title: Moneybagg Yo

text: Moneybagg Yo described Islam as what made him quit drinking lean, stating in an interview that, "I'm Muslim so I'm disciplined...I'm strong-minded."


title: SARS

text: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a viral respiratory disease of zoonotic origin caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1), the first identified strain of the SARS coronavirus species, "severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus" (SARSr-CoV). The first known cases occurred in November 2002, and the syndrome caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak. In the 2010s, Chinese scientists traced the virus through the intermediary of Asian palm civets to cave-dwelling horseshoe bats in Xiyang Yi Ethnic Township, Yunnan.


title: SARS

text: SARS was a relatively rare disease; at the end of the epidemic in June 2003, the incidence was 8,469 cases with a case fatality rate (CFR) of 11%. No cases of SARS-CoV-1 have been reported worldwide since 2004.


title: SARS

text: In December 2019, another strain of SARS-CoV was identified as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This new strain causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a disease that brought about the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: SARS

text: SARS produces flu-like symptoms which may include fever, muscle pain, lethargy, cough, sore throat, and other nonspecific symptoms. The only symptom common to all patients appears to be a fever above . SARS often leads to shortness of breath and pneumonia, which may be direct viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia.


title: SARS

text: The average incubation period for SARS is 4–6 days, although it is rarely as short as 1 day or as long as 14 days.


title: SARS

text: The primary route of transmission for SARS-CoV is contact of the mucous membranes with respiratory droplets or fomites. While diarrhea is common in people with SARS, the fecal–oral route does not appear to be a common mode of transmission. The basic reproduction number of SARS-CoV, R, ranges from 2 to 4 depending on different analyses. Control measures introduced in April 2003 reduced the R to 0.4.


title: SARS

text: For a case to be considered probable, a chest X-ray must be indicative for atypical pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome.


title: SARS

text: The WHO has added the category of "laboratory confirmed SARS" which means patients who would otherwise be considered "probable" and have tested positive for SARS based on one of the approved tests (ELISA, immunofluorescence or PCR) but whose chest X-ray findings do not show SARS-CoV infection (e.g. ground glass opacities, patchy consolidations unilateral).


title: SARS

text: The appearance of SARS-CoV in chest X-rays is not always uniform but generally appears as an abnormality with patchy infiltrates.


title: SARS

text: There is no vaccine for SARS, although immunologist Anthony Fauci mentioned that the CDC developed one and placed it in the Strategic National Stockpile. That vaccine, however, is a prototype and not field-ready as of March 2020. Clinical isolation and quarantine remain the most effective means to prevent the spread of SARS. Other preventive measures include:


title: SARS

text: Many public health interventions were made to try to control the spread of the disease, which is mainly spread through respiratory droplets in the air, either inhaled or deposited on surfaces and subsequently transferred to a body's mucous membranes. These interventions included earlier detection of the disease; isolation of people who are infected; droplet and contact precautions; and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), including masks and isolation gowns. A 2017 meta-analysis found that for medical professionals wearing N-95 masks could reduce the chances of getting sick up to 80% compared to no mask. A screening process was also put in place at airports to monitor air travel to and from affected countries.


title: SARS

text: SARS-CoV is most infectious in severely ill patients, which usually occurs during the second week of illness. This delayed infectious period meant that quarantine was highly effective; people who were isolated before day five of their illness rarely transmitted the disease to others.


title: SARS

text: As of 2017, the CDC was still working to make federal and local rapid-response guidelines and recommendations in the event of a reappearance of the virus.


title: SARS

text: It has been found that those with a Vitamin D deficiency were at a 19.61-fold higher risk of having a critical result from Covid-19 disease versus those with an adequate amount of vitamin D. Patients with low vitamin D levels had worse symptoms, were more likely to be hospitalized, and had a greater risk of death. It is believed the reason vitamin D supplementation helps with the prevention of Covid-19 is due to the fact that vitamin D combats cytokine storms that are brought on because of Covid-19. While vitamin D supplementation may be helpful in preventing Covid-19, it has been shown to have no effect after Covid-19 is contracted.


title: SARS

text: As SARS is a viral disease, antibiotics do not have direct effect but may be used against bacterial secondary infection. Treatment of SARS is mainly supportive with antipyretics, supplemental oxygen and mechanical ventilation as needed. While ribavirin is commonly used to treat SARS, there seems to have little to no effect on SARS-CoV, and no impact on patient's outcomes. There is currently no proven antiviral therapy. Tested substances, include ribavirin, lopinavir, ritonavir, type I interferon, that have thus far shown no conclusive contribution to the disease's course. Administration of corticosteroids, is recommended by the British Thoracic Society/British Infection Society/Health Protection Agency in patients with severe disease and O2 saturation of <90%.


title: SARS

text: People with SARS-CoV must be isolated, preferably in negative-pressure rooms, with complete barrier nursing precautions taken for any necessary contact with these patients, to limit the chances of medical personnel becoming infected. In certain cases, natural ventilation by opening doors and windows is documented to help decreasing indoor concentration of virus particles.


title: SARS

text: Some of the more serious damage caused by SARS may be due to the body's own immune system reacting in what is known as cytokine storm.


title: SARS

text: Vaccines can help immune system to create enough antibodies and also it can help to decrease a risk of side effects like arm pain, fever, headache etc. According to research papers published in 2005 and 2006, the identification and development of novel vaccines and medicines to treat SARS was a priority for governments and public health agencies around the world. In early 2004, an early clinical trial on volunteers was planned. A major researcher's 2016 request, however, demonstrated that no field-ready SARS vaccine had been completed because likely market-driven priorities had ended funding.


title: SARS

text: Several consequent reports from China on some recovered SARS patients showed severe long-time sequelae. The most typical diseases include, among other things, pulmonary fibrosis, osteoporosis, and femoral necrosis, which have led in some cases to the complete loss of working ability or even self-care ability of people who have recovered from SARS. As a result of quarantine procedures, some of the post-SARS patients have been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder.


title: SARS

text: SARS was a relatively rare disease; at the end of the epidemic in June 2003, the incidence was 8,422 cases with a case fatality rate (CFR) of 11%.


title: SARS

text: The case fatality rate (CFR) ranges from 0% to 50% depending on the age group of the patient. Patients under 24 were least likely to die (less than 1%); those 65 and older were most likely to die (over 55%).


title: SARS

text: The SARS epidemic began in the Guangdong province of China in November 2002. The earliest case developed symptoms on 16 November 2002. The index patient, a farmer from Shunde, Foshan, Guangdong, was treated in the First People's Hospital of Foshan. The patient died soon after, and no definite diagnosis was made on his cause of death. Despite taking some action to control it, Chinese government officials did not inform the World Health Organization of the outbreak until February 2003. This lack of openness caused delays in efforts to control the epidemic, resulting in criticism of the People's Republic of China from the international community. China officially apologized for early slowness in dealing with the SARS epidemic.


title: SARS

text: The viral outbreak was subsequently genetically traced to a colony of cave-dwelling horseshoe bats in Xiyang Yi Ethnic Township, Yunnan.


title: SARS

text: The outbreak first came to the attention of the international medical community on 27 November 2002, when Canada's Global Public Health Intelligence Network (GPHIN), an electronic warning system that is part of the World Health Organization's Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN), picked up reports of a "flu outbreak" in China through Internet media monitoring and analysis and sent them to the WHO. While GPHIN's capability had recently been upgraded to enable Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish translation, the system was limited to English or French in presenting this information. Thus, while the first reports of an unusual outbreak were in Chinese, an English report was not generated until 21 January 2003. The first super-spreader was admitted to the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital in Guangzhou on 31 January, which soon spread the disease to nearby hospitals.


title: SARS

text: In early April 2003, after a prominent physician, Jiang Yanyong, pushed to report the danger to China, there appeared to be a change in official policy when SARS began to receive a much greater prominence in the official media. Some have directly attributed this to the death of an American teacher, James Earl Salisbury, in Hong Kong. It was around this same time that Jiang Yanyong made accusations regarding the undercounting of cases in Beijing military hospitals. After intense pressure, Chinese officials allowed international officials to investigate the situation there. This revealed problems plaguing the aging mainland Chinese healthcare system, including increasing decentralization, red tape, and inadequate communication.


title: SARS

text: Many healthcare workers in the affected nations risked their lives and died by treating patients, and trying to contain the infection before ways to prevent infection were known.


title: SARS

text: The epidemic reached the public spotlight in February 2003, when an American businessman traveling from China, Johnny Chen, became affected by pneumonia-like symptoms while on a flight to Singapore. The plane stopped in Hanoi, Vietnam, where the patient died in Hanoi French Hospital. Several of the medical staff who treated him soon developed the same disease despite basic hospital procedures. Italian doctor Carlo Urbani identified the threat and communicated it to WHO and the Vietnamese government; he later died from the disease.


title: SARS

text: The severity of the symptoms and the infection among hospital staff alarmed global health authorities, who were fearful of another emergent pneumonia epidemic. On 12 March 2003, the WHO issued a global alert, followed by a health alert by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Local transmission of SARS took place in Toronto, Ottawa, San Francisco, Ulaanbaatar, Manila, Singapore, Taiwan, Hanoi and Hong Kong whereas within China it spread to Guangdong, Jilin, Hebei, Hubei, Shaanxi, Jiangsu, Shanxi, Tianjin, and Inner Mongolia.


title: SARS

text: The disease spread in Hong Kong from Liu Jianlun, a Guangdong doctor who was treating patients at Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital. He arrived in February and stayed on the ninth floor of the Metropole Hotel in Kowloon, infecting 16 of the hotel visitors. Those visitors traveled to Canada, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam, spreading SARS to those locations.


title: SARS

text: Another larger cluster of cases in Hong Kong centred on the Amoy Gardens housing estate. Its spread is suspected to have been facilitated by defects in its bathroom drainage system that allowed sewer gases including virus particles to vent into the room. Bathroom fans exhausted the gases and wind carried the contagion to adjacent downwind complexes. Concerned citizens in Hong Kong worried that information was not reaching people quickly enough and created a website called sosick.org, which eventually forced the Hong Kong government to provide information related to SARS in a timely manner. The first cohort of affected people were discharged from hospital on 29 March 2003.


