title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2017, Transparency International, a non-profit that tracks graft ranked Vietnam as 113th worst out of 176 countries and regions for perceptions of corruption. Several graft cases found in 2016 and 2017 led to the corruption crackdown which prosecuted many bankers, businesspeople, and government officials under charges of corruption. PAPI found that bribery at public district hospital services decreased from 17% in 2016 to 9% in 2017. Reports of land seizures went down from an average of about 9% before 2013, to less than 7% in 2017. The number of respondents who believed that their land was sold at a fair market value decreased from 26% in 2014 to 21% in 2017. Land-use graft and petty graft, such as police officers accepting bribes, are common. According to Ralph Jennings, Vietnam has been privatizing many of its state-owned operations to reduce corruption and increase efficiency.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: As of March 2018, Vietnam's economy continued to grow, achieving the best annual growth rate in over a decade; which has led media outlets to speculate if in the near future it could be one of the Asian tigers.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: According to DBS Bank in 2019, Vietnam's economy has the potential to grow at a pace of about 6%-6.5% by 2029. Vietnam can overpower Singapore's economy by the next decade because of its strong foreign investment inflow and productivity growth. However, Vietnam has surpassed Singapore just a year later.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In the early 2020s, despite trade wars with Vietnam's major trade partners, a pandemic and the increasing trend in deglobalisation, Vietnam has still managed to become Asia's top-performing economy. Since 2000, Vietnam has now managed to manufacture higher-value goods with better paying jobs due to its more highly skilled workers. These workers now produce electronics which makes up 38% (in 2020) of Vietnam's exports (compared to 14% in 2010). The country had achieved an average of 6.2% in economic growth (faster than any other country in Asia after China).


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1990–2020 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2021–2027). Inflation below 5% is in green.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2003, Vietnam produced an estimated 30.7 million cubic meters of wood. Production of sawn wood was a more modest 2,950 cubic meters. In 1992, in response to dwindling forests, Vietnam imposed a ban on the export of logs and raw timber. In 1997, the ban was extended to all timber products except wooden artifacts. During the 1990s, Vietnam began to reclaim land for forests with a tree-planting program.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam's fishing industry, which has abundant resources given the country's long coastline and extensive network of rivers and lakes, has generally experienced moderate growth. In 2003, the total catch was about 2.6 million tons. However, seafood exports increased fourfold between 1990 and 2002 to more than US$2 billion, driven in part by shrimp farms in the South and "catfish", which are a different species from their American counterparts, but are marketed in the United States under the same name. By selling vast quantities of shrimp and catfish to the U.S., Vietnam triggered antidumping complaints by the U.S., which imposed tariffs in the case of catfish and was considering doing the same for shrimp. In 2005, the seafood industry began to focus on domestic demand to compensate for declining exports.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam is one of the top rice exporting countries in the world, but the limited sophistication of small-scale Vietnamese farmers causes quality to suffer. Vietnam is also the world's second-largest exporter of coffee, trailing behind Brazil.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2018, Vietnam was the world's 5th largest producer of pork (3.8 million tonnes). This year the country also produced 839 thousand tons of chicken meat, 334 thousand tons of beef, 936 million liters of cow's milk, 20 thousand tons of honey, among others.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Petroleum is the main source of energy, followed by coal, which contributes about 25% of the country's energy (excluding biomass). Vietnam's oil reserves are in the range of 270–500 million tons. Oil production rose rapidly to in 2004, but output is believed to have peaked and is expected to decline gradually.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2003, mining and quarrying accounted for 9.4% of GDP, and the sector employed 0.7% of the workforce. Petroleum and coal are the main mineral exports. Also mined are antimony, bauxite, chromium, gold, iron, natural phosphates, tin, and zinc.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2019, the country was the 9th largest world producer of antimony; 10th largest producer of tin in the world; the 11th largest producer of bauxite; the 12th largest world producer of titanium ; the 13th largest world producer of manganese and the 9th largest producer of phosphate in the world. The country is also one of the world's largest producers of ruby, sapphire, topaz and spinel.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Crude oil was Vietnam's leading export until the late 2000s, when high-tech electrical manufactures emerged to become the biggest export market (by 2014, crude oil comprised only 5% of Vietnamese exports, compared to 20% of all exports in 1996). This is in part because Vietnam crude oil peaked in 2004, when crude oil represented 22% of all export earnings. Petroleum exports are in the form of crude petroleum because Vietnam has a very limited refining capacity. Vietnam's only operational refinery, a facility at Cat Hai near Ho Chi Minh City, has a capacity of only . Refined petroleum accounted for 10.2% of total imports in 2002. As of 2012, Vietnam had only one refinery, the Dung Quat refinery, but a second one, the Nghi Son Refinery was planned and was scheduled for construction in May 2013.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam's anthracite coal reserves are estimated at 3.7 billion tons. Coal production was almost 19 million tons in 2003, compared with 9.6 million tons in 1999. Vietnam's potential natural gas reserves are 1.3 trillion cubic meters. In 2002, Vietnam brought ashore 2.26 billion cubic meters of natural gas. Hydroelectric power is another source of energy. In 2004, Vietnam confirmed plans to build a nuclear power plant with Russian assistance, and a second by a Japanese group.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Although the industrial sector contributed 40.1% of GDP in 2004, it employed only 12.9% of the workforce. In 2000, 22.4% of industrial production was attributable to non-state activities. From 1994 to 2004, the industrial sector grew at an average annual rate of 10.3%. Manufacturing contributed 20.3% of GDP in 2004, while employing 10.2% of the workforce. From 1994 to 2004, manufacturing GDP grew at an average annual rate of 11.2%. The top manufacturing sectors — electronics, food processing, cigarettes and tobacco, textiles, chemicals, and footwear goods — experienced rapid growth. Benefits from its proximity to China with lower labor cost, Vietnam is becoming a new manufacturing hub in Asia, especially for Korean and Japanese firms. For instance, Samsung produces about 40% of its phones in Vietnam. In the past decade, a significant automotive industry has been developed. As of 2019 Samsung employs over 200,000 employees in the Hanoi-area of Vietnam to produce Smartphones, while offsourcing some manufacturing to China and manufacturing large portions of its phones in India. LG Electronics moved smartphone production to Vietnam from South Korea, in order to stay competitive. LG said that "Vietnam provides an "abundant labor force", as motivation for the move.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2004, services accounted for 38.2% of gross domestic product (GDP). From 1994 to 2004, GDP attributable to the service sector grew at an average annual rate of 6.0%.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2012, Vietnam welcomed 6.8 million international visitors and the number is expected to reach over 7 million in 2013. Vietnam keeps emerging as an attractive destination. In TripAdvisor's list of top 25 destinations Asia 2013 by travelers' choice, there are four cities of Vietnam, namely Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hoi An and Ha Long.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: 2016 was the first year ever which Vietnam welcomed over 10 million international visitors. Since then, this figure has continued to rise. In 2019, Vietnam with 18 million international visitors was fifth most visited country in the Asia-Pacific region as per World Tourism rankings released by the United Nations World Tourism Organization.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam, the country has suspended issuance of all tourist visa since March 2020, as of September 2020, the country is still closed for foreign tourists, with plans to reopen for tourism from a limited number of Asian countries. The country recorded a 98% year-on-year drop in foreign visitors for April 2020. With no reopening for tourists in sight, the government has called for the promotion of domestic tourism. Total tourism revenues dropped by over 60% year-on-year for July 2020.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The export of labour, that is the sending of Vietnamese workers to work in other countries, is also key to the Vietnamese economy, with much of their earnings being sent back to Vietnam. This labour export was disrupted due to the Covid pandemic, but this year, 2022, Vietnam hopes to send 90,000 workers abroad. Traditional destinations have included South Korea, Japan, Malaysia, and Chinese Taipei, and now Vietnam is aiming for Germany, Russia, and Israel.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The most important banks are the state-owned VietinBank, BIDV, and Vietcombank, which dominate the banking sector. There is also a trend of foreign investment into profitable banks. For example, VietinBank is currently owned by Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ (19.73%) while Vietcombank is owned by Mizuho (15%).


