title: Peace

text: It was a central tenet of classical liberalism, for example among English liberal thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th century, that free trade promoted peace. For example, the Cambridge economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) said that he was "brought up" on this idea and held it unquestioned until at least the 1920s. During the economic globalization in the decades leading up to World War I, writers such as Norman Angell argued that the growth of economic interdependence between the great powers made war between them futile and therefore unlikely. He made this argument in 1913. A year later Europe's economically interconnected states were embroiled in what would later become known as the First World War.


title: Peace

text: The democratic peace theory posits that democracy causes peace because of the accountability, institutions, values, and norms of democratic countries.


title: Peace

text: The territorial peace theory posits that peace causes democracy because territorial wars between neighbor countries lead to authoritarian attitudes and disregard for democratic values.


title: Peace

text: This theory is supported by historical studies showing that countries rarely become democratic until after their borders have been settled by territorial peace with neighbor countries.


title: Peace

text: The "Peace and War Game" is an approach in game theory to understand the relationship between peace and conflicts.


title: Peace

text: The iterated game hypotheses was originally used by academic groups and computer simulations to study possible strategies of cooperation and aggression.


title: Peace

text: As peace makers became richer over time, it became clear that making war had greater costs than initially anticipated. One of the well studied strategies that acquired wealth more rapidly was based on Genghis Khan, i.e. a constant aggressor making war continually to gain resources. This led, in contrast, to the development of what's known as the "provokable nice guy strategy", a peace-maker until attacked, improved upon merely to win by occasional forgiveness even when attacked. By adding the results of all pairwise games for each player, one sees that multiple players gain wealth cooperating with each other while bleeding a constantly aggressive player.


title: Peace

text: Socialist, communist, and left-wing liberal writers of the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g., Lenin, J.A. Hobson, John Strachey) argued that capitalism caused war (e.g. through promoting imperial or other economic rivalries that lead to international conflict). This led some to argue that international socialism was the key to peace.


title: Peace

text: However, in response to such writers in the 1930s who argued that capitalism caused war, the economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) argued that managed capitalism could promote peace. This involved international coordination of fiscal/monetary policies, an international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against each other, and a high degree of freedom of trade. These ideas underlay Keynes's work during World War II that led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank at Bretton Woods in 1944, and later of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (subsequently the World Trade Organization).


title: Peace

text: One of the most influential theories of peace, especially since Woodrow Wilson led the creation of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, is that peace will be advanced if the intentional anarchy of states is replaced through the growth of international law promoted and enforced through international organizations such as the League of Nations, the United Nations, and other functional international organizations. One of the most important early exponents of this view was Alfred Eckhart Zimmern, for example in his 1936 book "The League of Nations and the Rule of Law".


title: Peace

text: Many "idealist" thinkers about international relations – e.g. in the traditions of Kant and Karl Marx – have argued that the key to peace is the growth of some form of solidarity between peoples (or classes of people) spanning the lines of cleavage between nations or states that lead to war.


title: Peace

text: One version of this is the idea of promoting international understanding between nations through the international mobility of students – an idea most powerfully advanced by Cecil Rhodes in the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, and his successors such as J. William Fulbright.


title: Peace

text: Another theory is that peace can be developed among countries on the basis of active management of water resources.


title: Peace

text: Peace day was founded as a day to recognize, honour and promote peace. It is commemorated each year by United Nations members.


title: Peace

text: "Peace and conflict studies" is an academic field which identifies and analyses violent and nonviolent behaviours, as well as the structural mechanisms attending violent and non-violent social conflicts. This is to better understand the processes leading to a more desirable human condition. One variation,


title: Peace

text: "Peace studies" (irenology), is an interdisciplinary effort aiming at the prevention, de-escalation, and solution of conflicts. This contrasts with war studies (polemology), directed at the efficient attainment of victory in conflicts. Disciplines involved may include political science, geography, economics, psychology, sociology, international relations, history, anthropology, religious studies, and gender studies, as well as a variety of other disciplines.


title: Peace

text: Although peace is widely perceived as something intangible, various organizations have been making efforts to quantify and measure it. The Global Peace Index produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace is a known effort to evaluate peacefulness in countries based on 23 indicators of the absence of violence and absence of the fear of violence.


title: Peace

text: The last edition of the Index ranks 163 countries on their internal and external levels of peace. According to the 2017 Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world while Syria is the least peaceful one. Fragile States Index (formerly known as the Failed States Index) created by the Fund for Peace focuses on risk for instability or violence in 178 nations. This index measures how fragile a state is by 12 indicators and subindicators that evaluate aspects of politics, social economy, and military facets in countries. The 2015 Failed State Index reports that the most fragile nation is South Sudan, and the least fragile one is Finland. University of Maryland publishes the Peace and Conflict Instability Ledger in order to measure peace. It grades 163 countries with 5 indicators, and pays the most attention to risk of political instability or armed conflict over a three-year period. The most recent ledger shows that the most peaceful country is Slovenia on the contrary Afghanistan is the most conflicted nation. Besides indicated above reports from the Institute for Economics and Peace, Fund for Peace, and University of Maryland, other organizations including George Mason University release indexes that rank countries in terms of peacefulness.


title: Peace

text: The longest continuing period of peace and neutrality among currently existing states is observed in Sweden since 1814 and in Switzerland, which has had an official policy of neutrality since 1815. This was made possible partly by the periods of relative peace in Europe and the world known as Pax Britannica (1815–1914), Pax Europaea/Pax Americana (since 1950s), and Pax Atomica (also since the 1950s).


