Carsport Holland, and Paul Kumpen, owner of GLPK Racing, incorporated a new company, Carsport Zonda, to develop a racing version of the Zonda. They secured exclusive rights to develop, build and sell competition versions of the Zonda from Horacio Pagani, and the first GR was completed at Carsport's facility in Modena within months.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: The Zonda GR is based on the Zonda S. It was built on the same carbon fibre chassis, with lightweight tube frames present on the front and rear. The bodywork was modified to include front and rear diffusers and louvers for improved aerodynamics. The car was wide, in accordance with the regulations of the FIA and ACO. The car's weight was reduced to , and a new suspension system was designed. Along with new motorsport-oriented wheels and brakes. The engine was equipped with an enlarged radiator, two air intake restrictor plates, and the engine and gearbox also had new oil coolers. The resulting engine is rated at around at 5,800 rpm and of torque at 4,300 rpm with a redline increased to 7,500 rpm. Unrestricted, however, the 7.0 L V12 engine is capable of producing around and of torque. Performance figures include a 0 to acceleration time of 3.3 seconds.


title: Pagani Zonda

text: The car was entered into the 2003 24 Hours of Le Mans, but retired after ten laps due to a gearbox failure.


title: Enochian

text: Enochian ( ) is an occult constructed language — said by its originators to have been received from angels — recorded in the private journals of John Dee and his colleague Edward Kelley in late 16th-century England. Kelley was a scryer who worked with Dee in his magical investigations. The language is integral to the practice of Enochian magic.


title: Enochian

text: The language found in Dee's and Kelley's journals encompasses a limited textual corpus. Linguist Donald Laycock, an Australian Skeptic, studied the Enochian journals, and argues against any extraordinary features. The untranslated texts of the "Liber Loagaeth" manuscript recall the patterns of glossolalia rather than true language. Dee did not distinguish the "Liber Loagaeth" material from the translated language of the "Calls", which is more like an artificial language. This language was called Angelical by Dee and later came to be referred to as 'Enochian' by subsequent writers. The phonology and grammar resemble English, though the translations are not sufficient to work out any regular morphology. Some Enochian words resemble words and proper names in the Bible, but most have no apparent etymology.


title: Enochian

text: Dee's journals also refer to this language as "Celestial Speech", "First Language of God-Christ", "Holy Language", or "Language of Angels". He also referred to it as "Adamical" because, according to Dee's angels, it was used by Adam in Paradise to name all things. The term "Enochian" comes from Dee's assertion that the Biblical patriarch Enoch had been the last human (before Dee and Kelley) to know the language.


title: Enochian

text: According to Tobias Churton in his text "The Golden Builders", the concept of an Angelic or antediluvian language was common during Dee's time. If one could speak the language of angels, it was believed one could directly interact with them.


title: Enochian

text: In 1581, Dee mentioned in his personal journals that God had sent "good angels" to communicate directly with prophets. In 1582, Dee teamed up with the seer Edward Kelley, although Dee had used several other seers previously. With Kelley's help as a scryer, Dee set out to establish lasting contact with the angels. Their work resulted, among other things, in the reception of Angelical, now more commonly known as Enochian.


title: Enochian

text: The reception started on March 26, 1583, when Kelley reported visions in the crystal of a 21 lettered alphabet. A few days later, Kelley started receiving what became the book "Liber Loagaeth" ("Book [of] Speech from God"). The book consists of 49 great letter tables, or squares made of 49 by 49 letters (however each table has a front and a back side, making 98 tables of 49×49 letters altogether). Dee and Kelley said the angels never translated the texts in this book.


title: Enochian

text: About a year later, at the court of King Stephen Báthory in Kraków, where both alchemists stayed for some time, another set of texts was reportedly received through Kelley. These texts comprise 48 poetic verses with English translations, which in Dee's manuscripts are called , or "Angelic Keys". Dee was apparently intending to use these "Keys" to open the "Gates of Understanding" represented by the magic squares in "Liber Loagaeth":


title: Enochian

text: The language was recorded primarily in Latin script, however, individual words written in Enochian script "appear sporadically throughout the manuscripts". There are 21 letters in the script; one letter appears with or without a diacritic dot. Dee mapped these letters of the "Adamical alphabet" onto 22 of the letters of the English alphabet, treating U and V as positional variants (as was common at the time) and omitting the English letters J, K, and W. The Enochian script is written from right to left in John Dee's diary. Different documents have slightly different forms of the script. The alphabet also shares many graphical similarities to a script, also attributed to the prophet Enoch, that appeared in the "Voarchadumia Contra Alchimiam" of Johannes Pantheus, a copy of which Dee is known to have owned.


title: Enochian

text: The phonology of Enochian is "thoroughly English", apart from a few difficult sequences such as "bdrios", "excolphabmartbh", "longamphlg", "lapch", etc. Similarly, Enochian orthography closely follows Early Modern English orthography, for example in having soft and hard and , and in using digraphs , , , and for the sounds , , , and . Laycock mapped Enochian orthography to its sound system and says, "the resulting pronunciation makes it sound much more like English than it looks at first sight". Modern pronunciation conventions vary, depending on the affiliations of the practitioner.


title: Enochian

text: The Enochian letters, with their letter names and English equivalents as given by Dee, and pronunciations as reconstructed by Laycock, are as follows:


title: Enochian

text: A number of fonts for the Enochian script are available. They use the ASCII range, with the letters assigned to the codepoints of their English equivalents.


title: Enochian

text: The grammar is for the most part without articles or prepositions. Adjectives are quite rare. Aaron Leitch identifies several affixes in Enochian, including "-o" (indicating 'of') and "-ax" (which functions like "-ing" in English). Leitch observes that, unlike English, Enochian appears to have a vocative case, citing Dee's note in the margin of the First Table of "Loagaeth" – "Befes the vocative case of Befafes".


title: Enochian

text: Compounds are frequent in the Enochian corpus. Modifiers and indicators are typically compounded with the nouns and verbs modified or indicated. These compounds can occur with demonstrative pronouns and conjunctions, as well as with various forms of the verb 'to be'. The compounding of nouns with adjectives or other verbs is less common. Compounds may exhibit variant spellings of the words combined.


title: Enochian

text: Conjugation can result in spelling changes which can appear to be random or haphazard. Due to this, Aaron Leitch has expressed doubt as to whether Enochian actually has conjugations. The very scant evidence of Enochian verb conjugation seems quite reminiscent of English, including the verb 'to be' which is highly irregular.


title: Enochian

text: For negation of verbs, two constructions are attested: e.g. "chis ge" 'are not' ("chis" 'they are') and "ip uran" 'not see' ("uran" 'see').


title: Enochian

text: While Enochian does have personal pronouns, they are rare and used in ways that can be difficult to understand. Relative possessive pronouns do exist but are used sparingly.


title: Enochian

text: Word order closely follows English, except for the dearth of articles and prepositions. Adjectives, although rare, typically precede the noun as in English.


title: Enochian

text: Laycock notes that there are about 250 different words in the corpus of Enochian texts, more than half of which occur only once. A few resemble words in the Bible – mostly proper names – in both sound and meaning. For example, "luciftias" "brightness" resembles Lucifer "the light-bearer"; "babalond" "wicked, harlot" resembles Babylon. Leitch notes a number of root words in Enochian. He lists "Doh", "I", "Ia", "Iad", among others, as likely root words. While the "Angelic Keys" contain most of the known vocabulary of Enochian, dozens of further words are found throughout Dee's journals.


title: Enochian

text: Thousands of additional, undefined words are contained in the "Liber Loagaeth". Laycock notes that the material in "Liber Loagaeth" appears to be different from the language of the 'Calls' found in the "Angelic Keys", which appear to have been generated from the tables and squares of the "Loagaeth". According to Laycock:


title: Enochian

text: Dee believed Enochian to be the Adamic language universally spoken before the confusion of tongues, however, modern analysts view Enochian as an English-like constructed language. Word order closely follows English, except for the dearth of articles and prepositions. The very scant evidence of Enochian verb conjugation is likewise reminiscent of English, more so than with Semitic languages such as Hebrew, which Dee said were debased versions of the Enochian language.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika () is an African Great Lake. It is the second-oldest freshwater lake in the world, the second-largest by volume, and the second-deepest, in all cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. It is the world's longest freshwater lake. The lake is shared among four countries—Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Burundi, and Zambia, with Tanzania (46%) and DRC (40%) possessing the majority of the lake. It drains into the Congo River system and ultimately into the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: "Tanganika" was the name of the lake that Henry Morton Stanley encountered when he was at Ujiji in 1876. The name first originated from the Bembe language when they arrived in South Kivu around the 7th century, they discovered the lake and started calling it “êtanga ‘ya’ni’â” which means “a big river” in their Bantu language. Stanley found also other names for the lake among different ethnic groups, like the Kimana, the Yemba and the Msaga.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: An alternate etymological source of the name is found in the Luvale language of Zambia & Angola, where the word "tanganyika" literally means "star", pointing to the lake having supernatural or cosmological significance to the surrounding tribes.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika is situated within the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift, and is confined by the mountainous walls of the valley. It is the largest rift lake in Africa and the second-largest lake by volume in the world. It is the deepest lake in Africa and holds the greatest volume of fresh water on the continent, accounting for 16% of the world's available fresh water. It extends for in a general north–south direction and averages in width. The lake covers , with a shoreline of , a mean depth of and a maximum depth of (in the northern basin). It holds an estimated .