title: SARS

text: The first case of SARS in Toronto was identified on 23 February 2003. Beginning with an elderly woman, Kwan Sui-Chu, who had returned from a trip to Hong Kong and died on 5 March, the virus eventually infected 257 individuals in the province of Ontario. The trajectory of this outbreak is typically divided into two phases, the first centring around her son Tse Chi Kwai, who infected other patients at the Scarborough Grace Hospital and died on 13 March. The second major wave of cases was clustered around accidental exposure among patients, visitors, and staff within the North York General Hospital. The WHO officially removed Toronto from its list of infected areas by the end of June 2003.


title: SARS

text: The official response by the Ontario provincial government and Canadian federal government has been widely criticized in the years following the outbreak. Brian Schwartz, vice-chair of Ontario's SARS Scientific Advisory Committee, described public health officials' preparedness and emergency response at the time of the outbreak as "very, very basic and minimal at best". Critics of the response often cite poorly outlined and enforced protocol for protecting healthcare workers and identifying infected patients as a major contributing factor to the continued spread of the virus. The atmosphere of fear and uncertainty surrounding the outbreak resulted in staffing issues in area hospitals when healthcare workers elected to resign rather than risk exposure to SARS.


title: SARS

text: In late February 2003, Italian doctor Carlo Urbani was called into The French Hospital of Hanoi to look at Johnny Chen, an American businessman who had fallen ill with what doctors thought was a bad case of influenza. Urbani realized that Chen's ailment was probably a new and highly contagious disease. He immediately notified the WHO. He also persuaded the Vietnamese Health Ministry to begin isolating patients and screening travelers, thus slowing the early pace of the epidemic. He subsequently contracted the disease himself, and died in March 2003.


title: SARS

text: Malik Peiris and his colleagues became the first to isolate the virus that causes SARS, a novel coronavirus now known as SARS-CoV-1. By June 2003, Peiris, together with his long-time collaborators Leo Poon and Guan Yi, has developed a rapid diagnostic test for SARS-CoV-1 using real-time polymerase chain reaction. The CDC and Canada's National Microbiology Laboratory identified the SARS genome in April 2003. Scientists at Erasmus University in Rotterdam, the Netherlands demonstrated that the SARS coronavirus fulfilled Koch's postulates thereby suggesting it as the causative agent. In the experiments, macaques infected with the virus developed the same symptoms as human SARS patients.


title: SARS

text: In late May 2003, a study was conducted using samples of wild animals sold as food in the local market in Guangdong, China. The study found that "SARS-like" coronaviruses could be isolated from masked palm civets ("Paguma" sp.). Genomic sequencing determined that these animal viruses were very similar to human SARS viruses, however they were phylogenetically distinct, and so the study concluded that it was unclear whether they were the natural reservoir in the wild. Still, more than 10,000 masked palm civets were killed in Guangdong Province since they were a "potential infectious source." The virus was also later found in raccoon dogs ("Nyctereuteus" sp.), ferret badgers ("Melogale" spp.), and domestic cats.


title: SARS

text: In 2005, two studies identified a number of SARS-like coronaviruses in Chinese bats. Phylogenetic analysis of these viruses indicated a high probability that SARS coronavirus originated in bats and spread to humans either directly or through animals held in Chinese markets. The bats did not show any visible signs of disease, but are the likely natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. In late 2006, scientists from the Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention of Hong Kong University and the Guangzhou Centre for Disease Control and Prevention established a genetic link between the SARS coronavirus appearing in civets and in the second, 2004 human outbreak, bearing out claims that the disease had jumped across species.


title: SARS

text: It took 14 years to find the original bat population likely responsible for the SARS pandemic. In December 2017, "after years of searching across China, where the disease first emerged, researchers reported ... that they had found a remote cave in Xiyang Yi Ethnic Township, Yunnan province, which is home to horseshoe bats that carry a strain of a particular virus known as a coronavirus. This strain has all the genetic building blocks of the type that triggered the global outbreak of SARS in 2002." The research was performed by Shi Zhengli, Cui Jie, and co-workers at the Wuhan Institute of Virology, China, and published in "PLOS Pathogens". The authors are quoted as stating that "another deadly outbreak of SARS could emerge at any time. The cave where they discovered their strain is only a kilometre from the nearest village." The virus was ephemeral and seasonal in bats. In 2019, a similar virus to SARS caused a cluster of infections in Wuhan, eventually leading to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: SARS

text: A small number of cats and dogs tested positive for the virus during the outbreak. However, these animals did not transmit the virus to other animals of the same species or to humans.


title: SARS

text: The World Health Organization declared severe acute respiratory syndrome contained on 5 July 2003. The containment was achieved through successful public health measures. In the following months, four SARS cases were reported in China between December 2003 and January 2004.


title: SARS

text: While SARS-CoV-1 probably persists as a potential zoonotic threat in its original animal reservoir, human-to-human transmission of this virus may be considered eradicated because no human case has been documented since four minor, brief, subsequent outbreaks in 2004.


title: SARS

text: Study of live SARS specimens requires a biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) facility; some studies of inactivated SARS specimens can be done at biosafety level 2 facilities.


title: SARS

text: Fear of contracting the virus from consuming infected wild animals resulted in public bans and reduced business for meat markets in southern China and Hong Kong.


title: Sliding Doors

text: Sliding Doors is a 1998 romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Peter Howitt and starring Gwyneth Paltrow while also featuring John Hannah, John Lynch, and Jeanne Tripplehorn. The film alternates between two storylines, showing two paths the central character's life could take depending on whether she catches a train. It has drawn numerous comparisons to Polish director Krzysztof Kieślowski's 1987 film "Blind Chance", the outcome of which also hinges on whether the protagonist catches a train.


title: Sliding Doors

text: Helen Quilley gets fired from her public relations job. As she leaves the office building, she drops an earring in the lift, and a man picks it up for her. She rushes for her train on the London Underground but misses it as the train doors are closed; but the film then rewinds, and the scene is replayed, except that now she manages to board the train. The film continues, alternating between the two storylines in which different events ensue (but with occasional intersections of the two).


title: Sliding Doors

text: In the storyline in which she boards the train, Helen sits alongside James (the man in the lift) on the Underground, and they strike up a conversation. She gets home to catch her boyfriend, Gerry, in bed with his American ex-girlfriend, Lydia. Helen leaves him and moves in with her friend Anna, and, at Anna's suggestion, she changes her hairstyle to make a fresh start.


title: Sliding Doors

text: James continues to serendipitously pop into Helen's life, cheering her up and encouraging her to start her own public relations firm. She and James fall in love despite her reservations about beginning another relationship so soon after her ugly breakup with Gerry. Eventually, Helen discovers that she is pregnant. Believing it is James's child, she goes to see him at his office. She is stunned to learn from James's secretary that he is married. James finds her on a bridge and explains that he "was" married but is now separated and planning a divorce, but he and his wife maintain the appearance of a happy marriage for the sake of his sick mother. After she and James declare their love, Helen walks into the road and is hit by a van.


title: Sliding Doors

text: In the storyline in which Helen misses the train, subsequent services are delayed, so she exits the station and hails a taxi. A man tries to snatch her handbag and injures her, so she goes to the hospital. She arrives home after Lydia has left, and she remains oblivious to Gerry's infidelity. Unable to find another PR job, she takes two part-time jobs to pay the bills. Gerry continues to juggle the two women in his life. Lydia, wanting Gerry for herself, resorts to dropping clues to Helen of their affair. Helen suspects Gerry of infidelity but later discovers that she is pregnant. She receives a phone call, allegedly, for a job interview with an international PR firm. She tells Gerry the news but does not manage to tell him of her pregnancy. Lydia calls Gerry to her apartment, apparently to break up. Thinking Helen is at her interview, Gerry goes to see Lydia. While at Lydia's, Gerry answers the doorbell and sees Helen standing at the door, her interview being with Lydia, having arranged both meetings for the same time to expose their affair. Helen is stunned to see Gerry, and Lydia drops the news of her own pregnancy to both. Distraught, Helen runs off and falls down the stairs.


title: Sliding Doors

text: In the storyline where she originally boarded the train and met her new-found love, James, she dies in his arms, right after he says he will make her very happy.


title: Sliding Doors

text: Where Helen missed the train, she recovers and tells Gerry to leave for good. Then, as Helen enters the lift to leave the hospital after recovering, she drops an earring. As in their brief encounter at the beginning of the film, James picks up the earring and gives it to her, and then he begins the same cheer-up joke as when they first met in the other storyline. But this time, Helen correctly quotes the punch line, and they turn and look at each other.


title: Sliding Doors

text: In this film, the explicit dual timelines are similar to a less emphasized split storyline in the 1949 film dealing with a train crash, "The Interrupted Journey".


title: Sliding Doors

text: The scenes on the London Underground were filmed at Waterloo tube station and Bank station on the Waterloo & City line and at Fulham Broadway tube station on the District line. Helen's flat is in Leinster Square. The American Diner is "Fatboy's Diner" whilst situated at Old Spitalfields Market. The scenes by the Thames were filmed next to Hammersmith Bridge and in the Blue Anchor pub in Hammersmith. The bridge featured is the Albert Bridge between Battersea and Chelsea. The late-night scene when Paltrow and Hannah walk down the street was filmed in Primrose Gardens (formerly Stanley Gardens) in Belsize Park. The final hospital scene where Helen and James meet in the lift was filmed at Chelsea and Westminster Hospital on Fulham Road.


title: Sliding Doors

text: British singer Dido's song "Thank You", which appeared on the soundtrack, became a hit two years later. A commercial for this film featuring "Thank You" as background music inspired rapper Eminem to use Dido's voice for his song, "Stan". The song eventually hit No. 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Sliding Doors

text: Aqua's song "Turn Back Time" was released as a single in 1998 and topped the UK Singles Chart. The music video is heavily based on the film and featured scenes from it.