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia is a cancer in which the body fails to make blood cells in sufficient numbers. Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow by stem cells that reside there. Aplastic anemia causes a deficiency of all blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: It occurs most frequently in people in their teens and twenties but is also common among the elderly. It can be caused by heredity, immune disease, or exposure to chemicals, drugs, or radiation. However, in about half of cases, the cause is unknown.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia can be definitively diagnosed by bone marrow biopsy. Normal bone marrow has 30–70% blood stem cells, but in aplastic anemia, these cells are mostly gone and are replaced by fat.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: First-line treatment for aplastic anemia consists of immunosuppressive drugs—typically either anti-lymphocyte globulin or anti-thymocyte globulin—combined with corticosteroids, chemotherapy, and ciclosporin. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is also used, especially for patients under 30 years of age with a related, matched marrow donor.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Low platelets are associated with an increased risk of bleeding, bruising, and petechiae, with lower blood counts that impact the ability of the blood to clot. Low white blood cells increase the risk of infections.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia can be caused by immune disease or exposure to certain chemicals, drugs, radiation, or infection; in about half the cases, a definitive cause is unknown. It is not a hereditary condition, nor is it contagious.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia is also sometimes associated with exposure to toxins such as benzene or with the use of certain drugs, including chloramphenicol, carbamazepine, felbamate, phenytoin, quinine, and phenylbutazone. However, the probability that these drugs will lead to aplastic anemia in a given patient is very low. Chloramphenicol treatment is associated with aplasia in less than one in 40,000 treatment courses, and carbamazepine aplasia is even rarer.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Exposure to ionizing radiation from radioactive materials or radiation-producing devices is also associated with the development of aplastic anemia. Marie Curie, famous for her pioneering work in the field of radioactivity, died of aplastic anemia after working unprotected with radioactive materials for a long period of time; the damaging effects of ionizing radiation were not then known.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: One known cause is an autoimmune disorder in which white blood cells attack the bone marrow. Acquired aplastic anemia is a T-cell mediated autoimmune disease, in which regulatory T cells are decreased and T-bet, a transcription factor and key regulator of Th1 development and function, is upregulated in affected T-cells. As a result of active transcription of the interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) gene by T-bet, IFN-gamma levels are increased, which reduces colony formation of hematopoietic progenitor cells in vitro by inducing apoptosis of CD34+ cells in the bone marrow.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Short-lived aplastic anemia can also be a result of parvovirus infection. In humans, the P antigen (also known as globoside), one of many cellular receptors that contribute to a person's blood type, is the cellular receptor for parvovirus B19, which causes erythema infectiosum (fifth disease) in children. Because it infects red blood cells as a result of the affinity for the P antigen, parvovirus causes complete cessation of red blood cell production. In most cases, this goes unnoticed, as red blood cells live on average 120 days, and the drop in production does not significantly affect the total number of circulating cells. However, in people with conditions where the cells die early (such as sickle cell disease), parvovirus infection can lead to severe anemia.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: More frequently, parvovirus B19 is associated with aplastic crisis, which involves only red blood cells (despite the name). Aplastic anemia involves all cell lines.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Other viruses that have been linked to the development of aplastic anemia include hepatitis, Epstein-Barr, cytomegalovirus, and HIV.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: In some animals, aplastic anemia may have other causes. For example, in the ferret ("Mustela putorius furo"), it is caused by estrogen toxicity, because female ferrets are induced ovulators, so mating is required to bring the female out of heat. Intact females, if not mated, will remain in heat, and after some time the high levels of estrogen will cause the bone marrow to stop producing red blood cells.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia must be differentiated from pure red cell aplasia. In aplastic anemia, the patient has pancytopenia (i.e., also leukopenia and thrombocytopenia) resulting in a decrease of all formed elements. In contrast, pure red cell aplasia is characterized by a reduction in red cells only. The diagnosis can only be confirmed with a bone marrow examination.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Before this procedure is undertaken, a patient will generally have had other blood tests to find diagnostic clues, including a complete blood count, renal function and electrolytes, liver enzymes, thyroid function tests, vitamin B and folic acid levels.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: For many years, the cause of acquired aplastic anemia was not clear. Now, autoimmune processes are considered to be responsible. The majority of cases are hypothesized to be the result of T-cell-mediated autoimmunity and destruction of the bone marrow, which leads to defective or nearly absent hematopoiesis. It is suggested that unidentified antigens cause a polyclonal expansion of dysregulated CD4+ T cells and overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α. Ex vivo bone marrow models show an expansion of dysregulated CD8+ T cell populations. Activated T cells also induce apoptosis in hematopoietic stem cells.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia is associated with increased levels of Th17 cells—which produce pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-17—and interferon-γ-producing cells in the peripheral blood and bone marrow. Th17 cell populations also negatively correlate with regulatory T-cell populations, suppressing auto-reactivity to normal tissues, including the bone marrow. Deep phenotyping of regulatory T-cells showed two subpopulations with specific phenotypes, gene expression signatures, and functions.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Studies in patients who responded to immunosuppressive therapy found dominant subpopulations characterized by higher expression of HLA‐DR2 and HLA‐DR15 (mean age of two groups: 34 and 21 years), FOXP3, CD95, and CCR4; lower expression of CD45RA (mean age: 45 years); and expression of the IL‐2/STAT5 pathway. Higher frequency of HLA‐DR2 and HLA‐DR15 may cause augmented presentation of antigens to CD4+ T-cells, resulting in immune‐mediated destruction of the stem cells. In addition, HLA‐DR2-expressing cells augment the release of tumor necrosis factor-α, which plays a role in disease pathology.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: The hypothesis of aberrant, disordered T‐cell populations as the initiators of aplastic anemia is supported by findings that immunosuppressive therapy for T-cells (for example, anti-thymocyte globulin and ciclosporin) results in a response in up to 80% of severe aplastic anemia patients.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: CD34+ progenitor cells and lymphocytes in the bone marrow over-express the Fas receptor, the main element in apoptotic signaling. A significant increase in the proportion of apoptotic cells in the bone marrow of aplastic anemia patients has been demonstrated. This suggests that cytokine‐induced and Fas‐mediated apoptosis play roles in bone marrow failure because annihilation of CD34+ progenitor cells leads to hematopoietic stem cell deficiency.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: A study of blood and bone marrow samples obtained from 18 aplastic anemia patients revealed more than 30 potential specific candidate autoantigens after the serologic screening of a fetal liver library with sera from 8 patients. The human fetal liver cDNA library (chosen because of its high enrichment of CD34+ cells), compared with peripheral blood or the bone marrow, significantly increased the likelihood of detection of possible stem cell autoantigens.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: ELISA and Western blot analysis revealed that an IgG antibody response to one of the candidate autoantigens, kinectin, was present in a significant number of patients (39%). In contrast, no antibody was detected in 35 healthy volunteers. Antibody was detected in both transfused and transfusion-naive patients, suggesting that antikinectin autoantibody development was not due to transfusion-related alloreactivity. Negative sera from patients with other autoimmune diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis) showed a specific association of antikinectin antibodies with aplastic anemia. These results support the hypothesis that immune response to kinectin may be involved in the pathophysiology of the disease.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Kinectin is a large molecule (1,300 amino acid residues) expressed by CD34+ cells. Several kinectin-derived peptides can be processed and presented by HLA I and can induce antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell responses.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: A critical factor for healthy stem cell production is the bone marrow microenvironment. Important components are stromal cells, the extracellular matrix, and local cytokine gradients. The hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic elements of the bone marrow closely interact with each other and sustain and maintain the balance of hematopoiesis.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: In addition to low numbers of hematopoietic stem cells, aplastic anemia patients have altered hematopoietic niche:


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Treating immune-mediated aplastic anemia involves suppression of the immune system, an effect achieved by daily medicine or, in more severe cases, a bone marrow transplant, a potential cure. The transplanted bone marrow replaces the failing bone marrow cells with new ones from a matching donor. The multipotent stem cells in the bone marrow reconstitute all three blood cell lines, giving the patient a new immune system, red blood cells, and platelets. However, besides the risk of graft failure, there is also a risk that the newly created white blood cells may attack the rest of the body ("graft-versus-host disease").


title: Aplastic anemia

text: In young patients with an HLA-matched sibling donor, bone marrow transplant can be considered as a first-line treatment. Patients lacking a matched sibling donor typically pursue immunosuppression as a first-line treatment, and matched, unrelated donor transplants are considered second-line therapy.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Treatment often includes a course of antithymocyte globulin (ATG) and several months of treatment with ciclosporin to modulate the immune system. Chemotherapy with agents such as cyclophosphamide may also be effective but is more toxic than ATG. Antibody therapy such as ATG targets T cells, which are believed to attack the bone marrow. Corticosteroids are generally ineffective, though they are used to ameliorate serum sickness caused by ATG. Normally, success is judged by bone marrow biopsy six months after initial treatment with ATG.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: One prospective study involving cyclophosphamide was terminated early due to a high incidence of mortality from severe infections as a result of prolonged neutropenia.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Before the above treatments became available, patients with low leukocyte counts were often confined to a sterile room or bubble (to reduce risk of infection), as in the case of Ted DeVita.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Full blood counts are required on a regular basis to determine whether the patient is still in remission.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Many patients with aplastic anemia also have clones of cells characteristic of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), a rare disease that causes anemia with thrombocytopenia and/or thrombosis and is sometimes referred to as AA/PNH. Occasionally PNH dominates over time, with the major manifestation of intravascular hemolysis. The overlap of AA and PNH has been speculated to be an escape mechanism by the bone marrow against destruction by the immune system. Flow cytometry testing is performed regularly in people with previous aplastic anemia to monitor for the development of PNH.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Untreated, severe aplastic anemia has a high risk of death. Modern treatment produces a five-year survival rate that exceeds 85%, with younger age associated with higher survival.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Survival rates for stem cell transplants vary depending on the age and availability of a well-matched donor. They are better for patients who have donors that are matched siblings and worse for patients who receive their marrow from unrelated donors. Overall, the five-year survival rate is higher than 75% among recipients of blood marrow transplantation.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Older people (who are generally too frail to undergo bone marrow transplants) and people who are unable to find a good bone marrow match have five-year survival rates of up to 35% when undergoing immune suppression.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Relapses are common. Relapse following ATG/ciclosporin use can sometimes be treated with a repeated course of therapy. In addition, 10–15% of severe aplastic anemia cases evolve into myelodysplastic syndrome and leukemia. According to one study, 15.9% of children who responded to immunosuppressive therapy eventually relapsed.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: "Aplastic" is a combination of two ancient Greek elements: "a-" (meaning "not") and "-plasis" ("forming into a shape"). Anemia is a combination of the ancient Greek element "an-" ("not") and "-emia" (new Latin from the Greek "-(h)aimia", meaning "blood").


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Aplastic anemia is a rare, noncancerous disorder in which the blood marrow is unable to adequately produce blood cells required for survival. It is estimated that the incidence of aplastic anemia is 0.7–4.1 cases per million people worldwide, with the prevalence between men and women being approximately equal. The incidence rate of aplastic anemia in Asia is 2–3 times higher than it is in the West; the incidence in the United States is 300–900 cases per year. The disease most commonly affects adults aged 15–25 and over the age of 60, but it can be observed in all age groups.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: The disease is usually acquired during life and not inherited. Acquired cases are often linked to environmental exposures such as chemicals, drugs, and infectious agents that damage the bone marrow and compromise its ability to generate new blood cells. However, in many instances the underlying cause for the disease is not found. This is referred to as idiopathic aplastic anemia and accounts for 75% of cases. This compromises the effectiveness of treatment since treatment of the disease is often aimed at the underlying cause.


title: Aplastic anemia

text: Those with a higher risk for aplastic anemia include individuals who are exposed to high-dose radiation or toxic chemicals, take certain prescription drugs, have pre-existing autoimmune disorders or blood diseases, or are pregnant. No screening test currently exists for early detection of aplastic anemia.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Niklas Süle (born 3 September 1995) is a German professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for club Borussia Dortmund and the Germany national team.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle started his career with Rot-Weiß Walldorf. In July 2006, he signed for the youth team of Eintracht Frankfurt, where he played until the end of the 2008–09 season. In July 2009, he signed for the youth team of SV Darmstadt 98, and only half a year later he left for the youth team at 1899 Hoffenheim.


title: Niklas Süle

text: On 11 May 2013, Süle made his debut for Hoffenheim in a Bundesliga game against Hamburger SV. He started the match but was substituted for Andreas Ludwig in the 81st minute. Hoffenheim lost the game 4–1. During the 2012–13 season, Süle made two Bundesliga appearances and two relegation playoff appearances as Hoffenheim defeated 1. FC Kaiserslautern to stay in the Bundesliga.


