title: Kumbh Mela

text: According to the colonial archives, the Prayagwal community associated with the Kumbh Mela were one of those who seeded and perpetuated the resistance and 1857 rebellion to the colonial rule. Prayagwals objected to and campaigned against the colonial government supported Christian missionaries and officials who treated them and the pilgrims as "ignorant co-religionists" and who aggressively tried to convert the Hindu pilgrims to a Christian sect. During the 1857 rebellion, Colonel Neill targeted the Kumbh mela site and shelled the region where the Prayagwals lived, destroying it in what Maclean describes as a "notoriously brutal pacification of Allahabad". "Prayagwals targeted and destroyed the mission press and churches in Allahabad". Once the British had regained control of the region, the Prayagwals were persecuted by the colonial officials, some convicted and hanged, while others for whom the government did not have proof enough to convict were persecuted. Large tracts of Kumbh mela lands near the Ganga-Yamuna confluence were confiscated and annexed into the government cantonment. In the years after 1857, the Prayagwals and the Kumbh Mela pilgrim crowds carried flags with images alluding to the rebellion and the racial persecution. The British media reported these pilgrim assemblies and protests at the later Kumbh Mela as strangely "hostile" and with "disbelief", states Maclean.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The Kumbh Mela continued to play an important role in the independence movement through 1947, as a place where the native people and politicians periodically gathered in large numbers. In 1906, the Sanatan Dharm Sabha met at the Prayag Kumbh Mela and resolved to start the Banaras Hindu University in Madan Mohan Malaviya's leadership. Kumbh Melas have also been one of the hubs for the Hindutva movement and politics. In 1964, the Vishva Hindu Parishad was founded at the Haridwar Kumbh Mela.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The historical and modern estimates of attendance vary greatly between sources. For example, the colonial era "Imperial Gazetteer of India" reported that between 2 and 2.5 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh mela in 1796 and 1808, then added these numbers may be exaggerations. Between 1892 and 1908, in an era of major famines, cholera and plague epidemics in British India, the pilgrimage dropped to between 300,000 and 400,000.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: During World War II, the colonial government banned the Kumbh Mela to conserve scarce supplies of fuel. The ban, coupled with false rumours that Japan planned to bomb and commit genocide at the Kumbh mela site, led to sharply lower attendance at the 1942 Kumbh mela than prior decades when an estimated 2 to 4 million pilgrims gathered at each Kumbh mela. After India's independence, the attendance rose sharply. On "amavasya" – one of the three key bathing dates, over 5 million attended the 1954 Kumbh, about 10 million attended the 1977 Kumbh while the 1989 Kumbh attracted about 15 million.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: On 14 April 1998, 10 million pilgrims attended the Kumb Mela at Haridwar on the busiest single day, according to the Himalayan Academy editors. In 2001, IKONOS satellite images confirmed a very large human gathering, with officials estimating 70 million people over the festival, including more than 40 million on the busiest single day according to BBC News. Another estimate states that about 30 million attended the 2001 Kumbh mela on the busiest "mauni amavasya" day alone.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: In 2007, as many as 70 million pilgrims attended the 45-day long Ardha Kumbh Mela at Allahabad. In 2013, 120 million pilgrims attended the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad. Nasik has registered maximum visitors to 75 million.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Maha Kumbh at Allahabad is the largest in the world, the attendance and scale of preparation of which keeps rising with each successive celebration. For the 2019 Ardh Kumbh at Allahabad, the preparations include a temporary city over 2,500 hectares with 122,000 temporary toilets and range of accommodation from simple dormitory tents to 5-star tents, 800 special trains by the Indian Railways, artificially intelligent video surveillance and analytics by IBM, disease surveillance, river transport management by Inland Waterways Authority of India, and an app to help the visitors.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The Kumbh mela is "widely regarded as the world's largest religious gathering", states James Lochtefeld. According to Kama Maclean, the coordinators and attendees themselves state that a part of the glory of the Kumbh festival is in that "feeling of brotherhood and love" where millions peacefully gather on the river banks in harmony and a sense of shared heritage.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: For the 2019 Allahabad Kumbh Mela, the Uttar Pradesh chief minister Yogi Adityanath announced that the Ardh Kumbh Mela (organised every 6 years) will simply be known as "Kumbh Mela", and the Kumbh Mela (organised every 12 years) will be known as "Maha Kumbh Mela" ("Great Kumbh Mela").


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Numerous sites and fairs have been locally referred to be their Kumbh Melas. Of these, four sites are broadly recognised as the Kumbh Melas: Allahabad, Haridwar, Trimbak-Nashik and Ujjain. Other locations that are sometimes called Kumbh melas – with the bathing ritual and a significant participation of pilgrims – include Kurukshetra, and Sonipat.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Each site's celebration dates are calculated in advance according to a special combination of zodiacal positions of Bṛhaspati (Jupiter), Surya (the Sun) and Chandra (the Moon). The relative years vary between the four sites, but the cycle repeats about every 12 years. Since Jupiter's orbit completes in 11.86 years, a calendar year adjustment appears in approximately 8 cycles. Therefore, approximately once a century, the Kumbh mela returns to a site after 11 years.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Kumbh Mela at Allahabad is celebrated approximately 3 years after Kumbh at Haridwar and 3 years before Kumbh at Nashik and Ujjain (both of which are celebrated in the same year or one year apart).


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The Kumbh Mela attracts tens of millions of pilgrims. Providing for a safe and pleasant temporary stay at the festival site is a complex and challenging task. The camping (santhas/akharas), food, water, sanitation, emergency health care, fire services, policing, disaster management preparations, the movement of people require significant prior planning. Further, assistance to those with special needs and lost family members through "Bhule-Bhatke Kendra" demands extensive onsite communication and co-ordination. In the case of Prayag in particular, the festival site is predominantly submerged during the monsoon months. The festival management workers have only two and a half months to start and complete the construction of all temporarily infrastructure necessary for the pilgrims, making the task even more challenging.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: In 2013, the Indian government authorities, in co-operation with "seva" volunteers, monks and Indian companies, set up 11 sectors with 55 camp clusters, providing round-the-clock first aid, ambulance, pharmacy, sector cleaning, sanitation, food and water distribution (setting up 550 kilometers of pipelines operated by 42 pumps), cooking fuel, and other services. According to Baranwal et al., their 13-day field study of the 2013 Kumbh mela found that "the Mela committee and all other agencies involved in Mela management successfully supervised the event and made it convenient, efficient and safe," an assessment shared by the US-based Center for Disease Control for the Nasik Kumbh mela.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Bathing, or a dip in the river waters, with a prayer, is the central ritual of the Kumbh Melas for all pilgrims. Traditionally, on "amavasya" – the most cherished day for bathing – the Hindu pilgrims welcome and wait for the thirteen sadhu akharas to bathe first. This event – called "shahi snan" or "rajyogi snan" – is marked by a celebratory processional march, with banners, flags, elephants, horses and musicians along with the naked or scantily clad monks, some smeared with "bhasma" (ashes). These monastic institutions come from different parts of India, have a particular emblem symbol and deity (Ganesha, Dattatreya, Hanuman, etc.). The largest contingent is the Juna akhara, traced to Adi Shankara, representing a diverse mix from the four of the largest Hindu monasteries in India with their headquarters at Sringeri, Dvarka, Jyotirmatha and Govardhana. The Mahanirbani and Niranjani are the other large contingents, and each akhara has their own lineage of saints and teachers. Large crowds gather in reverence and cheer for this procession of monks. Once these monks have taken the dip, the festival day opens for bathing by the pilgrims from far and near the site.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The bathing ritual by the pilgrims may be aided by a Prayagwal priest or maybe a simple dip that is private. When aided, the rituals may begin with "mundan" (shaving of head), prayers with offerings such as flowers, "sindur" (vermilion), milk or coconut, along with the recitation of hymns with "shradha" (prayers in the honour of one's ancestors). More elaborate ceremonies include a "yajna" (homa) led by a priest. After these river-side rituals, the pilgrim then takes a dip in the water, stands up, prays for a short while, then exits the river waters. Many then proceed to visit old Hindu temples near the site.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The motivations for the bathing ritual are several. The most significant is the belief that the "tirtha" (pilgrimage) to the Kumbh Mela sites and then bathing in these holy rivers has a salvific value, "moksha" – a means to liberation from the cycle of rebirths ("samsara"). The pilgrimage is also recommended in Hindu texts to those who have made mistakes or sinned, repent their errors and as a means of prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for these mistakes. Pilgrimage and bathing in holy rivers with a motivation to do penance and as a means to self-purify has Vedic precedents and is discussed in the early "dharma" literature of Hinduism. Its epics such as the "Mahabharata" describe Yudhisthira in a state full of sorrow and despair after participating in the violence of the great war that killed many. He goes to a saint, who advises him to go on a pilgrimage to Prayag and bathe in river Ganges as a means of penance.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Some pilgrims walk considerable distances and arrive barefoot, as a part of their religious tradition. Most pilgrims stay for a day or two, but some stay the entire month of "Magh" during the festival and live an austere life during the stay. They attend spiritual discourses, fast and pray over the month, and these Kumbh pilgrims are called "kalpavasis".