title: Sliding Doors

text: The Patty Larkin cover of "Tenderness on the Block" that plays during the final scene was never released due to copyright and recording issues.


title: Sliding Doors

text: The film opened at number 17 at the US box office with $834,817 during its first weekend but increased by 96.5% to $1,640,438 on its second weekend. It ended up with a total gross of $11,841,544 in the United States and Canada. It also saw success in the United Kingdom and was the highest-grossing local production for the year with a total box office gross in excess of £12 million. The film's total worldwide takings totaled over $67 million.


title: Sliding Doors

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 65% approval rating based on 54 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The critics consensus reads, "Despite the gimmicky feel of the split narratives, the movie is watchable due to the winning performances by the cast." Metacritic gives the film a score of 59 out of 100 based on 23 reviews, indicating the reaction as "mixed or average."


title: Sliding Doors

text: Angie Errigo of "Empire" gave the film 3/5 stars. Roger Ebert gave it 2/4 stars, and was critical of the screenplay.


title: Sliding Doors

text: The thirteenth episode of season eight of "Frasier", "Sliding Frasiers", is inspired by the film. In it, Frasier struggles deciding whether to wear a suit or a sweater to an upcoming Valentine's Day speed-dating event. The aftereffects of either decision are explored, although the episode ends identically with both timelines intersecting as Frasier, having failed to get a date, drives to a caller's workplace to woo her.


title: Sliding Doors

text: The Broad City season 4 episode "Sliding Doors" shows the origin story of Abbi and Ilana's friendship cut between two timelines. In both scenarios, they meet at a NYC subway station. From there, one story involves them boarding a subway train and going through the day separately. In the other, they miss their train and they spend the day together.


title: Sliding Doors

text: The "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt" season 4 episode "Sliding Van Doors" centers on the film, showing an alternate timeline where Kimmy Schmidt does not get in her kidnapper's van in 1998 because she does not want to miss a screening of "Sliding Doors".


title: Sliding Doors

text: Other shows to use a premise similar to "Sliding Doors", but without directly referencing the film, include "Malcolm in the Middle", "Mad About You", and "Community".


title: David Gest

text: David Alan Gest (May 11, 1953 – April 12, 2016) was an American producer and television personality. Gest founded the American Cinema Awards Foundation in 1983. He produced the television special "" in 2001, which was the last reunion of Michael Jackson and the Jacksons coming 17 years after their previous reunion. Gest appeared on the 2006 series of the British reality television show "I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!". He frequently made tabloid headlines during his marriage with Liza Minnelli. In 2016, Gest appeared in "Celebrity Big Brother" in the UK but elected to leave the show after 13 days due to "medical reasons".


title: David Gest

text: At the age of 17, Gest landed a job as a publicist at London Records by passing himself off as 24. Nearly a year later, he was promoted to national director of publicity and transferred over to the New York office of the label. Singer Al Green encouraged him to start a P.R. and management firm, and at age 18, he created David Gest & Associates. Green became his first client and mentor. Shortly after, he had 25 artists on his roster and generated vast success.


title: David Gest

text: Gest finished in fourth place on the 2006 series of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!", a day before the show finished. Two days later, Gest appeared on the Royal Variety Show in London in front of Prince Charles, for which he received a standing ovation. Another two days later, a controversy arose on the cover of two major UK papers stating that more than 30,000 text votes were not counted in Gest's favour when the network ITV had a voting glitch. This would have changed the outcome of the show but Gest declined a recount.


title: David Gest

text: In January 2007, Gest appeared as a judge on ITV1's "Soapstar Superstar", for one night replacing Michael Ball who was coaching the singers. Later that month it was announced that Gest had signed a one-year deal with ITV to appear in his own reality series entitled "This Is David Gest", which began on April 22, 2007. He also took cameras for a rare glimpse of the Jackson family house in Encino, California, where he met Tito Jackson and his children as well as matriarch Katherine Jackson. He was one of the four judges on ITV1's entertainment series "Grease Is the Word" and also starred on "Greased Lightnin". In 2007, Gest also appeared in an episode of Gordon Ramsay's "The F Word".


title: David Gest

text: Gest paid ITV to be released from his contract early and ITV replied that they had no idea what to do with him. Gest was quick to say that he wanted to be released: "My lawyers negotiated an early release so I could host "The Friday Night Project" on Channel 4", Gest told "The Sun".


title: David Gest

text: Gest and Liza Minnelli were married on March 16, 2002, and separated in July 2003. In October 2003 he sued her for $10 million, claiming that she had been violent and physically abusive during their marriage, behavior the affidavit blamed on Minnelli's persistent alcoholism. Minnelli denied the accusations, claiming Gest was simply after her money. The suit was dismissed in September 2006 for lack of triable issue of fact.


title: David Gest

text: Gest was a close friend of Michael Jackson, and after Jackson's death he produced and starred in a documentary film about Jackson's life called "".


title: David Gest

text: In 2009, Gest sold his mansion in Memphis, Tennessee, and auctioned his rock memorabilia to put in an offer on a five-bedroom Victorian townhouse in Cambridge, England. The owners, however, took the house off the market and Gest rented a three-bedroom house in St John's Wood, North London. The same year he was the guest on "Celebrity Fantasy Homes" with Gaby Roslin.


title: David Gest

text: On April 12, 2016, Gest was found dead in his room at the Four Seasons Hotel in East London's Canary Wharf district. He was 62 years old. His death was described by police as involving no suspicious circumstances. It was later reported that he had died from a stroke. Prior to his death, Gest had been arranging a new tour entitled "David Gest Is Not Dead but Alive With Soul", in reference to a misunderstanding on "Celebrity Big Brother" after he'd gone to bed early feeling unwell on the evening the death of David Bowie was announced. In spite of Gest's death, the tour went ahead.


title: David Gest

text: After his death, it was revealed that Gest had been addicted to gambling; friends reportedly said that he had accumulated debts of up to £500,000 in the months before his death.


title: David Gest

text: Gest's funeral service was held at Golders Green Crematorium in North London on April 29, 2016. His ashes were scattered in York, England.


title: Martin Balsam

text: Martin Henry Balsam (November 4, 1919 – February 13, 1996) was an American actor. He had a prolific career in character roles in film, in theatre, and on television. An early member of the Actors Studio, he began his career on the New York stage, winning a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for Robert Anderson’s "You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running" (1968). He won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in "A Thousand Clowns" (1965).


title: Martin Balsam

text: His other notable film roles include Juror #1 in "12 Angry Men" (1957), private detective Milton Arbogast in "Psycho" (1960), Hollywood agent O.J. Berman in "Breakfast at Tiffany's" (1961), Bernard B. Norman in "The Carpetbaggers" (1964), Lt. Commander Chester Potter, the ship doctor, in "The Bedford Incident", Colonel Cathcart in "Catch-22" (1970), Admiral Husband E. Kimmel in "Tora! Tora! Tora!" (1970), Mr. Green in "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three" (1974), Signor Bianchi in "Murder on the Orient Express" (1974), and Howard Simons in "All the President's Men" (1976). He had a recurring role as Dr. Milton Orloff on the television drama "Dr. Kildare" (1963–66), and Murray Klein on the sitcom "Archie Bunker's Place" (1979–83).


title: Martin Balsam

text: In addition to his Oscar and Tony Awards, Balsam was also a BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award, and Emmy Award nominee. With Joyce Van Patten, he was the father of actress Talia Balsam.


title: Martin Balsam

text: Martin Henry Balsam was born November 4, 1919, in the Bronx borough of New York City, to Russian Jewish parents, Lillian ("née" Weinstein) and Albert Balsam, who was a manufacturer of women's sportswear. He attended DeWitt Clinton High School, where he participated in the drama club. He studied at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York with the German director Erwin Piscator and then served in the United States Army Air Forces from 1941 to 1945 during World War II, achieving the rank of Sergeant. He served as a sergeant radio operator in a B-24 in the China-Burma-India Theater of Operations.


title: Martin Balsam

text: Balsam made his professional debut in August 1941 in a production of "The Play's the Thing" in Locust Valley. After World War II, he resumed his acting career in New York.


title: Martin Balsam

text: In early 1948, he was selected by Elia Kazan to be a member in the recently formed Actors Studio. He appeared consistently in Broadway and off-Broadway plays, something he would continue to do well into his screen acting career. Columnist Earl Wilson dubbed him "The Bronx Barrymore".


title: Martin Balsam

text: In 1968, he won a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his performance in the 1967 Broadway production of "You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running."


title: Martin Balsam

text: Balsam performed in several episodes of the studio's dramatic television anthology series, broadcast between September 1948 and 1950. He appeared in many other television drama series, including "Decoy" with Beverly Garland, "The Twilight Zone" (episodes "The Sixteen Millimeter Shrine" and "The New Exhibit"), as a psychologist in the pilot episode, "Five Fingers", "", "The Eleventh Hour", "Breaking Point", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "The Fugitive", and "Mr. Broadway", as a retired U.N.C.L.E. agent in "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." episode, "The Odd Man Affair", and guest-starred in the two-part "Murder, She Wrote" episode, "Death Stalks the Big Top". He also appeared in the "Route 66" episode, "Somehow It Gets To Be Tomorrow".


title: Martin Balsam

text: He played Dr. Rudy Wells when the Martin Caidin novel "Cyborg" was adapted as a TV-movie pilot for "The Six Million Dollar Man" (1973), though he did not reprise the role for the subsequent series. In 1975, he appeared as James Arthur Cummins in the Joe Don Baker police drama "Mitchell", a film that was eventually featured in a highly popular episode of the comedy film-riffing series "Mystery Science Theater 3000" in 1993. He appeared as a spokesman/hostage in the TV movie "Raid on Entebbe" (1976) and as a detective in the TVM "Contract on Cherry Street" (1977), starring Frank Sinatra. He also appeared on an episode of "Quincy, M.E.". Balsam starred as Murray Klein on the "All in the Family" spin-off "Archie Bunker's Place" for two seasons (1979–81) and returned for a guest appearance in the show's fourth and final season.