title: Niklas Süle

text: During the 2013–14 season Süle established himself as an important first team player for Hoffenheim. Süle played in 25 Bundesliga matches and scored four goals as he helped Hoffenheim finish 9th in the league.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle started the 2014–15 season strong and played every minute during the first 14 Bundesliga matches. On 12 December 2014, Süle suffered a torn anterior cruciate ligament during matchday 15 against Frankfurt. Süle was sidelined for the rest of the season due to the injury. Hoffenheim finished 8th in the league.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle returned for the 2015–16 season after the ACL tear. He played every minute in 33 Bundesliga matches as Hoffenheim finished a disappointing 15th in the league.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle had a very impressive 2016–17 season for Hoffenheim as he played in 33 Bundesliga matches. Hoffenheim finished in an impressive 4th in the Bundesliga. Süle's performance drew interest from clubs like Bayern Munich and Chelsea.


title: Niklas Süle

text: On 15 January 2017, Bayern Munich had announced that they had signed Süle along with Sebastian Rudy from Hoffenheim as a double swoop. Both Süle and Rudy joined Bayern Munich on 1 July 2017.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle's first appearance came as he was named a starter for Bayern Munich's season opener against Bayer 04 Leverkusen on 18 August 2017. He scored the first goal of the 2017–18 Bundesliga season, heading in a free kick from fellow Bayern newcomer and Hoffenheim-product Sebastian Rudy. On 12 September 2017, Süle made his Champions League debut against Anderlecht. Süle played in 27 Bundesliga matches and scored two goals. He made nine appearances in the Champions League during the season.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle won his first Bundesliga title after Bayern Munich finished 21 points ahead of second-placed Schalke 04. Süle also reached his first DFB-Pokal final as Bayern Munich were beaten 3–1 by Süle's former youth club, Eintracht Frankfurt.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle started the 2018–19 season by playing in the 2018 German Super Cup, which Bayern won 5–0. On 20 April 2019, Süle scored the winning goal in a 1–0 win over Werder Bremen. The win kept Bayern at the top of the Bundesliga table.


title: Niklas Süle

text: On 18 May 2019, Süle won his second Bundesliga title as Bayern finished with 78 points, two points above Dortmund. A week later, Süle won his first DFB-Pokal as Bayern defeated RB Leipzig 3–0 in the 2019 DFB-Pokal Final. He played in 31 Bundesliga matches and scored two goals. During the Bundesliga season, Süle had a 95 percent pass completion while having the fourth most touches of any Bundesliga player. Süle appeared in 42 matches in all competitions and scored two goals.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle tore his anterior cruciate ligament injury in the 12th minute of the team's eighth league match of the 2019-20 season and was expected to be out of the line-up for eight to ten months, preventing him from participating with Germany for UEFA Euro 2020, before the tournament was postponed. On 8 August 2020, Süle played against Chelsea in the Champions League, marking his first match since October 2019. He then started from the bench in the later games in the Champions League. On 23 August 2020, Süle came on from the bench in the 2020 UEFA Champions League Final and replaced Jérôme Boateng after he suffered an early injury. He won the Champions League, completing the continental treble for that season.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle agreed to join Borussia Dortmund starting from the 2022–23 season on a free transfer on a four-year contract.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle was called up in August 2016 when the Germany national football team played Finland and Norway. He was brought off in the 59th minute against Finland.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle was named in Germany's final 23-man squad by Joachim Löw for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. On 27 June, Süle made his first World Cup appearance in the last match of the group stage in a 2–0 defeat to South Korea, as Germany got knocked out of the World Cup in the first round for the first time since 1938. On 19 May 2021, he was selected for the UEFA Euro 2020 squad.


title: Niklas Süle

text: Süle was born in Frankfurt, Hesse. His grandfather György emigrated with his wife from Budapest to Germany. His father Georg worked as a coach at Rot-Weiss Walldorf; meanwhile, his elder brother, Fabian, had a football scholarship at the St. Francis College in Brooklyn, New York, to study Business Management, Economics and Finance. His family name is of Hungarian origin, but the manager of the Turkish Football Federation under-16 national team contacted Süle during his teenage years about the possibility of playing for them as Süle's surname seemed Turkish to him. He was also eligible for the Hungarian national team, since he holds Hungarian citizenship.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The Mariana Islands (; also the Marianas; in Chamorro: "Manislan Mariånas") are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fifteen longitudinally oriented, mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, between the 12th and 21st parallels north and along the 145th meridian east. They lie south-southeast of Japan, west-southwest of Hawaii, north of New Guinea and east of the Philippines, demarcating the Philippine Sea's eastern limit. They are found in the northern part of the western Oceanic sub-region of Micronesia, and are politically divided into two jurisdictions of the United States: the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and, at the southern end of the chain, the territory of Guam. The islands were named after the influential Spanish queen Mariana of Austria following their colonization in the 17th century.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The indigenous inhabitants are the Chamorro people. Archaeologists in 2013 reported findings which indicated that the people who first settled the Marianas arrived there after making what may have been at the time the longest uninterrupted ocean voyage in human history. They further reported findings which suggested that Tinian is likely to have been the first island in Oceania to have been settled by humans.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Spanish expeditions, beginning with one by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in the early 16th century, were the first Europeans to arrive; eventually, Spain annexed and colonized the archipelago, establishing their capital on the largest island, Guam. The Marianas were the first islands Magellan encountered after traversing the Pacific from the southern tip of South America. The fruits found there saved the survivors from scurvy, which had already killed dozens of crewmembers.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The Mariana Islands are the southern part of a submerged mountain range that extends from Guam to near Japan. Geographically, the Marianas are part of a larger region called Micronesia, situated between 13° and 21°N latitude and 144° and 146°E longitude.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The island chain geographically consists of two subgroups, a northern group of ten volcanic main islands, all are currently uninhabited; and a southern group of five coralline limestone islands (Rota, Guam, Aguijan, Tinian and Saipan), all inhabited except Aguijan. In the northern volcanic group a maximum elevation of about is reached; there are craters showing signs of activity, and earthquakes are not uncommon. Coral reefs fringe the coasts of the southern isles, which are of slight elevation.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The lowest point on the Earth's crust, the Mariana Trench, is near the islands and is named after them.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The islands are part of a geologic structure known as the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc system, and range in age from 5 million years old in the north to 30 million years old in the south (Guam). The island chain arose as a result of the western edge of the Pacific Plate moving westward and plunging downward below the Mariana plate, a region which is the most volcanically active convergent plate boundary on Earth. This subduction region, just east of the island chain, forms the noted Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the Earth's oceans and lowest part of the surface of the Earth's crust. In this region, according to geologic theory, water trapped in the extensive faulting of the Pacific Plate as serpentinite, is heated by the higher temperatures of depth during its subduction, the pressure from the expanding steam results in the hydrothermal activity in the area and the volcanic activity which formed the Mariana Islands.


title: Mariana Islands

text: All the islands, except Farallon de Medinilla and Uracas or Farallon de Pajaros (in the northern group), are more or less densely wooded, and the vegetation is dense, much resembling that of the Carolines and also of the Philippines, from where species of plants have been introduced. Owing to the moistness of the soil cryptogams are numerous, as are also most kinds of grasses. On most of the islands there is a plentiful supply of water.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The fauna of the Marianas, though inferior in number and variety, is similar in character to that of the Carolines and certain species are indigenous to both island groups. The climate though damp is healthy, while the heat, being tempered by the trade winds, is milder than that of the Philippines; the variations of temperature are not great.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The majority of islands in the Marianas still retain their indigenous names end in the letters -an; e.g. Guahan (the indigenous name of Guam), Agrigan, Agrihan, Aguihan/Aguigan, Pagan, Sarigan, etc.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The islands are part of a geologic structure known as the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc system and range in age from 5 million years old in the north to 30 million years old in the south (Guam). The islands are formed as the highly dense and very old western edge of the Pacific plate plunges downward to form the floor of the Mariana Trench and carries trapped water under the Mariana plate as it does so. This water is super-heated as the plate is carried farther downward and results in the volcanic activity which has formed the arc of Mariana Islands above this subduction region.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The Mariana Islands were the first islands settled by humans in Remote Oceania. Incidentally it is also the first and the longest of the ocean-crossing voyages of the Austronesian peoples into Remote Oceania, and is separate from the later Polynesian settlement of the rest of Remote Oceania. They were first settled around 1500 to 1400 BCE by migrants departing from the Philippines.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Archeological studies of human activity on the islands has revealed potteries with red-slipped, circle-stamped and punctate-stamped designs found in the Mariana Islands dating between 1500 and 1400 BC. These artifacts show similar aesthetics to pottery found in Northern and Central Philippines, the Nagsabaran (Cagayan Valley) pottery, which flourished during the period between 2000 and 1300 BC.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Comparative and historical linguistics also indicate that the Chamorro language is most closely related to the Philippine subfamily of the Austronesian languages, instead of the Oceanic subfamily of the languages of the rest of Remote Oceania.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Mitochondrial DNA and whole genome sequencing of the Chamorro people strongly support an ancestry from the Philippines. Genetic analysis of pre-"Latte" period skeletons in Guam also show that they do not have Australo-Melanesian ("Papuan") ancestry which rules out origins from the Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, or eastern Indonesia. The Lapita culture itself (the ancestral branch of the Polynesian migrations) is younger than the first settlement of the Marianas (the earliest Lapita artifacts are dated to around 1350 to 1300 BCE), indicating that they originated from separate migration voyages.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Nevertheless, DNA analysis also show close genetic relationship between ancient settlers of the Marianas and early Lapita settlers in the Bismarck Archipelago. This may indicate that both the Lapita culture and the Marianas were settled from direct migrations from the Philippines, or that early settlers from the Marianas voyaged further southwards into the Bismarcks and reconnected with the Lapita people.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The Marianas also later established contact and received migrations from the Caroline Islands at around the first millennium CE. This brought new pottery styles, language, genes, and the hybrid Polynesian breadfruit.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The period 900 to 1700 CE of the Marianas, immediately before and during the Spanish colonization, is known as the "Latte" period. It is characterized by rapid cultural change, most notably by the massive megalithic "latte" stones (also spelled "latde" or "latti"). These were composed of the "haligi" pillars capped with another stone called "tasa" (which prevented rodents from climbing the posts). These served as supports for the rest of the structure which was made of wood. Remains of structures made with similar wooden posts have also been found. Human graves have also been found in front of "latte" structures, The "Latte" period was also characterized by the introduction of rice agriculture, which is unique in the pre-contact Pacific Islands.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The reasons for these changes is still unclear, but it is believed that it may have resulted from a third wave of migrants from Island Southeast Asia. Comparisons with other architectural traditions makes it likely that this third migration wave were again from the Philippines, or from eastern Indonesia (either Sulawesi or Sumba), all of which have a tradition of raised buildings with capstones. Interestingly, the word "haligi" ("pillar") is also used in various languages throughout the Philippines; while the Chamorro word "guma" ("house") closely resembles the Sumba word "uma".