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The catchment area of the lake is . Two main rivers flow into the lake, as well as numerous smaller rivers and streams (whose lengths are limited by the steep mountains around the lake). The one major outflow is the Lukuga River, which empties into the Congo River drainage. Precipitation and evaporation play a greater role than the rivers. At least 90% of the water influx is from rain falling on the lake's surface and at least 90% of the water loss is from direct evaporation.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The major river flowing into the lake is the Ruzizi River, formed about 10,000 years ago, which enters the north of the lake from Lake Kivu. The Malagarasi River, which is Tanzania's second largest river, enters the east side of Lake Tanganyika. The Malagarasi is older than Lake Tanganyika, and before the lake was formed, it probably was a headwater of the Lualaba River, the main Congo River headstream.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The lake has a complex history of changing flow patterns, due to its high altitude, great depth, slow rate of refill, and mountainous location in a turbulently volcanic area that has undergone climate changes. Apparently, it has rarely in the past had an outflow to the sea. It has been described as "practically endorheic" for this reason. The lake's connection to the sea is dependent on a high water level allowing water to overflow out of the lake through the Lukuga River into the Congo. When not overflowing, the lake's exit into the Lukuga River typically is blocked by sand bars and masses of weed, and instead this river depends on its own tributaries, especially the Niemba River, to maintain a flow.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Due to the lake's tropical location, it has a high rate of evaporation. Thus, it depends on a high inflow through the Ruzizi out of Lake Kivu to keep the lake high enough to overflow. This outflow is apparently not more than 12,000 years old, and resulted from lava flows blocking and diverting the Kivu basin's previous outflow into Lake Edward and then the Nile system, and diverting it to Lake Tanganyika. Signs of ancient shorelines indicate that at times, Tanganyika may have been up to lower than its present surface level, with no outlet to the sea. Even its current outlet is intermittent, thus may not have been operating when first visited by Western explorers in 1858.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The lake may also have at times had different inflows and outflows; inward flows from a higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi and an exit route to the Nile have all been proposed to have existed at some point in the lake's history.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika is an ancient lake. Its three basins, which in periods with much lower water levels were separate lakes, are of different ages. The central began to form 9–12 million years ago (Mya), the northern 7–8 Mya and the southern 2–4 Mya.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The lake's water is alkaline with a pH around 9 at depths of . Below this, it is around 8.7, gradually decreasing to 8.3–8.5 in the deepest parts of Tanganyika. A similar pattern can be seen in the electric conductivity, ranging from about 670 μS/cm in the upper part to 690 μS/cm in the deepest.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Surface temperatures generally range from about in the southern part of the lake in early August to in the late rainy season in March—April. At depths greater than , the temperature is very stable at . The water has gradually warmed since the 19th century and this has accelerated with global warming since the 1950s.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The lake is stratified and seasonal mixing generally does not extend beyond depths of . The mixing mainly occurs as upwellings in the south and is wind-driven, but to a lesser extent, up- and downwellings also occur elsewhere in the lake. As a consequence of the stratification, the deep sections contain "fossil water". This also means it has no oxygen (it is anoxic) in the deeper parts, essentially limiting fish and other aerobic organisms to the upper part. Some geographical variations are seen in this limit, but it is typically at depths around in the northern part of the lake and in the south. The oxygen-devoid deepest sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulphide and are essentially lifeless, except for bacteria.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika and associated wetlands are home to Nile crocodiles (including famous giant Gustave), Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, and pan hinged terrapins (last species not in the lake itself, but in adjacent lagoons). Storm's water cobra, a threatened subspecies of banded water cobra that feeds mainly on fish, is only found in Lake Tanganyika, where it prefers rocky shores.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The lake holds at least 250 species of cichlid fish and undescribed species remain. Almost all (98%) of the Tanganyika cichlids are endemic to the lake and it is thus an important biological resource for the study of speciation in evolution. Some of the endemics do occur slightly into the upper Lukuga River, Lake Tanganyika's outflow, but further spread into the Congo River basin is prevented by physics (Lukuga has fast-flowing sections with many rapids and waterfalls) and chemistry (Tanganyika's water is alkaline, while the Congo's generally is acidic). The cichlids of the African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent the most diverse extent of adaptive radiation in vertebrates.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Although Tanganyika has far fewer cichlid species than Lakes Malawi and Victoria which both have experienced relatively recent explosive species radiations (resulting in many closely related species), its cichlids are the most morphologically and genetically diverse. This is linked to the high age of Tanganyika, as it is far older than the other lakes. Tanganyika has the largest number of endemic cichlid genera of all African lakes. All Tanganyika cichlids are in the subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Of the 10 tribes in this subfamily, half are largely or entirely restricted to the lake (Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini and Tropheini) and another three have species in the lake (Haplochromini, Tilapiini and Tylochromini). Others have proposed splitting the Tanganyika cichlids into as many as 12–16 tribes (in addition to previous mentioned, Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini and Trematocarini).


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Most Tanganyika cichlids live along the shoreline down to a depth of , but some deep-water species regularly descend to . "Trematocara" species have exceptionally been found at more than , which is deeper than any other cichlid in the world. Some of the deep-water cichlids (e.g., "Bathybates", "Gnathochromis", "Hemibates" and "Xenochromis") have been caught in places virtually devoid of oxygen, but how they are able to survive there is unclear. Tanganyika cichlids are generally benthic (found at or near the bottom) and/or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlids are truly pelagic "and" offshore, except for some of the piscivorous "Bathybates". Two of these, "B. fasciatus" and "B. leo", mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines. Tanganyika cichlids differ extensively in ecology and include species that are herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. These dietary specializations, however, have been shown to be flexible. That is, many species of Tanganyikan cichlid with specialized diets showed opportunistic, episodic exploitation of "Stolothrissa tanganicae" and "Limnothrissa miodon" when prey concentrations were unusually high. Their breeding behavior fall into two main groups, the substrate spawners (often in caves or rock crevices) and the mouthbrooders. Among the endemic species are two of the world's smallest cichlids, "Neolamprologus multifasciatus" and "N. similis" (both shell dwellers) at up to , and one of the largest, the giant cichlid ("Boulengerochromis microlepis") at up to .


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Many cichlids from Lake Tanganyika, such as species from the genera "Altolamprologus", "Cyprichromis", "Eretmodus", "Julidochromis", "Lamprologus", "Neolamprologus", "Tropheus" and "Xenotilapia", are popular aquarium fish due to their bright colors and patterns, and interesting behaviors. Recreating a Lake Tanganyika biotope to host those cichlids in a habitat similar to their natural environment is also popular in the aquarium hobby.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika is home to more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish and about 60% of these are endemic.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The open waters of the pelagic zone are dominated by four non-cichlid species: Two species of "Tanganyika sardine" ("Limnothrissa miodon" and "Stolothrissa tanganicae") form the largest biomass of fish in this zone, and they are important prey for the forktail lates ("Lates microlepis") and sleek lates ("L. stappersii"). Two additional lates are found in the lake, the Tanganyika lates ("L. angustifrons") and bigeye lates ("L. mariae"), but both these are primarily benthic hunters, although they also may move into open waters. The four lates, all endemic to Tanganyika, have been overfished and larger individuals are rare today.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Among the more unusual fish in the lake are the endemic, facultatively brood parasitic "cuckoo catfish", including at least "Synodontis grandiops" and "S. multipunctatus". A number of others are very similar (e.g., "S. lucipinnis" and "S. petricola") and have often been confused; it is unclear if they have a similar behavior. The facultative brood parasites often lay their eggs synchronously with mouthbroding cichlids. The cichlid pick up the eggs in their mouth as if they were their own. Once the catfish eggs hatch the young eat the cichlid eggs. Six catfish genera are entirely restricted to the lake basin: "Bathybagrus", "Dinotopterus", "Lophiobagrus", "Phyllonemus", "Pseudotanganikallabes" and "Tanganikallabes". Although not endemic on a genus level, six species of "Chrysichthys" catfish are only found in the Tanganyika basin where they live both in shallow and relatively deep waters; in the latter habitat they are the primary predators and scavengers. A unique evolutionary radiation in the lake is the 15 species of "Mastacembelus" spiny eels, all but one endemic to its basin. Although other African Great Lakes have "Synodontis" catfish, endemic catfish genera and "Mastacembelus" spiny eels, the relatively high diversity is unique to Tanganyika, which likely is related to its old age.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Among the non-endemic fish, some are widespread African species but several are only shared with the Malagarasi and Congo River basins, such as the Congo bichir ("Polypterus congicus"), goliath tigerfish ("Hydrocynus goliath"), "Citharinus citharus", six-banded distichodus ("Distichodus sexfasciatus") and mbu puffer ("Tetraodon mbu").