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam has two stock trading centers, the Ho Chi Minh City Securities Trading Center and the Hanoi Securities Trading Center, which run the Ho Chi Minh Stock Exchange (HOSE) and the Hanoi Stock Exchange (HNX), respectively.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The exchange rate between the U.S. dollar and the Vietnamese đồng is important because the dong, although not freely convertible, is loosely pegged to the dollar through an arrangement known as a "crawling peg". This mechanism allows the dollar–dong exchange rate to adjust gradually to changing market conditions. As of December 5, 2018, a US dollar is worth 23,256 Vietnamese đồng.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Gold still maintains its position as a physical currency to a certain extent, although it has seen its economic role declining in recent years.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam saw high inflation in 1980s. During this period, there was excessive demand for the industrial sector development, food, and other commodities. In order to stimulate supply, government attempted co-integration of parallel and planned market. Though the initial reform in the 1980s raised the total output, due to the report being partial, it also led to the CPI inflation rate being pushed to 200% in 1982. To tackle this, govt introduced forced savings which can be understood as the accumulation of unspent money to make the monetary overhang.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam's economy experienced a hyperinflation period in its early years of the extensive reform program, especially from 1987 to 1992.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2008, inflation was tracking at 20.3% for the first half of the year, higher than the 3.4% in 2000, but down significantly from 160% in 1988.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: With 1,120 inbound deals with a cumulated value of almost 15 bil. USD, there is a tremendous interest by foreign companies to get access to the Vietnamese market or continue the expansion using mergers and acquisitions. From 1991 to February 2018, Vietnamese companies were involved as either an acquiror or an acquired company in 4,000 mergers and acquisitions with a total value of 40.6 bil. USD. The mergers and acquisitions activities faced many obstacles, lowering the rate of success of the transaction. Common obstacles come from culture, transparency and legal aspects. The Institute for Mergers, Acquisitions and Alliances that has been active in Vietnam since 2006 and its M&A expert Christopher Kummer think that after the peak in 2016 and 2017 the trend will decrease in 2018. Among the largest and most prominent transactions since 2000 are:


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Economic relations with the United States are improving, but are not without challenges. Although the United States and Vietnam reached a landmark bilateral agreement in December 2001, which helped increase Vietnam's exports to the United States, disagreements over textile and catfish exports are hindering full implementation of the agreement. Further disrupting the economic relations between the two countries were efforts in Congress to link non-humanitarian aid to Vietnam's human rights record. Barriers to trade and intellectual property are also within the purview of bilateral discussions.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Given neighboring China's rapid economic ascendancy, Vietnam highly values its economic relationship with China. Following the resolution of most territorial disputes, trade with China is growing rapidly, and in 2004, Vietnam imported more products from China than from any other country. In November 2004, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which Vietnam is a member, and China announced plans to establish the world's largest free-trade area by 2010.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In December 2015, Vietnam joined the ASEAN Economic Community along with the 9 other ASEAN members. The community's goal is to integrate the 10 members of ASEAN and bring a freer flow of labor, investment and trade to the region.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Since Đổi Mới in 1986, Vietnam has increased trading, growing both exports and imports in double digits ever since. More recently, alarms on trade account deficits have been raised domestically, especially after joining the WTO in 2007. Throughout the next five years after 2007, Vietnam ran a trade deficit with the rest of the world in the tens of billions of dollars, with the record trade deficit in 2008 of US$18 billion.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The account deficit has since decreased. In 2012, Vietnam recorded a trade surplus of US$780 million, the first trade surplus since 1993. Total trade reached US$228.13 billion, an increase of 12.1% from 2011. In 2013, Vietnam recorded the second year of trade surplus of US$863 million. In 2014, Vietnam recorded the third year of trade surplus of US$2.14 billion, the largest trade surplus ever in history. Three years later, in 2017, it surpassed itself with a record of $2.92 billion.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2004, Vietnam's exports of merchandise were valued at US$26.5 billion, and, were growing rapidly along with imports. Vietnam's principal exports were crude oil (22.1%), textiles and garments (17.1%), footwear (10.5%), fisheries products (9.4%) and electronics (4.1%). The main destinations of Vietnam's exports were the United States (18.8%), Japan (13.2%), China (10.3%), Australia (6.9%), Singapore (5.2%), Germany (4.0%), and the United Kingdom (3.8%).


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2012, export rose 18.2%, valued at US$114.57 billion. Vietnam's main export market included the EU with US$20 billion, United States with US$19 billion, ASEAN with $US 17.8 billion, Japan with US$13.9 billion, China with US$14.2 billion, and South Korea with US$7 billion.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2013, exports rose 15.4%, valued at US$132.17 billion, of which export of electronics now comprised 24.5% of total export, compared with a 4.4% in 2008. Textiles and garments are still an important part in Vietnam's export, valued about US$17.9 billion in 2013.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2014, exports rose 13.6%, reaching US$150.1 billion. Electronics and electronics parts, textiles and garments, computers and computer parts are the three main export groups of Vietnam. The United States continued to be Vietnam's largest export market, with US$28.5 billion. The EU is second with US$27.9 billion, ASEAN is third, China is fourth and Japan is the fifth largest export market of Vietnam.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2004 Vietnam's merchandise imports were valued at US$31.5 billion, and growing rapidly. Vietnam's principal imports were machinery (17.5%), refined petroleum (11.5%), steel (8.3%), material for the textile industry (7.2%), and cloth (6.0%). The main origins of Vietnam's imports were China (13.9%), Taiwan (11.6%), Singapore (11.3%), Japan (11.1%), South Korea (10.4%), Thailand (5.8%), and Malaysia (3.8%).


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam import rose 6.6% in 2012, valued at US$113.79 billion. Major import countries were China US$29.2 billion, ASEAN with US$22.3 billion, South Korea with US$16.2 billion, Japan with US$13.7 billion, EU with US$10 billion, and United States with US$6.3 billion.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2014, imports rose 12.1%, reaching US$148 billion, most of which are materials and machinery needed for export. China continued to be Vietnam's largest import partner, with US$43.7 billion. The ASEAN is second with US$23.1 billion, South Korea is third, Japan is fourth and the EU is the fifth largest import partner of Vietnam.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: From 1988 to December 2004, cumulative foreign direct investment (FDI) commitments totaled US$46 billion. By December 2004, about 58% had been dispersed. About half of FDI has been directed at the two major cities (and environs) of Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi. In 2003 new foreign direct investment commitments were US$1.5 billion. The largest sector by far for licensed FDI is industry and construction. Other sectors attracting FDI are oil and gas, fisheries, construction, agriculture and forestry, transportation and communications, and hotels and tourism. From 2006 to 2010, Vietnam hoped to receive US$18 billion of FDI to support a targeted growth rate in excess of 7%. Despite rising investments, foreign investors still regard Vietnam as a risky destination, as confirmed by recent survey by the Japan External Trade Organization of Japanese companies operating in Vietnam. Many of the respondents complained about high costs of utilities, office rentals and skilled labor. Corruption, bureaucracy, lack of transparent regulations and the failure to enforce investor rights are additional obstacles to investment, according to the U.S. State Department. Vietnam tied with several nations for the 102nd place in Transparencies International's Corruption Perceptions Index in 2004. A study was conducted to examine the effect foreign investment had on corruption in Vietnam. The study concluded that the propensity of foreign firms to bribe at entry is higher in restricted sectors. Also, the removal of investment restrictions leads to reductions in bribery as a result of more Foreign Investment Enterprises, and consequently more competition entering that sector.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The World Bank's assistance program for Vietnam has three objectives: to support Vietnam's transition to a market economy, to enhance equitable and sustainable development and to promote good governance. From 1993 through 2004, Vietnam received pledges of US$29 billion of official development assistance (ODA), of which about US$14 billion, or 49%, has been disbursed. In 2004, international donors pledged ODA of US$2.25 billion, of which US$1.65 billion actually was disbursed. Three donors accounted for 80% of disbursements in 2004: Japan, the World Bank, and the Asian Development Bank. From 2006 to 2010, Vietnam hopes to receive US$14 billion to US$15 billion of ODA.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Pledged foreign direct investment US$21.3 billion for 2007 and a record US$31.6 billion for the first half of 2008. Mergers and acquisitions have gradually become an important channel of investments in the economy, especially after 2005.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: ""Industrialization and modernization is a process of fundamental and all-rounded change of production, business, services and social and economic management from the predominant use of artisanal labor to a predominant use of labor power17 with technology, methods and ways of working that are advanced, modern and rely upon the development of industry and scientific – technical progress to create high labor productivity. So from a theoretical and practical view industrialization and modernization are a necessary historical process that Vietnam must go through change our country into an industrial country […]""