title: Mariana Islands

text: The first Europeans to see the island group were a Spanish expedition, who on March 6, 1521, observed a string of islands and sailed between two of them during a Spanish expedition of world circumnavigation under the command of Ferdinand Magellan. Historically, the southern village of Umatac, Guam has been credited as the site of the Spanish landing. As confirmation, a scholarly study of the navigator's diary, now kept in preservation in the Philippines, revealed a drawing of the islands with a tiny island to the south of a much larger island above it. The described placement of the islands confirms that Magellan had actually sailed between Guam and Cocos Island, and not Guam and Rota, as some originally thought. Especially since the Northern areas of Guam do not have safe coves or harbors to anchor. Moreover, the waters of Northern Guam are oftentimes more rough and the currents are even more treacherous in comparison to the safer coves and currents seen throughout South-Western side of Guam.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Regardless of where they landed, Spanish ships arrived in Guam and were unable to get fresh food as the inhabitants, Chamorros, "entered the ships and stole whatever they could lay their hands on", including "the small boat that was fastened to the poop of the flagship." The Spanish crew, in retaliation, attacked the Chamorros and dubbed the islands Islas de los Ladrones (Islands of the Thieves). "Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on account of which we called those three islands the islands of Ladrones." Pigafetta writes,


title: Mariana Islands

text: And the captain-general wished to approach the largest of these three islands to replenish his provisions. But it was not possible, for the people of those islands entered the ships and robbed us so that we could not protect ourselves from them. And when we wished to strike and take in the sails so as to land, they stole very quickly the small boat called a skiff which was fastened to the poop of the captain's ship. At which he, being very angry, went ashore with forty armed men. And burning some forty or fifty houses with several boats and killing seven men of the said island, they recovered their skiff.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Pigafetta also described the boats the inhabitants used, the sail shaped like a "lateen sail" (actually the crab claw sail), hence the name Islas de las Velas Latinas (Islands of the Lateen Sails), the name used first as Magellan claimed them for the Spanish crown. San Lazarus archipelago, Jardines ('gardens') and Prazeres are among the names applied to them by later navigators.


title: Mariana Islands

text: In 1667, Spain formally claimed them, established a regular colony there and in 1668 gave the islands the official title of "Las Marianas", in honor of Spanish Queen Mariana of Austria, widow of King Philip IV of Spain and Queen Regent of the Spanish Empire ruling during the minority of her son King Charles II. They then had a population of more than 50,000 inhabitants. With the arrival of passengers and settlers aboard the Manila Galleons from the Americas, new diseases were introduced in the islands, which caused many deaths in the native Chamorro population. The native population, who referred to themselves as "Taotao Tano" (people of the land) but were known to the early Spanish colonists as "Chamurres" or "HachaMori", eventually died out as a distinct people, though their descendants intermarried. At the Spanish occupation in 1668, the Chamorros were estimated at 50,000, but a century later only 1,800 natives remained, as the majority of the population was of mixed Spanish-Chamorro blood or mestizo. They were characteristic Micronesians, with a considerable civilization. In the island of Tinian are some remarkable remains attributed to them, consisting of two rows of massive square stone columns, about broad and high, with heavy-round capitals called latte stones. According to early Spanish accounts cinerary urns were found embedded in the capitals.


title: Mariana Islands

text: When Spanish settlement started on 14 June 1668, they were subordinate to the Mexican colony (soon viceroyalty) of New Spain, until 1817, when they became subordinated to the Philippines, like the bulk of the Spanish East Indies.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Research in the archipelago was carried out by Commodore Anson, who in August 1742 landed upon the island of Tinian. The Ladrones were visited by Byron in 1765, Wallis in 1767 and Crozet in 1772.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The Marianas and specifically the island of Guam were a stopover for Spanish galleons en route from Acapulco, Mexico to Manila, Philippines in a convoy known as the Galeon de Manila. Following the 1872 Cavite mutiny, several Filipinos were exiled to Guam, including the father of Pedro Paterno, Maximo Paterno, Dr. Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and Jose Maria Basa.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The islands were a popular port of call for British and American whaling ships in the 19th century. The first such visit on record was that of the " Resource" to Guam in October 1799. The last known visit was made by the American whaler "Charles W. Morgan" in February 1904.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The Marianas remained a Spanish colony under the general government of the Philippines until 1898, when, as a result of its loss in the Spanish–American War, Spain ceded Guam to the United States. Guam has been separate from the Northern Marianas since this time. Following the Philippine–American War, Apolinario Mabini and other Filipino leaders were exiled to Guam in 1901.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Weakened from its defeat in the Spanish–American War, Spain could no longer effectively control and protect the nearly 6,000 islands it retained throughout Micronesia, including the Northern Marianas, Carolines and Pelew Islands. Therefore, Spain entered into the German-Spanish Treaty of February 12, 1899 to sell the Northern Marianas and its other remaining islands to Germany for 837,500 German gold marks (about $4,100,000 at the time). The Northern Marianas and other island groups were incorporated by Germany as a small part of the larger German Protectorate of New Guinea. The total population in the Northern Marianas portion of these islands was only 2,646 inhabitants around this time, with the ten most northerly islands being actively volcanic and thus mostly uninhabited.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Japan, allied with the Entente Powers during World War I, seized all of Germany's colonial possessions in East Asia and Micronesia, including the Northern Mariana Islands, and held them through the end of the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Germany was stripped of all her colonies worldwide, including the Palau, Caroline, Northern Mariana and Marshall Islands. By international agreement, these were all placed into trusteeship under the management of League of Nations which assigned them to Japan as the Class C South Seas Mandate. During this time, Japan used some of the islands for sugarcane production, modestly increasing the population of a few of the islands.


title: Mariana Islands

text: The island chain saw significant fighting during World War II. Guam, a possession of the United States since 1898, was captured by Japan in an attack from the Northern Mariana Islands that began on the day of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 8, 1941, the same time as the Pearl Harbor attack across the International Date Line). In 1944, the United States captured the Mariana Islands chain from Japan: the Northern Mariana Islands were desired by the U.S. as bombing bases to reach the Japanese mainland, with the invasion of Saipan being launched for that reason in June before the U.S. even moved to recapture Guam; a month later the U.S. recaptured Guam and captured Tinian. Once captured, Saipan and Tinian's islands were used extensively by the United States military as they finally put mainland Japan within a round-trip range of American B-29 bombers. In response, Japanese forces attacked the bases on Saipan and Tinian from November 1944 to January 1945. At the same time and afterwards, the United States Army Air Forces based on these islands conducted an intense strategic bombing campaign against the Japanese cities of military and industrial importance, including Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe, and others. Both the "Enola Gay" and the "Bockscar" (which dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively) flew their missions from Tinian's North Field.


title: Mariana Islands

text: According to Werner Gruhl: "Mariana Island historians estimate that 10 percent of Guam's some 20,000 population were killed by violence, most by the Japanese Imperial Army and Navy."


title: Mariana Islands

text: The direct result of World War II on the Mariana Islands was that, after the war, the Northern Mariana Islands came under the control of the United States in the same way they had earlier come under the control of Japan after World War I. However, this time they became part of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 21. The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands later became a U.S. territory following its exit from the TTPI pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683. Although now both under U.S. control, the Northern Mariana Islands are separate from Guam. Efforts at reunification have failed in part due to residual post-war tensions resulting from the very different histories of Guam (occupied by Japan for only 31 months, in wartime) and the Northern Mariana Islands (more peacefully occupied by Japan, for about 30 years).