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: A total of 83 freshwater snail species (65 endemic) and 11 bivalve species (8 endemic) are known from the lake. Among the endemic bivalves are three monotypic genera: "Grandidieria burtoni", "Pseudospatha tanganyicensis" and "Brazzaea anceyi". Many of the snails are unusual for species living in freshwater in having noticeably thickened shells and/or distinct sculpture, features more commonly seen in marine snails. They are referred to as thalassoids, which can be translated to "marine-like". All the Tanganyika thalassoids, which are part of Prosobranchia, are endemic to the lake. Initially they were believed to be related to similar marine snails, but they are now known to be unrelated. Their appearance is now believed to be the result of the highly diverse habitats in Lake Tanganyika and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and, in particular, "Platythelphusa" crabs. A total of 17 freshwater snail genera are endemic to the lake, such as "Hirthia", "Lavigeria", "Paramelania", "Reymondia", "Spekia", "Stanleya", "Tanganyicia" and "Tiphobia". There are about 30 species of non-thalassoid snails in the lake, but only five of these are endemic, including "Ferrissia tanganyicensis" and "Neothauma tanganyicense". The latter is the largest Tanganyika snail and its shell is often used by small shell-dwelling cichlids.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Crustaceans are also highly diverse in Tanganyika with more than 200 species, of which more than half are endemic. They include 10 species of freshwater crabs (9 "Platythelphusa" and "Potamonautes platynotus"; all endemic), at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp ("Atyella", "Caridella" and "Limnocaridina"), an endemic palaemonid shrimp ("Macrobrachium moorei"), about 100 ostracods, including many endemics, and several copepods. Among these, "Limnocaridina iridinae" lives inside the mantle cavity of the unionid mussel "Pleiodon spekei", making it one of only two known commensal species of freshwater shrimp (the other is the sponge-living "Caridina spongicola" from Lake Towuti, Indonesia).


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika far surpasses all others in terms of crustacean and freshwater snail richness (both in total number of species and number of endemics). For example, the only other Rift Valley lake with endemic freshwater crabs are Lake Kivu and Lake Victoria with two species each.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The diversity of other invertebrate groups in Lake Tanganyika is often not well-known, but there are at least 20 described species of leeches (12 endemics), 9 sponges (7 endemic), 6 bryozoa (2 endemic), 11 flatworms (7 endemic), 20 nematodes (7 endemic), 28 annelids (17 endemic) and the small hydrozoan jellyfish "Limnocnida tanganyicae".


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika supports a major fishery, which, depending on source, provides 25–40% or 60% of the animal protein in the diet of the people living in the region. Currently, there are around 100,000 people directly involved in the fisheries operating from almost 800 sites. The lake is also vital to the estimated 10 million people living in the greater basin.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Lake Tanganyika fish can be found exported throughout East Africa. Major commercial fishing began in the mid-1950s and has, together with global warming (limiting the habitat of temperature sensitive species), had a heavy impact on the fish populations, causing significant declines. In 2016, it was estimated that the total catch was up to 200,000 tonnes. Former industrial fisheries, which boomed in the 1980s, have subsequently collapsed.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Two ferries carry passengers and cargo along the eastern shore of the lake: between Kigoma and Mpulungu and between Kigoma and Bujumbura.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: On Dec. 12, 2014, the ferry MV "Mutambala" capsized on Lake Tanganyika, and more than 120 people died.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: It is thought that early "Homo sapiens" were making an impact on the region during the Stone Age. The time period of the Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age is described as an age of advanced hunter-gatherers. It is believed they would have caused megafaunal extinctions.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: There are many methods in which the native people of the area were fishing. Most of them included using a lantern as a lure for fish that are attracted to light. There were three basic forms. One called Lusenga which is a wide net used by one person from a canoe. The second one is using a lift net. This was done by dropping a net deep below the boat using two parallel canoes and then simultaneously pulling it up. The third is called Chiromila which consisted of three canoes. One canoe was stationary with a lantern while another canoe holds one end of the net and the other circles the stationary one to meet up with the net.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The first known Westerners to find the lake were the British explorers Richard Burton and John Speke, in 1858. They located it while searching for the source of the Nile River. Speke continued and found the actual source, Lake Victoria. Later David Livingstone passed by the lake. He noted the name "Liemba" for its southern part, a word probably from the Fipa language, and in 1927 this was chosen as the new name for the conquered German First World War ship "Graf von Götzen" which is still serving the lake up to the present time.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: With the aid of the "Graf Goetzen" (named after Count Gustav Adolf Graf von Götzen, the former governor of German East Africa), the Germans had complete control of the lake in the early stages of the war. The ship was used both to ferry cargo and personnel across the lake, and as a base from which to launch surprise attacks on Allied troops.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: It therefore became essential for the Allied forces to gain control of the lake themselves. Under the command of Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson the British Royal Navy achieved the monumental task of bringing two armed motor boats HMS "Mimi" and HMS "Toutou" from England to the lake by rail, road and river to Albertville (since renamed Kalemie in 1971) on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika. The two boats waited until December 1915, and mounted a surprise attack on the Germans, with the capture of the gunboat "Kingani". Another German vessel, the "Hedwig", was sunk in February 1916, leaving the "Götzen" as the only German vessel remaining to control the lake.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: As a result of their strengthened position on the lake, the Allies started advancing towards Kigoma by land, and the Belgians established an airbase on the western shore at Albertville. It was from there, in June 1916, that they launched a bombing raid on German positions in and around Kigoma. It is unclear whether or not the "Götzen" was hit (the Belgians claimed to have hit it but the Germans denied this), but German morale suffered and the ship was subsequently stripped of its gun since it was needed elsewhere.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: The war on the lake had reached a stalemate by this stage, with both sides refusing to mount attacks. However, the war on land was progressing, largely to the advantage of the Allies, who cut off the railway link in July 1916 and threatened to isolate Kigoma completely. This led the German commander, Gustav Zimmer, to abandon the town and head south. In order to avoid his prize ship falling into Allied hands, Zimmer scuttled the vessel on July 26, 1916. The vessel was later raised in 1924 and renamed MV "Liemba" (see transport).


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: In 1965 Argentinian revolutionary Che Guevara used the western shores of Lake Tanganyika as a training camp for guerrilla forces in the Congo. From his camp, Che and his forces attempted to overthrow the government, but ended up pulling out in less than a year, as the National Security Agency (NSA) had been monitoring him the entire time and the NSA aided government forces in ambushing his guerrillas.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: In 1992 Lake Tanganyika featured in the British TV documentary series "Pole to Pole". The BBC documentarian Michael Palin stayed on board the MV "Liemba" and travelled across the lake.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Since 2004 the lake has been the focus of a massive Water and Nature Initiative by the IUCN. The project is scheduled to take five years at a total cost of US$27 million. The initiative is attempting to monitor the resources and state of the lake, set common criteria for acceptable level of sediments, pollution, and water quality in general, and design and establish a lake basin management authority.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: Because of increasing global temperature there is a direct correlation to lower productivity in Lake Tanganyika. Southern winds create upwells of deep nutrient-rich water on the southern end of the lake. This happens during the cooler months (May to September). These nutrients that are in deep water are vital in maintaining the aquatic food web. The southerly winds are slowing down which limits the ability for the mixing of nutrients. This is correlating with less productivity in the lake.


title: Lake Tanganyika

text: According to a legend of the indigenous people from some parts of the Fiji islands in the South Pacific Ocean, the Fijians originated from Tanganyika.The myth is thought to have originated in relatively recent decades.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Ons Jabeur (, ; born 28 August 1994) is a Tunisian professional tennis player. She has a career high Women's Tennis Association (WTA) ranking of world No. 2 achieved on 27 June 2022. Jabeur is the current No. 1 Tunisian player, and the highest-ranked African and Arab tennis player in WTA and ATP rankings history. She has won three singles titles on the WTA Tour, as well as eleven singles titles and one doubles title on the ITF Women's Circuit. She is the first and only muslim and arab player, male or female, to reach a grand slam finals in singles at both 2022 Wimbledon and 2022 US Open.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur was first introduced to tennis at age three by her mother. She reached two junior major girls' singles finals at the French Open in 2010 and 2011, winning the latter and becoming the first Arab to win a junior major since 1964. After nearly a decade playing primarily at the ITF level, Jabeur started competing more regularly on the WTA Tour beginning in 2017. She won the Arab Woman of the Year Award in 2019. At the 2020 Australian Open, Jabeur became the first Arab woman to reach a major quarterfinal, a feat repeated at the 2021 Wimbledon Championships. She became the first Arab woman to win a WTA Tour title at the 2021 Birmingham Classic. Jabeur won her biggest title to date at the 2022 Madrid Open, a WTA 1000 event, becoming the first Tunisian and Arab player to win at this level, and reached her first major final at the 2022 Wimbledon Championships.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Ons Jabeur was born to Samira and Ridha Jabeur in Ksar Hellal, a small town in Tunisia. She grew up in the larger nearby coastal town of Sousse. Jabeur has two older brothers, Hatem and Marwen, and an older sister, Yasmine. Her mother played tennis recreationally and introduced her to the sport at the age of three. Jabeur trained under coach Nabil Mlika for ten years from ages four to thirteen, originally starting to work with him at a tennis promotion centre at her school. When she was ten years old, her club did not have their own tennis courts and she could only train on courts at nearby hotels. At twelve years old, Jabeur moved to the capital city of Tunis to train at the Lycée Sportif El Menzah, a national sport high school for the country's up-and-coming athletes, where she stayed for several years.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: She also later trained in Belgium and France starting at the age of 16. Jabeur credits her parents for the sacrifices they made when she was growing up, saying, "My parents sacrificed a lot of things – my mom used to drive me everywhere around Tunisia to go play the tournaments, and she encouraged me to go to a special school to study. That was a big sacrifice to see her little girl going for a dream that, honestly, wasn't 100% guaranteed. She believed in me and gave me the confidence to be there."