title: Kumbh Mela

text: The festival site is strictly vegetarian by tradition, as violence against animals is considered unacceptable. Many pilgrims practice partial (one meal a day) or full "vrata" (day-long fasting), some abstain from elaborate meals. These ritual practices are punctuated by celebratory feasts where vast number of people sit in rows and share a community meal – "mahaprasada" – prepared by volunteers from charitable donations. By tradition, families and companies sponsor these "anna dana" (food charity) events, particularly for the monks and the poor pilgrims.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Other activities at the mela include religious discussions ("pravachan"), devotional singing ("kirtan"), and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardised ("shastrartha"). The festival grounds also feature a wide range of cultural spectacles over the month of celebrations. These include "kalagram" (venues of "kala", Indian arts), laser light shows, classical dance and musical performances from different parts of India, thematic gates reflecting the historic regional architectural diversity, boat rides, tourist walks to historic sites near the river, as well opportunities to visit the monastic camps to watch yoga adepts and spiritual discourses.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Darshan, or viewing, is an important part of the Kumbh Mela. People make the pilgrimage to the Kumbh Mela specifically to observe and experience both the religious and secular aspects of the event. Two major groups that participate in the Kumbh Mela include the Sadhus (Hindu holy men) and pilgrims. Through their continual yogic practices the Sadhus articulate the transitory aspect of life. Sadhus travel to the Kumbh Mela to make themselves available to much of the Hindu public. This allows members of the Hindu public to interact with the Sadhus and to take "darshan." They are able to "seek instruction or advice in their spiritual lives." Darshan focuses on the visual exchange, where there is interaction with a religious deity and the worshiper is able to visually "'drink' divine power." The Kumbh Mela is arranged in camps that give Hindu worshipers access to the Sadhus. The darshan is important to the experience of the Kumbh Mela and because of this worshipers must be careful so as to not displease religious deities. Seeing of the Sadhus is carefully managed and worshipers often leave tokens at their feet.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Kumbh Mela has been theme for many documentaries, including "Kings with Straw Mats" (1998) directed by Ira Cohen, "Kumbh Mela: The Greatest Show on Earth" (2001) directed by Graham Day, "" (2004) directed by Nick Day and produced by "Maurizio Benazzo", "Kumbh Mela: Songs of the River" (2004) by Nadeem Uddin, "Invocation, Kumbh Mela" (2008), "Kumbh Mela 2013: Living with Mahatiagi" (2013) by the Ukrainian Religious Studies Project Ahamot, and "Kumbh Mela: Walking with the Nagas" (2011), "Amrit: Nectar of Immortality" (2012) directed by Jonas Scheu and Philipp Eyer.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: In 2007, the National Geographic filmed and broadcast a documentary of the Prayag Kumbh Mela, named "Inside Nirvana", under the direction of Karina Holden with the scholar Kama Maclean as a consultant. In 2013, the National Geographic Channel returned and filmed the "Inside the Mahakumbh". Indian and foreign news media have covered the Kumbh Mela regularly. On 18 April 2010, a popular American morning show "CBS News Sunday Morning" extensively covered Haridwar's Kumbh Mela, calling it ""The Largest Pilgrimage on Earth"". On 28 April 2010, BBC reported an audio and a video report on Kumbh Mela, titled ""Kumbh Mela 'greatest show on earth"."


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Young siblings getting separated at the Kumbh Mela were once a recurring theme in Hindi movies. "Amrita Kumbher Sandhane", a 1982 Bengali feature film directed by Dilip Roy, also documents the Kumbh Mela. On 30 September 2010, the Kumbh Mela featured in the second episode of the Sky One TV series "An Idiot Abroad" with Karl Pilkington visiting the festival.


title: Kumbh Mela

text: Ashish Avikunthak’s Bengali-language feature length fiction film "Kalkimanthakatha" (2015), was shot in the Allahabad Kumbh Mela in 2013. In this film, two characters search for the tenth avatar and the final avtar of Lord Vishnu – Kalki, in the lines of Samuel Beckett's "Waiting for Godot".


title: Kumbh Mela

text: In November 2017, Islamist terrorist organisation ISIS threatened to attack the Hindu pilgrims who visit the Kumbh Mela and Thrissur Pooram. The 10-minute audio clip warned of a 2017 Las Vegas style attacks to be carried out by lone wolf attackers. The clip also called on the Mujahideen to use different tactics like poisoning the food, use trucks or at least try to derail a train. The terrorists had threatened to poison the water of the Ganges river.


title: Ovary

text: The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an ovary () found on each side of the body. The ovaries also secrete hormones that play a role in the menstrual cycle and fertility. The ovary progresses through many stages beginning in the prenatal period through menopause. It is also an endocrine gland because of the various hormones that it secretes.


title: Ovary

text: The ovaries are considered the female gonads. Each ovary is whitish in color and located alongside the lateral wall of the uterus in a region called the ovarian fossa. The ovarian fossa is the region that is bounded by the external iliac artery and in front of the ureter and the internal iliac artery. This area is about 4 cm x 3 cm x 2 cm in size.


title: Ovary

text: The ovaries are surrounded by a capsule, and have an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The capsule is of dense connective tissue and is known as the tunica albuginea.


title: Ovary

text: The side of the ovary closest to the fallopian tube is connected to it by infundibulopelvic ligament, and the other side points downwards attached to the uterus via the ovarian ligament.


title: Ovary

text: The ovaries lie within the peritoneal cavity, on either side of the uterus, to which they are attached via a fibrous cord called the ovarian ligament. The ovaries are uncovered in the peritoneal cavity but are tethered to the body wall via the suspensory ligament of the ovary which is a posterior extension of the broad ligament of the uterus. The part of the broad ligament of the uterus that covers the ovary is known as the mesovarium.


title: Ovary

text: The ovarian pedicle is made up part of the fallopian tube, mesovarium, ovarian ligament, and ovarian blood vessels.


title: Ovary

text: The surface of the ovaries is covered with a membrane consisting of a lining of simple cuboidal-to-columnar shaped mesothelium, called the germinal epithelium.


title: Ovary

text: The outer layer is the ovarian cortex, consisting of ovarian follicles and stroma in between them. Included in the follicles are the cumulus oophorus, membrana granulosa (and the granulosa cells inside it), corona radiata, zona pellucida, and primary oocyte. Theca of follicle, antrum and liquor folliculi are also contained in the follicle. Also in the cortex is the corpus luteum derived from the follicles. The innermost layer is the ovarian medulla. It can be hard to distinguish between the cortex and medulla, but follicles are usually not found in the medulla.


title: Ovary

text: Follicular cells are flat epithelial cells that originate from surface epithelium covering the ovary. They are surrounded by granulosa cells that have changed from flat to cuboidal and proliferated to produce a stratified epithelium.


title: Ovary

text: At puberty, the ovary begins to secrete increasing levels of hormones. Secondary sex characteristics begin to develop in response to the hormones. The ovary changes structure and function beginning at puberty. Since the ovaries are able to regulate hormones, they also play an important role in pregnancy and fertility. When egg cells (oocytes) are released from the Fallopian tube, a variety of feedback mechanisms stimulate the endocrine system which cause hormone levels to change. These feedback mechanisms are controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary glands. Messages or signals from the hypothalamus are sent to the pituitary gland. In turn, the pituitary gland releases hormones to the ovaries. From this signaling, the ovaries release their own hormones.


title: Ovary

text: The ovaries are the site of production and periodical release of egg cells, the female gametes. In the ovaries, the developing egg cells (or oocytes) mature in the fluid-filled follicles. Typically, only one oocyte develops at a time, but others can also mature simultaneously. Follicles are composed of different types and number of cells according to the stage of their maturation, and their size is indicative of the stage of oocyte development.


title: Ovary

text: When an oocyte completes its maturation in the ovary, a surge of luteinizing hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland which stimulates the release of the oocyte through the rupture of the follicle, a process called ovulation. The follicle remains functional and reorganizes into a corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone in order to prepare the uterus for an eventual implantation of the embryo.


title: Ovary

text: At maturity, ovaries secrete estrogen, androgen, inhibin, and progestogen. In women before menopause, 50% of testosterone is produced by the ovaries and released directly into the blood stream. The other 50% of testosterone in the blood stream is made from conversion of the adrenal pre-androgens ( DHEA and androstenedione) to testosterone in other parts of the body. Estrogen is responsible for the appearance of secondary sex characteristics for females at puberty and for the maturation and maintenance of the reproductive organs in their mature functional state. Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy, and the mammary glands for lactation. Progesterone functions with estrogen by promoting menstrual cycle changes in the endometrium.


title: Ovary

text: As women age, they experience a decline in reproductive performance leading to menopause. This decline is tied to a decline in the number of ovarian follicles. Although about 1 million oocytes are present at birth in the human ovary, only about 500 (about 0.05%) of these ovulate, and the rest are wasted. The decline in ovarian reserve appears to occur at a constantly increasing rate with age, and leads to nearly complete exhaustion of the reserve by about age 52. As ovarian reserve and fertility decline with age, there is also a parallel increase in pregnancy failure and meiotic errors resulting in chromosomally abnormal conceptions. The ovarian reserve and fertility perform optimally around 20–30 years of age. Around 45 years of age, the menstrual cycle begins to change and the follicle pool decreases significantly. The events that lead to ovarian aging remain unclear. The variability of aging could include environmental factors, lifestyle habits or genetic factors.


title: Ovary

text: Women with an inherited mutation in the DNA repair gene BRCA1 undergo menopause prematurely, suggesting that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in these women, and this inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure. The BRCA1 protein plays a key role in a type of DNA repair termed homologous recombinational repair that is the only known cellular process that can accurately repair DNA double-strand breaks. Titus et al. showed that DNA double-strand breaks accumulate with age in humans and mice in primordial follicles. Primordial follicles contain oocytes that are at an intermediate (prophase I) stage of meiosis. Meiosis is the general process in eukaryotic organisms by which germ cells are formed, and it is likely an adaptation for removing DNA damages, especially double-strand breaks, from germ line DNA (see Meiosis and Origin and function of meiosis). Homologous recombinational repair is especially promoted during meiosis. Titus et al. also found that expression of 4 key genes necessary for homologous recombinational repair of DNA double-strand breaks (BRCA1, MRE11, RAD51 and ATM) decline with age in the oocytes of humans and mice. They hypothesized that DNA double-strand break repair is vital for the maintenance of oocyte reserve and that a decline in efficiency of repair with age plays a key role in ovarian aging. A study identified 290 genetic determinants of ovarian ageing, also found that DNA damage response processes are implicated and suggests that possible effects of extending fertility in women would improve bone health, reduce risk of type 2 diabetes and increase the risk of hormone-sensitive cancers.