title: Mariana Islands

text: Tourism in the Northern Marianas is split mainly between Filipino, Japanese, American, Korean, Taiwanese and Chinese tourists. There are several large tour operators in Saipan that cater to Asian tourists coming into the island. By far, the majority of tourism in the Northern Marianas is in Guam. Several flights a day land in Guam, mostly in the early hours between 1:00 AM and 3:30 AM. With the close of the garment industries in the Northern Marianas, tourism has grown slowly and is now a major part of the economy of the CNMI.


title: Mariana Islands

text: Common dishes in the Mariana Islands include red rice, meat or poultry on the grill or in coconut milk, chicken kelaguen, apigigi (young coconut with cassava paste wrapped in banana leaf), and tropical fruits.


title: Joint-stock company

text: A joint-stock company is a business entity in which shares of the company's stock can be bought and sold by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion, evidenced by their shares (certificates of ownership). Shareholders are able to transfer their shares to others without any effects to the continued existence of the company.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In modern-day corporate law, the existence of a joint-stock company is often synonymous with incorporation (possession of legal personality separate from shareholders) and limited liability (shareholders are liable for the company's debts only to the value of the money they have invested in the company). Therefore, joint-stock companies are commonly known as corporations or limited companies.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Some jurisdictions still provide the possibility of registering joint-stock companies without limited liability. In the United Kingdom and in other countries that have adopted its model of company law, they are known as unlimited companies. In the United States, they are known simply as joint-stock companies. A joint-stock company is an artificial person; it has legal existence separate from persons composing it. It can sue and can be sued in its own name. It is created by law, established for commercial purposes, and comprises a large number of members. The shares of each member can be purchased, sold, and transferred without the consent of other members. Its capital is divided into transferable shares, suitable for large undertakings.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Ownership refers to a large number of privileges. The company is managed on behalf of the shareholders by a board of directors, elected at an annual general meeting.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The shareholders also vote to accept or reject an annual report and audited set of accounts. Individual shareholders can sometimes stand for directorships within the company if a vacancy occurs, but that is uncommon.


title: Joint-stock company

text: A joint-stock company also differs from other company forms, as it lacks internal ownership (hence its shareholders). This means that although the shareholder(s) in the joint-stock company may also work for the company as employees or by contract, when they act as shareholders they are always exterior to the company, which may help keep ownership business-oriented and impersonal.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Provided sales and assets exist within the company, a joint-stock company is effectively a forum for three- party trading: Owners, i.e. shareholders, are seeking financial funds (profits) and offer economic assets, in the form of capital. Employees, contractors and other contracted parties seek compensation and offer labor for this. Utilisers, ie customers, clients and other stakeholders, seek products and services, and offer financial funds for this.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The shareholders are usually not liable for any of the company debts that extend beyond the company's ability to pay up to the amount of them.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The earliest records of joint-stock companies appear in China during the Tang and Song dynasties. The Tang dynasty saw the development of the "heben", the earliest form of joint stock company with an active partner and one or two passive investors. By the Song dynasty this had expanded into the "douniu", a large pool of shareholders with management in the hands of "jingshang", merchants who operated their businesses using investors' funds, with investor compensation based on profit-sharing, reducing the risk of individual merchants and burdens of interest payment.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Finding the earliest joint-stock company is a matter of definition. An early form of joint-stock company was the medieval commenda, although it was usually employed for a single commercial expedition. Around 1350 in France at Toulouse, 96 shares of the "Société des Moulins du Bazacle", or Bazacle Milling Company were traded at a value that depended on the profitability of the mills the society owned, making it probably the first company of its kind in history. The Swedish company Stora has documented a stock transfer for an eighth of the company (or more specifically, the mountain in which the copper resource was available) as early as 1288.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In more recent history, the earliest joint-stock company recognized in England was the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, founded in 1551 with 240 shareholders. It became the Muscovy Company, which had a monopoly on trade between Russia and England, when royal charter was granted in 1555. The most notable joint-stock company from the British Isles was the East India Company, which was granted a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600 with the intention of establishing trade on the Indian subcontinent. The charter effectively granted the newly formed "Honourable East India Company" a fifteen-year monopoly on all English trade in the East Indies.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Soon afterwards, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company issued shares that were made tradable on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. The development enhanced the ability of joint-stock companies to attract capital from investors, as they could now easily dispose of their shares. In 1612, it became the first 'corporation' in intercontinental trade with 'locked in' capital and limited liability. The joint-stock company became a more viable financial structure than previous guilds or state-regulated companies. The first joint-stock companies to be implemented in the Americas were the London Company and the Plymouth Company.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Transferable shares aim to achieve positive returns on equity, which is evidenced by investment in companies like the East India Company, which used the financing model to manage their trade on the Indian subcontinent. Joint-stock companies paid out divisions (dividends) to their shareholders by dividing up the profits of the voyage in the proportion of shares held. Divisions were usually cash, but when working capital was low and detrimental to the survival of the company, divisions were either postponed or paid out in remaining cargo, which could be sold by shareholders for profit.


title: Joint-stock company

text: However, in general, incorporation was possible by royal charter or private act, and it was limited because of the government's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted.


title: Joint-stock company

text: As a result of the rapid expansion of capital-intensive enterprises in the course of the Industrial Revolution in Europe and the United States, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations or extended partnerships, with large numbers of members. Nevertheless, membership of such associations was usually for a short term so their nature was constantly changing.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Consequently, registration and incorporation of companies, without specific legislation, was introduced by the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844. Initially, companies incorporated under this Act did not have limited liability, but it became common for companies to include a limited liability clause in their internal rules. In the case of "Hallett v Dowdall", the Court of the Exchequer held that such clauses bound people who have notice of them. Four years later, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 provided for limited liability for all joint-stock companies provided, among other things, that they included the word "limited" in their company name. The landmark case of "Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd" established that a company with legal liability, not being a partnership, had a distinct legal personality that was separate from that of its individual shareholders.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The existence of a corporation requires a special legal framework and body of law that specifically grants the corporation legal personality, and it typically views a corporation as a fictional person, a legal person, or a moral person (as opposed to a natural person) which shields its owners (shareholders) from "corporate" losses or liabilities; losses are limited to the number of shares owned. It furthermore creates an inducement to new investors (marketable stocks and future stock issuance). Corporate statutes typically empower corporations to own property, sign binding contracts, and pay taxes in a capacity separate from that of its shareholders, who are sometimes referred to as "members". The corporation is also empowered to borrow money, both conventionally and directly to the public, by issuing interest-bearing bonds. Corporations subsist indefinitely; "death" comes only by absorption (takeover) or bankruptcy. According to Lord Chancellor Haldane,


title: Joint-stock company

text: This 'directing will' is embodied in a corporate Board of Directors. The legal personality has two economic implications. It grants creditors (as opposed to shareholders or employees) priority over the corporate assets upon liquidation. Second, corporate assets cannot be withdrawn by its shareholders, and assets of the firm cannot be taken by personal creditors of its shareholders. The second feature requires special legislation and a special legal framework, as it cannot be reproduced via standard contract law.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In many jurisdictions, corporations whose shareholders benefit from limited liability are required to publish annual financial statements and other data so that creditors who do business with the corporation are able to assess the creditworthiness of the corporation and cannot enforce claims against shareholders. Shareholders, therefore, experience some loss of privacy in return for limited liability. That requirement generally applies in Europe, but not in common law jurisdictions, except for publicly traded corporations (for which financial disclosure is required for investor protection).


title: Joint-stock company

text: In many countries, corporate profits are taxed at a corporate tax rate, and dividends paid to shareholders are taxed at a separate rate. Such a system is sometimes referred to as "double taxation" because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed directly on the corporation's profits, while dividends are not taxed (for example, S corporations in the US).


title: Joint-stock company

text: The institution most often referenced by the word "corporation" is publicly traded, which means that the company's shares are traded on a public stock exchange (for example, the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq in the United States) whose shares of stock of corporations are bought and sold by and to the general public. Most of the largest businesses in the world are publicly traded corporations.


title: Joint-stock company

text: However, the majority of corporations are privately held, or closely held, so there is no ready market for the trading of shares. Many such corporations are owned and managed by a small group of businesspeople or companies, but the size of such a corporation can be as vast as the largest public corporations.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Closely held corporations have some advantages over publicly traded corporations. A small, closely held company can often make company-changing decisions much more rapidly than a publicly traded company, as there will generally be fewer voting shareholders, and the shareholders would have common interests. A publicly traded company is also at the mercy of the market, with capital flow in and out based not only on what the company is doing but also on what the market and even what the competitors, major and minor, are doing.


title: Joint-stock company

text: However, publicly traded companies also have advantages over their closely held counterparts. Publicly traded companies often have more working capital and can delegate debt throughout all shareholders. Therefore, shareholders of publicly traded company will each take a much smaller hit to their returns as opposed to those involved with a closely held corporation. Publicly traded companies, however, can suffer from that advantage. A closely held corporation can often voluntarily take a hit to profit with little to no repercussions if it is not a sustained loss. A publicly traded company often comes under extreme scrutiny if profit and growth are not evident to stock holders, thus stock holders may sell, further damaging the company. Often, that blow is enough to make a small public company fail.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Often, communities benefit from a closely held company more so than from a public company. A closely held company is far more likely to stay in a single place that has treated it well even if that means going through hard times. Shareholders can incur some of the damage the company may receive from a bad year or slow period in the company profits. Closely held companies often have a better relationship with workers. In larger, publicly traded companies, often after only one bad year, the first area to feel the effects is the workforce with layoffs or worker hours, wages or benefits being cut. Again, in a closely held business the shareholders can incur the profit damage rather than passing it to the workers.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations have the burden of complying with additional securities laws, which (especially in the US) may require additional periodic disclosure (with more stringent requirements), stricter corporate governance standards as well as additional procedural obligations in connection with major corporate transactions (for example, mergers) or events (for example, elections of directors).


title: Joint-stock company

text: A closely held corporation may be a subsidiary of another corporation (its parent company), which may itself be either a closely held or a public corporation. In some jurisdictions, the subsidiary of a listed public corporation is also defined as a public corporation (for example, in Australia).