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur began playing on the ITF Junior Circuit in August 2007 on the week of her 13th birthday. With compatriot Nour Abbès, she won the doubles event of her debut tournament, the Grade 5 Al Fatah ITF Junior Tournament in Lebanon. She defeated Abbès to win her first Grade 5 singles event in January 2009 at the Fujairah ITF Junior Tennis Championships in the United Arab Emirates, where she also won the doubles event with Abbès. Later in the year, she started to have more success at higher-level tournaments, finishing runner-up at the Grade 2 International Junior Championships of Morocco and winning the Grade 2 Smash International Junior Championships in Egypt, both in singles. She made her junior Grand Slam debut at the 2009 US Open, losing her opening match to Laura Robson.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur started to produce strong results at the junior Grand Slam and other Grade A events in May 2010. In the doubles event at the Trofeo Bonfiglio, she partnered with Charlène Seateun to reach the semifinals. Two weeks later, she played the French Open and upset third seed Irina Khromacheva in the semifinals before finishing runner-up to Elina Svitolina. She also performed well at Wimbledon, reaching the quarterfinals in singles and the semifinal in doubles. She lost to Yulia Putintseva in singles, and Khromacheva and Svitolina in doubles alongside Monica Puig. Putintseva defeated Jabeur again at the US Open. Jabeur entered the doubles event with Putintseva and lost in the quarterfinals to Khromacheva again, who had partnered with Daria Gavrilova. Following the US Open, Jabeur had left wrist surgery in November that kept her out for five months until April 2011.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: The last two singles events of Jabeur's junior career were the 2011 French Open and the 2011 Wimbledon Championships. At the French Open, she won her only junior Grand Slam title to become the first North African woman to win a junior Grand Slam tournament. As the ninth seed, she upset top seed Daria Gavrilova in the quarterfinals, third seed Caroline Garcia in the semifinals, and then fifth seed Monica Puig in the final. This title helped her rise to in the world in the junior rankings. She also became the first Arab girl to win a junior Grand Slam singles title in history, and the first junior in general since Ismail El Shafei won the Wimbledon boys' title in 1964. Jabeur also entered the doubles event at the Grade 1 Junior International Roehampton, which she won while partnering with Ashleigh Barty.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur began playing on the ITF Women's Circuit in 2008 at the age of 14. In October 2009, she finished runner-up in both singles and doubles at a $10K tournament in Monastir near her hometown, losing to Elise Tamaëla in both events. She won her first title at the $10K level in singles in May 2010 in Antalya, Turkey. She then won the singles and doubles events at another $10K tournament in Casablanca, Morocco two months later.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: After having left wrist surgery at the end of the year and winning a junior Grand Slam title, Jabeur moved up to the $25K and $50K levels in the summer of 2011. She made her WTA Tour main-draw debut at the age of 17 as a wildcard at the Premier 5 Qatar Open in February 2012, where she lost her first career match to No. 103 Virginie Razzano, in three sets. She was also given a wildcard into the qualifying competition at the Dubai Tennis Championships the following week. Although she did not qualify, she upset world No. 33 Zheng Jie with a ranking of No. 1169. Jabeur did not have much success at the ITF Circuit in 2012, only reaching one final, which came in singles and was her first at the $25K level. She also entered qualifying at the French Open, but only won one match. Jabeur finished the year ranked No. 260 in the world.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: After a slow start to 2013, Jabeur won her first $25K title in April 2013 in Tunis. She then won back-to-back $50K titles over An-Sophie Mestach in Japan in May to bring her into the top 200 for the first time. In July, Jabeur played in her second WTA tournament main draw at the Baku Cup. She upset top seed, defending champion, and world No. 37, Bojana Jovanovski, in the second round before losing in the quarterfinals to Magda Linette. She entered the qualifying competitions at Wimbledon and the US Open, losing her opening match in both events. A third $50K title at the Challenger de Saguenay with a win in the final over CoCo Vandeweghe took her to a new career-high of 139.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur stayed inside the top 200 for most of the next three years, but could not enter the top 100, reaching a career-best ranking of 118 in 2015. She continued to a play a mix of ITF and WTA events, but played primarily at the ITF level. Her only ITF title in 2014 came at a $25K event in Tunis, and she did not win any titles in 2015. She finished runner-up twice in 2014, with the higher-level result coming at the $50K Open Nantes Atlantique, losing to Kateřina Siniaková. After losing in qualifying at the French Open and Wimbledon, Jabeur qualified for two Grand Slam main draws in a row at the 2014 US Open and the 2015 Australian Open. She lost her opening matches at both tournaments to No. 19 Andrea Petkovic and Vera Zvonareva, respectively. With no titles, finals, or semifinals in 2015, her year-end ranking dropped to No. 210. Jabeur rebounded with two $25K titles in January 2016. A $50K title at the Nana Trophy in Tunis helped her return to the top 200 for all but one week through the rest of the season. Nonetheless, she lost in qualifying at both Wimbledon and the US Open and did not have a strong second half of the season. She finished the year at No. 193.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur participated in all four Grand Slam singles events in 2017 for the first time. After losing in the last round of qualifying at the Australian Open, she reached the French Open main draw as a lucky loser, the Wimbledon main draw as a qualifier, and the US Open main draw as a direct acceptance. She began to rise back up the rankings at the Premier-level Dubai Tennis Championships, where she qualified for the main draw and upset world No. 22, Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, in the first round. This result brought her from No. 171 to No. 137.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: After moderate success at the $60K level, Jabeur's next big breakthrough came at the French Open. As a lucky loser, she won two main-draw matches, including an upset of world No. 7, Dominika Cibulková, in the second round for her first top-10 victory. She lost in the third round to Timea Bacsinszky. At the end of July, she made her top-100 debut. Her only other Grand Slam main-draw match-win of the year was a first-round win over American wildcard Brienne Minor at the US Open, which cemented her place in the top 100 for the rest of the year.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur fell out of the top 100 in February 2018. She did not win her first match of the year until she reached the quarterfinals at the $60K Space Coast Pro Classic in April. After she lost in qualifying at the French Open, she dropped down to No. 180 in the world. Jabeur regained some of her rankings points when she won her first $100K title at the Manchester Trophy, bringing her back to No. 133.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: With this title, she also earned a wildcard into the main draw at Wimbledon. She won her only Grand Slam main-draw match of the year at Wimbledon over Viktorija Golubic, who she defeated for the third time in the span of a month. Jabeur ended her season with the best result of her career to date. As a qualifier at the Premier-level Kremlin Cup, she finished runner-up to world No. 14, Daria Kasatkina. She defeated three top-25 players in the tournament, including No. 8 Sloane Stephens and No. 11 Anastasija Sevastova. With this result, she returned to the top 100 at a career-high of No. 62 in the world.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur played all four Grand Slam main draws for the first time in 2019, and stayed in the top 100 the entire year. She lost in the first round at the first three Grand Slam tournaments of the season, and did not win multiple main draw matches at any tournaments until after the French Open in May. Jabeur had a better second half of the season. She reached the semifinals at the Premier-level Eastbourne International, where she upset home favourite and world No. 19, Johanna Konta. She withdrew before the semifinal due to a right ankle injury.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur's next big result came at the US Open. She defeated No. 27 Caroline Garcia and then Aliaksandra Sasnovich to reach the third round at a Grand Slam tournament for the second time in her career. She lost a tight three-set match to world No. 3, Karolína Plíšková, in the third round. With this success, she reached a career-high ranking of No. 51. The only other tournament of the year where Jabeur won multiple main-draw matches was the Tianjin Open in October. She defeated three players including No. 36 Yulia Putintseva, before losing to Rebecca Peterson in her second semifinal of the year.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur had a major breakthrough at the Australian Open. After defeating Johanna Konta and Caroline Garcia in the first two rounds, she beat Caroline Wozniacki in three sets in the last match of Wozniacki's career. Jabeur defeated a fourth top 50 player in succession in Wang Qiang before losing to eventual champion Sofia Kenin in the quarterfinals. With this result, she made her top-50 debut, and also became the first Arab woman to reach a Grand Slam quarterfinal.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: The following month, Jabeur continued her progress after receiving two wildcards to both Premier tournaments in the Middle East. She held a match point against No. 2, Simona Halep, in a second-round loss at the Dubai Championships. She then reached the quarterfinals at the Qatar Open, where she upset world No. 3, Karolína Plíšková, in the third round. After the COVID-19 season suspension, Jabeur continued her good form at a Grand Slam level by reaching the third round of the US Open and the fourth round of the French Open for the first time in her career. She finished the year as world No. 31, her highest year-end ranking thus far.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: She reached the semifinal of the Charleston Open and the final of the WTA 250 MUSC Health Open (also in Charleston), the latter of which she lost to Australian Astra Sharma. She reached a career-high ranking of world No. 24 on 10 May 2021. Seeded 25th at the French Open, she took her revenge by defeating Sharma in the second round to advance to the third round of a major for a sixth straight time. She defeated Magda Linette to reach the fourth round for a second time in this major where she lost to 24th seed Coco Gauff. Seeded second, Jabeur reached her third final in her career and made history as the first Arab woman to win a WTA Tour title at the Birmingham Classic by defeating Daria Kasatkina. At the same tournament, partnering with Australian Ellen Perez, Jabeur also reached her first doubles final, losing to Marie Bouzková and Lucie Hradecká.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: At Wimbledon, Jabeur, seeded 21st, defeated five-time champion Venus Williams to become the first Tunisian tennis player, first Arab woman, and the first woman representing an African country since Cara Black from Zimbabwe in 2005, to reach the third round (or quarterfinals) at Wimbledon. This also marked her seventh consecutive third round appearance at a major. She continued her run when, despite vomiting at the side of the court when at match point, she defeated former Wimbledon champion and 11th seed, Garbiñe Muguruza, to reach the fourth round, coming back from a set down to reach the second week and round of 16 for the first time.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: The day before, Tunisian supporters who flocked to Wimbledon burst into song — the national soccer’s team song, because there isn’t one for tennis — and shouted her name after her fourth-round victory over 2020 French Open champion Iga Świątek. She defeated seventh seed Iga Świątek (making another comeback from the first set down to reach the quarterfinals, where she lost to second seed and also first-time quarterfinalist Aryna Sabalenka. As a result, she reached a career-high ranking of world No. 22 on 26 July 2021.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: To begin US Open Series, Jabeur played the Canadian Open seeded 13th, beating Clara Burel, Daria Kasatkina, and defending champion Bianca Andreescu before losing in the quarterfinals to Jessica Pegula in three sets. With this result, she made her top 20 debut the week of 16 August 2021. At Indian Wells, Jabeur reached her first WTA 1000 semifinal by defeating Anett Kontaveit in the quarterfinals. With the win, she propelled herself into a career-high ranking, becoming the first Arab tennis player to reach the top 10 in either ATP or WTA rankings history. After the withdrawal of Emma Raducanu from the 2021 Mubadala World Tennis Championship, Jabeur was given her place. She won the tournament, defeating Belinda Bencic.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur started her season at the Sydney International. She defeated Astra Sharma in the first round and Petra Kvitová in the second round before losing to Anett Kontaveit in the quarterfinals. She subsequently withdrew from the Australian Open due to a back injury sustained in the Sydney tournament. In February, Jabeur played the Dubai Championships where she defeated former world number 2 Vera Zvonareva and Jessica Pegula before falling to former No. 1, Simona Halep in the quarterfinals. She then entered the Qatar Open. After a first round bye, she defeated Aliaksandra Sasnovich and Tereza Martincová before falling to Kontaveit again in the quarterfinals.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: At Indian Wells, Jabeur received a bye into the second round where she was upset by Daria Saville in three sets. She reached the fourth round at the Miami Open, falling to 2022 Australian Open finalist Danielle Collins in straight sets. Jabeur reached her first final of the year at the Charleston Open, where she fell to Belinda Bencic in three sets. In Stuttgart, she was defeated by Paula Badosa in the quarterfinals. Seeded eighth at the Madrid Open, the world No. 10 reached her first WTA 1000 final, besting Belinda Bencic and Simona Halep, before defeating Ekaterina Alexandrova in the semifinals to become the first Arab and first African player to reach a final at this level. She defeated Jessica Pegula in the final to become the first African player to win a WTA 1000 title, the ninth different winner at the Madrid Open and the 38th different winner in a WTA 1000 tournament (since 2009).