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: • It is not an economy managed according in the style of a centralized bureaucratic subsidized system


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: • It is not yet entirely a socialist-oriented economy. This is because our country is in the period of transition to socialism, and there is still a mixture of, and a struggle between, the old and the new, so there simultaneously are, and are not yet sufficiently, socialist factors""


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Over the past 30 years, Vietnam has signed numerous trade agreements with different partners, promoting the country as one of the main manufacturing hubs in the world. In 1995, Vietnam joined the ASEAN community. In 2000, it signed a free trade agreement with the United States, to be followed by admission to the World Trade Organisation in 2007. Since then, the country has further integrated itself into the world economy with bilateral agreements with other ASEAN countries, China, India, Japan, and Korea, to name a few. Vietnam has actively working with other partners on ratifying the Trans-Pacific Partnership to form CP TPP, or TPP-11, after the withdrawal of the US, in order to promote economic cooperation, regional connectivity and promote economic growth between member countries. The World Bank estimates that the CP TPP would help the country's GDP to grow by 1.1% by 2030 with a boost to productivity. The overall impact of these efforts was the lowering of tariffs on both imports and exports to and from Viet Nam, and an improved trade balance with a surplus of $2.8 billion during the first eight months of 2018 (Vietnam Custom Department). Most recently, on June 30, 2019, Vietnam signed the Free Trade Agreement and Investment Protection Agreement with the EU after 10 years of negotiation, making it only the fourth country in Asia which managed to sign such agreement with the western bloc (after Japan, South Korea, and Singapore)


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: The government has made real effort in changing its mindset toward a more open market economy, lowering the cost of doing business, and putting regulation in place to ensure rights and orders. In 1986 the government passed its first Law on Foreign Investment, allowing foreign companies to operate in Vietnam. The constitution has come a long way since, with the law being revised regularly to cater for a more investor-friendly business environment while aiming to reduce red-tape and accelerate foreign investment into the country. The Global Competitiveness Report by World Economic Forum placed Vietnam at 55th in 2017, rising from 77th place in 2006 . In the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business rankings, Viet Nam also rose from 104th place in 2007 to 68th place in 2017. The Bank commended Vietnam on progress made in enforcing contracts, increasing access to credit and basic infrastructure, and trading, among other factors.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Vietnam invested a lot in its human capital and infrastructure. With a growing population – 96 million today, up from 60 million in 1986, and more than half are under the age of 35– Vietnam made large public investments in education, especially making primary education universal and compulsory. This was necessary, given the country's export-led growth strategy, where literacy for the mass workforce is deemed important for growth in the manufacturing sector. On the other hand, Vietnam also invested heavily in infrastructure, ensuring cheap mass access to necessities like electricity, water, and especially the internet. These two factors together helped Vietnam to become a hub for foreign investment and manufacturing in Southeast Asia. Japanese and Korean electronics companies like Samsung, LG, Olympus, and Pioneer built factories, and countless European and American apparel makers set up textile operations in the country. Intel opened a $1 billion chip factory in 2010, signalling the importance of Vietnam's strategic positioning in the eyes of the international business community.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: Economic growth in Vietnam was considered as broadly in line with other developing countries. The Inclusive Development Index by WEF put Vietnam in a group of countries that have done particularly well and advancing in the ranking of the world's most inclusive economies. This has been notably evident with the role of women participating in the economy. Their labor force participation rate is within 10% of that of men, a smaller gap than many other countries according to World Bank, and in 2015 women-led households are generally not poorer than those led by men. Primary and secondary enrollment rates for boys and girls are also essentially the same, and more girls continue studying in high school than boys. The government is actively reviewing and adjusting its policy, as shown in the current official Development Strategy Action Plan 2011–2020, to develop appropriate mechanisms for a more equitable growth across the country; promoting the advantages of each regions, working in collaboration with each other to support and amplify the fruit of development.


title: Economy of Vietnam

text: In 2017, with the help of the United Nations, Vietnam official started the ground work to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals with the development of the "One Strategic Plan", integrating the SDGs with the nation's Socio-Economic Development Strategy (2011-2020) and Socio-Economic Development Plan (2016-2020). The OSP can be used as a guideline for government agencies to implement the SDGs in the most effective ways, focusing on areas of importance, such as: investing in people, climate resilience and environmental sustainability, prosperity and partnership, justice and inclusive governance. Vietnam has also developed a National Action Plan to review current growth policies and update these to align with the interest of the SDGs. This is done in consultation with ministries, local governments, and other stakeholders so that a common framework can be set forward.


