title: Londinium

text: Archaeologists began the first intensive excavation of the waterfront sites of Roman London in the 1970s. What was not found during this time has been built over, making it very difficult to study or discover anything new. Another phase of archaeological work followed the deregulation of the London Stock Exchange in 1986, which led to extensive new construction in the city's financial district. From 1991, many excavations were undertaken by the Museum of London's Archaeology Service, although it was spun off into the separately-run MOLA in 2011 following legislation to address the Rose Theatre fiasco.


title: Londinium

text: Major finds from Roman London, including mosaics, wall fragments, and old buildings, were formerly housed in the London and Guildhall Museums. These merged after 1965 into the present Museum of London near the Barbican Centre. The Museum of London Docklands, a separate branch dealing with the history of London's ports, opened on the Isle of Dogs in 2003. Other finds from Roman London continue to be held in the British Museum.


title: Londinium

text: Much of the surviving wall is medieval, but Roman-era stretches are visible near Tower Hill tube station, in a hotel courtyard at nearby 8–10 Coopers Row, and in St Alphege Gardens off Wood Street. A section of the river wall is visible inside the Tower of London. Parts of the amphitheatre are on display beneath the Guildhall Art Gallery. The southwestern tower of the Roman fort northwest of town can still be seen at Noble Street. Occasionally, Roman sites are incorporated into the foundations of new buildings for future study, but these are not generally available to the public.


title: Akvavit

text: Akvavit or "aquavit" (; also akevitt in Norwegian; aquavit in English) is a distilled spirit that is principally produced in Scandinavia, where it has been produced since the 15th century. "Akvavit" is distilled from grain or potatoes, and is flavoured with a variety of herbs. It is also popular in Northern Germany.


title: Akvavit

text: "Akvavit" gets its distinctive flavour from spices and herbs, and the dominant flavour must (according to the European Union) come from a distillate of caraway and/or dill seed. It typically contains 40% alcohol by volume or 80 proof (U.S.) The EU has established a minimum of 37.5% ABV for "akvavit" to be named as such.


title: Akvavit

text: The word "aquavit" derives from the Latin "aqua vitae", "water of life." Compare the words "whisky" or "whiskey", from Gaelic "uisce beatha", which has the same meaning. Likewise, clear fruit brandy is called "eau de vie" (French for "water of life").


title: Akvavit

text: Akvavit is an important part of Nordic drinking culture, where it is often drunk during festive gatherings, such as Christmas dinners and the Midsummer celebration, and as an aperitif. In Iceland, Sweden, Denmark and Germany aquavit is chilled and often drunk in a single gulp from a small shot glass. This is usually attributed to tradition. It is not generally chilled in Norway, but enjoyed slowly. In Sweden commonly the aquavit is consumed immediately following a song, called a snapsvisa. The most well-known song is "Helan Går". In Finland and Sweden, aquavit consumed from a shot glass is also commonly associated with crayfish parties, which are traditionally held during late August. In Denmark aquavit is called snaps or akvavit, and is primarily consumed in December during Christmas lunches or around Easter during Easter lunches. It is consumed year round though, mainly for lunches of traditional Danish dishes where beer is also always on the table. In Norway, where most aquavit is matured in oak casks, the drink is served at room temperature in tulip-shaped glasses. Aquavit arguably complements beer well, and its consumption is very often preceded by a swig of beer.


title: Akvavit

text: Akvavit must be distilled from an agricultural base, most commonly grain or potatoes. Similarly to Gin it is flavored with botanicals. The dominant flavors must be caraway or dill, sometimes both. Swedish Akvavit must also contain fennel in order to be labeled as such. Other common botanicals include: cardamom, cumin, anise, coriander.


title: Akvavit

text: The Danish distillery Aalborg makes an akvavit distilled with amber which imparts a pine-like citrusy note. The Aalborg brand is now produced in Norway by Anora Group.


title: Akvavit

text: The recipes and flavours differ between brands, with each brand’s unique characteristics coming from distillation methods and supporting botanicals in their blends. Un-aged Akvavit is clear while aged Akvavit typically has a pale straw to golden hue depending on how long it has been aged in oak casks (most common in Norway) or the amount of colorant used. Normally, a darker color suggests a higher age or the use of young casks, though artificial caramel colouring and infusing fruits or botanicals for color and flavor is permitted before bottling. Clear akvavit is often called "taffel", meaning table aquavit. Taffel aquavit is typically aged in old casks that do not colour the finished spirit or it is not aged at all.


title: Akvavit

text: The earliest known reference to "aquavit" is found in a 1531 letter from the Danish Lord of Bergenshus castle, Eske Bille to Olav Engelbrektsson, the last Roman Catholic Archbishop of Norway. The letter, dated April 13, accompanying a package, offers the archbishop "some water which is called Aqua Vite and is a help for all sort of illness which a man can have both internally and externally".


title: Akvavit

text: While this claim for the medicinal properties of the drink may be rather inflated, aquavit is popularly believed to ease the digestion of rich foods. In Denmark, it is traditionally associated with Christmas and Easter lunches. In Norway, it is drunk at celebrations, particularly Christmas, Easter or May 17 (Norwegian Constitution Day). In Sweden, it is a staple of the traditional midsummer celebrations dinner, usually drunk while singing one of many drinking songs. It is usually drunk as snaps during meals, especially during the appetizer course – along with pickled herring, crayfish, lutefisk or smoked fish. In this regard, it is popularly quipped that aquavit helps the fish swim down to the stomach.


title: Akvavit

text: It is also a regular on the traditional Norwegian Christmas meals, including roasted rib of pork and rib of lamb ("pinnekjøtt"). The spices and the alcohol are said to help digest the meal, which is very rich in fat.


title: Akvavit

text: Among the most important brands are Løiten, Lysholm, Opland and Simers from Norway, Aalborg and Brøndum from Denmark and O.P. Anderson from Sweden. While the Danish and Swedish variants are normally very light in colour, most of the Norwegian brands are matured in oak casks for at least six months, and for some brands even as long as 12 years, making them generally darker in colour. While members of all three nations can be found to claim that "their" style of aquavit is the best as a matter of national pride, Norwegian "akevitt" tend to have, if not the most distinctive character, then at least the most overpowering flavour and deepest colour due to the aging process.


title: Akvavit

text: Peculiar to the Norwegian tradition are "Linje Aquavits" (such as "Løiten Linie" and "Lysholm Linie"). Linje Aquavit is named after the tradition of sending oak barrels of aquavit with ships from Norway to Australia and back again, thereby passing the equator ("linje") twice before being bottled. The constant movement, high humidity and fluctuating temperature cause the spirit to extract more flavour and contributes to accelerated maturation.


title: Akvavit

text: Norwegian aquavit distillers Anora (former Arcus) has carried out a test where they tried to emulate the rocking of the casks aboard the "Linje" ships while the oak barrels were subjected to the weather elements as they would aboard a ship. The finished product was, according to Anora, far from the taste that a proper "linje" aquavit should have.


title: Akvavit

text: Therefore, to this day boats loaded with "Linie Aquavit" set sail from Norway to Australia and back again before they are bottled and sold as part of the Norwegian Christmas traditions but also enjoyed all year round.


title: Akvavit

text: Aquavit was seldom produced outside of the Nordic countries but that began to change dramatically starting around 2010, especially in the United States, particularly in areas that have a larger concentrations of people with Nordic heritage. An exception, however, is Northern Germany, and in particular the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, which was part of Denmark until the 19th century (see: History of Schleswig-Holstein) and still has a notable Danish minority. Among the most important German brands are Bommerlunder from Flensburg, Kieler Sprotte from Kiel and Malteserkreuz. The latter brand has been produced in Berlin since 1924 by a subsidiary of Sweden's Vin & Sprit AB (now Pernod Ricard), the producer of many Swedish akvavits, and can be considered a German imitation of the Nordic aquavits, since it is based on an original Danish recipe. Brands from Schleswig-Holstein, however, often have a long history, comparable to their Nordic counterparts. Bommerlunder, for instance, has been made since 1760. Aquavit is also an important part of the traditional cuisine of Schleswig-Holstein. German aquavit is virtually always distilled from fermented grain, and generally has an alcohol content of 38% by volume, marginally less than Scandinavian aquavits.