title: Ons Jabeur

text: At the Italian Open, she reached her second consecutive WTA 1000 final, defeating Sorana Cîrstea, Ajla Tomljanović, Yulia Putintseva, and fourth seed Maria Sakkari, before saving a match point in the semifinals against Daria Kasatkina for her 11th straight win. In the final, she lost to Iga Świątek in straight sets. By reaching final at the Italian Open, Jabeur reached a career-high ranking of world No. 6, on 16 May 2022. After having an excellent clay-court season, she then participated in the French Open, where she drew Magda Linette in the first round. She was shockingly defeated by Linette, after having a set and a break lead in the second set. Despite this, she reached a career-high ranking of world No. 4, on 6 June 2022, following the conclusion of the tournament.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: As the top seed, she won the German Open in Berlin after Belinda Bencic retired in the second set of the final. As a result, she moved to a new career-high ranking of world No. 3, on 20 June 2022. Jabeur initially entered the Eastbourne International singles draw seeded second, but withdrew before the tournament. Jabeur remained in the doubles draw as a wildcard, in which she partnered with Serena Williams, who was playing her first tournament since 2021 Wimbledon. Jabeur and Williams won their first-round match against Marie Bouzková and Sara Sorribes Tormo to set up a quarterfinal against Shuko Aoyama and Chan Hao-ching. They then reached the semifinals but Jabeur withdrew before their match with Magda Linette and Aleksandra Krunić citing a right knee injury. She reached a new career-high in the singles rankings of world No. 2, on 27 June 2022.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: In London, she reached her second consecutive Wimbledon quarterfinal, defeating Mirjam Björklund, Katarzyna Kawa, Diane Parry and 24th seed Elise Mertens. Defeating Marie Bouzková in the quarterfinal, she became the first Arab or North African woman ever to reach the semifinals of a major tournament. After that, she defeated Tatjana Maria to reach her maiden Grand Slam final, which made her the first African woman, and the first Arab or North African player, in the Open era to reach a Grand Slam singles final. In the final, she lost to Elena Rybakina in three sets.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Leading up to the US Open during the North American summer, Jabeur lost in the second round at the 2022 Silicon Valley Classic and retired in her first round match against Zheng Qinwen at the Canadian Open. At the Cincinnati Open, Jabeur lost in the second round to Petra Kvitová in three sets. At the US Open, she regained her form reaching the quarterfinals for the first time at this major defeating 31st seed Shelby Rogers, and then 18th seed Veronika Kudermetova in straight sets to record her first victory over the Russian in four meetings. She became the third African woman to make it into the quarterfinals of US Open in the Open era – and the first from the northern part of the continent. The other African women to reach the US Open quarterfinals are Maryna Godwin (1968) and Amanda Coetzer (1994, 1996 and 1998), both from South Africa. However, although she eventually managed to reach the final (making her the first African woman and the first Arab woman to do so), she lost against Iga Świątek, in straight sets.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur recorded her first win at a WTA event in Africa against Ann Li at the inaugural edition of the WTA 250 tennis tournament in Tunisia , which she helped start in her home country. She was eventually defeated by Claire Liu in the quarterfinals.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur made her debut at the WTA Finals in Fort Worth. She defeated Jessica Pegula in her second match of the group stage in three sets. However, she finished her campaign in the round robin stage as she lost two out of her three matches against Aryna Sabalenka and Maria Sákkari respectively. She ended the best season of her career ranked No. 2 in the WTA rankings.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur represented Tunisia at the Junior Fed Cup in 2009 alongside Nour Abbès and Sonia Daggou. The team finished third place in their round robin group that also included Mexico, China, and Germany. Although Jabeur lost all three of her singles rubbers, Tunisia won their tie against Mexico after Abbès won her singles match and Jabeur teamed up with Abbès to win the decisive doubles rubber. Tunisia finished in 11th place out of 16 teams overall, losing their first 9th-to-12th place tie to Indonesia, but winning their second 9th-to-12th place tie against Australia. Jabeur and Abbès won both singles rubbers in that last tie.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur made her senior Fed Cup debut for Tunisia in 2011, representing the team from 2011 to 2013, and again from 2016 through 2019. She has played in 29 ties, compiling an overall record of 32–11 split between 24–5 in singles and 8–6 in doubles. Her 24 singles wins are tied with Selima Sfar for the most in Tunisia Fed Cup history. When Jabeur debuted for Tunisia, they were in Europe/Africa Zone Group III. They were promoted to Zone Group II for 2013 after winning all five of their round robin ties and a play-off tie against Ireland in 2012. They were again promoted to Zone Group I for 2014 the following year, winning a play-off tie over Lithuania. However, Tunisia ultimately did not participate in the Fed Cup in 2014 or 2015, which was concurrent with Tunisia's one-year ban from Davis Cup that resulted from their federation requiring Malek Jaziri to default a match to an Israeli player.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: When Tunisia returned to Fed Cup in 2016, they were again placed in Zone Group III. They did not manage to win their round robin groups in 2016 or 2017, losing ties to Greece and Luxembourg in 2016 and then Finland and Malta in 2017. Tunisia again won their round robin group again in 2018, after which they defeated Lithuania to win promotion to Zone Group II in 2019. They did not win their round robin group in 2019, keeping them in Zone Group II for 2020. Jabeur won all of her singles rubbers when the team was promoted in 2012, 2013, and 2018.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: As a junior, Jabeur also represented Tunisia at the 2010 Youth Olympics in Singapore, winning two singles matches and one doubles match, the latter with Romanian Cristina Dinu. She was eliminated in the quarterfinals by Chinese player Zheng Saisai in both competitions. Jabeur also represented Tunisia in singles at the London Olympics in 2012, the Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games in 2016, and the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2021. She lost her 2012 opening round match to Sabine Lisicki in three sets. She also lost her 2016 opening round match in three sets, this time to Daria Kasatkina. She had a chance to serve for the match in the second set against Kasatkina, but was broken. In Tokyo, she faced Carla Suárez Navarro in the first round of the singles tournament, but lost in straight sets.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur builds her style of play around variety and hitting what she refers to as "crazy shots". She tries to employ difficult shots because that is how she enjoys to play tennis. She likes to utilize slice and drop shots in particular. Jabeur can hit winners in a variety of ways, including backhand drop shots from the baseline or forehands up the line. She likes to play on any surface.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: As a junior, Jabeur was coached by Nabil Mlika until she was thirteen years old. Jabeur began working with Bertrand Perret in February 2018.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: She viewed Perret as being more supportive of her style of play than her past coaches, saying, "I think he understands my game. He tries to improve my good shots, not change what I do. I've worked with a lot of coaches who tried to change my game... Bertrand encourages me to do dropshots and also corrects my dropshots, instead of other coaches who told me not to do dropshots at all." In early 2020, Jabeur switched coaches to Issam Jellali, a former Tunisian Davis Cup player with whom she had already been working with for about three years.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur is a Muslim. She is married to Karim Kamoun, a Russian-Tunisian former fencer who has also served as her fitness coach since mid-2017. She is fluent in Arabic, English, and French, and is learning Russian as her husband speaks the language. Her favorite tennis player as a child was Andy Roddick. She plays football recreationally, and is a fan of Étoile Sportive du Sahel and Real Madrid CF.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur was one of 12 players who received an International Player Grand Slam Grant from the Grand Slam Development Fund in 2017 immediately before the French Open, where she won her first two career Grand Slam main-draw matches. She became endorsed by Qatar Airways in 2020.