title: Martin Balsam

text: Balsam made his film debut with an uncredited role in "On the Waterfront" (1954), directed by his Actors' Studio colleague Elia Kazan. Balsam played an official of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey investigating mob involvement in the city's waterfront unions. His breakthrough role came a few years later, when he played Juror #1 in "12 Angry Men" (1957). He would collaborate with the film's director, Sidney Lumet, twice more with "The Anderson Tapes" (1971) and "Murder on the Orient Express" (1974).


title: Martin Balsam

text: In 1960, he appeared in one of his best-remembered roles as private investigator Arbogast in Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho". Along with Gregory Peck and Robert Mitchum, Balsam appeared in both the original "Cape Fear" (1962), and the 1991 Martin Scorsese remake. He won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Arnold Burns in "A Thousand Clowns" (1965). Balsam also performed the original voice of the HAL 9000 computer in "". After his lines were recorded, director Stanley Kubrick decided "Marty just sounded a little bit too colloquially American," and hired Douglas Rain to perform the role for the released film.


title: Martin Balsam

text: Balsam also appeared in such notable films as "Time Limit" with Richard Widmark, "Breakfast at Tiffany's" with Audrey Hepburn and George Peppard, "The Carpetbaggers" with George Peppard and Alan Ladd, "Seven Days in May" with Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas, "The Bedford Incident" with Richard Widmark and Sidney Portier, "Hombre" with Paul Newman and Fredric March, "Catch-22" with Alan Arkin and Jon Voight, "Tora! Tora! Tora!" (as Admiral Husband E. Kimmel), "Little Big Man" with Dustin Hoffman, "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three" with Walter Matthau and Robert Shaw, "All the President's Men" with Dustin Hoffman and Robert Redford, "The Delta Force" with Lee Marvin, and "The Goodbye People". One of his final acting appearances was in the 1994 horror parody "The Silence of the Hams", which paid homage to his iconic role in "Psycho".


title: Martin Balsam

text: Beyond Hollywood, Balsam was also a popular character actor in Italian films, beginning in 1960 when he starred in the Luigi Comencini film "Everybody Go Home." He would star in several "poliziottesco" films throughout the 1970s, directed by the likes of Fernando Di Leo and Enzo G. Castellari. Balsam's roles in these films would be re-dubbed into Italian, but he would loop his own lines in the English-language export versions. Balsam maintained close ties to Italy even after the end of the "poliziottesco" trend, traveling there for both professional and personal reasons, and starring in the Italian-produced television series "Ocean" and "La piovra."


title: Martin Balsam

text: In 1951, Balsam married his first wife, actress Pearl Somner. They divorced three years later. His second wife was actress Joyce Van Patten. This marriage lasted for four years (from 1958 until 1962) with one daughter, Talia Balsam. He married his third wife, Irene Miller, in 1963. They had two children, Adam and Zoe Balsam, and divorced in 1987.


title: Martin Balsam

text: On February 13, 1996, Balsam died of a stroke in his hotel room while vacationing in Rome, Italy. He was 76 years old. He is interred at Cedar Park Cemetery, in Emerson, New Jersey.


title: Duodenum

text: The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear, and the terms anterior intestine or proximal intestine may be used instead of duodenum. In mammals the duodenum may be the principal site for iron absorption.


title: Duodenum

text: In humans, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25–38 cm (10–15 inches) long connecting the stomach to the middle part of the small intestine. It begins with the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. Duodenum can be divided into four parts: the first (superior), the second (descending), the third (horizontal) and the fourth (ascending) parts.


title: Duodenum

text: The duodenum is a C-shaped structure lying adjacent to the stomach. It is divided anatomically into four sections. The first part of the duodenum lies within the peritoneum but its other parts are retroperitoneal.


title: Duodenum

text: The "first part", or "superior part", of the duodenum is a continuation from the pylorus to transpyloric plane. It is superior to the rest of the segments, at the vertebral level of L1. The duodenal bulb, about long, is the first part of the duodenum and is slightly dilated. The duodenal bulb is a remnant of the mesoduodenum, a mesentery that suspends the organ from the posterior abdominal wall in fetal life. The first part of the duodenum is mobile, and connected to the liver by the hepatoduodenal ligament of the lesser omentum. The first part of the duodenum ends at the corner, the "superior duodenal flexure".


title: Duodenum

text: The "second part", or "descending part", of the duodenum begins at the superior duodenal flexure. It goes inferior to the lower border of vertebral body L3, before making a sharp turn medially into the "inferior duodenal flexure", the end of the descending part.


title: Duodenum

text: The pancreatic duct and common bile duct enter the descending duodenum, through the major duodenal papilla. The second part of the duodenum also contains the minor duodenal papilla, the entrance for the accessory pancreatic duct. The junction between the embryological foregut and midgut lies just below the major duodenal papilla.


title: Duodenum

text: The "third part", or "horizontal part" or "inferior part" of the duodenum is 10~12 cm in length. It begins at the "inferior duodenal flexure" and passes transversely to the left, passing in front of the inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta and the vertebral column. The superior mesenteric artery and vein are anterior to the third part of duodenum. This part may be compressed between the aorta and SMA causing superior mesenteric artery syndrome.


title: Duodenum

text: The "fourth part", or "ascending part", of the duodenum passes upward, joining with the jejunum at the duodenojejunal flexure. The fourth part of the duodenum is at the vertebral level L3, and may pass directly on top, or slightly to the left, of the aorta.


title: Duodenum

text: The duodenum receives arterial blood from two different sources. The transition between these sources is important as it demarcates the foregut from the midgut. Proximal to the 2nd part of the duodenum (approximately at the major duodenal papilla – where the bile duct enters) the arterial supply is from the gastroduodenal artery and its branch the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery. Distal to this point (the midgut) the arterial supply is from the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), and its branch the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery supplies the 3rd and 4th sections.


title: Duodenum

text: The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries (from the gastroduodenal artery and SMA respectively) form an anastomotic loop between the celiac trunk and the SMA; so there is potential for collateral circulation here.


title: Duodenum

text: The venous drainage of the duodenum follows the arteries. Ultimately these veins drain into the portal system, either directly or indirectly through the splenic or superior mesenteric vein and then to portal vein.


title: Duodenum

text: The lymphatic vessels follow the arteries in a retrograde fashion. The anterior lymphatic vessels drain into the pancreatoduodenal lymph nodes located along the superior and inferior pancreatoduodenal arteries and then into the pyloric lymph nodes (along the gastroduodenal artery). The posterior lymphatic vessels pass posterior to the head of the pancreas and drain into the superior mesenteric lymph nodes. Efferent lymphatic vessels from the duodenal lymph nodes ultimately pass into the celiac lymph nodes.


title: Duodenum

text: Under microscopy, the duodenum has a villous mucosa. This is distinct from the mucosa of the pylorus, which directly joins to the duodenum. Like other structures of the gastrointestinal tract, the duodenum has a mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and adventitia. Glands line the duodenum, known as Brunner's glands, which secrete mucus and bicarbonate in order to neutralise stomach acids. These are distinct glands not found in the ileum or jejunum, the other parts of the small intestine.


title: Duodenum

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum. Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the duodenum. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the duodenal mucosa, and many of these are also expressed in the small intestine, such as ANPEP, a digestive enzyme, ACE, an enzyme involved in control of blood pressure, and RBP2, a protein involved in the uptake of vitamin A.


title: Duodenum

text: The duodenum is largely responsible for the breakdown of food in the small intestine, using enzymes. The duodenum also regulates the rate of emptying of the stomach via hormonal pathways. Secretin and cholecystokinin are released from cells in the duodenal epithelium in response to acidic and fatty stimuli present there when the pylorus opens and emits gastric chyme into the duodenum for further digestion. These cause the liver and gall bladder to release bile, and the pancreas to release bicarbonate and digestive enzymes such as trypsin, lipase and amylase into the duodenum as they are needed.


title: Duodenum

text: The villi of the duodenum have a leafy-looking appearance, which is a histologically identifiable structure. Brunner's glands, which secrete mucus, are found in the duodenum "only". The duodenum wall consists of a very thin layer of cells that form the muscularis mucosae.


title: Duodenum

text: Ulcers of the duodenum commonly occur because of infection by the bacteria "Helicobacter pylori". These bacteria, through a number of mechanisms, erode the protective mucosa of the duodenum, predisposing it to damage from gastric acids. The first part of the duodenum is the most common location of ulcers since it is where the acidic chyme meets the duodenal mucosa before mixing with the alkaline secretions of the duodenum. Duodenal ulcers may cause recurrent abdominal pain and dyspepsia, and are often investigated using a urea breath test to test for the bacteria, and endoscopy to confirm ulceration and take a biopsy. If managed, these are often managed through antibiotics that aim to eradicate the bacteria, and PPIs and antacids to reduce the gastric acidity.


title: Duodenum

text: The British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) guidelines specify that a duodenal biopsy is required for the diagnosis of adult celiac disease. The biopsy is ideally performed at a moment when the patient is on a gluten-containing diet.


title: Duodenum

text: Duodenal cancer is a cancer in the first section of the small intestine. Cancer of the duodenum is relatively rare compared to stomach cancer and colorectal cancer; malignant tumors in the duodenum constitute only around 0.3% of all the gastrointestinal tract tumors but around half of cancerous tissues that develop in the small intestine. Its histology is often observed to be adenocarcinoma, meaning that the cancerous tissue arises from glandular cells in the epithelial tissue lining the duodenum.


title: Duodenum

text: The name "duodenum" is from Medieval Latin, short for "intestīnum duodēnum digitōrum", which may be translated: intestine of twelve finger-widths (in length), from Latin duodēnum, genitive pl. of duodēnī, twelve each, from duodecim, twelve. The Latin phrase "intestīnum duodēnum digitōrum" is thought to be a loan-translation from the Greek word "dodekadaktylon" (δωδεκαδάκτυλον), literally "twelve fingers long." The intestinal section was so called by Greek physician Herophilus (c. 335–280 B.C.E.) for its length, about equal to the breadth of 12 fingers.