title: Spruce

text: A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea (), a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the Earth. "Picea" is the sole genus in the subfamily Piceoideae. Spruces are large trees, from about 20 to 60 m (about 60–200 ft) tall when mature, and have whorled branches and conical form. They can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by their needles (leaves), which are four-sided and attached singly to small persistent peg-like structures (pulvini or sterigmata) on the branches, and by their cones (without any protruding bracts), which hang downwards after they are pollinated. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the branches rough with the retained pegs. In other similar genera, the branches are fairly smooth.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (moth and butterfly) species, such as the eastern spruce budworm. They are also used by the larvae of gall adelgids ("Adelges" species).


title: Spruce

text: In the mountains of western Sweden, scientists have found a Norway spruce, nicknamed Old Tjikko, which by reproducing through layering, has reached an age of 9,550 years and is claimed to be the world's oldest known living tree.


title: Spruce

text: Determining that a tree is a spruce is not difficult; evergreen needles that are more or less quadrangled, and especially the pulvinus, give it away. Beyond that, determination can become more difficult. Intensive sampling in the Smithers/Hazelton/Houston area of British Columbia showed Douglas (1975), according to Coates et al. (1994), that cone scale morphology was the feature most useful in differentiating species of spruce; the length, width, length: width ratio, the length of free scale (the distance from the imprint of the seed wing to the tip of the scale), and the percentage free scale (length of free scale as a percentage of the total length of the scale) were most useful in this regard. Daubenmire (1974), after range-wide sampling, had already recognized the importance of the 2 latter characters. Taylor (1959) had noted that the most obvious morphological difference between typical "Picea glauca" and typical "P. engelmannii" was the cone scale, and Horton (1956,1959) found that the most useful diagnostic features of the 2 spruces are in the cone; differences occur in the flower, shoot and needle, "but those in the cone are most easily assessed" (Horton 1959). Coupé et al. (1982) recommended that cone scale characters be based on samples taken from the midsection of each of 10 cones from each of 5 trees in the population of interest.


title: Spruce

text: Without cones, morphological differentiation among spruce species and their hybrids is more difficult. Species classification for seeds collected from spruce stands in which introgressive hybridization between white and Sitka spruces ("P. sitchensis") may have occurred is important for determining appropriate cultural regimens in the nursery. If, for instance, white spruce grown at container nurseries in southwestern British Columbia are not given an extended photoperiod, leader growth ceases early in the first growing season, and seedlings do not reach the minimum height specifications. But, if an extended photoperiod is provided for Sitka spruce, seedlings become unacceptably tall by the end of the first growing season . Species classification of seedlots collected in areas where hybridization of white and Sitka spruces has been reported has depended on (i) easily measured cone scale characters of seed trees, especially free scale length, (ii) visual judgements of morphological characters, e.g., growth rhythm, shoot and root weight, and needle serration, or (iii) some combination of (i) and (ii) (Yeh and Arnott 1986). Useful to a degree, these classification procedures have important limitations; genetic composition of the seeds produced by a stand is determined by both the seed trees and the pollen parents, and species classification of hybrid seedlots and estimates of their level of introgression on the basis of seed-tree characteristics can be unreliable when hybrid seedlots vary in their introgressiveness in consequence of spatial and temporal variations in contributions from the pollen parent (Yeh and Arnott 1986). Secondly, morphological characters are markedly influenced by ontogenetic and environmental influences, so that to discern spruce hybrid seedlot composition with accuracy, hybrid seedlots must differ substantially in morphology from both parent species. Yeh and Arnott (1986) pointed out the difficulties of estimating accurately the degree of introgression between white and Sitka spruces; introgression may have occurred at low levels, and/or hybrid seed lots may vary in their degree of introgression in consequence of repeated backcrossing with parental species.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce seedlings are most susceptible immediately following germination, and remain highly susceptible through to the following spring. More than half of spruce seedling mortality probably occurs during the first growing season and is also very high during the first winter, when seedlings are subjected to freezing damage, frost heaving and erosion, as well as smothering by litter and snow-pressed vegetation. Seedlings that germinate late in the growing season are particularly vulnerable because they are tiny and have not had time to harden off fully.


title: Spruce

text: Mortality rates generally decrease sharply thereafter, but losses often remain high for some years. "Establishment" is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development. Criteria vary, of course, but Noble and Ronco (1978), for instance, considered that seedlings 4 to 5 years old, or 8 cm to 10 cm tall, warranted the designation "established", since only unusual factors such as snow mold, fire, trampling, or predation would then impair regeneration success. Eis (1967) suggested that in dry habitats on either mineral soil or litter seedbeds a 3-year-old seedling may be considered established; in moist habitats, seedlings may need 4 or 5 years to become established on mineral soil, possibly longer on litter seedbeds.


title: Spruce

text: Growth remains very slow for several to many years. Three years after shelterwood felling in subalpine Alberta, dominant regeneration averaged 5.5 cm in height in scarified blocks, and 7.3 cm in non-scarified blocks (Day 1970), possibly reflecting diminished fertility with the removal of the A horizon.


title: Spruce

text: DNA analyses have shown that traditional classifications based on the morphology of needle and cone are artificial. A 2006 study found that "P. breweriana" had a basal position, followed by "P. sitchensis", and the other species were further divided into three clades, suggesting that "Picea" originated in North America. The oldest record of spruce has been found in the fossil record from the Early Cretaceous around 136 million years ago.