title: Akvavit

text: Psychopomp Microdistillery in Bristol, England, started producing an aquavit (termed 'Aqvavit' due to EU regulations) in 2017. In Canada aquavit is produced by Crosscut Distillery Sudbury, Confluence Distillery, Okanagan Spirits Craft Distillery, Island Spirits Distillery, Long Table Distillery, Spirit of York Distillery Co. in Toronto, Ontario, Newfoundland Distillery Co. in Clarke’s Beach, Newfoundland, Compass Distillers in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Sheringham Distillery on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Many distilleries in the United States produce aquavit, especially in parts of the country with high populations of people of Nordic heritage. Examples include: Colorado, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin, Montana, Illinois, Oregon, New Hampshire and Washington. The Midwest States in particular do quite well for the category and have produced numerous internationally acclaimed /award-winning brands.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: General elections were held in India in four phases between 20 April and 10 May 2004. Over 670 million people were eligible to vote, electing 543 members of the 14th Lok Sabha. Seven states also held assembly elections to elect state governments. They were the first elections fully carried out with electronic voting machines.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: On 13 May the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the lead party of the National Democratic Alliance conceded defeat. The Indian National Congress, which had governed India for all but five years from independence until 1996, returned to power after a record eight years out of office. It was able to put together a comfortable majority of more than 335 members out of 543 with the help of its allies. The 335 members included both the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance, the governing coalition formed after the election, as well as external support from the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Samajwadi Party (SP), Kerala Congress (KC) and the Left Front.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: After facing criticism from her own party and from the country Congress President Sonia Gandhi asked the 22nd Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, an economist, to head the new government. Singh had previously served in the Congress government of Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao in the early 1990s, when he was seen as one of the architects of India's first economic liberalisation plan, which staved off an impending monetary crisis. Despite the fact that Singh had never won a Lok Sabha seat, his considerable goodwill and Sonia Gandhi's nomination won him the support of the UPA allies and the Left Front.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: The elections saw the evolution of a Two-party system with political competition primarily concentrated between the UPA and NDA.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee had recommended premature dissolution of the 13th Lok Sabha (in accordance with a provision of the Constitution) to pave the way for early elections apparently in view of the recent good showing of the BJP in the Assembly elections in four states.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: Counting began simultaneously on 13 May. Over 370 million of the 675 million eligible citizens voted, with election violence claiming 48 lives, less than half the number killed during the 1999 election. The Indian elections were held in phases in order to maintain law and order. A few states considered sensitive areas required deployment of the armed forces. The average enrolment of voters in each constituency is 1.2 million, although the largest constituency has 3.1 million.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: The Election Commission of India is responsible for deciding the dates and conducting elections according to constitutional provisions. The Election Commission employed more than a million electronic voting machines for these elections.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: According to the magazine "India Today", 115.62 billion rupees were expected to have been spent in campaigning for the elections by all political parties combined. Most of the money was spent on the people involved in the election. The Election Commission limited poll expenses to Rs. 2.5 million per constituency. Thus, the actual spending is expected to have been approximately ten times the limit. About 6.5 billion rupees are estimated to have been spent on mobilising 150,000 vehicles. About a billion rupees are estimated to have been spent on helicopters and aircraft.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: In these elections, compared to all the Lok Sabha elections of the 1990s, the battle was more of a head-to-head contest in the sense that there was no viable third front alternative. Largely the contest was between BJP and its allies on one hand and Congress and its allies on the other. The situation did, however, show large regional differences.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: The BJP fought the elections as part of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), although some of its seat-sharing agreements were made with strong regional parties outside of the NDA such as Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) in Tamil Nadu.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: Ahead of the elections there were attempts to form a Congress-led national level joint opposition front. In the end, an agreement could not be reached, but on regional level alliances between Congress and regional parties were made in several states. This was the first time that Congress contested with that type of alliances in a parliamentary election.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: The left parties, most notably the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and the Communist Party of India, contested on their own in their strongholds West Bengal, Tripura and Kerala, confronting both Congress and NDA forces. In several other states, such as Punjab and Andhra Pradesh, they took part in seat sharings with Congress. In Tamil Nadu they were part of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)-led Democratic Progressive Alliance.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: Two parties refused to go along with either Congress or BJP, Bahujan Samaj Party and Samajwadi Party. Both are based in Uttar Pradesh, the largest state of India (in terms of population). Congress made several attempts to form alliances with them, but in vain. Many believed that they would become the 'spoilers' that would rob Congress of an electoral victory. The result was a four-cornered contest in UP, which didn't really hurt or benefit Congress or BJP significantly.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: Most analysts believed the NDA would win the elections. This assessment was also supported by opinion polls. The economy had shown steady growth in the last few months and the disinvestment of government owned production units (a continuation of India's liberalisation policies initiated in the early 1990s) had been on track. The Foreign Exchange Reserves of India stood at more than US$100 billion (7th largest in the world and a record for India). The service sector had also generated a lot of jobs. The party was supposed to have been riding on a wave of the so-called "feel good factor", typified by its promotional campaign "India Shining".


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: In the past, BJP has largely been seen as a hard-line Hindu party with close ties with the Hindu organisation the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). Over the years, the party has slightly distanced itself from its "Hindutva" policies, a change that is being questioned after the party's poor showing in the elections. These elections were marked by the campaign's emphasis on economic gains. From the last few elections, BJP had realised that its voter base had reached a ceiling and had concentrated on pre-poll rather than post-poll alliances. The foreign origin of Sonia Gandhi also constituted part of the NDA's campaign.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: Though pre-poll predictions were for an overwhelming majority for the BJP, the exit polls (immediately after the elections and before the counting began) predicted a hung parliament. However, even the exit polls could only indicate the general trend and nowhere close to the final figures. There is also the general perception that as soon as the BJP started realising that events might not proceed entirely in its favour, it changed the focus of its campaign from "India Shining" to issues of stability. The Congress, who was regarded as "old-fashioned" by the ruling BJP, was largely backed by poor, rural, lower-caste and minority voters that did not participate in the economic boom of previous years that created a wealthy middle class and thus achieved its overwhelming victory.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: The rout of the ruling parties in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the general elections led to calls for the dissolution of the governments of these states.