title: Ovary

text: A variety of testing methods can be used in order to determine fertility based on maternal age. Many of these tests measure levels of hormones FSH, and GnrH. Methods such as measuring AMH (anti-mullerian) hormone levels, and AFC (antral follicule count) can predict ovarian aging. AMH levels serve as an indicator of ovarian aging since the quality of ovarian follicles can be determined.


title: Ovary

text: Ovarian diseases can be classified as endocrine disorders or as a disorders of the reproductive system.


title: Ovary

text: If the egg fails to release from the follicle in the ovary an ovarian cyst may form. Small ovarian cysts are common in healthy women. Some women have more follicles than usual (polycystic ovary syndrome), which inhibits the follicles to grow normally and this will cause cycle irregularities.


title: Ovary

text: Cryopreservation of ovarian tissue, often called "ovarian tissue cryopreservation", is of interest to women who want to preserve their reproductive function beyond the natural limit, or whose reproductive potential is threatened by cancer therapy, for example in hematologic malignancies or breast cancer. The procedure is to take a part of the ovary and carry out slow freezing before storing it in liquid nitrogen whilst therapy is undertaken. Tissue can then be thawed and implanted near the fallopian, either orthotopic (on the natural location) or heterotopic (on the abdominal wall), where it starts to produce new eggs, allowing normal conception to take place. A study of 60 procedures concluded that ovarian tissue harvesting appears to be safe. The ovarian tissue may also be transplanted into mice that are immunocompromised (SCID mice) to avoid graft rejection, and tissue can be harvested later when mature follicles have developed.


title: Ovary

text: In former centuries, medical authors, for example Galen, referred to a woman's ovaries as "female testes".


title: Ovary

text: Birds have only one functional ovary (the left), while the other remains vestigial. Ovaries in females are analogous to testes in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands. Ovaries of some kind are found in the female reproductive system of many animals that employ sexual reproduction, including invertebrates. However, they develop in a very different way in most invertebrates than they do in vertebrates, and are not truly homologous.


title: Ovary

text: Many of the features found in human ovaries are common to all vertebrates, including the presence of follicular cells, tunica albuginea, and so on. However, many species produce a far greater number of eggs during their lifetime than do humans, so that, in fish and amphibians, there may be hundreds, or even millions of fertile eggs present in the ovary at any given time. In these species, fresh eggs may be developing from the germinal epithelium throughout life. Corpora lutea are found only in mammals, and in some elasmobranch fish; in other species, the remnants of the follicle are quickly resorbed by the ovary. In birds, reptiles, and monotremes, the egg is relatively large, filling the follicle, and distorting the shape of the ovary at maturity.


title: Ovary

text: Amphibians and reptiles have no ovarian medulla; the central part of the ovary is a hollow, lymph-filled space.


title: Ovary

text: The ovary of teleosts is also often hollow, but in this case, the eggs are shed into the cavity, which opens into the oviduct. Certain nematodes of the genus "Philometra" are parasitic in the ovary of marine fishes and can be spectacular, with females as long as 40 cm, coiled in the ovary of a fish half this length. Although most normal female vertebrates have two ovaries, this is not the case in all species. In most birds and in platypuses, the right ovary never matures, so that only the left is functional. (Exceptions include the kiwi and some, but not all raptors, in which both ovaries persist.) In some elasmobranchs, only the right ovary develops fully. In the primitive jawless fish, and some teleosts, there is only one ovary, formed by the fusion of the paired organs in the embryo.


title: Hope Davis

text: Hope Davis is an American actress. She is known for her performances on stage and screen earning various awards and nominations including a Tony Award nomination, as well two Primetime Emmy Awards, and two Golden Globe Award nominations.


title: Hope Davis

text: She made her film debut in Joel Schumacher's "Flatliners" in 1990. She then starred in the critically acclaimed films "The Daytrippers" (1996), "About Schmidt" (2002), and "Infamous" (2006). She received a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture nomination for her role in "American Splendor" (2003). She received an Independent Spirit Award and a Gotham Independent Film Award with the cast of "Synecdoche, New York" (2008). In 2016, she joined the Marvel Cinematic Universe portraying Tony Stark's mother Maria Stark in "".


title: Hope Davis

text: In 1992, she made her Broadway theatre debut in "Two Shakespearean Actors". In 1997 she starred as Sasha in "Ivanov" opposite Kevin Kline and Marian Seldes. She earned acclaim for her role in Yazmina Reza's "God of Carnage" in 2009 acting alongside Jeff Daniels, Marcia Gay Harden, and James Gandolfini. For her performance she received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play.


title: Hope Davis

text: She made her television debut in the Dick Wolf NBC series "Deadline" which ran from 2000 to 2001. She then starred in ABC drama "Six Degrees" from 2006 to 2007. She earned a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series nomination for HBO's "In Treatment" in 2009. The following year she earned nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie, and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film for her portrayal of Hillary Clinton in HBO television movie "The Special Relationship" (2010).


title: Hope Davis

text: She continued acting in projects such as the limited series "Mildred Pierce" (2011), the political drama "The Newsroom" (2012-2013), the miniseries "Your Honor" (2020), and "Succession" (2021-present). The latter earned her an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.


title: Hope Davis

text: Davis made her debut as a dramatic actress in the 1990 film "Flatliners", starring as William Baldwin's fiancée. She then appeared in the hit film "Home Alone" in a small role as a Parisian airport receptionist. Later, she starred in independent films such as "The Daytrippers" (1995) and "Next Stop Wonderland" (1998). These led her to roles in Hollywood films such as the thriller "Arlington Road" (1999), and "About Schmidt" (2002). In 2003, she starred opposite Paul Giamatti in the movie adaptation of the Harvey Pekar comic "American Splendor" as the comic book version of Pekar's real-life wife, Joyce Brabner. For this role, Davis won the New York Film Critics Circle award and was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. In 2009, she was cast as Hillary Clinton in the BBC / HBO film "The Special Relationship", released in 2010.


title: Hope Davis

text: She has received a nomination for Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress – Miniseries or a Movie for her performance as Clinton. In 2015, she was approached by Marvel to play Maria Stark, mother of Tony Stark in "".


title: Hope Davis

text: Her major stage debut came after she starred in the Wisdom Bridge/Remains Theater co-production of David Mamet's play "Speed-the-Plow" for Joel Schumacher with William Petersen in Chicago in 1992. Later, she had lead roles in the New York premiere of Rebecca Gilman's "Spinning into Butter" in 2000, and in the 2005 audio play "Hope Leaves the Theater", written and directed by Charlie Kaufman. This was a segment of the sound-only production "Theater of the New Ear", which debuted at St. Ann's Warehouse in Brooklyn, NY. The title actually refers to Davis's character "leaving the theater".


title: Hope Davis

text: She returned to the stage in 2009, appearing in Broadway's "God of Carnage" with Marcia Gay Harden, James Gandolfini and Jeff Daniels, a role that gained her a Tony Award nomination for Best Leading Actress in a Play.


title: Hope Davis

text: Davis co-starred as the bitter and self-deprecating Mia with Golden Globe winner Gabriel Byrne in the second season (2009) of HBO's "In Treatment", a dramatic series that tracks the backstory and progress of five patients during their series of psychological therapeutic sessions. Mia is a successful, unmarried malpractice attorney who returns to therapy with Dr. Paul Weston after a 20-year absence because of a lack of stability in her personal life.


title: Hope Davis

text: Davis also starred in an NBC short-lived drama series called "Deadline" with Oliver Platt in 2001. She played the ex-wife to Platt's character at a newspaper giant.


title: Hope Davis

text: Davis also starred in the short-lived NBC television drama, "Allegiance", where she plays Katya O'Connor, an ex-KGB agent. Her son works for the FBI/CIA, and Katya's family is brought back into action by the SVR in hopes that Alex, her son, can be swayed to join the SVR.


title: Hope Davis

text: Davis, second of three children, was born in Englewood, New Jersey, the daughter of Joan, a librarian, and William Davis, an engineer. Davis has described her mother as a "great storyteller" who would take Davis and her siblings to museums or to "something cultural" every Sunday after church. Davis was raised in Tenafly, New Jersey, and graduated in 1982 from Tenafly High School.


title: Hope Davis

text: She was a childhood friend of Mira Sorvino, who lived almost directly across the street, and with whom she wrote and acted in backyard plays. Davis has a degree in cognitive science from Vassar College. She studied acting at HB Studio in New York City. She is married to actor Jon Patrick Walker. They have two daughters, Georgia (born August 31, 2002) and Mae (born December 30, 2004).