title: Spruce

text: There is also an extinct species identified from fossil evidence, "Picea critchfieldii" which was widespread in the Southeastern United States in the Late Quaternary.


title: Spruce

text: The Polish phrase ("from Prussia", a region now part of Poland) sounds to English ears like "spruce". "Spruce", ' (1412), and ' (1378) seem to have been generic terms for commodities brought to England by Hanseatic merchants (especially beer, boards, wooden chests and leather), and the tree thus was believed to be particular to Prussia, which for a time was figurative in England as a land of luxuries. It can be argued that the word is actually derived from the Old French term , meaning literally Prussia.


title: Spruce

text: The closely related species "Sirococcus conigenus" and "Sirococcus piceicola" cause shoot blight and seedling mortality of conifers in North America, Europe, and North Africa. Twig blight damage to seedlings of white and red spruces in a nursery near Asheville, North Carolina, was reported by Graves (1914). Hosts include white, black, Engelmann, Norway, and red spruces, although they are not the plants most commonly damaged. "Sirococcus" blight of spruces in nurseries show up randomly in seedlings to which the fungus was transmitted in infested seed. First-year seedlings are often killed, and larger plants may become too deformed for planting. Outbreaks involving < 30% of spruce seedlings in seedbeds have been traced to seed lots in which only 0.1% to 3% of seeds were infested. Seed infestation has in turn been traced to the colonization of spruce cones by "S. conigenus" in forests of the western interior. Infection develops readily if conidia are deposited on succulent plant parts that remain wet for at least 24 hours at 10 °C to 25 °C. Longer periods of wetness favour increasingly severe disease. Twig tips killed during growth the previous year show a characteristic crook.


title: Spruce

text: "Rhizosphaera" infects white spruce, blue spruce ("Picea pungens"), and Norway spruces throughout Ontario, causing severe defoliation and sometimes killing small, stressed trees. White spruce is intermediately susceptible. Dead needles show rows of black fruiting bodies. Infection usually begins on lower branches. On white spruce, infected needles are usually retained on the tree into the following summer. The fungicide Chlorthalonil is registered for controlling this needle cast (Davis 1997).


title: Spruce

text: A branch and stem canker associated with the fungus "Valsa kunzei" Fr. var. "picea" was reported on white and Norway spruces in Ontario (Jorgensen and Cafley 1961) and Quebec (Ouellette and Bard 1962). In Ontario, only trees of low vigour were affected, but in Quebec vigorous trees were also infected.


title: Spruce

text: Small mammals ingest conifer seeds, and also consume seedlings. Cage feeding of deer mice ("Peromyscus maniculatus") and red-backed vole ("Myodes gapperi") showed a daily maximum seed consumption of 2000 white spruce seeds and of 1000 seeds of lodgepole pine, with the 2 species of mice consuming equal amounts of seed, but showing a preference for the pine over the spruce (Wagg 1963). The short-tailed meadow vole ("Microtus pennsylvanicus" Ord) voraciously ate all available white spruce and lodgepole pine seedlings, pulling them out of the ground and holding them between their front feet until the whole seedling had been consumed. Wagg (1963) attributed damage observed to the bark and cambium at ground level of small white spruce seedlings over several seasons to meadow voles.


title: Spruce

text: Once shed, seeds contribute to the diet of small mammals, e.g., deer mice, red-backed voles, mountain voles ("Microtus montanus"), and chipmunks ("Eutamias minimus"). The magnitude of the loss is difficult to determine, and studies with and without seed protection have yielded conflicting results. In western Montana, for example, spruce seedling success was little better on protected than on unprotected seed spots (Schopmeyer and Helmers 1947), but in British Columbia spruce regeneration depended on protection from rodents (Smith 1955).


title: Spruce

text: An important albeit indirect biotic constraint on spruce establishment is the depredation of seed by squirrels. As much as 90% of a cone crop has been harvested by red squirrels (Zasada et al. 1978). Deer mice, voles, chipmunks, and shrews can consume large quantities of seed; 1 mouse can eat 2000 seeds per night. Repeated applications of half a million seeds/ha failed to produce the 750 trees/ha sought by Northwest Pulp and Power, Ltd., near Hinton, Alberta (Radvanyi 1972), but no doubt left a lot of well-fed small mammals. Foraging by squirrels for winter buds (Rowe 1952) has not been reported in relation to young plantations, but Wagg (1963) noted that at Hinton AB, red squirrels were observed cutting the lateral and terminal twigs and feeding on the vegetative and flower buds of white spruce.


title: Spruce

text: Red squirrels in Alaska have harvested as much as 90% of a cone crop (Zasada et al. 1978); their "modus operandi" is to cut off great numbers of cones with great expedition early in the fall, and then "spend the rest of the fall shelling out the seeds". In Manitoba, Rowe (1952) ascribed widespread severing of branch tips 5 cm to 10 cm long on white spruce ranging "from sapling to veteran size" to squirrels foraging for winter buds, cone failure having excluded the more usual food source. The damage has not been reported in relation to small trees, outplants or otherwise.