title: 2004 Indian general election

text: The stock market (Bombay Stock Exchange) fell in the week prior to the announcement of the results due to fears of an unstable coalition. As soon as counting began, however, it became clear that the Congress coalition was headed for a sizeable lead over the NDA and the market surged, only to crash the following day when the left parties, whose support would be required for government formation, announced that it was their intention to do away with the disinvestment ministry. Following this, Manmohan Singh, the Prime Minister (in office 2004–14) and the prime architect of the economic liberalisation of the early 1990s, hurried to reassure investors that the new government would strive to create a business-friendly climate.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The English Electric Canberra is a British first-generation, jet-powered medium bomber. It was developed by English Electric during the mid- to late 1940s in response to a 1944 Air Ministry requirement for a successor to the wartime de Havilland Mosquito fast bomber. Among the performance requirements for the type was an outstanding high-altitude bombing capability and high speed. These were partly accomplished by making use of newly developed jet-propulsion technology. When the Canberra was introduced to service with the Royal Air Force (RAF), the type's first operator, in May 1951, it became the service's first jet-powered bomber.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In February 1951, a Canberra set another world record when it became the first jet aircraft to make a nonstop transatlantic flight. Throughout most of the 1950s, the Canberra could fly at a higher altitude than any other aircraft in the world, and in 1957, a Canberra established a world altitude record of . Due to its ability to evade the early jet interceptor aircraft, and its significant performance advancement over contemporary piston-engined bombers, the Canberra became a popular aircraft on the export market, being procured for service in the air forces of many nations both inside and outside of the Commonwealth of Nations. The type was also licence-produced in Australia by Government Aircraft Factories (GAF) and in the US by Martin as the B-57 Canberra. The latter produced both the slightly modified B-57A Canberra and the significantly updated B-57B.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In addition to being a tactical nuclear strike aircraft, the Canberra proved to be highly adaptable, serving in varied roles such as tactical bombing and photographic and electronic reconnaissance. Canberras served throughout the Cold War, in the Suez Crisis, Vietnam War, Falklands War, Indo-Pakistani wars, and numerous African conflicts. In several wars, each of the opposing sides had Canberras in its air force.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra served for more than 50 years with some operators. In June 2006, the RAF retired the last three of its Canberras 57 years after its first flight. Three of the Martin B-57 variant remain in service, performing meteorological and re-entry tracking work for NASA, as well as providing electronic communication (Battlefield Airborne Communications Node) testing for deployment to Afghanistan.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the Second World War, a desperate demand for bomber aircraft led to many aircraft being produced by secondary manufacturers via licensed manufacturing arrangements. The English Electric company thus mass-produced thousands of piston-engined bombers, such as the Handley Page Hampden and Handley Page Halifax, and the firm became a well-established British aircraft manufacturer despite having little internal design experience. Sir George Nelson, the chairman of English Electric, decided that the company would seek to remain in the business and produce its own designs. In November 1943, the company was invited to participate in discussions over a prospective bomber that would take advantage of the newly developed jet propulsion technology.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In 1944, Westland Aircraft's technical director and chief designer W. E. W. Petter had prepared a design study for a twin-engined fighter-bomber, the P.1056, based on two fuselage-mounted Metrovick F.2/4 "Beryl" engines. The aircraft used a relatively conventional aerodynamic design, Petter having determined that the necessary performance could be attained without adopting swept wings or a swept tail. The authorities doubted its suitability for operations from unprepared fields and at low altitude, but could see its potential as a bomber design; numerous manufacturers refused to take on the design. Petter left Westland to join the English Electric company in December 1944, where he was appointed by Nelson to form a design team and encouraged to develop his design. In 1945, English Electric formalised its own in-house aircraft design team to pursue this design.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra had its formal origins in a 1944 requirement issued by the Air Ministry for a successor to the de Havilland Mosquito. This requirement, the initial revision being E.3/45, sought a high-altitude, high-speed bomber, which was to be equipped with no defensive armament. According to aviation historians Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, Air Ministry officials are alleged to have had difficulty defining what they sought for the proposed type, which led to several revisions of the requirement. Further specification refinements, including B.3/45 and B.5/47, issued further details such as a three-man crew and other features such as a visual bombing capability. Several British aircraft manufacturers submitted proposals to meet the requirement, including English Electric. The firm was among those companies to be short-listed to proceed with development studies.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: By June 1945, the aircraft that was to become the Canberra bore many similarities to the eventual design, despite the placement of a single, centrally mounted turbojet engine; Petter had held discussions with Rolls-Royce Ltd on the topic of the development of a scaled-up derivative of the Nene engine. In late 1945, the design was modified further with a pair of engines being adopted, instead, initially to be set in the wing roots and later to be mounted in a midwing position; this change was made principally due to centre of gravity issues imposed by the position and weight of a heavy bombload and centrally mounted single engine. The new engine position decreased the aircraft's weight by 13% and improved the aircraft's centre of gravity, as well as improved accessibility to the engines and related accessories; its downsides were slight thrust loss from the longer jet pipes and greater yaw during engine-out instances.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the early stages of design, the aircraft had grown from being roughly the same size as the Mosquito to being around double its weight. Although jet-powered, the Canberra design philosophy was very much in the Mosquito mould, providing room for a substantial bomb load, fitting two of the most powerful engines available, and wrapping it in the most compact and aerodynamic package possible, an example being a leading edge formed of a single sheet of light alloy wrapped around to 40% of chord, sitting on Redux-bonded stiffeners through which the ribs were passed, the panels secured with adjustable eye-bolts, enabling a highly accurate wing profile to be maintained from the leading edge to main spar without any external joints or fastenings. Also in line with the Mosquito philosophy, the Canberra by design dispensed with defensive armament, which had historically proven unequal to fighter aircraft, and the resulting performance gain permitted the Canberra to avoid air-to-air combat entirely.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: On 7 January 1946, the Ministry of Supply placed a contract for the development and production of four English Electric A.1 aircraft. It continued to be known as the English Electric A.1 until it was given the name "Canberra" after the capital of Australia in January 1950 by Sir George Nelson, chairman of English Electric, as Australia had become the aircraft's first export customer.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Air Ministry specification B.3/45 had requested the production of four prototypes. On 9 January 1946, English Electric received a contract to produce four prototypes, which received the Society of British Aerospace Companies designation "A.1"; work commenced on the construction of these prototype aircraft in that same year, which were all built on production jigs. Progress was slow, however, due to several factors, such as the protracted development of the Avon engine that powered the type; in October 1947, in response to Rolls-Royce's difficulties, English Electric elected to have the second prototype modified to use the existing Nene engine in place of the Avon. The implementation of postwar military cutbacks also served to slow development.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Another external issue that affected development was the failure of the Telecommunications Research Establishment to produce the radar bombing system for the aircraft in a timely fashion. This required a redesign in 1947, changing the aircraft's nose to accommodate a glazed tip for visual bombing by a bomb aimer, which in turn required the cockpit to be restructured to facilitate the ejection system of the additional crewmember. In 1948, the design team relocated to Warton Aerodrome, Lancashire, establishing a flight-test organisation and assembly facilities there.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Ultimately, the first of these prototypes, VN799, conducted its maiden flight on 13 May 1949. Piloted by Roland Beamont, the aircraft is claimed to have handled well, with the exception of rudder overbalance. This initial flight was flown with Avon engines, the decision to perform the type's first flight with the Avon-equipped first prototype or the Nene-equipped second prototype, "VN828", was not made until weeks beforehand. On 9 November 1949, the second prototype, VN828, the first to be equipped with the Nene engine, performed its first flight. The third and fourth followed within the following eight weeks.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Flight testing of the prototypes proved to be vice-free and required only a few modifications. The changes included the installation of a glazed nose to accommodate a bomb-aimer, due to the advanced H2S Mk9 bombing radar being unavailable for production, the turbojet engines were replaced by more powerful Rolls-Royce Avon R.A.3s, and distinctive teardrop-shaped fuel tanks were fitted under the wingtips. Refinements were also made following early flight testing to the rudder and elevator to reduce instances of buffeting, after which it is claimed that the Canberra handled much like a fighter, proving to be atypically manoeuvrable for a bomber.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The project had found considerable support from the government in the late 1940s. In March 1949, in advance of the maiden flight of the first prototype, English Electric received an instruction to proceed for production. By the time the first prototype had flown, the Air Ministry had placed orders for 132 production aircraft in bomber, reconnaissance, and training variants. On 21 April 1950, the first production-standard aircraft, designated as the Canberra B.2, conducted its maiden flight, piloted by Beamont. Proving to be free of problems, this first flight was almost immediately followed by the mainstream manufacturing of production Canberras. In May 1951, the Canberra entered RAF squadron service, No. 101 Squadron being the first to receive the type. In a testament to the aircraft's benign handling characteristics, the transition programme for the Canberra consisted of only 20 hours in the Gloster Meteor and three hours in a dual-control Canberra trainer.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In July 1949, as English Electric was in the process of setting up production at Samlesbury Aerodrome, a firm order was placed for 132 Canberras. The order consisted of 90 B.5/47 bomber-type aircraft, 34 PR.31/46 photo-reconnaissance aircraft, and 8 T.2/49 trainer aircraft. On 25 June 1950, what would become known as the Korean War broke out; this led to a surge of demand for the Canberra and the British government stepping in to establish a far greater level of wartime production. This led to a succession of orders for Canberra B.2s, the initial bomber variant, being placed with Avro, Handley Page, and Short Brothers; for British needs alone, English Electric produced 196 B.2s, Avro and Handley Page manufactured 75 each, and Short completed 60 aircraft – the B.2 variant of the Canberra exceeded the numbers built of any other version. Other nations, notably Australia and the United States of America, also ordered large numbers of Canberras.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In the United States, the US Air Force had identified the need to replace the obsolete B-26 Invader, and had determined that, at the time, no home-produced aircraft designs could get close to what the Canberra could already offer. Following a competition against rivals such as the Martin XB-51, USAF decided to order a total of 403 Canberras. These aircraft were licence-built by Glenn L. Martin Company as the B-57 Canberra. Martin developed several versions of the aircraft themselves. The first examples were identical to the original English Electric aircraft, following which tandem crew seating was introduced, but later B-57 models were considerably modified.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Australia had been interested in the Canberra early on, which had led to the aircraft being named after the Australian capital city. Particular interest had at one time been expressed in a potential Rolls-Royce Tay-powered version of the aircraft. The Government Aircraft Factories locally assembled 48 for the Royal Australian Air Force. These aircraft were broadly similar to the British B.2. Changes included the adoption of a modified leading edge, increased fuel capacity, and room for three starter cartridges, although in practice, all three cartridges would sometimes fire, leading to the triple starter units being loaded singly. In addition, Australian-built Canberras used a higher proportion of Australian- and US-sourced components.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In total, 901 Canberras were manufactured by the various UK-based aircraft manufacturers; when combined with overseas licence production operations, the overall global production for the Canberras totalled 1,352 aircraft. With a maximum speed of , a standard service ceiling of 48,000 ft (14,600 m), and the ability to carry a payload, the Canberra proved to be an instant success on the domestic and export markets. It was built in 27 versions that equipped a total of 35 RAF squadrons, and was exported to more than 15 countries: Australia, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Rhodesia, South Africa, Sweden, Venezuela, and West Germany.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the latter part of the Second World War, strategic reconnaissance missions performed by the RAF had been carried out by the de Havilland Mosquito. In 1946, the Air Ministry issued Specification PR.31/46 seeking a jet-powered replacement for the Mosquito. To meet the requirement, the B.2 design was modified by adding a bay forward of the wing behind the cockpit to house seven cameras. It also had an additional fuel tank in the forward part of the bomb bay and only needed a two-man crew. The prototype, designated PR.3, first flew on 19 March 1950, followed by the first of 35 production aircraft on 31 July 1952. In December 1952, the PR.3 entered RAF service, when No. 540 Squadron RAF began converting from its Mosquito PR.34 force. The Canberra PR.3 was the first aircraft to be designed for the RAF purely to perform photo-reconnaissance missions.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The initial Canberra PR.3 model was shortly succeeded by the improved PR.7 variant, which featured greater fuel capacity via wing storage, the more powerful RA.7 model of the Avon engine, and Maxaret antilock braking system. The Canberra PR.9 was the final photo-reconnaissance version; this aircraft was furnished with a new crew compartment, a redesigned inner wing section, and much more powerful RA.24 Avons. In later service, bomber models of the Canberra were often converted with cameras and other equipment suited for reconnaissance purposes.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: To enable crews to convert to flying the Canberra, a trainer version was developed to meet Air Ministry Specification T.2/49. On 12 June 1951, the prototype, designated T.4, conducted its first flight. It was the same basic design as the B.2 apart from the introduction of side-by-side seating for the pilot and the instructor and the replacement of the glazed nose with a solid nose. The first production T.4 flew on 20 September 1953 and the variant entered service with No. 231 Operational Conversion Unit RAF in early 1954. In addition to those assigned to the operational conversion unit, all of the B.2-equipped bomber squadrons received at least one T.4 for training purposes.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In addition to the RAF, other users adopted the Canberra in the trainer role. The Indian Air Force operated a number of T.4 aircraft for conversion training purposes. The RAAF adopted the Australian-built Canberra T.21 model, which was broadly similar to the T.4. Argentina procured a pair of T.64 trainers during the 1970s.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: From 1960s onwards, increasing numbers of bomber-oriented Canberras were deemed surplus, as newer, faster ground-attack aircraft were introduced; this led to such aircraft being rebuilt to serve in various alternative roles, including unpiloted target aircraft, radar trainers, target tugs, radar calibration aircraft, and electronic countermeasures trainers. In addition, some Canberras that had originally been manufactured for the high-altitude bomber mission were re-equipped for low-altitude, ground-attack missions.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The English Electric Canberra is a bomber aircraft powered by two jet engines, and able to fly at high altitudes. An early prototype operated by Rolls-Royce regularly flew to 63,000 ft, where the usable speed range (coffin corner) was only 25 knots, during Avon engine test flights. The overall design has been described as being of a simple nature, somewhat resembling a scaled-up Gloster Meteor fighter, except for its use of a mid wing. The Canberra principally differed from its preceding piston-powered wartime bombers by its use of twin Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines. The fuselage was circular in cross section, tapered at both ends, and cockpit aside, entirely without protrusions; the line of the large, low-aspect-ratio wings was broken only by the tubular engine nacelles. The Canberra had a two-man crew in a fighter-style cabin with a large blown canopy, but delays in the development of the intended automatic radar bombsight resulted in the addition of a bomb aimer's position housed within the nose. The pilot and navigator were positioned in a tandem arrangement on Martin-Baker ejection seats.