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Australia corporations are registered and regulated by the Commonwealth Government through the Australian Securities and Investments Commission. Corporations law has been largely codified in the Corporations Act 2001.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Brazil there are many different types of legal entities ('), but the two most common ones commercially speaking are (i) ', identified by "Ltda." or "Limitada" after the company's name, equivalent to the British limited liability company, and (ii) ' or ', identified by "SA" or "Companhia" in the company's name, equivalent to the British public limited company. The "Ltda." is mainly governed by the new Civil Code, enacted in 2002, and the "SA", by Law 6.404, dated December 15, 1976, as amended.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Canada both the federal government and the provinces have corporate statutes, and thus a corporation may be incorporated either provincially or federally. Many older corporations in Canada stem from Acts of Parliament passed before the introduction of general corporation law. The oldest corporation in Canada is the Hudson's Bay Company; though its business has always been based in Canada, its Royal Charter was issued in England by King Charles II in 1670, and became a Canadian charter by amendment in 1970 when it moved its corporate headquarters from London to Canada. Federally recognized corporations are regulated by the Canada Business Corporations Act.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The Chilean form of joint-stock company is called "sociedad por acciones" (often abbreviated "SpA"). They were created in 2007 by Law N° 20.190, and they are the most recent variety of societary types, as they represent a simplified form of corporation – originally conceived for venture capital companies.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The Czech form of the public limited company is called ' (') and its private counterpart is called ' (').


title: Joint-stock company

text: Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein recognize two forms of company limited by shares: the "Aktiengesellschaft" (AG), analogous to public limited companies (or corporations in US/Can) in the English-speaking world, and the "Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung" (GmbH), similar to the modern private limited company.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Italy recognizes three types of company limited by shares: the public limited company ("società per azioni", or S.p.A.), the private limited company ("società a responsabilità limitata", or S.r.l.), and the publicly traded partnership ("società in accomandita per azioni", or S.a.p.a.). The latter is a hybrid of the limited partnership and public limited company, having two categories of shareholders, some with and some without limited liability, and is rarely used in practice.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Japan, both the state and local public entities under the Local Autonomy Act (now 47 prefectures, made in the 19th century and municipalities) are considered to be . Non-profit corporations may be established under the Civil Code.


title: Joint-stock company

text: The term or (企業 "kigyō") is used to refer to business corporations. The predominant form is the "Kabushiki gaisha" (株式会社), used by public corporations as well as smaller enterprises. "Mochibun kaisha" (持分会社), a form for smaller enterprises, are becoming increasingly common. Between 2002 and 2008, the existed to bridge the gap between for-profit companies and non-governmental and non-profit organizations.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Norway, a joint-stock company is called an "aksjeselskap", abbreviated "AS". A special and by far less common form of joint-stock companies, intended for companies with a large number of shareholders, is the publicly traded joint-stock companies, called "allmennaksjeselskap" and abbreviated "ASA". A joint-stock company must be incorporated, has an independent legal personality and limited liability, and is required to have a certain capital upon incorporation. Ordinary joint-stock companies must have a minimum capital of NOK 30,000 upon incorporation, which was reduced from 100,000 in 2012. Publicly traded joint-stock companies must have a minimum capital of NOK 1 million.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Romania, a joint-stock company is called "societate pe acțiuni". According to Law 31/1991 there are two types of joint-stock companies: "societatea pe acțiuni" and "societate în comandită pe acţiuni".


title: Joint-stock company

text: In Spain there are two types of companies with limited liability: (i) "S.L.", or "Sociedad Limitada" (a private limited company), and (ii) "S.A.", or "Sociedad Anónima" (similar to a public limited company).


title: Joint-stock company

text: There exist several types of joint stock companies (, "") in Ukraine. Due to specifics of the Soviet economy, all enterprises in the Soviet republic as the rest of the Soviet Union were state owned and private entrepreneurship was strictly prohibited and criminally prosecuted. Following the Gorbachev initiated broad spectrum reforms (perestroika), there was introduced a term of khozraschet and permission for organization of public economic entities called cooperatives.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Following dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's economy along with the rest former Soviet republics was further reformed to more liberal. Along with private entrepreneurship, many state owned companies were privatized, primarily by the former party's apparatchiks which gave a rise of another term "Red directors". Many companies started to be sold at open market and commercialized. Those companies were transformed in joint-stock companies by selling their shares for mutual cooperation and investment.


title: Joint-stock company

text: As in the rest former Soviet republics (predominantly Russia) in Ukraine were created following commercial companies:


title: Joint-stock company

text: In 2009 further reforms were introduced and open joint-stock companies were forced to be restructured as public joint-stock company (, ') or private joint-stock company (, ').


title: Joint-stock company

text: Minimum amount of share capital is 1250 minimum wages (as of 1 January 2017 4,000,000 UAH or 148,000 USD).


title: Joint-stock company

text: Most companies are regulated by the Companies Act 2006. The most common type of company is the private limited company ("Limited" or "Ltd"). Private limited companies can either be limited by shares or by guarantee. Other corporate forms include the public limited company ("plc") and the private unlimited company.


title: Joint-stock company

text: A special type of corporation is a corporation sole, which is an office held by an individual natural person (the incumbent), but which has a continuing legal entity separate from that person.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Several types of conventional corporations exist in the United States. Generically, any business entity that is recognized as distinct from the people who own it (i.e., is not a sole proprietorship or a partnership) is a corporation. This generic label includes entities that are known by such legal labels as 'association', 'organization' and 'limited liability company', as well as corporations proper.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Only a company that has been formally incorporated according to the laws of a particular state is called a "corporation." A corporation was defined in the Dartmouth College case of 1819, in which Chief Justice Marshall of the United States Supreme Court stated: "A corporation is an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of the law." A corporation is a legal entity, distinct and separate from the individuals who create and operate it. As a legal entity the corporation can acquire, own, and dispose of property in its own name like buildings, land and equipment. It can also incur liabilities and enter into contracts like franchising and leasing. American corporations can be either profit-making companies or non-profit entities. Tax-exempt non-profit corporations are often called "501(c)3 corporations," after the section of the Internal Revenue Code that addresses the tax exemption for many of them.


title: Joint-stock company

text: In some states, such as Colorado, a corporation may represent itself pro se in courts of law in some situations


title: Joint-stock company

text: The federal government can only create corporate entities pursuant to relevant powers in the U.S. Constitution. Thus, virtually all corporations in the U.S. are incorporated under the laws of a particular state. A major exception to the federal non-participation in the incorporation of private businesses is in banking; under the National Bank Act, banks may receive charters from the federal government as "national banks", subjecting them to the regulation of the federal Office of the Comptroller of the Currency rather than state banking regulators.


title: Joint-stock company

text: All states have some kind of "general corporation law" (California, Delaware, Kansas, Nevada and Ohio actually use that exact name) which authorizes the formation of private corporations "without" having to obtain a charter for each one from the state legislature (as was formerly the case in the 19th century). Many states have separate, self-contained laws authorizing the formation and operation of certain specific types of corporations that are wholly independent of the state general corporation law. For example, in California, nonprofit corporations are incorporated under the Nonprofit Corporation Law, and in Illinois, insurers are incorporated under the Illinois Insurance Code.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Corporations are created by filing the requisite documents with a particular state government. The process is called "incorporation", referring to the abstract concept of clothing the entity with a "veil" of artificial personhood (embodying, or "corporating" it, 'corpus' being the Latin word for 'body'). Only certain corporations, including banks, are chartered. Others simply file their articles of incorporation with the state government as part of a registration process.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Once incorporated, a corporation has artificial personhood everywhere it may operate, until such time as the corporation may be dissolved. A corporation that operates in one state while being incorporated in another is a "foreign corporation". This label also applies to corporations incorporated outside of the United States. Foreign corporations must usually register with the secretary of state's office in each state to lawfully conduct business in that state.


title: Joint-stock company

text: A corporation is legally a citizen of the state (or other jurisdiction) in which it is incorporated (except when circumstances direct the corporation be classified as a citizen of the state in which it has its head office, or the state in which it does the majority of its business). Corporate business law differs dramatically from state to state. Many prospective corporations choose to incorporate in a state whose laws are most favorable to its business interests. Many large corporations are incorporated in Delaware, for example, without being physically located there because that state has very favorable corporate tax and disclosure laws.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Companies set up for privacy or asset protection often incorporate in Nevada, which does not require disclosure of share ownership. Many states, particularly smaller ones, have modeled their corporate statutes after the Model Business Corporation Act, one of many model sets of law prepared and published by the American Bar Association.