title: Ons Jabeur

text: Jabeur won the 2019 Arab Woman of the Year Award in the sport category, having reached the third round of the US Open and established herself as a permanent fixture in the top 100 that year. Jabeur is close friends with fellow tennis player Tatjana Maria, whom she defeated in the semifinals of the 2022 Wimbledon Championships, describing her as her "barbecue buddy".


title: Ons Jabeur

text: In June 2015, Ons Jabeur signed a partnership contract with Qatar National Bank Tunisia. In 2018, it became sponsored by the Joossoor group chaired by businessman Moez Driss. In December 2020, she became sponsored by the Tunisian telecommunications operator Tunisie Télécom. In February 2022, she signed a sponsorship contract with Talan, an innovation consulting firm.


title: Coral snake

text: Coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups, the Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 16 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera ("Calliophis", "Hemibungarus", and "Sinomicrurus"), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes, in two genera ("Micruroides" and "Micrurus"). Genetic studies have found that the most basal lineages have origins in Asia, suggesting that the group originated in the Old World. While new world species of both genera are venomous, their bites are seldom lethal; only two confirmed fatalities have been documented in the past 100 years from the genus "Micrurus". Meanwhile, snakes of the genus "Micruroides" have never caused a medically-significant bite.


title: Coral snake

text: Experts now recognize that certain coloration patterns and common mnemonics - such as the phrase “Red touch yellow, kill a fellow; red touch black, you’re good, Jack,” which people sometimes use to distinguish between the venomous coral snake & non-venomous milksnake - are not consistent enough to be trustworthy. While any snake exhibiting the coral snake's color and/or banding pattern in the southeastern United States will almost certainly, in fact, be a coral snake, there are coral snakes in other parts of the world which are colored differently.


title: Coral snake

text: Coral snakes in the United States are most notable for their red, yellow/white, and black-colored banding. However, several nonvenomous species in the U.S. have similar (though not identical) bandings, including the two scarlet snake species in the genus "Cemophora", and some of the kingsnakes (including the aforementioned milksnakes) in the genus "Lampropeltis". However, in reference to the mnemonic phrase “red touching yellow, a deadly fellow,” some of these kingsnakes do not naturally display any red touching yellow, to begin with. Additionally, some ground snakes in the genus "Sonora" (of the southwestern U.S.) can have a color pattern that matches that of the sympatric Sonoran coral snake ("Micruroides euryxanthus"). No genuine coral snake in the U.S. exhibits red bands of color, in contact with bands of black, except in rare cases of an aberrant pattern. Thus, while on extremely rare occasions when a certain non-venomous snake might be mistaken for a coral snake, the mnemonic holds true. However, a red–yellow–black banded snake in the U.S. (whose red and black banding actually touch) is rarely a venomous coral snake.


title: Coral snake

text: Furthermore, the mnemonic is not consistently accurate for North American coral snake species found south of the U.S., either. Some species, like Mexico’s Oaxacan coral snake ("Micrurus ephippifer") or Clark's coral snake ("Micrurus clarki", of Costa Rica & Panama), do actually fit the mnemonic; others, like the Mexican saddled coral snake ("Micrurus bernadi"), the Honduran Roatan coral snake ("Micrurus ruatanus"), or the redtail coral snake ("Micrurus mipartitus") of Panama, do not. Further still, some South American coral snakes will fit the mnemonic, while others do not. To complicate the issue more, the South American tricolored hognose snake ("Xenodon pulcher") has repeated bands of red-black-white-black, imitating the coral snake as a defense mechanism, with the key visual difference being their upturned snout (used for burrowing). The hognoses are, actually, mildly rear-fanged venomous; although generally not considered serious to humans, anecdotal research has suggested the South American hognoses to possess slightly more potent venom than the North American hognoses. In the Old World, none of the coral snake species usually fit the mnemonic.


title: Coral snake

text: Most species of coral snake are small in size. North American species average around in length, but specimens of up to or slightly larger have been reported. Some coral snakes even live in the water but most of them do not. Aquatic species have flattened tails that act as fins, aiding in swimming.


title: Coral snake

text: Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season. Some species, like "Micrurus surinamensis", are almost entirely aquatic and spend most of their lives in slow-moving bodies of water that have dense vegetation.


title: Coral snake

text: Like all elapid snakes, coral snakes possess a pair of small hollow fangs to deliver their venom. The fangs are positioned at the front of the mouth. The fangs are fixed in position rather than retractable, and rather than being directly connected to the venom duct, they have a small groove through which the venom enters the base of the fangs. Because the fangs are relatively small and inefficient for venom delivery, rather than biting quickly and letting go (like vipers), coral snakes tend to hold onto their prey and make chewing motions when biting. The venom takes time to reach full effect.


title: Coral snake

text: Coral snakes are not aggressive or prone to biting and account for less than one percent of the total number of snake bites each year in the United States. The life span of coral snakes in captivity is about seven years.


title: Coral snake

text: "M. fluvius" reproduction is internal fertilization through the use of hemipenes. The breeding season occurs from spring to early summer and late summer to early fall. Male combat is not typical in "M. fulvius" as males are smaller than females. "Micrurus fulvius" are oviparous and typically lay eggs from May to July. During early spring females will undergo sudden vitellogenesis–oocyte and yolk formation–in preparation for breeding. Approximately 37 days post fertilization oviposition occurs and the average clutch size ranges from five to seven eggs. The incubation period of the "M. fluvius" eggs normally reaches 60 days. Males also undergo sexual changes throughout the year, testicular recrudescence start in the fall and testicular regression occurs come spring. However, males typically have mature sperm residing in the epididymis year round and are capable of storing sperm in the deferent duct over the winter till the females are receptive. A study investigating how climate influences the reproductive cycle discovered species found closer to the equator displayed more continuous cycles while those in colder regions had more seasonal cycles. With increasing temperatures as a result of climate change, continuous cycles have the possibility of becoming more prevalent. Offspring reach maturation depending on sex, males mature at roughly 11 to 16 months while females reach maturity later at 26 months. With increasing temperatures as a result of climate change continuous cycles have the possibility of becoming more prevalent.


title: Coral snake

text: New World coral snakes exist in the southern range of many temperate U.S. states. Coral snakes are found in scattered localities in the southern coastal plains from North Carolina to Louisiana, including all of Florida. They can be found in pine and scrub oak sandhill habitats in parts of this range, but sometimes inhabit hardwood areas and pine flatwoods that undergo seasonal flooding.


title: Coral snake

text: There is controversy about the classification of the very similar Texas coral snake as a separate species. Its habitat, in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas is separated from the eastern coral snake's habitat by the Mississippi River. The coral snake population is most dense in the southeastern United States, but coral snakes have been documented as far north as Kentucky.


title: Coral snake

text: The Arizona coral snake is classified as a separate species and genus and is found in central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico and southward to Sinaloa in western Mexico. It occupies arid and semiarid regions in many different habitat types, including thornscrub, desert-scrub, woodland, grassland and farmland. It is found in the plains and lower mountain slopes, at elevations ranging from sea level to ; often found in rocky areas.


title: Coral snake

text: New World coral snakes possess one of the most potent venoms of any North American snake. However, relatively few bites are recorded due to their reclusive nature and the fact they generally inhabit sparsely populated areas. Even in areas that are densely populated bites are rare. According to the American National Institutes of Health, there are an average of 15–25 coral snake bites in the United States each year.


title: Coral snake

text: When confronted by humans, coral snakes will almost always attempt to flee, and bite only if restrained. In addition, coral snakes have short fangs (proteroglyph dentition) that cannot penetrate thick clothing although bites are possible through normal thin clothing. Any skin penetration, however, is a medical emergency that requires immediate attention.


title: Coral snake

text: Historically, the venom of the North American "Micrurus" and "Micruroides" species was believed to contain powerful neurotoxins which could paralyze the breathing muscles, requiring mechanical or artificial respiration. It was usually reported that there was only mild pain associated with a bite and that respiratory failure could occur within hours. However recent studies on the bites of at least the Texas Coralsnake ("Micrurus tener") have shown that these bites rarely require antivenom, don't usually show any systemic respiratory problems and can be intensely painful. Further studies are necessary to see if these clinical features are true of all "Micrurus" species.