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The wing is of single-spar construction that passes through the aircraft's fuselage. The wingspan and total length of the Canberra are almost identical at just under . Outboard of the engine nacelles, the wing has a leading edge sweep of 4° and trailing edge sweep of −14°. All flight controls are manual, using push rods rather than cables, but are otherwise conventional. These actuate the aircraft's flight control surfaces, including shrouded-nosed ailerons, four-section, conventional, split-type flaps, and atypical airbrakes which comprise 40 hydraulically raised fingers located on the top and bottom surfaces of the wings. Swept wings were considered, but not adopted, since the expected operational speeds did not warrant them and because they could have introduced new aerodynamic problems into what was otherwise anticipated to be a straightforward replacement for RAF Hawker Typhoon and Westland Whirlwind fighter-bombers.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The fuselage of the Canberra is of semi-monocoque construction with a pressurised nose compartment. The whole lower section of the fuselage is taken up by the sizeable bomb bay with a pair of hydraulically driven doors. The Canberra's undercarriage used a simple arrangement, the main landing gear being equipped with a single outboard-mounted wheel and the nose gear being a twin-wheel arrangement. Due to the use of a new alloy, DTD683, the undercarriage suffered from stress corrosion cracking. Cracks would appear within only a few years. The hazard posed by an undercarriage collapse during landing led the RAF to institute regular inspections, at first using radiography before moving to more effective and reliable ultrasound technology. The Canberra structure is mainly metal, with only the forward portion of the tail fin made from wood.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Thrust was provided by a pair of axial-flow Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines. They were mounted in the midsection of the wings using tubular trusses and links between the main mounts and the adjacent leading edge of the wing. Each engine drove a 6 kW generator for the aircraft 28 V DC electrical system, a hydraulic pump for the aircraft hydraulics, and a bleed air system for cabin pressurisation. Fuel was carried in two internally supported self-sealing fuel tanks and a lace-supported bag in the upper fuselage. The manufacturer specified that Coffman engine starters should be used for engine starting. An improvised method using compressed air was discouraged by Rolls-Royce, but some operators used air starting successfully, the benefit being significant cost savings over the use of cartridges.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Various avionics were installed on the Canberra, many with their origins during the Second World War. They included Gee-H navigation, Rebecca beacon-interrogation distance-measuring equipment, very high frequency radio, radio compass, radar altimeter, identification friend or foe, and Orange Putter radar warning receiver. Perhaps the most crucial of the mission systems was the H2S automatic radar bombsight, which was mounted in the nose; delays in the development of the H2S intended for the Canberra led to early aircraft being fitted with a T.2 optical sight for visual bombing. The optical sight was considerably inferior to radar aiming when used from high altitudes.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra could deploy many conventional weapons; typical weapons used were 250-pound, 500-pound, and 1000-pound bombs, the total bomb load could weigh up to . Two bomb-bays are housed within the fuselage, normally enclosed by conventional clam-shell doors; a rotating door was substituted for these on the Martin-built B-57 Canberras. Additional stores of up to could be carried upon underwing pylons. Operators often developed and installed their own munitions, such as Rhodesia's antipersonnel bomblets, the Alpha bomb. A varied range of munitions was employed on Canberra fleets around the world. Antipersonnel flechette bombs were tested successfully from the Canberra by Rhodesia, but not used operationally due to international agreements.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: In part due to its range limitation of just , and its inability to carry the early, bulky nuclear bombs, the Canberra was typically employed in the role of a tactical bomber as opposed to that of a strategic one. In British service, many of the Canberras that were stationed overseas were not modified to deliver nuclear weapons until as late as 1957.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra B.2 started to enter service with 101 Squadron in January 1951, with 101 Squadron being fully equipped by May, and a further squadron, No. 9 Squadron equipping by the end of the year. The production of the Canberra was accelerated as a result of the outbreak of the Korean War, orders for the aircraft increased and outpaced production capacity, as the aircraft was designated as a "super priority". A further five squadrons were able to be equipped with the Canberra by the end of 1952; however, production in the 1951–52 period had only been half of the level planned, due to shortages in skilled manpower, material, and suitable machine tools.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra replaced Mosquitos, Lincolns, and Washingtons as front-line bombers, showing a drastically improved performance, and proving to be effectively immune from interception during air defence exercises until the arrival of the Hawker Hunter. The Canberra also replaced the RAF's Mosquitos in the reconnaissance role, with the Canberra PR.3 entering service in December 1952. The improved Canberra B.6, with more powerful engines and a greater fuel capacity, started to supplement the B.2s in the UK based squadrons of Bomber Command from June 1954, when they replaced 101 Squadrons B.2s. This freed up older B.2s to allow Canberra squadrons to form overseas, with bomber and reconnaissance Canberra wings forming in RAF Germany and on Cyprus, with squadrons also being deployed to the Far East.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The PR.7 variant of the Canberra, fitted with Avon 109 engines, executed a 1953 reconnaissance flight over the Soviet rocket launch and development site at Kapustin Yar, although the UK government has never admitted the existence of such a flight. Warned by either radar or agents inside the British government, the Soviets slightly damaged one aircraft. Further reconnaissance flights are alleged to have taken place along, and over, the borders of the Soviet Union in 1954 under the code name "Project Robin", using the Canberra B.2 "WH726". The USAF also used the Canberra for reconnaissance flights. The aircraft were no longer required after June 1956, following the introduction of the US Lockheed U-2 purpose-built reconnaissance aircraft; "Project Robin" was then terminated. These RAF Canberra overflights were later featured in the 1994 BBC "Timewatch" episode; "Spies in the Sky", and included interviews with some of the Soviet MiG-15 pilots who had attempted to intercept them.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra was the victorious aircraft flown in The Last Great Air Race from London to Christchurch in 1953, piloted by Flight Lieutenant Roland (Monty) Burton, which touched down at Christchurch 41 minutes ahead of its closest rival, after 23 hours and 51 minutes in the air; to this day, the record has never been broken.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Vickers Valiant entered service in 1955, capable of carrying much heavier weapon loads (including the Blue Danube nuclear weapon) over longer ranges than the Canberra. This led to the Bomber Command force of Canberras equipped for high-level conventional bombing to be gradually phased out. This did not mean the end of the Canberra in front-line service, as it proved suitable for the low-level strike and ground-attack role, and versions dedicated to this role were brought into service. The interim B(I).6, converted from the B.6 by adding provision for a pack of four Hispano 20 mm cannon in the rear bomb bay and underwing pylons for bombs and rockets, entered service in 1955, with the definitive, new-build B(I).8, which added a new forward fuselage with a fighter-style canopy for the pilot, entering service in January 1956.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: An important role for the new low-level force was tactical nuclear strike, using the Low Altitude Bombing System to allow a nuclear bomb to be delivered from low level while allowing the bomber to escape the blast of the weapon. RAF Germany's force of four squadrons equipped with the B(I).6 and B(I).8 could carry US-owned Mark 7 nuclear bombs from 1960, which were replaced by B43 nuclear bombs, also US-owned, from 1965. Three squadrons based on Cyprus and one at Singapore were armed with British-owned Red Beard nuclear weapons.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Bomber Command retired the last of its Canberras on 11 September 1961, but the Germany, Cyprus and Singapore based squadrons continued in the nuclear strike role. The Cyprus-based squadrons and one of the RAF Germany squadrons disbanded in 1969, with the Singapore-based unit followed in 1970. The three remaining RAF Germany units, which by now had replaced the old Mark 7 bombs with newer (but still US-owned) B43 nuclear bombs, remained operational until 1972, the last Canberra bombers in RAF service.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The RAF continued to operate the Canberra after 1972, employing it for reconnaissance (with squadrons equipped with PR.7s and PR.9s being based at RAF Wyton in the UK and RAF Luqa in Malta). The PR.9s were fitted with special long-range optical photography cameras, reportedly based on those used by the Lockheed U-2, to allow high-altitude photography of targets deep inside Eastern Europe while flying along the inner German border, as well as infrared linescan cameras for low-level night reconnaissance. The RAF used Canberras to search for hidden arms dumps using false-colour photography during Operation Motorman in July 1972, when the British Army re-took Irish republican held "no go areas" in Belfast and Derry. Canberras were used for reconnaissance during the Bosnian War during the 1990s, where they were used to locate mass graves and during the Kosovo War in 1999. They were also operated from Uganda during the First Congo War, where they were used to search for refugees. Small numbers of specially equipped Canberras were also used for signals intelligence, being operated by 192 Squadron and then 51 Squadron from 1953 to 1976.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the Falklands War, a plan to supply two PR.9s to the Chilean Air Force, and secretly operate them with RAF crews over the war zone, was abandoned for political reasons. The aircraft got as far as Belize before the operation was cancelled. The PR.9 variant remained in service with No. 39 (1 PRU) Squadron until July 2006 for strategic reconnaissance and photographic mapping, seeing service in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and up to June 2006, in Afghanistan. During a ceremony to mark the standing down of 39 (1 PRU) Squadron at RAF Marham on 28 July 2006, a flypast by a Canberra PR.9 on its last ever sortie was conducted.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Shortly after the end of the Second World War, the Australian government initiated a wide-scale reorganisation of the armed forces. As part of this process, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) developed "Plan D" as the basis for its postwar structure; Plan D was built around the concept of a numerically smaller, but more agile air arm that would employ leading-edge technology. During the late 1940s, the RAAF decided to acquire the Canberra as a replacement for, or complement to, the Avro Lincoln, though fears were raised that the new design was not especially advanced. While Australia never introduced nuclear weapons into service, the Canberra's ability to carry such a payload was a stated factor in its acquisition; Australia's planned force of 48 Canberras, which held the potential for being nuclear-armed, was viewed as far more potent and deterring to potential opponents than the RAAF's entire wartime forces of 254 heavy bombers.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Australian government decided that the RAAF's Canberras would be constructed domestically by the Government Aircraft Factories as opposed to being manufactured in the UK. On 29 May 1953, the first Australian-built Canberra performed its first flight at Avalon Airport, Victoria; this aircraft was delivered to the RAAF for service trials a few weeks later. In December 1953, the Canberra formally entered Australian service.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: From July 1950 to July 1960, during the Malayan Emergency, Canberras from Australia, New Zealand, and the UK were deployed into Malaysia to fight against Communist guerrillas. In 1967, the RAAF deployed eight Canberras to the Vietnam War. The unit, No. 2 Squadron, was later commended for its performance by the United States Air Force. The Canberras were typically operated in the low-level bombing role, taking responsibility for South Vietnam's southernmost military regions, regions III and IV, and allowing USAF bombers to deploy their aircraft to the Ho Chi Minh trail. While USAF Canberras were equipped with .50 caliber machine guns or 20 mm cannon for strafing, Australian Canberras were deployed to South Vietnam without guns, hence were deployed strictly for low-level bombing missions. Upon their redeployment from Vietnam in 1971, No. 2 Squadron had flown about 12,000 sorties and dropped 76,389 bombs, and lost two of their aircraft to missiles and ground fire during the course of the war.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: As early as 1954, Australia recognised that the Canberra was becoming outdated, and evaluated aircraft such as the Avro Vulcan and Handley-Page Victor as potential replacements. The Canberra was incapable of providing adequate coverage of Indonesia from Australian bases, and was evaluated as having a "very low" chance of survival if it encountered modern fighters like the MiG-17. Political pressure for a Canberra replacement rose to a head in 1962. Australia evaluated the BAC TSR-2, Dassault Mirage IV, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, and North American A-5 Vigilante, and initially appeared to favour the TSR-2, but chose to procure the General Dynamics F-111C in October 1963. Due in part to delays in the delivery of the F-111Cs, the Canberra continued to be used by Australia for a total of 29 years before its retirement in June 1982.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Canberra was the backbone of the Indian Air Force (IAF) for bombing raids and photo reconnaissance for many decades. Negotiations to acquire the Canberra as a replacement for the obsolete Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers then being used by IAF began in 1954. During the extended negotiations between Britain and India, the Soviet Union is alleged to have offered their own jet bomber, the Ilyushin Il-28, at a significantly lower price than that asked for the Canberra; by April 1956, however, the Indian government was in favour of the purchase. In January 1957, India placed a large order for the Canberra; in total, 54 B(I).58 bombers, eight PR.57 photo-reconnaissance aircraft, and six T.4 training aircraft were ordered, and deliveries began in the summer of that same year. Twelve more Canberras were ordered in September 1957, and as many as 30 more may have also been purchased by 1962.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: On 10 April 1959, an Indian Canberra was shot down while performing a Reconnaissance mission over Rawalpindi. The Canberra was shot down by a F-86F Sabre flown by Flight Lieutenant M Younis. The two crew members of the Canberra ejected and were later arrested by Pakistani authorities. This incident also marked the first aerial victory of the Pakistan Air Force.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: First used in combat by the IAF in 1962, the Canberra was employed during the UN campaign against the breakaway Republic of Katanga in Africa. During the Indo-Pakistani Wars of the 1960s and 1970s, the Canberra was used by both sides. The most audacious use of the bomber was in the "Raid on Badin" during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when the IAF sent in the Canberra to attack a critical Pakistani radar post in West Pakistan. The raid was a complete success, the radars in Badin having been badly damaged by the bombing and put out of commission. A later raid by the IAF was attempted on Peshawar Air base with the aim of destroying, amongst other targets, several Pakistani B-57 bombers, American-built Canberras. Due to poor visibility, a road outside of the base was bombed, instead of the runway where PAF B-57 bombers were parked.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Canberras flew a strategically important sortie against the Karachi oil tanks, which had the effect of helping the Indian Navy in their own operations, a series of missile boat attacks against the Pakistani coast. On 21 May 1999, prior to the commencement of the Kargil War, the IAF Air HQ assigned a Canberra PR.57 aircraft on a photographic mission near the Line of Control, where it took a severe blow from a FIM-92 Stinger infrared homing missile on the starboard engine; the Canberra successfully returned to base using the other engine.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The entire IAF Canberra fleet was grounded and then retired following the crash of an IAF Canberra in December 2005. After 50 years of service, the Canberra was finally retired by the IAF on 11 May 2007.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the Suez Crisis, the RAF employed around 100 Canberras, flying conventional bombing and reconnaissance missions from airfields in Malta and Cyprus. A total of 278 Canberra sorties were flown, dropping 1,439 1000 lb (450 kg) bombs; however low-level strikes by smaller fighters were judged to be more effective than the night-time bombing operations performed by both the Canberra and the Vickers Valiant. In addition, many of the bombs, intended to hit Egyptian airfields, missed their targets, failing to inflict much damage to the Egyptian Air Force or to badly demoralise the enemy. While interception of the Canberra was within the capabilities of Egypt's MiG-15s and MiG-17s, as shown by the interception of Canberras by MiG-15s prior to the Anglo-French invasion, these did not result in any losses. The only Canberra shot down during the Suez campaign was a PR.7 shot down by a Syrian Gloster Meteor fighter on 6 November 1956, the last day of the war.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland considered the Canberra an important objective to holding greater diplomatic sway in the African continent, and ongoing negotiations over the Baghdad treaty, and a step towards decolonisation. The Suez Crisis caused a delay in the sale, but in August 1957 18 Canberras had been earmarked to be refurbished and transferred from the RAF to the Royal Rhodesian Air Force (RRAF). Both Rhodesia and South Africa used Canberras in their respective Bush Wars; numerous aircraft were lost in the conflict, only one of which, was lost by the South African Air Force