title: Duodenum

text: The primary digestive function of the liver is to generate bile. The gallbladder stores bile made from the liver. It travels into the duodenum. The pancreas makes enzymes that break down protein, fat and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes bicarbonate which neutralizes the acid from the stomach.


title: Duodenum

text: The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear, and the terms anterior intestine or proximal intestine may be used instead of duodenum. In mammals the duodenum may be the principal site for iron absorption.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: There is no specific doctrinal view of Jesus in traditional Judaism. Monotheism, a belief in the absolute unity and singularity of God, is central to Judaism, which regards the worship of a person as a form of idolatry. Therefore, considering Jesus a deity would be forbidden according to Judaism. The rejection of Jesus as Messiah has never been a theological issue for Judaism because Jewish eschatology holds that the coming of the Jewish Messiah will be associated with events that had not occurred at the time of Jesus, such as the rebuilding of The Temple, a Messianic Age of peace, and the ingathering of Jews to their homeland.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Historically, some Jewish writers and scholars have considered Jesus as the most damaging "false prophet", and traditional views of Jesus have been mostly negative, though influential Jewish scholars of the Middle Ages including Judah Halevi and Maimonides viewed Jesus as an important preparatory figure for a future universal ethical monotheism of the Messianic Age. Some modern Jewish thinkers starting in the 18th century with the Orthodox Jacob Emden and the reformer Moses Mendelssohn have sympathetically speculated that the historical Jesus may have been closer to Judaism than either the Gospels or traditional Jewish accounts would indicate, a view that is still espoused by some.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Judaism has never accepted any of the claimed fulfilments of prophecy that Christianity attributes to Jesus.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: The belief that Jesus is God, the Son of God, or a person of the Trinity, is incompatible with Jewish theology. Jews believe Jesus did not fulfill messianic prophecies that establish the criteria for the coming of the messiah. Judaism does not accept Jesus as a divine being, an intermediary between humans and God, a messiah, or holy. Belief in the Trinity is also held to be incompatible with Judaism, as are a number of other tenets of Christianity.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: In Judaism, the idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical — it is even considered by some polytheistic. According to Judaic beliefs, the Torah rules out a trinitarian God in Deuteronomy (6:4): "Hear Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is one."


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Judaism teaches that it is heretical for any man to claim to be God, part of God, or the literal son of God. The Jerusalem Talmud states explicitly: "if a man claims to be God, he is a liar."


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Paul Johnson, in his book "A History of the Jews", describes the schism between Jews and Christians caused by a divergence from this principle:


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: To the question, Was Jesus God or man?, the Christians therefore answered: both. After 70 AD, their answer was unanimous and increasingly emphatic. This made a complete breach with Judaism inevitable.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: In the 12th century, the preeminent Jewish scholar Maimonides codified core principles of Modern Judaism, writing "[God], the Cause of all, is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair, nor one like a species (which encompasses many individuals), nor one as in an object that is made up of many elements, nor as a single simple object that is infinitely divisible. Rather, God is a unity unlike any other possible unity." Some Orthodox Jewish scholars note that the common poetic Jewish expression, "Our Father in Heaven", was used literally by Jesus to refer to God as "his Father in Heaven" (cf. Lord's Prayer).


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Maimonides' 13 principles of faith includes the concept that God has no body and that physical concepts do not apply to him. In the "Yigdal" prayer, found towards the beginning of the Jewish prayer books used in synagogues around the world, it states "He has no semblance of a body nor is He corporeal". It is a central tenet of Judaism that God does not have any physical characteristics; that God's essence cannot be fathomed.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Judaism's idea of the messiah differs substantially from the Christian idea of the Messiah. In orthodox Rabbinic Judaism the messiah's task is to bring in the Messianic Age, a one-time event, and a presumed messiah who is killed before completing the task (i.e. compelling all of Israel to walk in the way of Torah, repairing the breaches in observance, fighting the wars of God, building the Temple in its place, gathering in the dispersed exiles of Israel) is not the messiah. Maimonides states,


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Jews believe that the messiah will fulfill the messianic prophecies of the prophets Isaiah and Ezekiel. Judaism interprets Isaiah 11:1 ("And there shall come forth a shoot out of the stock of Jesse, and a twig shall grow forth out of his roots.") to mean that the messiah will be a patrilineal bloodline descendant of King David. He is expected to return the Jews to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, reign as king, and usher in an era of peace and understanding where "the knowledge of God" fills the earth, leading the nations to "end up recognizing the wrongs they did Israel". Ezekiel states the messiah will redeem the Jews.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: The Jewish view of Jesus is influenced by the fact that Jesus lived while the Second Temple was standing, and not while the Jews were exiled. Being conceived via the Holy Spirit (as espoused by orthodox Christian doctrine), it would be impossible for Jesus to be a patrilineal bloodline descendant of King David. He never reigned as king, and there was no subsequent era of peace or great knowledge. Jesus died without completing or even accomplishing part of any of the messianic tasks, which Christians say will occur at a Second Coming. Rather than being redeemed, the Jews were subsequently exiled from Judea, and the Temple was destroyed years later, not rebuilt. These discrepancies were noted by Jewish scholars who were contemporaries of Jesus, as later pointed out by Nachmanides, who in 1263 observed that Jesus was rejected as the messiah by the rabbis of his time.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Moreover, Judaism sees Christian claims that Jesus is the textual messiah of the Hebrew Bible as being based on mistranslations, with the idea that Jesus did not fulfill any of the Jewish Messiah qualifications.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: According to the Torah ( and ), the criteria for a person to be considered a prophet or speak for God in Judaism are that he must follow the God of Israel (and no other god); he must not describe God differently from how he is known to be from Scripture; he must not advocate change to God's word or state that God has changed his mind and wishes things that contradict his already-stated eternal word. There is no concept of the Messiah "fulfilling the law" to free the Israelites from their duty to maintain the "mitzvot" in Judaism, as is understood in much of Christianity or some Messianic Judaism.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: There are two types of "false prophet" recognized in the Hebrew Bible: the one who claims to be a prophet in the name of idolatry, and the one who claims to be a prophet in the name of the God of Israel, but declares that any word or commandment (mitzvah) which God has said no longer applies, or makes false statements in the name of God. As traditional Judaism believes that God's word is true eternally, one who claims to speak in God's name but diverges in any way from what God himself has said, logically cannot be inspired by divine authority. Deuteronomy 13:1 states simply, "Be careful to observe only that which I enjoin upon you; neither add to it nor take away from it."


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Even if someone who appears to be a prophet can perform supernatural acts or signs, no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Bible. Thus, any divergence espoused by Jesus from the tenets of biblical Judaism would disqualify him from being considered a prophet in Judaism. This was the view adopted by Jesus' contemporaries, as according to rabbinical tradition as stated in the Talmud (Sotah 48b) "when Malachi died the Prophecy departed from Israel." As Malachi lived centuries before Jesus it is clear that the rabbis of Talmudic times did not view Jesus as a divinely inspired prophet. Furthermore, the Bible itself includes an example of a prophet who could speak directly with God and could work miracles but was "evil", in the form of Balaam.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Judaism does not share the Christian concept of salvation, as it does not believe people are born in a state of sin. Judaism holds instead that man is born to strive for perfection, and to follow the word of God.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Sin is then divided into two categories; transgression against God (through a failure to fulfill ritual obligations, such as not sanctifying the Sabbath), and transgression against man (through a failure to fulfill moral obligations, such as committing gossip). To gain absolution, a person can repent of that sin, regret the sin, and commit to never do the sin again. God will then forgive their transgression against Him. If a sin is committed against man, the person needs to gain forgiveness from the one he sinned against; it cannot be forgiven by God or another person.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Various works of classical Jewish rabbinic literature are thought to contain references to Jesus, including some uncensored manuscripts of the Babylonian Talmud and the classical midrash literature written between 250 CE and 700 CE. There is a spectrum of scholarly views on how many of these references are actually to Jesus.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Christian authorities in Europe were largely unaware of possible references to Jesus in the Talmud until 1236, when a convert from Judaism, Nicholas Donin, laid thirty-five formal charges against the Talmud before Pope Gregory IX, and these charges were brought upon rabbi Yechiel of Paris to defend at the Disputation of Paris in 1240. Yechiel's primary defence was that the Yeshu in rabbinic literature was a disciple of Joshua ben Perachiah, and not to be confused with Jesus ("Vikkuah Rabbenu Yechiel mi-Paris"). At the later Disputation of Barcelona (1263) Nachmanides made the same point.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Jacob ben Meir (11th century), Jehiel ben Solomon Heilprin (17th century), and Jacob Emden (18th century) support this view, but not all rabbis took this view. "The Kuzari" by Yehuda Halevi (), understood these references in Talmud as referring to Jesus of Nazareth based on evidence that Jesus of Nazareth lived 130 years prior to the date that Christians believe he lived. Profiat Duran's anti-Christian polemic "Kelimmat ha-Goyim" ("Shame of the Gentiles", 1397) makes it evident that Duran gave no credence to Yechiel's theory of two Jesuses.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Modern scholarship on the Talmud has a spectrum of views. From Joseph Klausner, R. Travers Herford and Peter Schäfer, who see some traces of a historical Jesus in the Talmud, to the views of Johann Maier and Jacob Neusner, who consider that there are little or no historical traces and texts have been applied to Jesus in later editing, to others such as Daniel Boyarin (1999), who argue that Jesus in the Talmud is a literary device used by Pharisaic rabbis to comment on their relationship to and with early messianic Jews.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: The Vatican's papal bull issued in 1554 censored the Talmud and other Jewish texts, resulting in the removal of references to Yeshu. No known manuscript of the Jerusalem Talmud makes mention of the name, although one translation (Herford) has added it to "Avodah Zarah 2:2" to align it with similar text of "Chullin 2:22" in the Tosefta. In the Munich (1342 CE), Paris, and Jewish Theological Seminary of America manuscripts of the Talmud, the appellation "Ha-Notzri" is added to the last mention of a Yeshu in "Sanhedrin 107b" and "Sotah 47a" as well as to the occurrences in "Sanhedrin 43a", "Sanhedrin 103a", "Berachot 17b" and "Avodah Zarah" 16b-17a. Student, Zindler and McKinsey "Ha-Notzri" is not found in other early pre-censorship partial manuscripts (the Florence, Hamburg and Karlsruhe) where these cover the passages in question.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Although "Notzri" does not appear in the Tosefta, by the time the Babylonian Talmud was produced, "Notzri" had become the standard Hebrew word for Christian and the "Yeshu Ha-Notzri" found in the Talmud has become the controversial rendition of "Jesus the Nazarene" in Hebrew. For example, by 1180 CE the term "Yeshu Ha-Notzri" can be found in the Maimonides' "Mishneh Torah" ("Hilchos Melachim" 11:4, uncensored version).