title: Spruce

text: Porcupines ("Erethizon dorsatum" L.) may damage spruce (Nienstaedt 1957), but prefer red pine. Bark-stripping of white spruce by black bear ("Euarctos americanus perniger") is locally important in Alaska (Lutz 1951), but the bark of white spruce is not attacked by field mice ("Microtus pennsylvanicus" Ord), even in years of heavy infestation.


title: Spruce

text: The eastern spruce budworm ("Choristoneura fumiferana") is a major pest of spruce trees in forests throughout Canada and the eastern United States. Two of the main host plants are black spruce and white spruce. Population levels oscillate, sometimes reaching extreme outbreak levels that can cause extreme defoliation of and damage to spruce trees. To reduce destruction, there are multiple methods of control in place, including pesticides.


title: Spruce

text: Horntails, or Wood Wasps, use this tree for egg laying and the larvae will live in the outer inch of the tree under the bark.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce beetles ("Dendroctonus rufipennis") have destroyed swathes of spruce forest in western North America from Alaska to Wyoming.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce is useful as a building wood, commonly referred to by several different names including North American timber, SPF (spruce, pine, fir) and whitewood (the collective name for spruce wood). Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from general construction work and crates to highly specialised uses in wooden aircraft. The Wright brothers' first aircraft, the "Flyer", was built of spruce.


title: Spruce

text: Because this species has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only (indoor drywall framing, for example). Spruce wood, when left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the type of climate it is exposed to.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce is one of the most important woods for paper uses, as it has long wood fibres which bind together to make strong paper. The fibres are thin walled and collapse to thin bands upon drying. Spruces are commonly used in mechanical pulping as they are easily bleached. Together with northern pines, northern spruces are commonly used to make NBSK. Spruces are cultivated over vast areas as pulpwood.


title: Spruce

text: The fresh shoots of many spruces are a natural source of vitamin C. Captain Cook made alcoholic sugar-based spruce beer during his sea voyages in order to prevent scurvy in his crew. The leaves and branches, or the essential oils, can be used to brew spruce beer.


title: Spruce

text: In Finland, young spruce buds are sometimes used as a spice, or boiled with sugar to create spruce bud syrup. In survival situations spruce needles can be directly ingested or boiled into a tea. This replaces large amounts of vitamin C. Also, water is stored in a spruce's needles, providing an alternative means of hydration . Spruce can be used as a preventive measure for scurvy in an environment where meat is the only prominent food source .


title: Spruce

text: Spruce is the standard material used in soundboards for many musical instruments, including guitars, mandolins, cellos, violins, and the soundboard at the heart of a piano and the harp.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce, along with cedar, is often used for the soundboard/top of an acoustic guitar. The main types of spruce used for this purpose are Sitka, Engelmann, Adirondack and European spruces.


title: Spruce

text: The resin was used in the manufacture of pitch in the past (before the use of petrochemicals); the scientific name "Picea" derives from Latin "pitch pine" (referring to Scots pine), from , an adjective from "pitch".


title: Spruce

text: Native Americans in North America use the thin, pliable roots of some species for weaving baskets and for sewing together pieces of birch bark for canoes. See also Kiidk'yaas for an unusual golden Sitka Spruce sacred to the Haida people.


title: Spruce

text: Spruces are popular ornamental trees in horticulture, admired for their evergreen, symmetrical narrow-conic growth habit. For the same reason, some (particularly "Picea abies" and "P. omorika") are also extensively used as Christmas trees, with artificial Christmas trees often being produced in their likenesses.


title: Spruce

text: Spruce branches are also used at Aintree racecourse, Liverpool, to build several of the fences on the Grand National course. Spruce wood is also used to make sculptures.


title: Spruce

text: The nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of British Columbia interior spruce have been sequenced. The large (20 Gbp) nuclear genome and associated gene annotations of interior spruce (genotype PG29) were published in 2013 and 2015.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Call of Duty 3 is a 2006 first-person shooter video game developed by Treyarch and published by Activision. It is the third major installment in the "Call of Duty" series. It was released for PlayStation 3, Wii, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2 and Xbox. It was a launch title for the PlayStation 3 and Wii in North America, Europe and Australia. It was also the only major installment to not release on the PC.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: "Call of Duty 3" is a historical first-person shooter game that has a single-player campaign mode and multiplayer mode. It is open-ended, giving the player multiple paths to complete objectives, but plays similarly to the series' previous installment. Players fight alongside AI-controlled teammates against enemies who use various attack patterns, hide behind cover, and regroup to improved defensive positions.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: A character can be positioned in one of three stances: standing, crouching, or prone, each affecting the player's rate of movement and accuracy. Two firearms can be carried, and both fragmentation and smoke grenades can also be equipped; unlike previous installments in the series, players have the ability to toss live grenades back at the enemy. Weapons and ammo from fallen foes or friendlies can be picked up to replace weapons in a player's inventory. A player may fire from the hip or aim down the gun's iron sights for increased accuracy. The compass on the heads-up display (HUD) helps the player navigate to the location of each objective.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Using cover helps the player avoid enemy fire or recover health after taking significant damage. Similar to "Call of Duty 2", the edges of the screen turn red and the character's heartbeat will increase in volume, indicating that the player's health is low; it can be replenished through an automatic recovery system when the character is not taking fire.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: The player takes the perspective of either an American, British, Canadian, or Polish soldier during the single-player campaign, for a total of 14 missions. Set in the Western Front of World War II, "Call of Duty 3" takes place in the year 1944 and contains missions specific to four major Allied campaigns in the Battle of Normandy. The player takes part in a series of objectives marked by their HUD; these include having the character arrive at a checkpoint, eliminate enemies in a specified location, manning a tank, and marking targets for air strikes. "Call of Duty 3" introduces to the series scripted close-combat sequences and multiple actions to arming explosives, both of which require the player to press buttons in sequences to progress.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: In addition to the single-player campaign, "Call of Duty 3" features a wide range of multiplayer modes for players to participate in – each team allowing up to 24 on the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360, and 16 for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox in a single match. This is only in the online mode. All team game modes feature the soldiers of the Allied nations versus those of the Axis. Multiplayer features are absent from the Wii edition.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: It is the first game in the "Call of Duty" series to introduce two different game modes. The "Normalized" mode was added to allow console players a way to adjust to the smaller kill box of "Call of Duty", its expansion "United Offensive", and "Call of Duty 2".