title: Coral snake

text: Shortages of coral snake antivenin were previously reported, but one source states that production has resumed and, Pfizer indicates that antivenin is available.


title: Coral snake

text: New World coral snakes serve as models for their Batesian mimics, false coral snakes, snake species whose venom is less toxic, as well as for many nonvenomous snake species that bear superficial resemblances to them. The role of coral snakes as models for Batesian mimics is supported by research showing that coral snake color patterns deter predators from attacking snake-shaped prey, and that in the absence of coral snakes, species hypothesized to mimic them are indeed attacked more frequently. Species that appear similar to coral snakes include:


title: Aksai Chin

text: Aksai Chin is a region administered by China as part of Hotan County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang and Rutog County, Ngari Prefecture, Tibet. It is claimed by India to be a part of its Leh District, Ladakh Union Territory. It is a part of the eastern portion of the Kashmir region and has been a subject of dispute between India and China since the late 1950s.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Aksai Chin is first mentioned by Muhammad Amin, the Yarkandi guide of the Schlagintweit brothers. He explained its meaning as "the great white sand desert". Linguist George van Driem states that the name intended by Amin is "Aqsai Chöl" (; ) which could mean "white ravine desert" or "white coomb desert". The word "chöl" for desert seems to have gotten corrupted in English transliteration into "chin".


title: Aksai Chin

text: Some sources have interpreted "Aksai" to have Uyghur meaning "white stone desert", including several British colonial, modern Western, Chinese, and Indian sources. Some modern sources interpret it to mean "white brook" instead. At least one source interprets "Aksai" to mean "eastern" in the Yarkandi Uyghur dialect.


title: Aksai Chin

text: The meaning regarding the word "Chin" has been disputed. It is taken to mean "China" by some Chinese, Western, and Indian sources. At least one source takes it to mean "pass". Other sources omit "Chin" in their interpretations. Van Driem states that there is no Uyghur word resembling "chin" for China.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Amin's Aksai Chin was not a defined region, stretching indefinitely east into Tibet south of the Kunlun Mountains.


title: Aksai Chin

text: In 1895, the British envoy to Kashgar told the Chinese Taotai that Aksai Chin was a "loose name for an ill-defined, elevated tableland", part of which lay in Indian and part in Chinese territory. Its current localised meaning for the area under dispute between India and China is a post-colonial development through repeated usage.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Because of its elevation, the desolation of Aksai Chin meant that it had no human importance. For military campaigns, the region held great importance, as it was on the only route from the Tarim Basin to Tibet that was passable all year round.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Ladakh was conquered in 1842 by the armies of Raja Gulab Singh (Dogra) under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire. The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in the transfer of the Jammu and Kashmir region including Ladakh to the British, who then installed Gulab Singh as the Maharaja under their suzerainty. The British appointed a boundary commission headed by Alexander Cunningham to determine the boundaries of the state. Chinese and Tibetan officials were invited to jointly demarcate the border, but they did not show any interest. The British boundary commissioners fixed the southern part of the boundary up to the Chang Chenmo Valley, but regarded the area north of it as "terra incognita".


title: Aksai Chin

text: William Johnson, a civil servant with the Survey of India proposed the "Johnson Line" in 1865, which put Aksai Chin in Kashmir. This was the time of the Dungan revolt, when China did not control most of Xinjiang, so this line was never presented to the Chinese. Johnson presented this line to the Maharaja of Kashmir, who then claimed the 18,000 square kilometres contained within, and by some accounts territory further north as far as the Sanju Pass in the Kun Lun Mountains. The Maharajah of Kashmir constructed a fort at Shahidulla (modern-day Xaidulla), and had troops stationed there for some years to protect caravans. Eventually, most sources placed Shahidulla and the upper Karakash River firmly within the territory of Xinjiang (see accompanying map). According to Francis Younghusband, who explored the region in the late 1880s, there was only an abandoned fort and not one inhabited house at Shahidulla when he was there – it was just a convenient staging post and a convenient headquarters for the nomadic Kirghiz. The abandoned fort had apparently been built a few years earlier by the Kashmiris. In 1878 the Chinese had reconquered Xinjiang, and by 1890 they already had Shahidulla before the issue was decided. By 1892, China had erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass.


title: Aksai Chin

text: In 1897 a British military officer, Sir John Ardagh, proposed a boundary line along the crest of the Kun Lun Mountains north of the Yarkand River. At the time Britain was concerned at the danger of Russian expansion as China weakened, and Ardagh argued that his line was more defensible. The Ardagh line was effectively a modification of the Johnson line, and became known as the "Johnson-Ardagh Line".


title: Aksai Chin

text: In 1893, Hung Ta-chen, a senior Chinese official at St. Petersburg, gave maps of the region to George Macartney, the British consul general at Kashgar, which coincided in broad details. In 1899, Britain proposed a revised boundary, initially suggested by Macartney and developed by the Governor General of India Lord Elgin. This boundary placed the Lingzi Tang plains, which are south of the Laktsang range, in India, and Aksai Chin proper, which is north of the Laktsang range, in China. This border, along the Karakoram Mountains, was proposed and supported by British officials for a number of reasons. The Karakoram Mountains formed a natural boundary, which would set the British borders up to the Indus River watershed while leaving the Tarim River watershed in Chinese control, and Chinese control of this tract would present a further obstacle to Russian advance in Central Asia. The British presented this line, known as the Macartney–MacDonald Line, to the Chinese in 1899 in a note by Sir Claude MacDonald. The Qing government did not respond to the note. According to some commentators, China believed that this had been the accepted boundary.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Both the Johnson-Ardagh and the Macartney-MacDonald lines were used on British maps of India. Until at least 1908, the British took the Macdonald line to be the boundary, but in 1911, the Xinhai Revolution resulted in the collapse of central power in China, and by the end of World War I, the British officially used the Johnson Line. However they took no steps to establish outposts or assert actual control on the ground. In 1927, the line was adjusted again as the government of British India abandoned the Johnson line in favor of a line along the Karakoram range further south. However, the maps were not updated and still showed the Johnson Line.


title: Aksai Chin

text: From 1917 to 1933, the "Postal Atlas of China", published by the Government of China in Peking had shown the boundary in Aksai Chin as per the Johnson line, which runs along the Kunlun mountains. The "Peking University Atlas", published in 1925, also put the Aksai Chin in India. When British officials learned of Soviet officials surveying the Aksai Chin for Sheng Shicai, warlord of Xinjiang in 1940–1941, they again advocated the Johnson Line. At this point the British had still made no attempts to establish outposts or control over the Aksai Chin, nor was the issue ever discussed with the governments of China or Tibet, and the boundary remained undemarcated at India's independence.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Upon independence in 1947, the government of India used the Johnson Line as the basis for its official boundary in the west, which included the Aksai Chin. From the Karakoram Pass (which is not under dispute), the Indian claim line extends northeast of the Karakoram Mountains through the salt flats of the Aksai Chin, to set a boundary at the Kunlun Mountains, and incorporating part of the Karakash River and Yarkand River watersheds. From there, it runs east along the Kunlun Mountains, before turning southwest through the Aksai Chin salt flats, through the Karakoram Mountains, and then to Panggong Lake.


title: Aksai Chin

text: On 1 July 1954, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru wrote a memo directing that the maps of India be revised to show definite boundaries on all frontiers. Up to this point, the boundary in the Aksai Chin sector, based on the Johnson Line, had been described as "undemarcated."


title: Aksai Chin

text: Despite this region being nearly uninhabitable and having no resources, it remains strategically important for China as it connects Tibet and Xinjiang. During the 1950s, the People's Republic of China built a 1,200 km (750 mi) road connecting Xinjiang and western Tibet, of which 179 km (112 mi) ran south of the Johnson Line through the Aksai Chin region claimed by India. Aksai Chin was easily accessible to the Chinese, but was more difficult for the Indians on the other side of the Karakorams to reach. The Indians did not learn of the existence of the road until 1957, which was confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published in 1958. The construction of this highway was one of the triggers for the Sino-Indian War of 1962.


title: Aksai Chin

text: The Indian position, as stated by Prime Minister Nehru, was that the Aksai Chin was "part of the Ladakh region of India for centuries" and that this northern border was a "firm and definite one which was not open to discussion with anybody".


title: Aksai Chin

text: The Chinese premier Zhou Enlai argued that the western border had never been delimited, that the Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left the Aksai Chin within Chinese borders was the only line ever proposed to a Chinese government, and that the Aksai Chin was already under Chinese jurisdiction, and that negotiations should take into account the status quo.


title: Aksai Chin

text: In June 2006, satellite imagery on the Google Earth service revealed a 1:500 scale terrain model of eastern Aksai Chin and adjacent Tibet, built near the town of Huangyangtan, about southwest of Yinchuan, the capital of the autonomous region of Ningxia in China. A visual side-by-side comparison shows a very detailed duplication of Aksai Chin in the camp. The model was surrounded by a substantial facility, with rows of red-roofed buildings, scores of olive-coloured trucks and a large compound with elevated lookout posts and a large communications tower. Such terrain models are known to be used in military training and simulation, although usually on a much smaller scale.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Local authorities in Ningxia claim that their model of Aksai Chin is part of a tank training ground, built in 1998 or 1999.