title: English Electric Canberra

text: . Rhodesian B.2 Canberras together with South African B(I).12 Canberras carried out attacks on insurgents in Mozambique, usually armed with 'Alpha' cluster bombs, several raids on Zambia, and attacks upon multiple insurgent bases in Angola. Ethiopian Canberras were used against Eritrea and again against Somalia during the 1970s.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Swedish Air Force purchased two Canberras from the RAF in 1960, and had these modified to T.11s by Boulton Paul. The aircraft were secretly modified in Sweden as espionage aircraft for eavesdropping on primarily Soviet, Polish, and East German military radio transmissions, although this was not publicly admitted until 10 years later. The Canberras were given the designation Tp 52, and taken into service as "testing aircraft", until they were replaced by two Tp 85 Caravelles in 1971.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: On 20 April 1960, the Venezuelan Air Force used its Canberra B.2 and B(I).8s to bomb the airport at San Cristóbal, Táchira, which had been seized by rebels, led by General Jose Maria Castro León. The rebels surrendered shortly afterward. On 26 June 1961, Venezuela's Canberras were used against rebelling Army forces in Barcelona, Venezuela.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Peruvian Air Force Canberras flew combat sorties against Ecuadorian positions during the Cenepa War in 1995. On 6 February 1995, a Canberra B.68 disappeared over the operations zone; the aircraft had apparently struck a hill in poor weather conditions. Peru retired its Canberras in June 2005 and the survivors put in reserve until 2008. Peru bought 9 B(I).78 ex-(B(I).8) in 1956, 6 B.72 ex-(B.2) in 1966, 3 T.74 ex-(T.4) in 1966, 6 B(I).56 ex-(B.6), 12 B(I).68 ex-(B(I).8) in 1974. They also bought 5 ex-SAAF B(I).12 ex-(B(I).8) and 1 T.74 ex-(T.4)


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Argentine Air Force received 10 B.62 bombers and two T.64 trainers at the beginning of the 1970s, replacing the Avro Lincoln in the bomber role. Argentina retired its last Canberras in April 2000.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: During the Falklands War in 1982, eight of them were deployed to Trelew, from the islands, to avoid congestion on the closer southern airfields. Although within operating range of the British task force, the Canberra was judged to be a limited threat due to its poor manoeuvrability compared with the British Sea Harriers.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: From 1 May to 14 June 1982, Argentine Canberras made 54 sorties; 36 of them were bombing missions, of which 22 were at night against ground troops. Two aircraft were lost in combat, the first to a Sea Harrier's AIM-9L Sidewinder air-to-air missile on 1 May 1982. On 13 June 1982, a second Canberra B.62 of , "B-108" was shot down at when it was struck by a Sea Dart missile fired from . The pilot ejected safely, but the navigator was killed. It was the last Argentine aircraft to be lost in combat during the Falklands War, with Argentine forces surrendering the next day.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) leased 17 Canberra B.2s and three T.4s from the RAF from 1958 to 1962 pending delivery of their own Canberras. The leased Canberras were operated by No. 75 Squadron RNZAF out of RAF Tengah, Singapore, and were used in operations during the Malayan Emergency. One aircraft was destroyed during this period.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: The RNZAF took delivery of 11 B(I).12s and two T.13 trainers between 1959 and 1961, and these were operated by No. 14 Squadron RNZAF. In 1964, No. 14 Squadron was deployed to RAF Tengah and participated in the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation before returning to New Zealand in November 1966. Three of the B(I).12s were destroyed in accidents. The Canberra was replaced by the A-4K Skyhawk in 1970, and the eight surviving B(I).12s and the two T.13s were sold to India.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: A number of Canberras were used by English Electric for development work and trials on new equipment. It was also used by government establishments such as the Royal Aircraft Establishment and the Royal Radar Establishment. The Canberra proved to be a useful platform for such work and was used by a number of British tests and trials establishments. A number of engine manufacturers were also lent Canberras as engine test beds: Armstrong Siddeley for the Sapphire, Bristol Siddeley for the Olympus, de Havilland Engine Company for the Gyron Junior turbojet, and Rolls-Royce Limited for the Avon. Ferranti used four different Canberra B.2s for avionics development work.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: One example is "WV787", built as a Canberra B.2 in 1952, it was lent to Armstrong Siddeley and fitted with Sapphire engines. It was later transferred to Ferranti for trials for the Blackburn Buccaneer's Blue Parrot radar and fitted with a B(I).8 type nose and a Buccaneer-style radome. It next was moved to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment where it was modified to be used as a water-spray tanker aircraft for de-icing trials. It would fly in front of the aircraft being tested, which would fly into the artificial cloud created by the sprayed water to induce icing. It was retired in 1984 and later preserved at the Newark Air Museum and is a National Benchmark airframe on the National Aviation Heritage Register.