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel is an amorphous and porous form of silicon dioxide (silica), consisting of an irregular tridimensional framework of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms with nanometer-scale voids and pores. The voids may contain water or some other liquids, or may be filled by gas or vacuum. In the last case, the material is properly called silica xerogel.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica xerogel with an average pore size of 2.4 nanometers has a strong affinity for water molecules and is widely used as a desiccant. It is hard and translucent, but considerably softer than massive silica glass or quartz; and remains hard when saturated with water.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica xerogel is usually commercialized as coarse granules or beads, a few millimeters in diameter. Some grains may contain small amounts of indicator substance that changes color when they have absorbed some water. Small paper envelopes containing silica xerogel pellets, usually with a "do not eat" warning, are often included in dry food packages to absorb any humidity that might cause spoilage of the food.


title: Silica gel

text: 'Wet' silica gel, as may be freshly prepared from alkali silicate solutions, may vary in consistency from a soft transparent gel, similar to gelatin or agar, to a hard solid, namely a water-logged xerogel. It is sometimes used in laboratory processes, for example to suppress convection in liquids or prevent settling of suspended particles.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel was in existence as early as the 1640s as a scientific curiosity. It was used in World War I for the adsorption of vapors and gases in gas mask canisters. The synthetic route for producing silica gel was patented in 1918 by Walter A. Patrick, a chemistry professor at Johns Hopkins University.


title: Silica gel

text: In World War II, silica gel was indispensable in the war effort for keeping penicillin dry, protecting military equipment from moisture damage, as a fluid cracking catalyst for the production of high octane gasoline, making carbon disulphide, and as a catalyst support for the manufacture of butadiene from ethanol (feedstock for synthetic rubber production).


title: Silica gel

text: Silica alumina gel - light yellow, chemically stable, flame-resistant, insoluble except in alkali or hydrofluoric acid. Superficial polarity, thermal stability, performance greater than fine-pored silica gel.


title: Silica gel

text: Stabilizing silica gel - non-crystalline micro-porous solid powder, nontoxic, flame-resisting, used in brewery of grains for beer to improve taste, clearness, color, and foam and for removal of non-micro-organism impurities.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel's high specific surface area (around ) allows it to "adsorb" water readily, making it useful as a desiccant (drying agent). Silica gel is often described as "absorbing" moisture, which may be appropriate when the gel's microscopic structure is ignored, as in silica gel packs or other products. However, material silica gel removes moisture by "adsorption" onto the surface of its numerous pores rather than by "absorption" into the bulk of the gel.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel is able to adsorb up to 37% of its own weight in moisture in high humidity environments. This moisture can be released upon heating at 120°C for extended periods of time. This makes it reusable multiple times with very little, if any, loss of efficiency.


title: Silica gel

text: Once saturated with water, the gel may be regenerated by heating it to for 1–2 hours. Some types of silica gel will "pop" when exposed to enough water. This is caused by breakage of the silica spheres when contacting the water.


title: Silica gel

text: An aqueous solution of sodium silicate is acidified to produce a gelatinous precipitate that is washed, then dehydrated to produce colorless silica gel. When a visible indication of the moisture content of the silica gel is required, ammonium tetrachlorocobaltate(II) (NH)[CoCl] or cobalt(II) chloride CoCl is added. This will cause the gel to be blue when dry and pink when hydrated. Due to link between the cancer and cobalt chloride, it has been forbidden in Europe for use in silica gel. An alternative indicator is methyl violet which is orange when dry and green when hydrated.


title: Silica gel

text: In many items, moisture encourages the growth of mold and spoilage. Condensation may also damage other items such as electronics and may speed the decomposition of chemicals, such as those in vitamin pills. Through the inclusion of silica gel packets, these items can be preserved longer. It may aid the drying out of electronic equipment during attempts to restore items that have been exposed to moisture accidentally.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel may also be used to keep the relative humidity inside a high frequency radio or satellite transmission system waveguide as low as possible (see also "humidity buffering"). Excessive moisture buildup within a waveguide can cause arcing inside the waveguide itself, damaging the power amplifier feeding it. Also, the beads of water that form and condense inside the waveguide change the characteristic impedance and frequency, degrading the signal. It is common for a small compressed air system (similar to a small home aquarium pump) to be employed to circulate the air inside the waveguide over a jar of silica gel.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel can adsorb about 40 percent of its weight in moisture and can take the relative humidity in a closed container down to about 40 percent. Once saturated, you can propel the moisture off and reuse silica gel by heating it above 300 degrees F (150 C).


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel is also used to dry the air in industrial compressed air systems. Air from the compressor discharge flows through a bed of silica gel beads. The silica gel adsorbs moisture from the air, preventing damage at the point of use of the compressed air due to condensation or moisture. The same system is used to dry the compressed air on railway locomotives, where condensation and ice in the brake air pipes can lead to brake failure.


title: Silica gel

text: Prior to widespread use of air-conditioning, salt shakers with caps containing silica gel beads to keep the salt dry enough to prevent clumping were marketed in the USA, replacing the practice of including a few grains of rice in salt shakers to effect the same drying.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel is sometimes used as a preservation tool to control relative humidity in museum and library exhibitions and storage.


title: Silica gel

text: Other applications include diagnostic test strips, inhalation devices, syringes, drug test kits, and hospital sanitation kits.


title: Silica gel

text: In chemistry, silica gel is used in chromatography as a stationary phase. In column chromatography, the stationary phase is most often composed of silica gel particles of 40–63 μm. Different particle sizes are used for different kinds of column chromatography as the particle size is related to surface area. The differences in particle size dictate if the silica gel should be used for flash or gravity chromatography. In this application, due to silica gel's polarity, non-polar components tend to elute before more polar ones, hence the name normal phase chromatography. However, when hydrophobic groups (such as C groups) are attached to the silica gel then polar components elute first and the method is referred to as reverse phase chromatography. Silica gel is also applied to aluminium, glass, or plastic sheets for thin layer chromatography.


title: Silica gel

text: The hydroxy (OH) groups on the surface of silica can be functionalized to afford specialty silica gels that exhibit unique stationary phase parameters. These so-called functionalized silica gels are also used in organic synthesis and purification as insoluble reagents and scavengers.


title: Silica gel

text: Chelating groups have also been covalently bound to silica gel. These materials have the ability to remove metal ions selectively from aqueous solutions. Chelating groups can be covalently bound to polyamines that have been grafted onto a silica gel surface producing a material of greater mechanical integrity. Silica gel is also combined with alkali metals to form a M-SG reducing agent. (See SiGNa chemistry)


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel is also used as cat litter, by itself or in combination with more traditional materials, such as clays including bentonite. It is non-tracking and virtually odorless.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel, also referred to as silicon dioxide or synthetic amorphous silica (SAS), is listed by the FDA in the United States as generally recognized as safe (GRAS), meaning it can be added to food products without needing approval. Silica is allowed to be added to food in the USA at up to 2% as permitted under 21 CFR 172.480. In the EU, it can be in up to 5% concentrations. In 2018, a re-evaluation by the EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food found no indications of toxicity even at the highest estimates of exposure level.


title: Silica gel

text: Listed uses include: anticaking agent, defoaming agent, stabilizer, adsorbent, carrier, conditioning agent, chillproofing agent, filter aid, emulsifying agent, viscosity control agent, and anti-settling agent. Silica can be found commonly in foods including baked goods, spices and herbs, dairy products, cocoa products, and more.


title: Silica gel

text: Given the water adsorption properties of silica gel, it is used in domestic water filters. The surface structure of silica gel allows the adsorption of some minerals that are dissolved in the water, or "Ion-exchange" as it is marketed. Due to the lack of regulations for domestic water filtration products, no studies validate the manufacturer claims regarding the effectiveness of the filtration system.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel may be doped with a moisture indicator that gradually changes its color when it transitions from the anhydrous (dry) state to the hydrated (wet) state. Common indicators are cobalt(II) chloride and methyl violet. Cobalt (II) chloride is deep blue when dry and pink when wet, but it is toxic and carcinogenic, and was reclassified by the European Union in July 2000 as a toxic material. Methyl violet may be formulated to change from orange to green, or orange to colorless. It also is toxic and potentially carcinogenic, but is safe enough to have medicinal uses. A more ecologically friendly indicator solution is ferric ammonium sulfate, which results in a color change from deep orange/amber when dry to colorless/white when saturated.


title: Silica gel

text: Silica gel is non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-reactive and stable with ordinary usage. It will react with hydrogen fluoride, fluorine, oxygen difluoride, chlorine trifluoride, strong acids, strong bases, and oxidizers. Silica gel is irritating to the respiratory tract and may cause irritation of the digestive tract. Dust from the beads may cause irritation to the skin and eyes, so precautions should be taken. Crystalline silica dust can cause silicosis, but synthetic amorphous silica gel is indurated so does not cause silicosis. Additional hazards may occur when doped with a humidity indicator.


title: Prince albums discography

text: Prince's albums discography consists of 42 studio albums (including four soundtrack albums), four live albums, nine compilation albums (including one soundtrack album), 17 video albums and three posthumous albums. See Prince singles discography for his singles and extended plays, and Prince videography for his music videos and video albums.


title: Prince albums discography

text: Prince has sold over 100 million records worldwide, including 36.5 million certified units in the United States, and over 10 million records in the United Kingdom. "Rolling Stone" ranked him at No. 27 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.


title: Prince albums discography

text: In the weeks following his death in April 2016, 19 different Prince albums charted on the "Billboard" 200 all at the same time, and he became the first and only artist ever to have 5 albums in the "Billboard" top 10 simultaneously.


title: Prince albums discography

text: This section contains remix albums, mixtapes and premium/special (expanded) editions from previously released albums.


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: Seo Kang-joon (born Lee Seung-hwan on October 12, 1993) is a South Korean actor and singer who is a member of the group 5urprise. He gained recognition with his role in the television series "Cheese in the Trap" (2016) and has since starred in "Entourage" (2016), "Are You Human Too?" (2018), "The Third Charm" (2018), "Watcher" (2019), When The Weather Is Fine (2020), and "Grid (2022)."