title: Joint-stock company

text: As juristic persons, corporations have certain rights that attach to natural persons. The vast majority of them attach to corporations under state law, especially the law of the state in which the company is incorporated – since the corporations very existence is predicated on the laws of that state. A few rights also attach by federal constitutional and statutory law, but they are few and far between compared to the rights of natural persons. For example, a corporation has the personal right to bring a lawsuit (as well as the capacity to be sued) and, like a natural person, a corporation can be libeled.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Harvard College, an undergraduate school of Harvard University, formally the President and Fellows of Harvard College (also known as the Harvard Corporation), is the oldest corporation in the western hemisphere. Founded in 1636, the second of Harvard's two governing boards was incorporated by the Great and General Court of Massachusetts in 1650. Significantly, Massachusetts itself was a corporate colony at that time – owned and operated by the Massachusetts Bay Company (until it lost its charter in 1684) – so Harvard College is a corporation created by a corporation.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Many nations have modeled their own corporate laws on American business law. Corporate law in Saudi Arabia, for example, follows the model of New York State corporate law. In addition to typical corporations in the United States, the federal government, in 1971 passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which authorized the creation of 12 regional native corporations for Alaska Natives and over 200 village corporations that were entitled to a settlement of land and cash. In addition to the 12 regional corporations, the legislation permitted a 13th regional corporation without a land settlement for those Alaska Natives living out of the State of Alaska at the time of passage of ANCSA.


title: Joint-stock company

text: Almost every recognized type of organization carries out some economic activities (for example, the family). Other organizations that may carry out activities that are generally considered to be "business" exist under the laws of various countries:


title: Roger Goodell

text: Roger Stokoe Goodell (born February 19, 1959) is an American businessman who is currently the commissioner of the National Football League (NFL). On August 8, 2006, Goodell was chosen to succeed retiring commissioner Paul Tagliabue. He was chosen for the position over four finalists; he won a close vote on the fifth ballot before being unanimously approved by acclamation of the owners. He officially began his tenure on September 1, 2006, just prior to the beginning of the 2006 NFL season. On December 6, 2017, the NFL announced that Goodell signed a new contract that would start in 2019. Commentators have described him as "the most powerful man in sports."


title: Roger Goodell

text: Goodell was born in Jamestown, New York on February 19, 1959, to United States Senator Charles Ellsworth Goodell of New York, and his first wife Jean (Rice) Goodell of Buffalo, New York. Goodell graduated from Bronxville High School where, as a three-sport star in football, basketball, and baseball, he captained all three teams as a senior and was named the school's athlete of the year. Injuries kept him from playing college football. Goodell is a 1981 graduate of Washington & Jefferson College in Washington, Pennsylvania with a degree in economics.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Goodell began his NFL career in 1982 as an administrative intern in the league office in New York under then-Commissioner Pete Rozelle. The position was secured through a letter-writing campaign to the league office and each of its then 28 teams. In 1983, he joined the New York Jets as an intern, but returned to the league office in 1984 as an assistant in the public relations department.


title: Roger Goodell

text: In 1987, Goodell was appointed assistant to the president of the American Football Conference, Lamar Hunt, and under the tutelage of Commissioner Paul Tagliabue filled a variety of football and business operations roles, culminating with his appointment as the NFL's Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer in December 2001. As the NFL's COO, Goodell took responsibility for the league's football operations and officiating, as well as supervised league business functions. He headed NFL Ventures, which oversees the league's business units, including media properties, marketing and sales, stadium development, and strategic planning.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Goodell was heavily involved in the negotiation of the collective bargaining agreement with the NFLPA and NFL owners during the summer of 2011. He also played an extensive role in league expansion, realignment, and stadium development, including the launch of the NFL Network and securing new television agreements.


title: Roger Goodell

text: When Tagliabue retired, Goodell was one of the candidates in contention for the position. In the second and third ballots, Goodell and Gregg Levy were the only candidates to receive votes (Goodell 17, Levy 14). Goodell increased his lead to 21–10 after the fourth ballot, falling one vote shy of election, but on the fifth round of voting two owners swung their votes to him to achieve the necessary two-thirds majority (Goodell 23, Levy 8). The Oakland Raiders abstained from the voting in each round.


title: Roger Goodell

text: On August 8, 2006, Goodell was chosen to succeed Tagliabue; he assumed office on September 1, the date Tagliabue was required to step down.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Goodell believes his primary responsibility as commissioner is protecting the integrity of the game and making it safer—"protecting the shield", as he puts it (a reference to the NFL's shield logo). However, some of his actions in this regard have been met with criticism.


title: Roger Goodell

text: In 2014, Goodell was awarded the third highest honor within the Department of the Army Civilian Awards scheme, the Outstanding Civilian Service Award, for substantial contributions to the US Army community while serving as the NFL commissioner.


title: Roger Goodell

text: The spring league NFL Europe, founded in 1995 and since 2004 with five of six teams based in Germany, was shut down by Goodell after the 2007 season. The NFL International Series began in October 2007 with regular season games in London.


title: Roger Goodell

text: In April 2007, following a year of significant scandal surrounding some NFL players' actions off the field, Goodell announced a new NFL Personal Conduct Policy. Tennessee Titans cornerback Pacman Jones and Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver Chris Henry were the first two players to be suspended under the new policy, and Chicago Bears defensive lineman Tank Johnson was suspended months later because of his conduct involving weapon ownership and drunk driving. On August 31, 2007, Goodell suspended Dallas Cowboys quarterbacks coach Wade Wilson for five games and fined him US$100,000, and suspended New England Patriots safety Rodney Harrison for four games without pay, after they admitted the use of banned substances for medical purposes and to accelerate healing, respectively. The league indicated to Wilson that his more severe penalty was because they held "people in authority in higher regard than people on the field." Goodell has also imposed suspensions on the following players for conduct:


title: Roger Goodell

text: In addition to suspensions, Goodell has also fined players for on-field misconduct. For example, on October 19, 2010, the NFL handed out fines to Pittsburgh Steelers linebacker James Harrison, Falcons cornerback Dunta Robinson, and New England Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather after they were involved in controversial hits the previous Sunday. Goodell released a memo to every team in the league stating that "It is clear to me that further action is required to emphasize the importance of teaching safe and controlled techniques, and of playing within the rules." The NFL's reaction to the hits was itself controversial and Goodell came under criticism from players like Troy Polamalu, who felt he had assumed too much control and power over punishment towards players and was making wrong decisions.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Two national political advocacy groups, CREDO and UltraViolet have submitted a petition with over 100,000 signatures calling on Goodell and the NFL to "address its domestic violence problem." This came after Ray Rice was suspended for two games when he was accused of assaulting his then fiancée, Janay Palmer, who is now his wife.


title: Roger Goodell

text: On September 13, 2007, Goodell disciplined the New England Patriots and head coach Bill Belichick after New England attempted to videotape the defensive signals of the New York Jets from an illegal position on September 9. In the aftermath, Belichick was fined the league maximum of $500,000. The Patriots themselves were fined $250,000 and had to forfeit a first round pick in the 2008 NFL Draft. Goodell came down hard on the Patriots because he felt Belichick's authority over football operations (Belichick is effectively the Patriots' general manager as well as head coach) was such that his decisions were "properly attributed" to the Patriots as well. Goodell said he considered suspending Belichick, but decided against it because he felt fining them and stripping them of a draft pick were "more effective" than a suspension.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Outside of player conduct, Goodell is also known for his work in the 2011 NFL lockout. Prior to the start of the 2011 NFL season, Goodell worked with NFL owners and the NFLPA on settling the NFL lockout which ran from March 11 to August 5. During the lockout, at the request of some NFL teams, he held conference calls with season ticket holders where he discussed the collective bargaining agreement and conducted question-and-answer sessions on various NFL topics.


title: Roger Goodell

text: In March 2012, Goodell revealed evidence that players and coaches on the New Orleans Saints had instituted a bounty program in which Saints defensive players were paid bonuses for deliberately knocking opposing players out of games. Then-defensive coordinator Gregg Williams administered the program, and as many as 27 Saints defensive players were involved. Later that month, Goodell handed down some of the harshest penalties in NFL history. He suspended Williams, who had left to become defensive coordinator of the St. Louis Rams, indefinitely (Williams was reinstated at the start of the 2013 season). Goodell also suspended head coach Sean Payton for the entire 2012 season, general manager Mickey Loomis for eight games and assistant head coach Joe Vitt for six games. Additionally, the Saints themselves were fined a league maximum $500,000 and had to forfeit their second round draft picks in 2012 and 2013. Goodell was particularly upset that those involved in the program lied about it during two separate league investigations of the program. Sanctions for players were not handed down at the time, and Goodell stated he would refrain from penalizing players until the NFLPA completed its investigation of the affair.


title: Roger Goodell

text: By June 2012, the league and the NFL Referees Association had not yet come to terms on a new collective bargaining agreement, thus failing to resolve a labor dispute. Accordingly, the NFL locked out the regular NFL game officials, and opened the 2012 season with replacement referees.