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: In the "Toledot Yeshu" the name of Yeshu is taken to mean "yimakh shemo". In all cases of its use, the references are to Yeshu are associated with acts or behaviour that are seen as leading Jews away from Judaism to "minuth", a term usually translated as "heresy" or "apostasy". Historically, the portrayals of Jesus in the Talmud and Jewish literature were used as an excuse for anti-Jewish sentiments.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Maimonides lamented the pains that Jews felt as a result of new faiths that attempted to supplant Judaism, specifically Christianity and Islam. Referring to Jesus, he wrote:


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Concerning Jesus of Nazareth who imagined himself to become the Messiah and was put to death by the court, the Prophet Daniel said already: "also the rebellious sons of thy people will lift themselves up to establish the vision; but they will stumble." (Dan.11,14) And can there be a greater stumbling block than this: All the prophets affirmed that the Messiah would redeem Israel, save them, gather their dispersed and strengthen the commandments, but he caused Israel to be destroyed by the sword, their remnants to be dispersed, and humiliated, their changing the Torah, and misleading the world to serve gods besides the Lord.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Nonetheless, Maimonides continued, developing a thought earlier expressed in Judah Halevi's "Kuzari",


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Yet no man can grasp the thoughts of (the Lord) the Creator of the world, for our ways are not His ways, and our thoughts are not His thoughts; And all these ways of Jesus of Nazareth and of This Ismaelite who rose after him, were only to clear the way for Messiah the King." ... ." when the Messiah will really arise and he will succeed and will reign supreme, at once they shall all return and will know that they inherited lies from their forefathers and that their prophets and forefathers have misled them. ("Hilkhot Melakhim" 11:10–12.)


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Jesus is mentioned in Maimonides' "Epistle to Yemen", written about 1172 to Rabbi Jacob ben Netan'el al-Fayyumi, head of the Yemen Jewish community


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: In the context of refuting the claims of a contemporary in Yemen purporting to be the Messiah, Maimonides mentions Jesus again:


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: The historical view of Jesus within Karaite Judaism is a complex one. While Karaites share Rabbanite views in rejecting Christian beliefs of Jesus' divinity and claims to messiahship, Karaites throughout history have held warmer opinions about him. Karaite scholar Jacob Qirqisani stated that some Karaites of his day believed that:


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Persian historian and Islamic theologian Al-Shahrastani reported that Karaites believed that Jesus was indeed a righteous man, but was not a prophet, and that the Gospels were not divinely revealed, but created and compiled by Jesus and his disciples. "Hakham" Abraham Firkovich believed Jesus himself was actually a Karaite. Controversial "hakham" Seraya Shapshal said:


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: In addition to being a place-name, Nazarenes were Jews who committed to certain extreme observances of religious practice, such as shaving their heads and abstaining from various activities, foods or practices, spending time in contemplation in the desert and so on.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: According to their website, they continue being recognized as Jews, and Jesus lived around 130 or 140 CE and was conflated with Neoplatonic beliefs into what became the New Testament. To them, Jesus is a teacher, in the tradition of other Jewish teachers, and was not God or God's son.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Considering the historical Jesus, some modern Jewish thinkers have come to hold a more positive view of Jesus, arguing that he himself did not abandon Judaism and/or that he benefited non-Jews. Among historic Orthodox rabbis holding these views are Jacob Emden, Eliyahu Soloveitchik, and Elijah Benamozegh.


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Moses Mendelssohn, as well as some other religious thinkers of the Jewish Enlightenment, also held more positive views. Austrian-born philosopher Martin Buber also held Jesus in great regard. A positive view of Jesus is fairly represented among modern Jews in the currents of Reform (Emil G. Hirsch and Kaufmann Kohler), Conservative (Milton Steinberg and Byron Sherwin,), and Jewish Renewal (Zalman Schachter-Shalomi).


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Some modern Orthodox rabbis, such as Irving Greenberg and Jonathan Sacks, also hold positive views (Greenberg theorizes Jesus as "a messiah but not The Messiah").


title: Judaism's view of Jesus

text: Rabbi Shmuley Boteach takes this even farther, following the research of Hyam Maccoby. Boteach authored "Kosher Jesus" in 2012, in which he depicts Jesus as "a Jewish patriot murdered by Rome for his struggle on behalf of his people." Opinions of the merits of the book differ, with Israeli-American Rabbi Yechiel Eckstein, President of the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews, praising it as "courageous and thought-provoking". Boteach said that the book "traces the teachings of Jesus to their original sources: the Torah, the Talmud and rabbinic literature".


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Beautiful Creatures is a 2013 American romantic gothic fantasy film written for the screen and directed by Richard LaGravenese based on the 2009 novel of the same name by Kami Garcia and Margaret Stohl. It stars Alden Ehrenreich, Alice Englert, Jeremy Irons, Viola Davis, Emmy Rossum, Thomas Mann, and Emma Thompson.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: It was released in the United States on February 14, 2013, by Warner Bros. Pictures. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $60.1 million worldwide against its $60 million budget, making it a box office bomb.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: In Gatlin, South Carolina, teenager Ethan Wate awakens from a recurring dream of a girl he has not met. He despairs of his small-town existence and dreams of leaving for college. His first day of junior year, a newcomer Lena Duchannes resembles the girl Ethan has been dreaming about. Other students gossip about Lena's reclusive uncle, Macon Ravenwood, suggesting her family are devil worshippers. On the way home, Ethan nearly runs her over. Giving her a ride, they bond over interests.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: In class, a few students insist they can not be in class with Lena, and pray to be protected from her and her family. Visibly shaken, her class windows shatter, increasing fears and suspicions she is a witch. Ethan and Lena become friends and he gives her a locket he found at Greenbriar. Both touching the locket triggers a shared flashback to the Civil War.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Macon, disapproving of their relationship, conspires with Ethan's family friend, Amma, to separate them. Lena tells Ethan that she and her family are "casters" capable of performing spells. On her sixteenth birthday, her true nature will reveal itself toward either the light or dark.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Complications arise when two powerful dark casters aim to push Lena to the dark: Ridley, Lena's cousin, and Lena's mother, Sarafine, who did not raise Lena and has possessed Mrs. Lincoln, the mother of Ethan's friend Link.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Sarafine foresees Lena will become a powerful caster, wanting Lena to use her power to purge the Earth of humans, leaving just casters. The couple have another flashback of their past with the locket, revealing that their ancestors, caster Genevieve Duchannes and mortal Confederate soldier Ethan Carter Wate, were in love. Ethan died in battle, and Genevieve revived him. Doing so laid a curse on all Duchannes women; they will go dark on their sixteenth birthday. A mortified Lena asks Amma to help, being a seer and keeper of the caster library beneath the town library, extending all across the USA. The most ancient of the books reveals the secret to undoing the curse: someone Lena loves has to die. Unwilling to take Ethan's life, Lena erases his memories of their love.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Seducing Link, Ridley gives him a bullet to use in the upcoming Civil War reenactment of the Battle of Honey Hill, also Lena's sixteenth birthday, Lena feels the shock of the curse being broken and runs to Ethan, clutching his dying body as Ridley and Sarafine encourage her to accept the dark. She lashes out in anger, sending a huge tornado through the crowd, until Ethan's body transforms into Macon, who had disguised himself to be the sacrifice to lift the curse. As he is dying, he reveals that he promised Ethan's mother to keep her son alive. These dying words encourage Lena to "claim [her]self"; she causes the moon to disappear so it cannot claim her for the dark. Allowing Ridley to flee, she pulls Sarafine from Mrs. Lincoln's body, powerfully sealing away Sarafine's spirit.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Six months later, a still-amnesiac Ethan visits Amma in the library before a college tour with Link. Lena gives him a book they had once shared as a present. Lena is a half light/dark caster. As Link and Ethan reach the town line, the town's burned exit sign reminds him momentarily, he gets out of the car, shouting Lena. She hears his call.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Alcon Entertainment purchased the rights to "Beautiful Creatures" in 2009, with director Richard LaGravenese signing on soon after to write and direct the movie. Casting began in late 2011, and in February 2012, Viola Davis was cast as Amma. Soon after, Jack O'Connell and Alice Englert were announced to play the lead characters of Ethan Wate and Lena Duchannes. O'Connell later dropped out due to a scheduling conflict, with Alden Ehrenreich assuming the role of Ethan. Further casting included Emma Thompson as Sarafine and Mrs. Lincoln and Jeremy Irons as Lena's uncle Macon Ravenwood. Of the character of Lena, Englert stated that "Lena is like most girls when you feel massively insecure".