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: Seo Kang-joon was born Lee Seung-hwan in Gunpo, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. In the second year of secondary school, Seo went to study abroad in Malaysia for one year and seven months and returned to Korea in the first year of high school. After his debut, he enrolled at the Faculty of Performing Arts of Dong Seoul College. Seo worked part-time as a model before his debut. After passing the audition for "Actor's League", a program with the aim of searching for new actors organized by Fantagio, Seo underwent training before debuting in the group 5urprise.


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: Seo took on bit parts in various television series, before making his acting debut as with a supporting role in SBS' drama "The Suspicious Housekeeper". His first major role was in the 2014 romantic comedy series "Cunning Single Lady", for which he won the Best New Actor award at the 7th Korea Drama Awards. He has then appeared in television dramas "What Happens to My Family?" (2014–2015), "Splendid Politics" (2015), and "To Be Continued" (2015), as well as films "My Love, My Bride" (2014) and "Summer Snow" (2015).


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: In 2014, Seo joined the SBS variety show "Roommate" as a cast member. He also appeared on "Law of the Jungle" as a guest.


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: Seo's breakout role came in 2016 as a talented pianist in the college romance drama "Cheese in the Trap". The same year, he starred in his first leading role in tvN drama "Entourage", the Korean remake of the American television series of the same name.


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: In 2018, Seo starred in KBS's science fiction drama "Are You Human?" where he played double roles as a wealthy heir and robot. The same year, he starred in romance comedy drama "The Third Charm".


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: In 2019, Seo starred in OCN's thriller drama "Watcher" as a policeman. He was cast in the JTBC romance drama "When the Weather Is Fine", which aired in the first half of 2020.


title: Seo Kang-joon

text: On November 8, 2021, it was reported that Seo would enlist in the military on November 23, 2021. Later the same day, Seo's agency confirmed that he would enlist in the military on November 23, without revealing his location. Seo received the division commander's commendation for excellent performance in basic military training.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde (IUPAC systematic name ethanal) is an organic chemical compound with the formula CHCHO, sometimes abbreviated by chemists as MeCHO (Me = methyl). It is a colorless liquid or gas, boiling near room temperature. It is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature and being produced on a large scale in industry. Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in coffee, bread, and ripe fruit, and is produced by plants. It is also produced by the partial oxidation of ethanol by the liver enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and is a contributing cause of hangover after alcohol consumption. Pathways of exposure include air, water, land, or groundwater, as well as drink and smoke. Consumption of disulfiram inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of acetaldehyde, thereby causing it to build up in the body.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed acetaldehyde as a Group 1 carcinogen. Acetaldehyde is "one of the most frequently found air toxins with cancer risk greater than one in a million".


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde was first observed by the Swedish pharmacist/chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1774); it was then investigated by the French chemists Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1800), and the German chemists Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1821, 1822, 1832) and Justus von Liebig (1835). In 1835, Liebig named it "aldehyde"; the name was later altered to "acetaldehyde".


title: Acetaldehyde

text: In 2003, global production was about 1 million tonnes. Before 1962, ethanol and acetylene were the major sources of acetaldehyde. Since then, ethylene is the dominant feedstock.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The main method of production is the oxidation of ethylene by the Wacker process, which involves oxidation of ethylene using a homogeneous palladium/copper system:


title: Acetaldehyde

text: In the 1970s, the world capacity of the Wacker-Hoechst direct oxidation process exceeded 2 million tonnes annually.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Smaller quantities can be prepared by the partial oxidation of ethanol in an exothermic reaction. This process typically is conducted over a silver catalyst at about 500–650 °C.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Prior to the Wacker process and the availability of cheap ethylene, acetaldehyde was produced by the hydration of acetylene. This reaction is catalyzed by mercury(II) salts:


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The mechanism involves the intermediacy of vinyl alcohol, which tautomerizes to acetaldehyde. The reaction is conducted at 90–95 °C, and the acetaldehyde formed is separated from water and mercury and cooled to 25–30 °C. In the wet oxidation process, iron(III) sulfate is used to reoxidize the mercury back to the mercury(II) salt. The resulting iron(II) sulfate is oxidized in a separate reactor with nitric acid.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: In this endothermic process, ethanol vapor is passed at 260–290 °C over a copper-based catalyst. The process was once attractive because of the value of the hydrogen coproduct, but in modern times is not economically viable.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The hydroformylation of methanol with catalysts like cobalt, nickel, or iron salts also produces acetaldehyde, although this process is of no industrial importance. Similarly noncompetitive, acetaldehyde arises from synthesis gas with modest selectivity.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Like many other carbonyl compounds, acetaldehyde tautomerizes to give an enol (vinyl alcohol; IUPAC name: ethenol):


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The equilibrium constant is 6 at room temperature, thus that the relative amount of the enol form in a sample of acetaldehyde is very small. At room temperature, acetaldehyde (CHCH=O) is more stable than vinyl alcohol (CH=CHOH) by 42.7 kJ/mol: Overall the keto-enol tautomerization occurs slowly but is catalyzed by acids.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Photo-induced keto-enol tautomerization is viable under atmospheric or stratospheric conditions. This photo-tautomerization is relevant to the earth's atmosphere, because vinyl alcohol is thought to be a precursor to carboxylic acids in the atmosphere.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde is a common electrophile in organic synthesis. In condensation reactions, acetaldehyde is prochiral. It is used primarily as a source of the "CHCH(OH)" synthon in aldol and related condensation reactions. Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with MeCHO to give hydroxyethyl derivatives. In one of the more spectacular condensation reactions, three equivalents of formaldehyde add to MeCHO to give pentaerythritol, C(CHOH).


title: Acetaldehyde

text: In a Strecker reaction, acetaldehyde condenses with cyanide and ammonia to give, after hydrolysis, the amino acid alanine. Acetaldehyde can condense with amines to yield imines; for example, with cyclohexylamine to give "N"-ethylidenecyclohexylamine. These imines can be used to direct subsequent reactions like an aldol condensation.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: It is also a building block in the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds. In one example, it converts, upon treatment with ammonia, to 5-ethyl-2-methylpyridine ("aldehyde-collidine").


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Three molecules of acetaldehyde condense to form "paraldehyde", a cyclic trimer containing C-O single bonds. Similarly condensation of four molecules of acetaldehyde give the cyclic molecule metaldehyde. Paraldehyde can be produced in good yields, using a sulfuric acid catalyst. Metaldehyde is only obtained in a few percent yield and with cooling, often using HBr rather than HSO as the catalyst. At -40 °C in the presence of acid catalysts, polyacetaldehyde is produced. There are two stereomers of paraldehyde and four of metaldehyde.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The German chemist Valentin Hermann Weidenbusch (1821–1893) synthesized paraldehyde in 1848 by treating acetaldehyde with acid (either sulfuric or nitric acid) and cooling to 0°C. He found it quite remarkable that when paraldehyde was "heated" with a trace of the same acid, the reaction went the other way, recreating acetaldehyde.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde forms a stable acetal upon reaction with ethanol under conditions that favor dehydration. The product, CHCH(OCHCH), is formally named 1,1-diethoxyethane but is commonly referred to as "acetal". This can cause confusion as "acetal" is more commonly used to describe compounds with the functional groups RCH(OR') or RR'C(OR<nowiki>"</nowiki>) rather than referring to this specific compound – in fact, 1,1-diethoxyethane is also described as the diethyl acetal of acetaldehyde.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde is a precursor to vinylphosphonic acid, which is used to make adhesives and ion conductive membranes. The synthesis sequence begins with a reaction with phosphorus trichloride:


title: Acetaldehyde

text: In the liver, the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase oxidizes ethanol into acetaldehyde, which is then further oxidized into harmless acetic acid by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. These two oxidation reactions are coupled with the reduction of NAD to NADH. In the brain, the enzyme catalase is primarily responsible for oxidizing ethanol to acetaldehyde, and alcohol dehydrogenase plays a minor role. The last steps of alcoholic fermentation in bacteria, plants, and yeast involve the conversion of pyruvate into acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase, followed by the conversion of acetaldehyde into ethanol. The latter reaction is again catalyzed by an alcohol dehydrogenase, now operating in the opposite direction.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Traditionally, acetaldehyde was mainly used as a precursor to acetic acid. This application has declined because acetic acid is produced more efficiently from methanol by the Monsanto and Cativa processes. Acetaldehyde is an important precursor to pyridine derivatives, pentaerythritol, and crotonaldehyde. Urea and acetaldehyde combine to give a useful resin. Acetic anhydride reacts with acetaldehyde to give ethylidene diacetate, a precursor to vinyl acetate, which is used to produce polyvinyl acetate.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The global market for acetaldehyde is declining. Demand has been impacted by changes in the production of plasticizer alcohols, which has shifted because "n"-butyraldehyde is less often produced from acetaldehyde, instead being generated by hydroformylation of propylene. Likewise, acetic acid, once produced from acetaldehyde, is made predominantly by the lower-cost methanol carbonylation process. The impact on demand has led to increase in prices and thus slowdown in the market.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Consumption of acetaldehyde (10 t) in 2003(* Included in others -glyoxal/glyoxalic acid, crotonaldehyde, lactic acid, "n"-butanol, 2-ethylhexanol)