title: Roger Goodell

text: The replacement officials consisted of low-level college and high school officials. None were Division I college referees at the time since the league wanted to protect them from union backlash and let them continue working their scheduled games during the concurrent college football season. In addition, many of the top Division I conferences barred their officials from becoming replacements anyway because they employed current and former NFL referees as officiating supervisors.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Despite Goodell stating during the preseason that he believed that the replacement officials will "do a credible job", the inexperience of the replacement referees generated criticism by writers and players. Referencing Goodell's aforementioned other actions as commissioner, the NFLPA issued a letter after Week 2 to the owners to end the dispute, saying:


title: Roger Goodell

text: Under Goodell's leadership, on August 30, 2013, the NFL reached a $765 million settlement with the former NFL players over head injuries. The settlement created a $675 million compensation fund from which former NFL players can collect from depending on the extent of their conditions. Severe conditions such as Lou Gehrig's disease and postmortem diagnosed chronic traumatic encephalopathy would be entitled to payouts as high as $5 million. From the remainder of the settlement, $75 million would be used for medical exams, and $10 million would be used for research and education. However, in January, 2014, U.S. District Judge Anita B. Brody refused to accept the agreed settlement because "the money wouldn't adequately compensate the nearly 20,000 men not named in the suit". In 2014, the cap was removed from the amount.


title: Roger Goodell

text: After the NFL suspended New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady four games for his alleged awareness of team employees deflating footballs, as indicated in the Wells Report, the NFLPA filed an appeal of his suspension on May 14, 2015. Despite their request for a neutral third party arbitrator, the NFL announced that Goodell would preside over Brady's appeal hearing, which he did on June 23.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Goodell announced his upholding of the suspension on July 28, citing the destruction of Brady's cell phone as critical evidence that Brady "knew about, approved of, consented to, and provided inducements and rewards in support of a scheme by which, with Mr. Jastremski's support, Mr. McNally tampered with the game balls." The same day, the NFL filed papers in Manhattan federal court to confirm Goodell's upholding of the suspension. A day after the suspension was upheld, Brady and Patriots owner Robert Kraft made statements criticizing the league, with Brady stating that he was never "made aware at any time during Mr. Wells investigation, that failing to subject my cell phone to investigation would result in ANY discipline."


title: Roger Goodell

text: On August 4, U.S. District Judge Richard M. Berman ordered the transcript from Brady's appeal hearing released to the public. Writers quickly spotted contradictions between Goodell's statement and Brady's testimony, notably regarding increased phone conversations between Brady and team staffer John Jastremski in the weeks between the AFC Championship Game and Super Bowl XLIX. Dan Wetzel of Yahoo! Sports pointed out that while Goodell had stated in upholding the suspension that Brady claimed he only spoke with Jastremski about football preparations for the Super Bowl, which would be suspicious if correct due to the increase in communication, Brady had testified in the hearing that other topics, including the alleged deflation, were discussed. The NFL was also criticized for a conflict of interest at the hearing, as one of the lawyers who worked on the Wells Report, Lorin Reisner, cross-examined Brady during the hearing on behalf of the league; Ted Wells' independence in his investigation, as repeatedly asserted by the league, was also put to question, as he testified that NFL counsel Jeff Pash reviewed the report.


title: Roger Goodell

text: Berman vacated Brady's suspension on September 3, citing a lack of fair due process. Analysts criticized Goodell for his violation of due process in order to uphold an extreme punishment and his arrogance in presuming he superseded the NFL's rules. Wetzel stated that "Judge Berman didn't declare Brady innocent on Thursday; he declared the NFL guilty of violating federal law in trying to declare Brady guilty." Michael Hurley of CBS Boston pointed out that the NFL's case was centered on Article 46 of the league's Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA), but Berman cited Article 46 as evidence that the league had used unfair process.


title: Roger Goodell

text: The NFL announced it would appeal Judge Berman's decision just hours after the suspension was overturned. The appeal hearing was held March 3, 2016. At the hearing the three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit scrutinized Players Association lawyer Jeffrey L. Kessler more intensely than NFL lawyer Paul Clement, with Circuit Judge Denny Chin even stating that "the evidence of ball tampering is compelling, if not overwhelming."


title: Roger Goodell

text: On April 25, 2016, the Second Circuit reinstated Brady's four-game suspension for the 2016 NFL season. Circuit Judge Barrington Daniels Parker, Jr., joined by Circuit Judge Chin, wrote that they could not "second-guess" the arbitration but were merely determining it "met the minimum legal standards established by the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947". Circuit Chief Judge Robert Katzmann dissented, writing that the NFL's fines for using stickum were "highly analogous" and that here "the Commissioner was doling out his own brand of industrial justice." On May 21, 2015, "The Washington Post" published an article that Goodell's efforts to harshly suspend Brady were "part of a personal power play", supporting public claims that he was simply trying to demonstrate authority within the league.


title: Roger Goodell

text: On May 23, 2018, Commissioner Goodell and NFL owners approved a new policy requiring all players to stand during the national anthem or given the option to stay in the locker room during the national anthem. Any players from an NFL team who protested the anthem while on the field would become subject to discipline from the league. In addition, the teams as a whole would be subject to punishment and other forms of discipline from the NFL as a result.


title: Roger Goodell

text: In light of the renewed Black Lives Matter protests after the murder of George Floyd at the hands of Minneapolis police, he has recanted this position, encouraging players to speak their minds more freely.


title: Roger Goodell

text: In October 1997, Goodell married former Fox News Channel anchor Jane Skinner and together they have twin daughters, born in 2001. He has four brothers: among them are Tim, who is a Senior Vice President for the Hess Corporation, and Michael, married to Jack Kenny, creator of the short-lived NBC series "The Book of Daniel". The Webster family on the show was loosely based on the Goodell family. Goodell's cousin Andy Goodell is a member of the New York State Assembly.


title: Hila Klein

text: Hila Klein ( Hacmon ; born December 12, 1986) is an Israeli-American artist. She is known for co-creating the YouTube channels h3h3Productions and "H3 Podcast" alongside her husband Ethan Klein and for creating the streetwear brand Teddy Fresh.


title: Hila Klein

text: Hila Hacmon was born in Tel Aviv, Israel, and was raised in Holon. Her father is of Maghrebi Jewish (Libyan Jewish) descent, her mother is of Mizrahi Jewish (Turkish Jewish) descent, and she has distant Ashkenazi Jewish, Italian, and Spanish ancestry. She has 3 brothers, including Los Angeles based artist Moses Hacmon who is married to fellow Youtuber, Trisha Paytas.


title: Hila Klein

text: Klein and husband Ethan Klein began creating videos for YouTube under the banner of h3h3Productions in 2011. The Kleins later expanded their content creating several channels including the H3 Podcast. The Kleins were featured as videogame characters in a "Payday 2" DLC, with the proceeds funding their defence of a copyright infringement lawsuit filed against the channel.


title: Hila Klein

text: Klein founded the Los Angeles based street wear brand Teddy Fresh in 2017 and is currently the CEO and principal designer.


title: Hila Klein

text: The brand has collaborated with animated series, SpongeBob SquarePants and Rick and Morty, as well as with singer Elton John and Care Bears. In 2021, Teddy Fresh hosted a pop-up event in Los Angeles for its collaboration with Looney Tunes.


title: Hila Klein

text: She first met Ethan Klein in Israel, at the Holocaust Yad Vashem Museum during her service in the Israel Defense Forces in 2007. The couple married in October 2012. Their first son, Theodore, was born in June 2019. Their second son, Bruce, was born in February 2022.


title: Hila Klein

text: The Kleins currently live in Bel Air, California, U.S. She became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 2019.


title: Hangout with Yoo

text: This is a show that was started in order to find out what Yoo Jae-suk would be doing during his days off. Subsequently, the show showcases Yoo (and currently, with six new fixed cast members) taking on various projects, with him taking on various secondary roles.


title: Hangout with Yoo

text: On January 12, 2022, MBC announced PD Kim Tae-ho will resign on January 17, 2022. He left MBC after 21 years of ending with 'Acorn Festival' aired on January 15, 2022. PD Park Chang-hoon, who directed "Omniscient Interfering View", was selected as Kim Tae-ho's successor.


title: Hangout with Yoo

text: This album was released as a compilation of all the artists who participated in the making of Yoo-plash segment.


title: Bofuri

text: Urged on by her friend, Kaede Honjō begins playing the VRMMORPG "NewWorld Online" under the name Maple. Not wanting to get hurt, Maple opts to be a shield user with maxed-out defense stats, and continues putting every status point she earns in the game into increasing only her defense level. As a result, she is left with slow foot speed and no magic, but her high defense allows her to endure most hits without taking any damage. This, along with her basic-level creative thinking, allows for her to make unexpected accomplishments in the game, its quests and events. By doing this, she ends up earning all kinds of equally unexpected skills and becomes one of the strongest players in the game.


title: Bofuri

text: The series originally began on the user-generated novel publishing website Shōsetsuka ni Narō by Yuumikan in 2016, being viewed more than 60 million times on the site. The following year, the series was acquired by publisher Fujimi Shobo to be published as a light novel with illustrations by Koin on the Kadokawa Books imprint, with the first volume being released in September 2017. The light novel is licensed in North America by Yen Press.


title: Bofuri

text: A manga adaptation by Jirō Oimoto began serialization on the "seinen" magazine "Comp Ace" by publisher Kadokawa Shoten in May 2018. The manga is also licensed by Yen Press.