title: English Electric Canberra

text: Several ex-RAF machines and RB-57s remain flying in the US for research and mapping work. About 10 airworthy Canberras are in private hands today, and are flown at air displays.


title: David Henrie

text: David Clayton Henrie ( ; born July 11, 1989) is an American actor, writer, and director. He is noted for playing Ted Mosby's future son Luke on "How I Met Your Mother" and Justin Russo in "Wizards of Waverly Place", as well as starring in the films "Little Boy" and "Walt Before Mickey".


title: David Henrie

text: Henrie was born in Mission Viejo, California, to Linda Henrie ("née" Finocchiaro), a talent manager, and James Wilson Henrie, a producer formerly in real estate. He is the older brother of actor Lorenzo James Henrie. Henrie is of English, German, Swiss-German and Welsh descent on his father's side, and his maternal grandparents were Italian. Henrie was raised as a Roman Catholic, and, in a video chat, stated that he is "a Christian and always will be". He grew up in Phoenix, Arizona. On April 6, 2012, Good Friday, Henrie accompanied Eduardo Verástegui in a speech addressing life issues at the Church of the Most Blessed Sacrament in the city of Piura, Peru.


title: David Henrie

text: At age 13, Henrie landed a regular role as Petey Pitt on the Fox sitcom "The Pitts". Henrie next landed a leading role in the Hallmark movie, "Monster Makers", with Linda Blair and George Kennedy, and was asked to come back for another Hallmark movie, to play a role in "Dead Hollywood Moms Society". He also starred as Skylar Blaford in the Fox's sitcom "Method & Red".


title: David Henrie

text: Henrie guest starred in many shows such as "Providence", "Without a Trace", "The Mullets", "Judging Amy", "The D.A.", "Jack & Bobby", "NCIS", "House", and "Cold Case". Before his role on "Wizards of Waverly Place", he had a recurring role on "That's So Raven" as Cory's friend Larry. Henrie also had a recurring role on "How I Met Your Mother," where he played Ted's future son.


title: David Henrie

text: At the age of 18, Henrie got the role of Justin Russo in the Disney Channel Original Series, "Wizards of Waverly Place". The show premiered on October 12, 2007. He was in the movie "" with the cast of the series. Henrie played Justin Vincenzo Pepé Russo through the whole series. About a year after the finale, a film, "" premiered on March 15, 2013, without Henrie, but his character was mentioned, and a photo of him is shown. Henrie is credited with writing two episodes of "Wizards of Waverly Place", "Alex's Logo" and the series special "Meet the Werewolves".


title: David Henrie

text: He had a role in the Disney Channel Original Movie "Dadnapped" co-starring Emily Osment. Henrie made a guest appearance as himself in two episodes of "Jonas". According to Reuters, Henrie was officially named the Grand Marshal for the 2009 Toyota Pro/Celebrity Race.


title: David Henrie

text: In 2010, Henrie guest-starred in the web series "Easy to Assemble". In 2012, Henrie voiced the character of Shawn in the movie "The Secret World of Arrietty".


title: David Henrie

text: Henrie appeared in "Grown Ups 2" (2013), opposite Taylor Lautner and Adam Sandler. In 2014, Henrie played the lead in "", the true story of a young basketball player who suffered a catastrophic stroke as a freshman at Gettysburg College. Later that year, Henrie guest starred in the ABC show "Mind Games".


title: David Henrie

text: In 2015, Henrie played the role of Lane, a valet who falls for Paul Blart's daughter, in the sequel "." He also co-starred as London Busbee, older brother of the title character, in the drama "Little Boy," and had a role in the indie biographical drama film "Walt Before Mickey" in which he plays Rudy Ising, who worked for Walt Disney. Henrie had cameo appearances in indie drama "Cardboard Boxer" and "Warrior Road".


title: David Henrie

text: In 2018, Henrie directed a coming-of-age film "This Is the Year", which he also starred in and co-wrote. In August 2020, Henrie and his "Wizards of Waverly Place" co-star Selena Gomez, who served as executive producer on the film, announced the virtual movie premiere of "This Is the Year".


title: David Henrie

text: In October 2016, Henrie became engaged to former Miss Delaware 2011, Maria Cahill. They were married on April 21, 2017. They have three children, a girl born in March 2019, a boy born in December 2020, and a girl born in July 2022. He is a practicing Roman Catholic.


title: David Henrie

text: On September 10, 2018, Henrie was arrested and charged at Los Angeles International Airport under allegations of carrying a loaded gun in the airport. He later released a statement on Twitter apologizing for the incident, stating that the act was unintentional and the gun was legally purchased. On September 26, 2018, it was reported Henrie was charged on three counts for "carrying a loaded firearm, carrying a concealed firearm, and possessing a weapon in a sterile area of the airport".


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: Nathaniel Hackett (born December 19, 1979) is an American football coach who is the head coach of the Denver Broncos of the National Football League (NFL). A former long-time assistant to Doug Marrone, Hackett previously served as the offensive coordinator for the NFL's Green Bay Packers, Jacksonville Jaguars, Buffalo Bills, as well as several positions for the Syracuse Orange in college football from 2010 to 2012.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: After working as an assistant coach for UC Davis and Stanford, Hackett began his NFL career as a quality coach under Jon Gruden with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2006. He served there for two years before moving to the Buffalo Bills in that same role for the 2008 and 2009 seasons. He worked with quarterbacks such as Bruce Gradkowski, Chris Simms, Jeff Garcia, Ryan Fitzpatrick, and Brian Brohm during those years. In 2010, Hackett was hired by Syracuse as their quarterbacks and tight ends coach under Doug Marrone, who he would later follow to Buffalo and Jacksonville. Hackett was promoted to offensive coordinator the following year.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: In 2013, the Bills hired Marrone as their head coach, and Hackett was brought back to Buffalo as the offensive coordinator. With quarterbacks EJ Manuel, Thad Lewis, and Jeff Tuel, the Bills ranked 29th in passing offense that year, but had a prolific running game with halfbacks C. J. Spiller and Fred Jackson. When Kyle Orton took over for Manuel as the Bills' quarterback the following year, the team finished with a more respectable passing offense, but the run game suffered.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: Marrone opted out of his contract with the Bills following the 2014 season, and was then hired by the Jacksonville Jaguars as an offensive line and assistant head coach, bringing Hackett with him once again. In 2016, after Marrone was promoted to interim head coach after the firing of Gus Bradley, Hackett was upgraded from quarterbacks coach to interim offensive coordinator after the Jaguars also fired their previous offensive coordinator, Greg Olson. He was confirmed on that position in January 2017.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: Working with quarterback Blake Bortles and running back Leonard Fournette, Hackett coordinated the league's best rushing attack in 2017, leading to Jacksonville winning the AFC South and appearing in the . However, after the Jaguars failed to repeat their success the following year and started 3–8, Hackett was fired by Marrone on November 26, 2018, after the Jaguars lost to the Buffalo Bills 24–21, a move that surprised him.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: On January 14, 2019, Hackett was hired by the Green Bay Packers as their offensive coordinator under head coach Matt LaFleur. Hackett, alongside star quarterback Aaron Rodgers, led the Packers to becoming the league's best scoring offense in the 2020 season.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: On January 27, 2022, Hackett was hired to become the head coach of the Denver Broncos after the team had fired their former head coach Vic Fangio.


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: In his head-coaching debut against the Seattle Seahawks, Hackett came under scrutiny when the Broncos faced a 4th-and-5 at midfield with over a minute left to play in the fourth quarter. Despite having three timeouts, Hackett decided to let the clock run down to 20 seconds left for a chance at a game-winning 64-yard field goal. The kick by Brandon McManus was wide left as the Broncos lost, 17–16. The next day, Hackett expressed regret in his decision, stating “Looking back at it, we definitely should have gone for it.”


title: Nathaniel Hackett

text: Hackett was again criticized for his clock management in the Broncos' week two matchup against the Houston Texans, a game that Denver would go on to win 16–9. The Broncos subsequently hired Jerry Rosburg to serve as an assistant to Hackett to help him with game and clock management, beginning with their week three matchup against the San Francisco 49ers.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss Everdeen is a fictional character and the protagonist of "The Hunger Games" trilogy written by American author Suzanne Collins. Her name comes from a plant with edible tubers called "Sagittaria" (katniss), from Sagittarius the Archer, whose name means "He that throws arrows" in Latin. She is portrayed by Jennifer Lawrence in the film adaptations "The Hunger Games", "", "", and "".