title: Acetaldehyde

text: China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world, accounting for almost half of global consumption in 2012. Major use has been the production of acetic acid. Other uses such as pyridines and pentaerythritol are expected to grow faster than acetic acid, but the volumes are not large enough to offset the decline in acetic acid. As a consequence, overall acetaldehyde consumption in China may grow slightly at 1.6% per year through 2018. Western Europe is the second-largest consumer of acetaldehyde worldwide, accounting for 20% of world consumption in 2012. As with China, the Western European acetaldehyde market is expected to increase only very slightly at 1% per year during 2012–2018. However, Japan could emerge as a potential consumer for acetaldehyde in next five years due to newfound use in commercial production of butadiene. The supply of butadiene has been volatile in Japan and the rest of Asia. This should provide the much needed boost to the flat market, as of 2013.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The threshold limit value is 25ppm (STEL/ceiling value) and the MAK (Maximum Workplace Concentration) is 50 ppm. At 50 ppm acetaldehyde, no irritation or local tissue damage in the nasal mucosa is observed. When taken up by the organism, acetaldehyde is metabolized rapidly in the liver to acetic acid. Only a small proportion is exhaled unchanged. After intravenous injection, the half-life in the blood is approximately 90 seconds.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Many serious cases of acute intoxication have been recorded. Acetaldehyde naturally breaks down in the human body.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde is an irritant of the skin, eyes, mucous membranes, throat, and respiratory tract. This occurs at concentrations as low as 1000 ppm. Symptoms of exposure to this compound include nausea, vomiting, and headache. These symptoms may not happen immediately. The perception threshold for acetaldehyde in air is in the range between 0.07 and 0.25 ppm. At such concentrations, the fruity odor of acetaldehyde is apparent. Conjunctival irritations have been observed after a 15-minute exposure to concentrations of 25 and 50 ppm, but transient conjunctivitis and irritation of the respiratory tract have been reported after exposure to 200 ppm acetaldehyde for 15 minutes.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde is carcinogenic in humans. In 1988 the International Agency for Research on Cancer stated, "There is "sufficient" evidence for the carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde (the major metabolite of ethanol) in experimental animals." In October 2009 the International Agency for Research on Cancer updated the classification of acetaldehyde stating that acetaldehyde included in and generated endogenously from alcoholic beverages is a Group I human carcinogen. In addition, acetaldehyde is damaging to DNA and causes abnormal muscle development as it binds to proteins.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde induces DNA interstrand crosslinks, a form of DNA damage. These can be repaired by either of two replication-coupled DNA repair pathways. The first is referred to as the FA pathway, because it employs gene products defective in Fanconi's anemia patients. This repair pathway results in increased mutation frequency and altered mutational spectrum. The second repair pathway requires replication fork convergence, breakage of the acetaldehyde crosslink, translesion synthesis by a Y-family DNA polymerase and homologous recombination.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: People with a genetic deficiency for the enzyme responsible for the conversion of acetaldehyde into acetic acid may have a greater risk of Alzheimer's disease. "These results indicate that the ALDH2 deficiency is a risk factor for LOAD [late-onset Alzheimer's disease] ..."


title: Acetaldehyde

text: A study of 818 heavy drinkers found that those exposed to more acetaldehyde than normal through a genetic variant of the gene encoding for alcohol dehydrogenase are at greater risk of developing cancers of the upper gastrointestinal tract and liver.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The drug disulfiram (Antabuse) inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme that oxidizes the compound into acetic acid. Metabolism of ethanol forms acetaldehyde before acetaldehyde dehydrogenase forms acetic acid, but with the enzyme inhibited, acetaldehyde accumulates. If one consumes ethanol while taking disulfiram, the hangover effect of ethanol is felt more rapidly and intensely. As such, disulfiram is sometimes used as a deterrent for alcoholics wishing to stay sober.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde is a potential contaminant in workplace, indoors, and ambient environments. Moreover, the majority of humans spend more than 90% of their time in indoor environments, increasing any exposure and the risk to human health.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: In a study in France, the mean indoor concentration of acetaldehydes measured in 16 homes was approximately seven times higher than the outside acetaldehyde concentration. The living room had a mean of 18.1±17.5 μg m and the bedroom was 18.2±16.9 μg m, whereas the outdoor air had a mean concentration of 2.3±2.6 μg m.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: It has been concluded that volatile organic compounds (VOC) such as benzene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, toluene, and xylenes have to be considered priority pollutants with respect to their health effects. It has been pointed that in renovated or completely new buildings, the VOCs concentration levels are often several orders of magnitude higher. The main sources of acetaldehydes in homes include building materials, laminate, PVC flooring, varnished wood flooring, and varnished cork/pine flooring (found in the varnish, not the wood). It is also found in plastics, oil-based and water-based paints, in composite wood ceilings, particle-board, plywood, treated pine wood, and laminated chipboard furniture.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: The use of acetaldehyde is widespread in different industries, and it may be released into waste water or the air during production, use, transportation and storage. Sources of acetaldehyde include fuel combustion emissions from stationary internal combustion engines and power plants that burn fossil fuels, wood, or trash, oil and gas extraction, refineries, cement kilns, lumber and wood mills and paper mills. Acetaldehyde is also present in automobile and diesel exhaust. As a result, acetaldehyde is "one of the most frequently found air toxics with cancer risk greater than one in a million".


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Natural tobacco polysaccharides, including cellulose, have been shown to be the primary precursors making acetaldehyde a significant constituent of tobacco smoke. It has been demonstrated to have a synergistic effect with nicotine in rodent studies of addiction. Acetaldehyde is also the most abundant carcinogen in tobacco smoke; it is dissolved into the saliva while smoking.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde has been found in cannabis smoke. This finding emerged through the use of new chemical techniques that demonstrated the acetaldehyde present was causing DNA damage in laboratory settings.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Many microbes produce acetaldehyde from ethanol, but they have a lower capacity to eliminate the acetaldehyde, which can lead to the accumulation of acetaldehyde in saliva, stomach acid, and intestinal contents. Fermented food and many alcoholic beverages can also contain significant amounts of acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde, derived from mucosal or microbial oxidation of ethanol, tobacco smoke, and diet, appears to act as a cumulative carcinogen in the upper digestive tract of humans. According to European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety's (SCCS) "Opinion on Acetaldehyde" (2012) the cosmetic products special risk limit is 5 mg/L and acetaldehyde should not be used in mouth-washing products.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Acetaldehyde can be produced by the photo-oxidation of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE), via a Type II Norrish reaction.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: Although the levels produced by this process are minute acetaldehyde has an exceedingly low taste/odor threshold of around 20–40 ppb and can cause an off-taste in bottled water. The level at which an average consumer could detect acetaldehyde is still considerably lower than any toxicity.


title: Acetaldehyde

text: "Candida albicans" in patients with potentially carcinogenic oral diseases has been shown to produce acetaldehyde in quantities sufficient to cause problems.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: A filibuster is a tactic used in the U.S. Senate to delay or block a vote on a measure by preventing debate on it from ending. The Senate's rules place few restrictions on debate; in general, if no other senator is speaking, a senator who seeks recognition is entitled to speak for as long as they wish. Only when debate concludes can the measure be put to a vote. Rule XXII of the Standing Rules of the Senate allows the Senate to vote to limit debate by invoking cloture on the pending question. In most cases, however, this requires a majority of three-fifths of senators duly chosen and sworn, so a minority of senators can block a measure, even if it has the support of a simple majority.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Originally, the Senate's rules did not provide for a procedure for the Senate to vote to end debate on a question so that it could be voted on. The minority could therefore extend debate on a bill indefinitely by holding the floor of the Senate, preventing the bill from coming to a vote. Throughout the 19th century, senators attempted to introduce the hour rule and the previous question (both of which are used in the United States House of Representatives to limit debate), but these attempts were unsuccessful. Finally, in 1917, at the urging of President Woodrow Wilson, in response to a filibuster of the Armed Ship Bill, the Senate adopted a rule allowing for cloture of a debate. Initially, this required a majority of two-thirds of senators present and voting. Between 1949 and 1959, the threshold for cloture was two-thirds of senators duly chosen and sworn. In 1975, this threshold was reduced to three-fifths of senators duly chosen and sworn (60 votes if there is no more than one vacancy).


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Even once cloture has been invoked, in most cases debate can continue for a further 30 hours, and most bills are subject to two or three filibusters before the Senate can vote on passage of it (first on a motion to proceed to the consideration of the bill, then potentially on a substitute amendment to the bill, and finally on the bill itself). Even bills supported by 60 or more senators (as well as nominations) may therefore be delayed by a filibuster. A filibuster can also be conducted through the use of other dilatory measures, such as proposing dilatory amendments.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In the 1970s, following the filibuster of several civil rights bills, the Senate adopted a "two-track" system, which was intended in part as a progressive reform to prevent filibusters from completely blocking Senate business. Since then, however, a measure could be delayed simply by a senator placing a hold on it; in this case, the leadership will generally not attempt to advance the measure unless cloture is invoked on it (usually by a 60-vote majority). For example, as a courtesy to senators who have holds on a bill, senators generally suggest the absence of a quorum after they finish their speeches, which has the effect of preventing the presiding officer from putting the pending question to the Senate even though no senator seeks recognition. Thus, in practice, most bills cannot pass the Senate without the support of at least 60 senators.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 2013, the Senate overturned a ruling of the chair to set a precedent that only a simple majority is needed to invoke cloture on nominations other than those to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 2017, the Senate overturned a ruling of the chair to set a precedent that this also applies to nominations to the Supreme Court. These changes were made by using the nuclear option, which allows the Senate to override its Standing Rules (such as the 60-vote cloture threshold) by a simple majority, even though under the regular order, a two-thirds majority of senators present and voting would be needed to invoke cloture on a resolution amending the Standing Rules. Since then, nominations can be confirmed without the support of 60 senators.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Moreover, a number of rulemaking statutes have been enacted to limit the scope of the filibuster by imposing an automatic time limit on Senate debate of certain questions. These include the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 (which created the budget reconciliation process), the Congressional Review Act and the War Powers Resolution. Since debate on these measures ends without cloture being invoked, they are not subject to the 60-vote threshold.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Only a small number of supermajority requirements were explicitly included in the original U.S. Constitution, including conviction on impeachment (two-thirds of senators present), agreeing to a resolution of advice and consent to ratification of a treaty (two-thirds of senators present), expelling a member of Congress (two-thirds of members voting in the house in question), overriding presidential vetoes (two-thirds of members voting of both houses), and proposing constitutional amendments (two-thirds of members voting of both houses), Through negative textual implication, the Constitution also gives a simple majority the power to set procedural rules: "Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member."