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Principal photography was originally scheduled to begin 23 April 2012 in New Orleans, and took place, said LaGravenese, beginning "I think, April 16th, and then we shot until June 26th, and then post[-production] was for me from July 5th to December 17th." LaGravenese chose to incorporate practical special effects along with computer-based ones for certain scenes, as Emmy Rossum described: "[W]hen we walked on to the stage and realized the chandelier does actually move, the chairs did actually spin, the table did actually spin... it was all very exciting." On 19 September 2012, the first trailer for "Beautiful Creatures" was released.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Camille Balsamo played Genevieve Katherine Duchannes in a sequence cut from the film; LaGravenese said:


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: The original soundtrack was composed by thenewno2 and released by WaterTower Music. Its musical style was referred to as "swamptronic", a term coined by LaGravenese, and it was recorded at Abbey Road. Dhanni Harrison, son of George Harrison, used some of his father's guitars and equipment in recording the soundtrack.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: "Beautiful Creatures"' release date was originally scheduled to be on 13 February 2013, but distributor Warner Bros. later pushed the date to Thursday, 24 February 2013. The film was still released in Sweden on the 13th, a day before the film's North American release date. The film held its official US premiere on 11 February 2013, in New York City.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: "Beautiful Creatures" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on 21 May 2013. In its first month in release, the film sold around 428,792 copies in both DVD and Blu-ray formats combined, bringing in a consumer revenue of $7,377,859. As of 16 June 2013, the film has grossed an estimated $10,337,826 in DVD and Blu-ray sales.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: The film grossed $10,124,912 during its opening weekend (including its Thursday release date), under-performing based on media expectations.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: While the film was considered to be a flop domestically, only grossing $19,452,138 by the end of its North American domestic theatrical run (against a $60 million production budget) it did better internationally, where it has grossed $40,600,000. As of 21 April 2013, the film has grossed a worldwide total of $60,052,138, making it a financial loss as it failed to recoup its production budget and other costs, as generally speaking, half of ticket sales go to theaters. "Variety" magazine listed "Beautiful Creatures" as one of "Hollywood's biggest box office bombs of 2013".


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: The film has received mixed reviews from critics. It has a 47% rating on review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 169 reviews, with the site's consensus stating: "Charming romantic leads and esteemed supporting cast aside, "Beautiful Creatures" is a plodding YA novel adaptation that feels watered down for the "Twilight" set".


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: On Metacritic, the film received a score of 52% based on 40 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Owen Gleiberman, in "Entertainment Weekly", gave the film a "B−", writing, ""Beautiful Creatures" is arriving in a market-place full of "Twilight" junkies still eager for their supernatural teen-romantic fix, and the film's concept couldn't be clearer: It's "Twilight" with the sexes reversed. This time it's the boy who's the mortal: moody, bookish Ethan, the outsider in his sleepy small town." Gleiberman added that though the film "is lushly pictorial and not-too-badly acted... the audience, like Ethan, spends way too much time waiting around for Lena to learn whether she's a good girl or a bad girl."


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: The film review website "ScreenRant" called the film "a choppy and melodramatic experience with very little payoff beyond the central love story. Worse yet, overlooking the usual on-the-nose dialogue about eternal love and sacrifice, this tale of star-crossed sweethearts is especially cheesy and unconvincing – even when compared to similarly heavy-handed young adult novel-turned-movies. Fans of the supernatural romance subgenre will get about what they expect..."


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: David Denby of "The New Yorker" wrote that the movie "is a classic example of the confusions and the outright blunders that can overtake talented people who commit themselves to a concept driven purely by the movie marketplace... Alas, the satirical energy and Ethan's bright talk dissipate after a while." He praises a scene from the Civil War flashback which "appears as Ethan and Lena are watching a movie in a local theatre, but only they can see it" as "an interesting idea that I wish LaGravenese had pursued as a parallel narrative. This kind of movie, however, demands not interesting ideas but whooshing spectacle and madly redundant climaxes and a soundtrack filled with thuds and a shouting female chorus."


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Scott Mendelson of "Forbes" magazine called the film "shockingly good" and encouraged viewers who missed it to check it out on video.


title: Beautiful Creatures (2013 film)

text: Warner Bros. and Alcon Entertainment initially purchased the film rights to all four novels in the Caster Chronicles series, with this film being based on the first book. Tentative plans for the next three books to be adapted into films were abandoned following this film's failure at the box office.


title: Irish Americans

text: Irish Americans or Hiberno-Americans () are Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland. About 32 million Americans — 9.7% of the total population — identified as being Irish in the 2020 American Community Survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau.


title: Irish Americans

text: Some of the first Irish people to travel to the New World did so as members of the Spanish garrison in Florida during the 1560s, and small numbers of Irish colonists were involved in efforts to establish colonies in the Amazon region, in Newfoundland, and in Virginia between 1604 and the 1630s. According to historian Donald Akenson, there were "few if any" Irish were forcibly transported to the Americas during this period.


title: Irish Americans

text: Irish immigration to the Americas was the result of a series of complex causes. The Tudor conquest and subsequent colonization during the 16th and 17th centuries had led to widespread social upheaval in Ireland, and drove many Irish people to try and seek a better life elsewhere; this coincided with the rapid establishment of European colonies in the Americas, offering a source of emigration for prospective migrants. Most Irish immigrants to the Americas came as indentured servants, though others were merchants and landowners who served as key players in a variety of different mercantile and colonizing enterprises.


title: Irish Americans

text: Significant numbers of Irish laborers began traveling to English colonies such as Virginia, the Leeward Islands, and Barbados in the 1620s.


title: Irish Americans

text: Half of the Irish immigrants to the United States in its colonial era (1607–1775) came from the Irish province of Ulster, while the other half came from the other three provinces (Leinster, Munster and Connacht). In the 17th century, immigration from Ireland to the Thirteen Colonies was minimal, confined mostly to male indentured servants who were primarily Catholic and peaked with 8,000 prisoner-of-war penal transports to the Chesapeake Colonies from the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in the 1650s (out of a total of approximately 10,000 Catholic immigrants from Ireland to the United States prior to the American Revolutionary War in 1775).


title: Irish Americans

text: Indentured servitude in British America emerged in part due to the high cost of passage across the Atlantic Ocean, and as a consequence, which colonies indentured servants immigrated to depended upon which colonies their patrons chose to immigrate to. While the Colony of Virginia passed laws prohibiting the free exercise of Catholicism during the colonial period, the General Assembly of the Province of Maryland enacted laws in 1639 protecting freedom of religion (following the instructions of a 1632 letter from Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore to his brother Leonard Calvert, the 1st Proprietary-Governor of Maryland), and the Maryland General Assembly later passed the 1649 Maryland Toleration Act explicitly guaranteeing those privileges for Catholics.


title: Irish Americans

text: Like the entire indentured servant population in the Chesapeake Colonies at the time, 40 to 50 percent died before completing their contracts. This was due in large part to the Tidewater region's highly malignant disease environment, with most not establishing families and dying childless because the population of the Chesapeake Colonies, like the Thirteen Colonies in the aggregate, was not sex-balanced until the 18th century because three-quarters of the immigrants to the Chesapeake Colonies were male (and in some periods, 4:1 or 6:1 male-to-female) and fewer than 1 percent were over the age of 35. As a consequence, the population only grew due to sustained immigration rather than natural increase, and many of those who survived their indentured servitude contracts left the region.


title: Irish Americans

text: In 1650, all five Catholic churches with regular services in the eight British American colonies were located in Maryland. The 17th-century Maryland Catholic community had a high degree of social capital. Catholic-Protestant interdenominational marriage was not common, Catholic-Protestant intermarriages nearly always resulted in conversion to Catholicism by Protestant marital partners, and children who were born as the result of Catholic-Protestant intermarriages were nearly always raised as Catholics. Additionally, 17th-century Maryland Catholics often stipulated in their wills that their children be disinherited if they renounced Catholicism.


title: Irish Americans

text: In contrast to 17th-century Maryland, the Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut Colonies restricted suffrage to members of the established Puritan church, while the Province of Carolina did not restrict suffrage to members of the established Anglican church. The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations had no established church, while the former New Netherland colonies (New York, New Jersey, and Delaware) also had no established church under the Duke's Laws, and the Frame of Government in William Penn's 1682 land grant established free exercise of religion for all Christians in the Province of Pennsylvania.


title: Irish Americans

text: Following the Glorious Revolution (1688–1689), Catholics were disenfranchised in Maryland, New York, Rhode Island, Carolina, and Virginia, although in Maryland, suffrage was restored in 1702. In 1692, the Maryland General Assembly established the Church of England as the official state church. In 1698 and 1699, Maryland, Virginia, and Carolina passed laws specifically limiting immigration of Irish Catholic indentured servants. In 1700, the estimated population of Maryland was 29,600, about 2,500 of which were Catholic.


title: Irish Americans

text: In the 18th century, emigration from Ireland to the Thirteen Colonies shifted from being primarily Catholic to being primarily Protestant, and with the exception of the 1790s it would remain so until the mid-to-late 1830s, with Presbyterians constituting the absolute majority until 1835. These Protestant immigrants were principally descended from Scottish and English pastoralists and colonial administrators (often from the South/Lowlands of Scotland and the bordering North of England) who had in the previous century settled the Plantations of Ireland, the largest of which was the Plantation of Ulster, and these Protestant immigrants primarily migrated as families rather than as individuals.


title: Irish Americans

text: In Ireland, they are referred to as the "Ulster Scots" and the "Anglo-Irish" respectively, and because the Protestant population in Ireland was and remains concentrated in Ulster, and because after the partition of Ireland in the 20th century Protestants in Northern Ireland on census reports have largely since self-identified their national identity as "British" rather than "Irish" or "Northern Irish," Protestants in Ireland are collectively referred to as the "Ulster Protestants."


title: Irish Americans

text: Additionally, the Ulster Scots and Anglo-Irish intermarried to some degree, and the Ulster Scots also intermarried with Huguenot refugees from the Kingdom of France following the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau issued by Louis XIV, and some of the Anglo-Irish settlers were actually Welsh or Manx. They seldom intermarried with the Irish Catholic population in part because intermarriage between Protestants and Catholics was banned by the Penal Laws (1691–1778) that gave rise the Protestant Ascendancy, which rendered any children who were born to extralegal Catholic-Protestant intermarriages illegitimate and legally ineligible to inherit their parents' property under English law (while Presbyterian marriages were not even recognized by the state).