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss and her family come from District 12, a coal-mining district that is the poorest, least populated, and smallest district in the dystopian fictional autocratic nation of Panem, ruled by the Capitol. In the course of the first book, "The Hunger Games", Katniss competes in the Hunger Games after she is allowed to volunteer in place of her little sister, Primrose "Prim" Everdeen. While in the arena, Katniss forms an alliance with Rue, the young female tribute from District 11, as she reminds Katniss of her sister. After Rue is killed by a Career Tribute named Marvel, Katniss sings her a lullaby and covers her body in flowers. Later, District 11 shows solidarity with Katniss over Rue’s death and gifts her bread shaped like a moon and covered in seeds. Katniss then forms an alliance with her fellow District 12 tribute, Peeta, and grows close to him. The two eventually make it to the finale of the games, where they become the victors after defying the Capitol's attempt to force one to kill the other.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Throughout the next two novels, "Catching Fire" and "Mockingjay", Katniss becomes a galvanizing symbol of rebellion against the oppressive Capitol. After said rebellion is victorious, Katniss chooses not to execute President Snow; she instead shoots Alma Coin, the corrupt leader of the thought-destroyed District 13, leaving President Snow’s cause of death ambiguous. She later begins a family with Peeta in the now peaceful Panem. To cope with her trauma, she often plays a game in which she thinks about every kind act she has ever witnessed people do, and reflects that “there are much worse games to play.”


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: The idea for the trilogy was based in part on the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur, in which each year seven boys and seven girls from Athens are sent to Crete as tributes to that land to be devoured by the Minotaur, a cycle that continues until Theseus kills the Minotaur. Collins, who heard the story when she was eight years old, was unsettled by its ruthlessness and cruelty. Collins said, "In her own way, Katniss is a futuristic Theseus." Collins also characterized the novels with the fearful sensations she experienced when her father was fighting in the Vietnam War.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: In the novels, Katniss is extensively knowledgeable in foraging, wildlife, hunting, and survival techniques. Collins knew some of this background from her father, who grew up in the Great Depression and was forced to hunt to augment a scanty food supply, although Collins saw her father bring home food from the wild during her childhood as well. In addition, Collins researched the subject using a large stack of wilderness survival guidebooks.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss and the other tributes are, in their time before participating in their Hunger Games, compelled to compete for the hearts of sponsors who donate money that can be used to buy vital supplies for them when they are in the arena such as medicine, matches, food, and water. The concept of how the audiences carry nearly as much force as actual characters is based on how, in reality television and in the Roman games, the audience can both "respond with great enthusiasm or play a role in your elimination," as Collins said.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss' first name comes from a plant called "Sagittaria," or arrowhead, which is a tuber plant, usually found in water. The root of this plant can be eaten, as Katniss does in the book. Her father once said: "As long as you can find yourself, you'll never starve." Because of the arrow-shaped leaf, this wetlands plant also shares its name with a constellation in the Zodiac called Sagittarius, or "The Archer", which may also reference Katniss' skills in archery.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Her last name comes from Bathsheba Everdene, the central female character in the 1874 novel "Far from the Madding Crowd" by Thomas Hardy. According to Collins, "The two are very different, but both struggle with knowing their hearts".


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: "The Hunger Games" takes place in the ruins of North America: a country called Panem, consisting of the Capitol and 13 subservient districts. During the yearly "Reaping" of tributes for the gladiator-like Hunger Games, Katniss' younger sister, Primrose (Prim) is selected as District 12's female tribute during the yearly public lottery, called the Reaping. Katniss volunteers to take Prim’s place. Because getting chosen at the reaping is supposed to be an honor, the district's Hunger Games escort Effie Trinket asks for a round of applause for Katniss, but everyone remains silent. Instead, everyone in the crowd press their three middle fingers of their left hands against their mouths and hold it out to her as a salute. Katniss describes this as an ancient sign for saying "admiration", "goodbye to someone you love", and "respect".


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: After Katniss is brought up on stage, Effie chooses the male tribute for the Games. Peeta Mellark is picked, and Katniss remembers something he did to help her when they were just eleven. During the time after Katniss' father died in a mining accident, Katniss' family was slowly starving to death. At this time, Peeta threw her two loaves of bread that he burnt on purpose when he saw her looking for sustenance in the bakery's trashcan. He earned a beating from his mother for this, but he saved Katniss's life. From this point on, she regained hope and strength to keep her family alive. The next day, in the school’s courtyard she saw a dandelion. This reminded her that she could forage along the districts boundary for dandelions. After she looked up, she saw Peeta’s face and could never divide the thought of Peeta and the dandelion that gave her hope. Much time later, she had the courage to venture out into the woods, where she later teamed up with Gale to hunt for food for their families.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: When they arrive in the Capitol, Katniss is then met by her prep team, Flavius, Octavia, and Venia, and her stylist Cinna, who prepare Katniss for the Opening Ceremonies. All the tributes wear something that represents their district's industry. Coming from District 12, Katniss and Peeta expect to be dressed in coal mining costumes. Cinna and his partner Portia, however, decide to dress them in a plain black unitard and sleek boots with a cape that burns with fake flames. Katniss and Peeta are initially apprehensive at this arrangement, but their worries bring them closer together. Before the parade, Cinna lights their headdresses and capes and to Katniss and Peeta's surprise (and relief) it doesn't burn. In addition, Cinna suggests they hold hands to present them as "together and a team" and rebellious towards the Capitol. This distinguishes Katniss and Peeta from the rest of the tributes not only because they have most eye-catching costumes, but also that they are warm and relatively friendly to each other in comparison to the other tributes, who have remained cold and stiff with each other. With this new development, both gain the attention (and attraction) of sponsors, and both are unforgettable. From that moment on, Katniss is known as "The Girl On Fire".