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In "Federalist" No. 22, Alexander Hamilton described super-majority requirements as being one of the main problems with the previous Articles of Confederation, and identified several evils which would result from such a requirement:


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1789, the first U.S. Senate adopted rules that did not provide for a cloture mechanism, which opened the door to filibusters. Indeed, a filibuster took place at the very first session of the Senate. On September 22, 1789, Senator William Maclay wrote in his diary that the “design of the Virginians . . . was to talk away the time, so that we could not get the bill passed.”


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: During most of the pre-Civil War period, the filibuster was seldom used, as northern senators desired to maintain southern support over fears of disunion/secession and made compromises over slavery in order to avoid confrontation with new states admitted to the Union in pairs to preserve the sectional balance in the Senate, most notably in the Missouri Compromise of 1820.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: One of the early notable filibusters occurred in 1837 when a group of Whig senators filibustered to prevent allies of the Democratic President Andrew Jackson from expunging a resolution of censure against him. In 1841, a defining moment came during debate on a bill to charter a new national bank. After Whig Senator Henry Clay tried to end the debate via a majority vote, Democratic Senator William R. King threatened a filibuster, saying that Clay "may make his arrangements at his boarding house for the winter." Other senators sided with King, and Clay backed down.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Although between 1789 and 1806 the Senate's rules provided for a motion for the previous question, this motion was itself debatable, so it could not be used as an effective cloture mechanism. Rather, it was used by the Senate to reverse its decision to consider a bill (much like today's motion to indefinitely postpone). Starting in 1811, the House of Representatives set a series of precedents to make the previous question a way of limiting debate, and throughout the 19th century, some senators unsuccessfully attempted to introduce this version of the previous question into the Senate rules.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1917, during World War I, at the urging of President Woodrow Wilson, the Senate adopted a rule by a vote of 76–3 to permit an end to debate on a measure in the form of cloture. This took place after a group of 12 anti-war senators managed to kill a bill that would have allowed Wilson to arm merchant vessels in the face of unrestricted German submarine warfare. At any time, a senator could present a cloture motion signed by 16 senators while a measure was pending. One hour after the Senate convened on the second calendar day of session following the filing of the cloture motion, the business then pending would be set aside, and the presiding officer would put to the Senate the question, "Is it the sense of the Senate that the debate shall be brought to a close?" If two-thirds of senators present and voting voted in favor of cloture, the measure would be the unfinished business to the exclusion of all other business; no dilatory motions or amendments would be allowed; all amendments must have been submitted prior to the cloture vote, and each senator would be limited to 1 hour of debate (which must be germane to the clotured measure).


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Despite the new supermajority requirement, however, political scientist David Mayhew has argued that in practice, it was unclear whether a filibuster could be sustained against majority opposition. The first cloture vote occurred in 1919 to end debate on the Treaty of Versailles, leading to the treaty's rejection against the wishes of the cloture rule's first champion, President Wilson. During the 1930s, Senator Huey Long of Louisiana used the filibuster to promote his populist policies. He recited Shakespeare and read out recipes for "pot-likkers" during his filibusters, which occupied 15 hours of debate.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1946, five Democrats, senators John H. Overton (LA), Richard B. Russell (GA), Millard E. Tydings (MD), Clyde R. Hoey (NC), and Kenneth McKellar (TN), blocked a vote on a bill (S. 101) proposed by Democrat Dennis Chávez of New Mexico that would have created a permanent Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) to prevent discrimination in the workplace. The filibuster lasted weeks, and Senator Chávez was forced to remove the bill from consideration after a failed cloture vote, even though he had enough votes to pass the bill.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1949, in response to filibusters of motions to amend the Journal and motions to proceed to the consideration of bills, the cloture rule was amended to allow cloture to be filed on 'any measure, motion, or other matter pending before the Senate, or the unfinished business'.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1949, the Senate made invoking cloture more difficult by requiring two-thirds of senators duly chosen and sworn to vote in favor of a cloture motion. Moreover, future proposals to change the Senate rules were themselves specifically exempted from being subject to cloture. In 1953, Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon set a record by filibustering for 22 hours and 26 minutes while protesting the Tidelands Oil legislation. Then-Democratic Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina broke this record in 1957 by filibustering the Civil Rights Act of 1957 for 24 hours and 18 minutes, during which he read laws from different states and recited George Washington's farewell address in its entirety, although the bill ultimately passed.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1959, anticipating more civil rights legislation, the Senate under the leadership of Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson restored the cloture threshold to two-thirds of senators present and voting. Although the 1949 rule had eliminated cloture on rules changes themselves, the resolution was not successfully filibustered, and on January 5, 1959, the resolution was adopted by a 72–22 vote with the support of three top Democrats and three of the four top Republicans.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The presiding officer, Vice President Richard Nixon, stated his opinion that the Senate "has a constitutional right at the beginning of each new Congress to determine rules it desires to follow". However, since this was a response to a parliamentary inquiry, rather than a ruling on a point of order, it is not binding precedent, and the prevailing view is that the Senate's rules continue from one Congress to another. The 1959 change also eliminated the 1949 exemption for rules changes, allowing cloture to once again be invoked on future changes.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: One of the most notable filibusters of the 1960s occurred when Southern Democrats attempted to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by filibustering for 75 hours, including a 14-hour-and-13-minute address by Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia. The filibuster failed when the Senate successfully invoked cloture for only the second time since 1927.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: From 1917 to 1970, the Senate took a cloture vote nearly once a year (on average); during this time, there were a total of 49 cloture votes.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: After a series of filibusters in the 1960s over civil rights legislation, the Senate put a "two-track system" into place in 1972 under the leadership of Democratic Majority Leader Mike Mansfield and Democratic Majority Whip Robert Byrd. Before this system was introduced, a filibuster would stop the Senate from moving on to any other legislative activity. Tracking allows the majority leader—with unanimous consent or the agreement of the minority leader—to have more than one main motion pending on the floor as unfinished business. Under the two-track system, the Senate can have two or more pieces of legislation or nominations pending on the floor simultaneously by designating specific periods during the day when each one will be considered.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The notable side effect of this change was that by no longer bringing Senate business to a complete halt, filibusters on particular motions became politically easier for the minority to sustain. As a result, the number of filibusters began increasing rapidly, eventually leading to the modern era in which an effective supermajority requirement exists to pass legislation, with no practical requirement that the minority party actually hold the floor or extend debate.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1975, the Senate revised its cloture rule so that three-fifths of senators duly chosen and sworn could limit debate, except for changing Senate rules which still requires a two-thirds majority of those present and voting to invoke cloture.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: However, by returning to an absolute number of all senators, rather than a proportion of those present and voting, the change also made any filibusters easier to sustain on the floor by a small number of senators from the minority party without requiring the presence of their minority colleagues. This further reduced the majority's leverage to force an issue through extended debate.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1977, the Senate set a series of precedents holding that if cloture has been invoked on a measure, the presiding officer must take the initiative in ruling nongermane amendments out of order.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Another tactic, which used points of order to delay legislation because they were not counted as part of the limited time allowed for debate, was rendered ineffective by a rule change in 1979.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: At first, the only effect of cloture on the time available for debate was to limit each senator to one hour of debate. In 1979, the Senate imposed a 100-hour limit on the total time available for consideration of a clotured measure. In 1986, this was reduced to 30 hours.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: As the filibuster has evolved from a rare practice that required holding the floor for extended periods into a routine 60-vote supermajority requirement, Senate leaders have increasingly used cloture motions as a regular tool to manage the flow of business, often even in the absence of a threatened filibuster. Thus, the presence or absence of cloture attempts is not necessarily a reliable indicator of the presence or absence of a threatened filibuster. Because filibustering does not depend on the use of any specific rules, whether a filibuster is present is always a matter of judgment.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 2005, a group of Republican senators led by Majority Leader Bill Frist proposed having the presiding officer, Vice President Dick Cheney, rule that a filibuster on judicial nominees was unconstitutional, as it was inconsistent with the President's power to name judges with the advice and consent of a simple majority of senators. Senator Trent Lott, the junior senator from Mississippi, used the word "nuclear" to describe the plan, and so it became known as the "nuclear option," and the term thereafter came to refer to the general process of changing cloture requirements via the establishment of a new Senate precedent (by simple majority vote, as opposed to formally amending the Senate rule by two-thirds vote). However, a group of 14 senators—seven Democrats and seven Republicans, collectively dubbed the "Gang of 14"—reached an agreement to temporarily defuse the conflict.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: From April to June 2010, under Democratic control, the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration held a series of monthly public hearings on the history and use of the filibuster in the Senate.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: During the 113th Congress, two packages of amendments were adopted on January 25, 2013, one temporary for that Congress and one permanent. Firstly, during the 113th Congress, debate on motions to proceed to bills would be limited to 4 hours, and the minority would be guaranteed the opportunity to offer amendments. Postcloture debate time on district judge nominations was limited to 2 hours, and postcloture debate time on executive nominations (other than those at Level I of the Executive Schedule) was limited to 8 hours. Permanent changes to the Standing Rules of the Senate provided for a simplified cloture procedure for bipartisan motions to proceed and for compound motions to go to conference.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Despite these modest changes, 60 votes were still required to overcome a filibuster, and the "silent filibuster"—in which a senator can delay a bill even if they leave the floor—remained in place.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: On November 21, 2013, Senate Democrats used the nuclear option, voting 48–52 to overrule a decision of the chair and eliminate the use of the filibuster on executive branch nominees and judicial nominees, except to the Supreme Court. All Republicans and three Democrats voted in favor of sustaining the decision of the chair. The Democrats' stated motivation was what they saw as an expansion of filibustering by Republicans during the Obama administration, especially with respect to nominations for the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and out of frustration with filibusters of executive branch nominees for agencies such as the Federal Housing Finance Agency.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: On April 6, 2017, Senate Republicans eliminated the sole exception to the 2013 change by invoking the nuclear option to extend the 2013 precedent to include Supreme Court nominees. This was done in order to allow a simple majority to confirm Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court. The vote was 48–52 against sustaining the decision of the chair on a point of order raised by Majority Leader Mitch McConnell. 61 Senators from both parties later wrote a letter to Senate leadership, urging them to preserve the filibuster for legislation.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 2019, the Senate voted 49–51 to overturn a ruling of the chair to set a precedent that postcloture debate on nominations, other than those to the Supreme Court of the United States, to the United States courts of appeals and to positions at Level I of the Executive Schedule, is two hours. All Republicans except Senators Susan Collins and Mike Lee voted against sustaining the decision of the chair.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In January 2021, following a shift to a 50-50 Democratic majority supported by Vice President Harris's tie-breaking vote, the legislative filibuster became a sticking point for the adoption of a new organizing resolution when Mitch McConnell, the Senate Minority Leader, threatened to filibuster the organizing resolution until it should include language maintaining a 60-vote threshold to invoke cloture. As a result of this delay, committee memberships were held over from the 116th Congress, leaving some committees without a chair, some committees chaired by Republicans, and new Senators without committee assignments. After a stalemate that lasted a week, McConnell received assurances from two Democratic senators that they would continue to support the 60-vote threshold. Because of those assurances, on January 25, 2021, McConnell abandoned his threat of a filibuster.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: A number of laws limit the time for debate on certain bills, effectively exempting those bills from the 60-vote requirement, and allow the Senate to pass those bills by simple majority vote. As a result, many major legislative actions in recent decades have been adopted through one of these methods, especially reconciliation.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Budget reconciliation is a procedure created in 1974 as part of the congressional budget process. In brief, the annual budget process begins with adoption of a budget resolution (passed by simple majority in each house, not signed by President, does not carry force of law) that sets overall funding levels for the government. The Senate may then consider a budget reconciliation bill, not subject to filibuster, that reconciles funding amounts in any annual appropriations bills with the amounts specified in the budget resolution.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: However, under the Byrd rule no non-budgetary "extraneous matter" may be considered in a reconciliation bill. The presiding officer, relying always on the opinion of the Senate parliamentarian, determines whether an item is extraneous, and a 60-vote majority is required to include such material in a reconciliation bill.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: During periods of single-party control in Congress and the Presidency, reconciliation has increasingly been used to enact major parts of a party's legislative agenda by avoiding the 60-vote rule. Notable examples of such successful use include:


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Beginning in 1975 with the Trade Act of 1974, and later through the Trade Act of 2002 and the Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015, Congress has from time to time provided so-called "fast track" authority for the President to negotiate international trade agreements. After the President submits an agreement, Congress can then approve or deny the agreement, but cannot amend it nor filibuster. On the House and Senate floors, each body can debate the bill for no more than 20 hours, thus the Senate can act by simple majority vote once the time for debate has expired.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The Congressional Review Act, enacted in 1995, allows Congress to review and repeal administrative regulations adopted by the Executive Branch within 60 legislative days. This procedure will most typically be used successfully shortly after a party change in the presidency. It was used once in 2001 to repeal an ergonomics rule promulgated under Bill Clinton, was not used in 2009, and was used 14 times in 2017 to repeal various regulations adopted in the final year of the Barack Obama presidency.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The Act provides that a rule disapproved by Congress "may not be reissued in substantially the same form" until Congress expressly authorizes it. However, CRA disapproval resolutions require only 51 votes while a new authorization for the rule would require 60 votes. Thus, the CRA effectively functions as a "one-way ratchet" against the subject matter of the rule in question being re-promulgated, such as by the administration of a future President of the opposing party.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The National Emergencies Act, enacted in 1976, formalizes the emergency powers of the President. The law requires that when a joint resolution to terminate an emergency has been introduced, it "must" be considered on the floor within a specified number of days. The time limitation overrides the normal 60-vote requirement to close debate, and thereby permits a joint resolution to be passed by a simple majority of both the House and Senate.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: As originally designed, such joint resolutions were not subject to presidential veto. Following the Supreme Court's decision in "INS v. Chadha" (1983) which ruled that the legislative veto was unconstitutional, Congress revised the law in 1985 to make the joint resolutions subject to presidential veto.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The War Powers Resolution, enacted in 1973 over Richard Nixon's veto, generally requires the President to withdraw troops committed overseas within 60 days, which the President may extend once for 30 additional days, unless Congress has declared war, otherwise authorized the use of force, or is unable to meet as a result of an armed attack upon the United States. Both the House and Senate must vote on any joint resolution authorizing forces, or requiring that forces be removed, within a specified time period, thus establishing a simple-majority threshold in the Senate.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: On November 21, 2013, the Senate, using the "nuclear option," created a binding precedent to eliminate the use of the filibuster on executive branch nominees and judicial nominees, except those to the Supreme Court. The Democrats' stated motivation was what they saw as an expansion of filibustering by Republicans during the Obama administration, especially with respect to nominations for the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and out of frustration with filibusters of executive branch nominees for agencies such as the Federal Housing Finance Agency. On April 6, 2017, the exception for Supreme Court appointments was also eliminated.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The modern-era filibuster—and the effective 60-vote supermajority requirement it has led to—has had significant policy and political effects on all three branches of the federal government.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The supermajority rule has made it very difficult, often impossible, for Congress to pass any but the most non-controversial legislation in recent decades. The number of bills passed by the Senate has cratered: in the 85th Congress in 1957–59, over 25% of all bills introduced in the Senate were eventually passed into law; by 2005, that number had fallen to 12.5%, and by 2010, only 2.8% of introduced bills became law—a 90% decline from 50 years prior.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: During times of unified party control, majorities have attempted (with varying levels of success) to enact their major policy priorities through the budget reconciliation process, resulting in legislation constrained by more narrow, budgetary rules (e.g., any legislation that includes provisions on social security may be filibustered, so the Senate cannot address it). Meanwhile, public approval for Congress as an institution has fallen to its lowest levels ever, with large segments of the public seeing the institution as ineffective.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Shifting majorities of both parties—and their supporters—have often been frustrated as major policy priorities articulated in political campaigns are unable to obtain passage following an election. Despite the Democratic Party holding a substantial majority in the 111th Congress, the "public option" provision in the Affordable Care Act was removed because one Senator—Joe Lieberman of Connecticut—threatened to filibuster the bill if it remained.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: Presidents of both parties have increasingly filled the policymaking vacuum with expanded use of executive power, including executive orders in areas that had traditionally been handled through legislation. For example, Barack Obama effected major changes in immigration policy by issuing work permits to some undocumented workers, while Donald Trump issued several significant executive orders after taking office in 2017, along with undoing many of Obama's initiatives. As a result, policy in these areas is increasingly determined by executive preference, and is more easily changed after elections, rather than through more permanent legislative policy.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The Supreme Court's caseload has declined significantly, with various commenters suggesting that the decline in major legislation has been a major cause. Meanwhile, more policy issues are resolved judicially without action by Congress—despite the existence of potential simple majority support in the Senate—on topics such as the legalization of same-sex marriage.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: The implied threat of a filibuster—and the resulting 60-vote requirement in the modern era—have had major impacts on the ability of recent Presidents to enact their top legislative priorities into law. The effects of the 60-vote requirement are most apparent in periods where the President and both Houses of Congress are controlled by the same political party, typically in the first two years of a presidential term.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 1993–94, President Bill Clinton enjoyed Democratic majorities in both chambers of the 103rd Congress, including a 57–43 advantage in the Senate. Yet the Clinton health care plan of 1993, formulated by a task force led by First Lady Hillary Clinton, was unable to pass in part due to the filibuster. As early as April 1993, a memo to the task force noted that "While the substance is obviously controversial, there is apparently great disquiet in the Capitol over whether we understand the interactivity between reconciliation and health, procedurally, and in terms of timing and counting votes for both measures..."


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 2001, President George W. Bush was unable to obtain sufficient Democratic support for his tax cut proposals. As a result, the Bush tax cuts of 2001 and 2003 were each passed using reconciliation, which required that the tax cuts expire within the 10-year budget window to avoid violating the Byrd rule in the Senate. The status of the tax cuts would remain unresolved until the late 2012 "fiscal cliff," with a portion of the cuts being made permanent by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, passed by a Republican Congress and signed by President Barack Obama.


title: Filibuster in the United States Senate

text: In 2009–10, President Barack Obama briefly enjoyed an effective 60-vote Democratic majority (including independents) in the Senate during the 111th Congress. During that time period, the Senate passed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), commonly known as "Obamacare," on December 24, 2009 by a vote of 60-39 (after invoking cloture by the same 60-39 margin). However, Obama's proposal to create a public health insurance option was removed from the health care legislation because it could not command 60-vote support.