title: Aksai Chin

text: On September 11, 2019, People's Liberation Army troops confronted Indian troops on the northern bank of Pangong Lake.


title: Aksai Chin

text: A continued face-off in the 2020 China–India skirmishes of May and June 2020 between Indian and Chinese troops near Pangong Tso Lake culminated in a violent clash on 16 June 2020, with at least 20 deaths from the Indian side and no official reported deaths from the Chinese side. In 2021, Chinese state media reported 4 Chinese deaths. Both sides claimed provocation from the other.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Aksai Chin is one of the two large disputed border areas between India and China. India claims Aksai Chin as the easternmost part of the union territory of Ladakh. China claims that Aksai Chin is part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and Tibet Autonomous Region. The line that separates Indian-administered areas of Ladakh from Aksai Chin is known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC) and is concurrent with the Chinese Aksai Chin claim line.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Aksai Chin covers an area of approximately . The area is largely a vast high-altitude desert with a low point (on the "Karakash River") at about above sea level. In the southwest, mountains up to extending southeast from the Depsang Plains form the "de facto" border (Line of Actual Control) between Aksai Chin and Indian-controlled Kashmir.


title: Aksai Chin

text: In the north, the Kunlun Range separates Aksai Chin from the Tarim Basin, where the rest of Hotan County is situated. According to a recent detailed Chinese map, no roads cross the Kunlun Range within Hotan Prefecture, and only one track does so, over the Hindutash Pass.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Aksai Chin area has number of endorheic basins with many salt or soda lakes. The major salt lakes are Surigh Yilganing Kol, Tso Tang, Aksai Chin Lake, Hongshan Lake, etc. Much of the northern part of Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plains, located near Aksai Chin's largest river, the Karakash, which receives meltwater from a number of glaciers, crosses the Kunlun farther northwest, in Pishan County and enters the Tarim Basin, where it serves as one of the main sources of water for Karakax and Hotan Counties.


title: Aksai Chin

text: The western part of Aksai Chin region is drained by the Tarim River. The eastern part of the region contains several small endorheic basins. The largest of them is that of the Aksai Chin Lake, which is fed by the river of the same name. The region as a whole receives little precipitation as the Himalayas and the Karakoram block the rains from the Indian monsoon.


title: Aksai Chin

text: The nearby Trans-Karakoram Tract is also the subject of ongoing dispute between China and India in the Kashmir dispute.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Prior to the 1940s, the inhabitants of Aksai Chin were, for the most part, the occasional explorers, hunters, and nomads from India who passed through the area.


title: Aksai Chin

text: Prior to European exploration in the 1860s, there were some jade mining operations on the Xinjiang side of Aksai Chin. They were abandoned by the time European explorers reached the area. In the 1860s to 1870s, in order to facilitate trade between the Indian subcontinent and Tarim Basin, the British attempted to promote a caravan route via the western side of Aksai Chin as an alternative to the difficult and tariffed Karakoram Pass. The route, referred to as the Chang Chenmo line after the starting point in Chang Chenmo River valley, was discussed in the House of Commons in 1874. Unfortunately, in addition of being longer and higher elevation than Karakoram Pass, it also goes through the desolate desert of Aksai Chin. By 1890s, traders had mostly given up on this route.


title: Aksai Chin

text: In the 1950s, India collected salt from various lakes in Aksai Chin to study the economic feasibility of salt mining operations in the area.


title: Aksai Chin

text: By the end of the 1950s, in addition to having constructed a road, numerous PLA Ground Force outposts were constructed in a few locations, including at Tianwendian, Kongka Pass, Heweitan and Tianshuihai. The road was later upgraded to the China National Highway 219. In the modern day, there are a few businesses along the highway serving motorists.


title: Aksai Chin

text: In the 2010s, geological surveys were conducted in the Western Kunlun region, which Aksai Chin is part of. Huoshaoyun, a major lead-zinc deposit, and numerous smaller deposits were discovered in the region. Huoshaoyun is a mountain located in Aksai Chin near the Tibetan border. The mining development for Huoshaoyun started in 2017.


title: Aksai Chin

text: China National Highway 219 runs through Aksai Chin connecting Lhatse County (Lhazê, Lazi) and Xinjiang in the Tibet Autonomous Region.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Novaya Zemlya (, , ; , ) is an archipelago in northern Russia. It is situated in the Arctic Ocean, in the extreme northeast of Europe, with Cape Flissingsky, on the northern island, considered the easternmost point of Europe. To Novaya Zemlya's west lies the Barents Sea and to the east is the Kara Sea.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Novaya Zemlya consists of two main islands, the northern Severny Island and the southern Yuzhny Island, which are separated by the Matochkin Strait. Administratively, it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya District, one of the twenty-one in Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. Municipally, it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya Urban Okrug.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The population of Novaya Zemlya as of the 2010 Census was about 2,429, of whom 1,972 resided in Belushya Guba, an urban settlement that is the administrative center of Novaya Zemlya District.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The indigenous population (from 1872 to the 1950s when it was resettled to the mainland) consisted of about 50–300 Nenets who subsisted mainly on fishing, trapping, reindeer herding, polar bear hunting and seal hunting. Natural resources include copper, lead, and zinc.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Novaya Zemlya was a sensitive military area during the Cold War, and parts of it are still used for airfields today. The Soviet Air Force maintained a presence at Rogachevo on the southern part of the southern island, on the westernmost peninsula (). It was used primarily for interceptor aircraft operations, but also provided logistical support for the nearby nuclear test area. Novaya Zemlya was one of the two major nuclear test sites managed by the USSR; it was used for air drops and underground testing of the largest of Soviet nuclear bombs, in particular the October 30, 1961 air burst explosion of Tsar Bomba, the largest, most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The Russian people knew of Novaya Zemlya from the 11th century, when hunters from Novgorod visited the area. For Western Europeans, the search for the Northern Sea Route in the 16th century led to its exploration. The first visit from a Western European was by Hugh Willoughby in 1553. Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 1594, and in a subsequent expedition of 1596, he rounded the northern cape and wintered on the northeastern coast. (Barentsz died during the expedition, and may have been buried on Severny Island.) During a later voyage by Fyodor Litke in 1821–1824, the western coast was mapped. Henry Hudson was another explorer who passed through Novaya Zemlya while searching for the Northeast Passage.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The islands were systematically surveyed by Pyotr Pakhtusov and Avgust Tsivolko during the early 1830s. The first permanent settlement was established in 1870 at Malye Karmakuly, which served as capital of Novaya Zemlya until 1924. Later, the administrative center was transferred to Belushya Guba, in 1935 to Lagernoe, but then returned to Belushya Guba.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Small numbers of Nenets were resettled to Novaya Zemlya in the 1870s in a bid by Russia to keep out the Norwegians. This population, then numbering 298, was transferred to the mainland in 1957 before nuclear testing began.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: In the months following Hitler's June 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union, the United States and Great Britain organized convoys of merchant ships under naval escort to deliver Lend-Lease supplies to northern Soviet seaports. The Allied convoys up to PQ 12 arrived unscathed but German aircraft, ships and U-boats were sent to northern Norway and Finland to oppose the convoys.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Convoy PQ 17 consisted of thirty-six merchant ships containing 297 aircraft, 596 tanks, 4,286 other vehicles and more than of other cargo, six destroyer escorts, fifteen additional armed ships (among which were two Free-French corvettes) and three small rescue craft. The convoy departed Iceland on June 27, 1942, one ship running aground and dropping out of the convoy. The convoy was able to sail north of Bear Island but encountered ice floes on June 30; a ship was damaged too badly to carry on and broke radio silence. On the following morning, the convoy was detected by German U-boats and German reconnaissance aircraft and torpedo bomber attacks began on July 2.


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: On the night of July 2/3, the German battleship "Tirpitz" and the heavy cruiser "Admiral Hipper", sortied from Trondheim with four destroyers and two smaller vessels. The pocket battleships "Admiral Scheer" and "Lutzow" and six destroyers sailed from Narvik, but "Lutzow" and three destroyers ran aground. The British Admiralty responded on July 4 by diverting the escort vessels to the west to rendezvous with the Home Fleet and ordered the merchant vessels to scatter. Seeking safety in the Matochkin Strait, several ships headed toward Novaya Zemlya. S.A. Kerslake, a crew-member aboard the British trawler "Northern Gem", recorded in his diary:


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: When the "Northern Gem" approached Novaya Zemlya and neared the entrance to Matochkin Strait, it quickly reduced speed. Kerslake wrote:


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: Another seaman described the strait as "very barren and uninviting, but almost with 'Welcome' written along it."


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: On July 7 at 4:00 p.m., Captain J. H. Jauncey, the commander of the British anti-aircraft ship "Palomares", called a meeting of the commanders of the other ships which had reached the strait. At first, they discussed breaking into the Kara Sea from the east end of the Strait. An officer familiar with the region raised the possibility that the strait, navigable on the west end, might, at the other end, be ice-locked. A seaplane was dispatched which found that the eastern entrance was blocked. Other officers suggested that the ships remain in the strait until "the hue and cry had died down", adding that "the high cliffs on either side would afford some protection from dive-bombing".


title: Novaya Zemlya

text: The ships were painted white and positioned with its armament facing the west entrance. The French corvettes "Lotus" and "La Malouine" were dispatched to patrol the entrance to watch for German submarines.