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: As soon as they arrive, Peeta and Katniss are given 3 days of training and coaching with Haymitch and Effie. During the day and afternoon, they are taught survival skills and weapons training in the Training Room with other tributes, while at dinner Haymitch and Effie try and extract information about other tributes from them. During this 3-day training session, they form a small bond with Rue, the 12-year-old female tribute from District 11, and have to appear close to each other on Haymitch's orders. During their private training session, Katniss shoots an arrow at the Gamemakers' food (the target is an apple positioned in the mouth of a whole roasted pig), scoring her an 11 out of 12.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: After training ends, there is one day for training on their interview with Caesar Flickerman, the interviewer for all the tributes for 40 years. After a mediocre training session with Effie, she is trained by Haymitch on her personality, getting called a "dead slug". The next day, Cinna tells her just to be honest, which makes her even more memorably awkward. Peeta also helps, admitting he loves Katniss.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: During the Games, Katniss allies with Rue after Rue helps Katniss escape the Careers with a tracker jacker nest, getting her a bow in the process. After healing Katniss' wounds from the tracker jacker poison with an apothecary remedy, Rue is killed by Marvel, the male tribute from District 1. Later, the rules are changed so that if the remaining two tributes come from the same district, they will both become victors. Katniss hurries to find Peeta, who is seriously injured from saving Katniss from Cato, the District 2 male, and they resume their "star-crossed lovers" reputation, gaining sympathy from sponsors. While Katniss tries to keep up the ruse she begins to wonder if she does feel something for him; having always focused on surviving, she never considered romance, as the closest person to her was Gale. They outlast the other tributes after Katniss attends the feast to get medicine for Peeta, where she heals him, and the rule change is revoked, meaning there can only be one victor of the Hunger Games. Assuming the Gamemakers would rather have two victors than none, she suggests they both commit suicide by eating poisonous nightlock berries rather than killing each other. The Gamemakers want at least one victor, so Katniss and Peeta are both declared victors of the 74th Hunger Games seconds before the berries hit their mouths. However, she is warned by Haymitch that her actions in the Games may come back to haunt her, while also realizing Peeta's feelings for her are genuine.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss and Peeta go on the Victory Tour, which is a visit to each district by the winners, strategically placed between each Hunger Games. Katniss becomes aware uprisings are erupting. In addition, the nation's leader, President Snow, is making Katniss convince the nation she is really in love with Peeta and that her suicide pact was an act of love rather than defiance, to quell dissent. Gale has been presented to the nation as her cousin, but President Snow implies his knowledge that Katniss has feelings for him and threatens to have him killed to gain leverage.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: To save her family and friends, Katniss agrees to follow the Capitol's agenda. Peeta does the same when he realizes what is at stake. Peeta even proposes marriage to her, and she accepts, but even at that point, President Snow conveys to her that her actions are insufficient. Katniss comes to realize the rebellion in the districts is not within her power to suppress, making it impossible for her to satisfy President Snow's demands. Katniss is also confused as to the nature of her feelings for both Gale and Peeta, both of which are complicated by her fears for the future and her unwillingness to have children who themselves could be subjected to the Hunger Games. When the Quarter Quell—a special Hunger Games that takes place every 25 years and has a special set of rules—is announced, it is proclaimed that all of the current year's tributes will be selected from the pool of previous Hunger Games victors. District 12 has only three living victors: Katniss, Peeta, and Haymitch, who won the 50th Games and successfully mentored Katniss the year before. As Katniss is the only living female victor in District 12, she is the only possible female tribute, and Peeta volunteers to take Haymitch's place when Haymitch is selected. Katniss and Peeta return to the arena, working closely to survive and forming alliances and close friendships in the process, particularly with Finnick Odair, who resuscitated Peeta in the arena. During this time Katniss begins to realize she has feelings for Peeta.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss is taken from the arena and discovers the tributes of many districts, including her ally Finnick Odair, had coordinated an escape plan and used a stolen hovercraft to fly to District 13, which was not destroyed as the Capitol had claimed. However, during the escape, Peeta and Johanna are captured by the Capitol and afterward, Gale informs Katniss District 12 was bombed and destroyed but that her family is safe.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: In "Mockingjay", Katniss is rescued and taken to the subterranean civilization of District 13 and meets with the people and their leader, President Alma Coin. She is then taken to see the remains of District 12. She agrees to be the Mocking Jay, the symbol of the rebellion. A love triangle between Katniss, Peeta, and Gale slowly unfolds, forcing Katniss to decide whom she wants to be with—a situation complicated by the fact Peeta is currently being tortured in the Capitol while Gale is at Katniss's side. Katniss also forms a bond of friendship with Finnick, who goes through the same pain she is going through and can understand her situation.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss agrees to be the symbolic leader of their rebellion: "the Mockingjay", the face of the rebels. She discovers Cinna has been killed by the Capitol, but the rest of her prep team survived in District 13's captivity; they prep Katniss for the cameras when she agrees to start doing propaganda pieces for the rebels. Katniss becomes increasingly emotionally unstable by the horrors she witnesses—mass slaughter, the destruction of the only home she has ever known with 90% of the citizens of District 12 dead, many friends killed due to their association with her, and Peeta being beaten on live television. After a rescue mission in which a team from District 13 brings Peeta back, she finds out his memories have been distorted by tracker jacker venom, a mind-control torturing method referred to as "hijacking". He now hates and wants to kill Katniss, believing she is a muttation created by the Capitol. Katniss becomes even more determined to kill Snow after this.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: She, along with a group of sharpshooters that include Gale, Finnick, and later Peeta (much to Katniss's dismay) sneak into the Capitol at the cost of several of their own lives in an attempt to kill Snow. Along the way, they encounter sadistic traps created by game makers to make sport of their deaths, and on one occasion, Finnick and Katniss fight off muttations, who start decapitating Finnick, leading Katniss to explode the Holo to allow her friend a quick death. As the remaining team gets close to the presidential mansion, an array of bombs are dropped from a Hovercraft, with only some exploding, killing the refugee Capitol children on whom they were dropped. Rebel medics, including Prim, rush to help the children, but as they arrive the rest of the bombs explode. Prim is killed in front of Katniss, while Katniss's body is severely burned. Although she makes a remarkable physical recovery, Katniss temporarily loses the ability to speak, traumatized by the death of her sister. It is possible Gale was involved in the making of the bombs that killed Prim, although he denies knowing civilians would be attacked.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Meanwhile, President Snow is arrested, found guilty of his crimes against the people of Panem, and sentenced to death. Per Katniss's request, she is designated as his executioner. Before the execution, Snow tells Katniss the bombs weren't his but the rebels' way of gaining sympathy in the Capitol for their cause, making it look like the work of Snow. Although she initially refuses to believe Snow, Katniss realizes the attack method was identical to a trap Gale and fellow Quarter Quell tribute Beetee had designed. Eventually, Katniss realizes someone high up in the ranks of the Rebels would have had to order to have Prim on the front line, despite her age, and comes to suspect Coin ordered the attack on the children to trick the Capitol citizens into thinking the government had killed their children, therefore winning the loyalty of the Capitol's citizens and that Prim was there solely to subdue and unhinge Katniss.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Furthermore, Coin suggests there will be one last Hunger Games where the children from the Capitol will be reaped. She seeks the approval of the surviving victors before making these games official, and Katniss votes yes as a means of gaining Coin's trust. During the supposed execution of Snow, she instead shoots Coin, due to her being responsible for Prim's death. She then attempts to kill herself with the suicide pill attached to her uniform, but Peeta stops her. She is arrested and placed in solitary confinement, where she attempts to commit suicide by starving herself and overdosing. However, she is ultimately released on the grounds she wasn't mentally well at the time of the assassination and is sent back to District 12. Katniss, accompanied by Haymitch, goes back to her home in Victor's Village and is put under care.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Driven into a deep depression, Katniss refuses to leave her house until Peeta (who by then has largely recovered from his brainwashing) returns to District 12 to plant primroses outside, in memory of her sister. Katniss begins to regain her mental health, and she and Peeta deal with their feelings by creating a book composed of information about deceased tributes, friends, and family (eventually Haymitch joins them in this project). Katniss's mother, who chose not to return to District 12 because of all the painful memories of her deceased husband and daughter, decides to work in District 4 as medical personnel. Gale got a "fancy job" in District 2 and is seen regularly on television. Annie, Finnick's wife, has their son. A few hundred District 12 survivors return home and rebuild it, where they no longer mine coal, producing food and manufacturing medicine instead. The novel ends with Katniss admitting she does indeed love Peeta.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: In the epilogue, Katniss and Peeta are married and have two children. Their firstborn child, a girl, has Katniss' dark hair and Peeta's blue eyes; the second born child, a boy, has Katniss' grey eyes and Peeta's blond curls. Katniss still wakes up screaming in the night and is worried about telling her children about the nightmares involving their parents' contribution to the Games and the rebellion. She finds no pleasure in life at times because she knows it could all be taken away at once. To soothe her traumatized psyche, Katniss makes lists in her mind of every act of kindness she has ever seen, an obsession that she realizes is simply a "repetitive game" to keep darker thoughts at bay. In the series' last words, Katniss offers one final observation: "But there are much worse games to play."


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss and her family live in the futuristic nation of Panem, located on the continent once known as North America, which was destroyed in a global catastrophe. Panem is run by an all-powerful city called the Capitol, located in the Rocky Mountains, which is surrounded by 12 districts, each having a specific purpose in supplying something to the Capitol. The story starts in District 12, Katniss's home, the coal-mining district. District 12, in the Appalachian Mountains, is the poorest of the districts, and Katniss lives with her mother and sister in the poorest part of town, known as the Seam.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss's father, a coal miner, was killed in a mine explosion when Katniss was 11. After his death, Katniss's mother went into a deep depression and was unable to take care of her children. On the brink of starvation a few weeks before her twelfth birthday Katniss wandered into the richer part of town, hoping to steal some scraps from the garbage bins of rich merchants. The baker's son, Peeta, whom she did not know, took a beating from his mother for intentionally burning two loaves of bread, knowing that he would be told to throw them out. He was told to give the two loaves of bread to the pig but instead gave them to Katniss. Katniss took them home to her family, who had not eaten in days. The bread gave them hope and kept them motivated, leaving Katniss feeling resentfully indebted to Peeta.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: A few days after the incident with the bread, Katniss decided to go into the woods surrounding her district to hunt illegally and gather plants to eat, which was how her father had gotten most of the family's food before he died. There, she met a boy named Gale Hawthorne. Together, they provide for both their families and develop a strong friendship.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss's mother slowly surfaces from her depression and is able to return to her job as an apothecary, and Katniss makes an effort to forgive her. However, despite her mending relationship with her mother, strong friendship with Gale, and the increasingly strong affections she gains for Peeta, Katniss remains adamant that Prim, her younger sister, is "the only person she's certain she loves".


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Collins has described Katniss as being an independent, strong survivalist, lethal, but good at thinking outside the box. Katniss's past hardships (her father's death, mother's depression, and near starvation) have made her a survivor, and she will endure hardship and hard work to preserve her own life and the life of her family. She states nice people are the most dangerous because they get inside of her and they could hurt her badly when she least expected it. She has shown she will protect those she loves, no matter the cost to herself, as shown when she volunteers for the Games to save her little sister Prim, when she shields Gale to keep him from being whipped (even when it means a lash for herself), and when she stoically decides during her second Games to die to save Peeta. Because the majority of her time before the Games was spent keeping herself and her family alive, she does not understand many social cues and is often ignorant of other people's emotions, such as when she doesn't recognize Gale's hints at his growing affection for her, or when she fails to realize that she and Madge Undersee are actually close friends. She has no experience with romance or love other than that of her family and doesn't believe she wants it. She never actually understands Peeta was telling the truth when he declared his love for her in the pre-game interview until after the games itself. She also has large trust issues and does not trust anyone. She plans never to be married nor have children that would grow up subject to the Reaping.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: She quickly adapts to the "kill or be killed" philosophy of the games and coldly considers how she will kill her fellow competitors during the first Games, at one point rationalizing she is already a killer due to her hunting experience, though she is briefly disturbed after her first direct kill, Marvel. By the end of the first Games, she is prepared to shoot Cato and attempts to do so only to be interrupted by Peeta being attacked by the mutations. Despite her cold-bloodedness, she is nonetheless extremely relieved at not having to kill her allies Rue and Peeta. As the series progresses, however, she becomes increasingly cold-blooded, to the point where she objectively discusses how to kill everyone (but Peeta) involved in her second Hunger Games in "Catching Fire" (though she ultimately has to kill only one combatant), and by the third novel is depicted killing an unarmed female civilian during a mission, with apparent remorse.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: In "Catching Fire", Katniss struggles to understand Panem's political issues as she has had very little education or experience with politics because of her background and lack of interest in it. She also gradually realizes there are more important things than survival and decides she is willing to die for Peeta and the rebellion cause.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss is a highly skilled archer, hunter, and trapper, having learned these from her father and Gale (Who were both excellent hunters), honed to keep her family from starving. She uses her archery skills during the pre-games judging and receives a score of 11 (out of a possible 12). She has been well educated on edible, medicinal, and the poisonous plant life of District 12. Additionally, she has a singing voice so beautiful the mockingjays, which normally don't listen to anyone, stay quiet to listen, although she has been reluctant to sing since his death (she claims that it's because music is useless for practical survival, but she suspects it's actually because music reminds her too much of him). Katniss is a skilled tree-climber, which has benefited her in hunting and the Games. She is usually very logical, except for times when her emotions get in the way. Peeta mentions that she has an effect on the people around her with the image she projects, and he admires her for it.


title: Katniss Everdeen

text: Katniss is described as having "straight black hair, olive skin, and grey eyes", which are typical characteristics of the Seam; the poorest area of District 12. Katniss normally wears her hair in a long braid down her back. She is thin and not very tall, but is strong for her size from hunting to feed her family in the woods outside of District 12. Katniss is sixteen years old during the 74th Hunger Games, and seventeen years old during the Quarter Quell and the Rebellion. She also wears a pin of a Mockingjay during the games to represent good luck.