title: Irish Americans

text: In turn, the canon law of the Catholic Church also designated Catholic-Protestant intermarriages illegitimate until Pope Pius VI extended Pope Benedict XIV's matrimonial dispensation to Ireland in 1785 for the "Tametsi" decree of the Council of Trent (1563), and Irish Catholics almost never converted to Protestant churches during the Reformation. Catholic-Protestant intermarriage would remain rare in Ireland through the early 20th century.


title: Irish Americans

text: In 1704, the Maryland General Assembly passed a law which banned the Jesuits from proselytizing, baptizing children other than those with Catholic parents, and publicly conducting Catholic Mass. Two months after its passage, the General Assembly modified the legislation to allow Mass to be privately conducted for an 18-month period. In 1707, the General Assembly passed a law which permanently allowed Mass to be privately conducted. During this period, the General Assembly also began levying taxes on the passage of Irish Catholic indentured servants. In 1718, the General Assembly required a religious test for voting that resumed disenfranchisement of Catholics.


title: Irish Americans

text: However, lax enforcement of penal laws in Maryland (due to its population being overwhelmingly rural) enabled churches on Jesuit-operated farms and plantations to grow and become stable parishes. In 1750, of the 30 Catholic churches with regular services in the Thirteen Colonies, 15 were located in Maryland, 11 in Pennsylvania, and 4 in the former New Netherland colonies. By 1756, the number of Catholics in Maryland had increased to approximately 7,000, which increased further to 20,000 by 1765. In Pennsylvania, there were approximately 3,000 Catholics in 1756 and 6,000 by 1765 (the large majority of the Pennsylvania Catholic population was from Germany).


title: Irish Americans

text: From 1717 to 1775, though scholarly estimates vary, the most common approximation is that 250,000 immigrants from Ireland emigrated to the Thirteen Colonies. By the beginning of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, approximately only 2 to 3 percent of the colonial labor force was composed of indentured servants, and of those arriving from Britain from 1773 to 1776, fewer than 5 percent were from Ireland (while 85 percent remained male and 72 percent went to the Southern Colonies). Immigration during the war came to a standstill except by 5,000 German mercenaries from Hesse who remained in the country following the war. Out of the 115 killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill, 22 were Irish-born. Their names include Callaghan, Casey, Collins, Connelly, Dillon, Donohue, Flynn, McGrath, Nugent, Shannon, and Sullivan


title: Irish Americans

text: By the end of the war in 1783, there were approximately 24,000 to 25,000 Catholics in the United States (including 3,000 slaves) out of a total population of approximately 3 million (or less than 1 percent). The majority of the Catholic population in the United States during the colonial period came from England, Germany, and France, not Ireland, despite failed academic efforts by Irish historiographers to demonstrate Irish Catholics as being more numerous in the colonial period than previous scholarship had indicated. By 1790, approximately 400,000 people of Irish birth or ancestry lived in the United States (or greater than 10 percent of the total population of approximately 3.9 million). The U.S. Bureau of the Census estimates 2% of the United States population in 1776 was of native Irish heritage. The Catholic population grew to approximately 50,000 by 1800 (or less than 1 percent of the total population of approximately 5.3 million) due to increased Catholic emigration from Ireland during the 1790s.


title: Irish Americans

text: In the 18th-century Thirteen Colonies and the independent United States, while interethnic marriage among Catholics remained a dominant pattern, Catholic-Protestant intermarriage became more common (notably in the Shenandoah Valley where intermarriage among Ulster Protestants and the significant minority of Irish Catholics in particular was not uncommon or stigmatized), and while fewer Catholic parents required that their children be disinherited in their wills if they renounced Catholicism, it remained more common among Catholic parents to do so if their children renounced their parents faith in proportion to the rest of the U.S. population.


title: Irish Americans

text: Despite this, many Irish Catholics that immigrated to the United States from 1770 to 1830 converted to Baptist and Methodist churches during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840). In between the end of the American Revolutionary War in 1783 and the War of 1812, 100,000 immigrants came from Ulster to the United States. During the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), there was a 22-year economic expansion in Ireland due to increased need for agricultural products for British soldiers and an expanding population in England. Following the conclusion of the War of the Seventh Coalition and Napoleon's exile to Saint Helena in 1815, there was a six-year international economic depression that led to plummeting grain prices and a cropland rent spike in Ireland.


title: Irish Americans

text: From 1815 to 1845, 500,000 more Irish Protestant immigrants came from Ireland to the United States, as part of a migration of approximately 1 million immigrants from Ireland from 1820 to 1845. In 1820, following the Louisiana Purchase in 1804 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819, the Catholic population of the United States had grown to 195,000 (or approximately 2 percent of the total population of approximately 9.6 million). By 1840, along with resumed immigration from Germany by the 1820s, the Catholic population grew to 663,000 (or approximately 4 percent out of the total population of 17.1 million). Following the potato blight in late 1845 that initiated the Great Famine in Ireland, from 1846 to 1851, more than 1 million more Irish immigrated to the United States, 90 percent of whom were Catholic.


title: Irish Americans

text: Many of the Famine immigrants to New York City required quarantine on Staten Island or Blackwell's Island and thousands died from typhoid fever or cholera for reasons directly or indirectly related to the Famine. By 1850, following the Mexican–American War (1846–1848) that left a residual population of 80,000 Mexicans in the Southwestern United States, and along with increasing immigration from Germany, the Catholic population in the United States had grown to 1.6 million (or approximately 7 percent of the total population of approximately 23.2 million). Despite the small increase in Catholic-Protestant intermarriage following the American Revolutionary War, Catholic-Protestant intermarriage remained uncommon in the United States in the 19th century.


title: Irish Americans

text: Historians have characterized the etymology of the term "Scotch-Irish" as obscure, and the term itself as misleading and confusing to the extent that even its usage by authors in historic works of literature about the Scotch-Irish (such as "The Mind of the South" by W. J. Cash) is often incorrect. Historians David Hackett Fischer and James G. Leyburn note that usage of the term is unique to North American English and it is rarely used by British historians, or in Scotland or Ireland. The first recorded usage of the term was by Elizabeth I of England in 1573 in reference to Gaelic-speaking Scottish Highlanders who crossed the Irish Sea and intermarried with the Irish Catholic natives of Ireland.


title: Irish Americans

text: While Protestant immigrants from Ireland in the 18th century were more commonly identified as "Anglo-Irish," and while some preferred to self-identify as "Anglo-Irish," usage of "Scotch-Irish" in reference to Ulster Scots who immigrated to the United States in the 18th century likely became common among Episcopalians and Quakers in Pennsylvania, and records show that usage of the term with this meaning was made as early as 1757 by the Anglo-Irish philosopher Edmund Burke.


title: Irish Americans

text: However, multiple historians have noted that from the time of the American Revolutionary War until 1850, the term largely fell out of usage, because most Ulster Protestants self-identified as "Irish" until large waves of immigration by Irish Catholics both during and after the 1840s Great Famine in Ireland led those Ulster Protestants in America who lived in proximity to the new immigrants to change their self-identification from "Irish" to "Scotch-Irish," while those Ulster Protestants who did not live in proximity to Irish Catholics continued to self-identify as "Irish," or as time went on, to start self-identifying as being of "American ancestry."


title: Irish Americans

text: While those historians note that renewed usage of "Scotch-Irish" after 1850 was motivated by anti-Catholic prejudices among Ulster Protestants, considering the historically low rates of intermarriage between Protestants and Catholics in both Ireland and the United States, as well as the relative frequency of interethnic and interdenominational marriage amongst Protestants in Ulster, and the fact that not all Protestant migrants from Ireland historically were Ulster Scots, James G. Leyburn argued for retaining its usage for reasons of utility and preciseness, while historian Wayland F. Dunaway also argued for retention for historical precedent and linguistic description.


title: Irish Americans

text: During the colonial period, Scots-Irish settled in the southern Appalachian backcountry and in the Carolina Piedmont. They became the primary cultural group in these areas, and their descendants were in the vanguard of westward movement through Virginia into Tennessee and Kentucky, and thence into Arkansas, Missouri and Texas. By the 19th century, through intermarriage with settlers of English and German ancestry, the descendants of the Scots-Irish lost their identification with Ireland. "This generation of pioneers...was a generation of Americans, not of Englishmen or Germans or Scots-Irish." The two groups had little initial interaction in America, as the 18th-century Ulster immigrants were predominantly Protestant and had become settled largely in upland regions of the American interior, while the huge wave of 19th-century Catholic immigrant families settled primarily in the Northeast and Midwest port cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Buffalo, or Chicago. However, beginning in the early 19th century, many Irish migrated individually to the interior for work on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and, later in the century, railroads.


title: Irish Americans

text: The Scots-Irish settled mainly in the colonial "back country" of the Appalachian Mountain region, and became the prominent ethnic strain in the culture that developed there. The descendants of Scots-Irish settlers had a great influence on the later culture of the Southern United States in particular and the culture of the United States in general through such contributions as American folk music, country and western music, and stock car racing, which became popular throughout the country in the late 20th century.


title: Irish Americans

text: Irish immigrants of this period participated in significant numbers in the American Revolution, leading one British Army officer to testify at the House of Commons that "half the rebels (referring to soldiers in the Continental Army) were from Ireland." Irish Americans signed the foundational documents of the United States—the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution—and, beginning with Andrew Jackson, served as president.


title: Irish Americans

text: In 1820 Irish-born John England became the first Catholic bishop in the mainly Protestant city of Charleston, South Carolina. During the 1820s and 1830s, Bishop England defended the Catholic minority against Protestant prejudices. In 1831 and 1835, he established free schools for free African American children. Inflamed by the propaganda of the American Anti-Slavery Society, a mob raided the Charleston post office in 1835 and the next day turned its attention to England's school. England led Charleston's "Irish Volunteers" to defend the school. Soon after this, however, all schools for "free blacks" were closed in Charleston, and England acquiesced.