title: Call of Duty 3

text: On the Xbox 360, "Call of Duty 3" divides its multiplayer aspect into Player and Ranked matches. Player matches allow players to invite other players into their games, but do not contribute points toward the leader board or unlock Achievements. Ranked matches put the player with and against teams of random players, and contribute towards player points and allow players to unlock Achievements.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: In the American campaign, the player controls Private Nichols, a replacement for the 29th Infantry Division. The squad participates in the final offensive in the capture of Saint-Lô. Afterwards, they join the 90th Infantry Division as reinforcements to help secure Saint-Germain-sur-Sèves.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: The squad assaults Mayenne to capture its bridge. Sergeant Frank McCullin disarms German bombs rigged to the bridge, but is mortally wounded. Corporal Mike Dixon is promoted to Sergeant and assumes command. Shortly after, the squad is sent to clear out Forêt d'Écouves and to locate a company of combat engineers; a surviving engineer reveals that their supply depot was overrun. The squad recaptures the depot and destroys a German roadblock. They then aid in the liberation of a crossroads at Le Bourg-Saint-Léonard, trapping the remaining German forces by closing the Falaise Pocket, before being ordered to defend Chambois against those retreating.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: At Chambois, the American units hold off against the Germans. Guzzo attempts to call for air support, but is wounded. Nichols and Dixon rescue him as air support arrives, but Dixon is shot and killed. Guzzo takes command and the squad retakes and defends the town as American reinforcements force the Germans to surrender. Two days later, Guzzo is promoted to Sergeant and Nichols and Huxley are promoted to Corporal, before travelling to liberate Paris.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: In the British campaign, the player controls Sergeant James Doyle, a member of an SAS regiment, who are sent to France to assist the Maquis Resistance. Parachuting in near Toucy after their Handley Page Halifax is shot down, Doyle is rescued by Pierre LaRoche, the Maquis leader, and regroups with Corporal Duncan Keith, Major Gerald Ingram, and resistance member Isabelle DuFontaine. The group assault a manor house to free a captured Maquis member, Marcel.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: The SAS and Maquis launch a raid on a German-held fuel plant and succeed in destroying its fuel and facilities. Doyle, Keith, and Marcel escape, but Ingram's vehicle crashes and he is seemingly killed. The group later receives information that Ingram is alive and being held captive in a nearby village. Doyle and Keith rescue Ingram and several captured Maquis, before fending off a German counterattack, during which Isabelle is killed.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: In the Canadian campaign, the player controls Private Joseph Cole of The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada, led by veteran Lieutenant Jean-Guy Robichaud.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Near Tilly-la-Campagne, the platoon attacks a German artillery battery, before moving to capture a German-held industrial complex, holding off an enemy counterattack. The platoon later clears a forested area near the Laison River of several anti-tank positions and a motor pool for Allied convoys to move through. While advancing with other units to relieve Polish forces defending Hill 262, Private Leslie Baron transfers to the Polish 1st Armored Division to replace their radio operator.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Cole's squad frees a captured Canadian tank crew in St. Lambert-sur-Dives, and with their help captures the town. The squad is attacked by a King Tiger tank, and Sergeant Jonathan Callard Callard manually detonates charges on an ammunition stockpile below ground to destroy it, sacrificing himself. Robichaud recommends Callard for the Victoria Cross and promotes Cole to Corporal. The unit rejoins the Canadian reinforcements to aid the Poles.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: The Polish campaign revolves around Corporal "Bohater" Wojciech, a Sherman Firefly driver in the Polish 1st Armored Division. While aiding Canadian and British forces in the French countryside, the crew engages German armored units to capture and occupy Hill 262.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Defending the hill, the crew endure an assault by the remnants of the German 7th Army in their attempt to escape the Falaise Pocket. Bohater's tank is destroyed, forcing the crew to fight on foot alongside the Polish infantry; Sergeant Łukasz Kowalski is killed. With their position overrun, the crew retreat towards the summit of Hill 262. Baron joins them and helps provide artillery support to destroy German tanks, but is killed by German fire when he refuses to flee further. At the summit, a large counterattacking German force arrive, and Corporal Joakim Rudinski is killed. After much fighting, the Royal Canadian Air Force and Canadian reinforcements appear and repel the Germans, leaving Hill 262 in Allied hands.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Three map packs were released for the Xbox 360 multiplayer game on the Xbox Live Marketplace. The first, "Champs", was released as a free download on January 11, 2007, and contained a single self-titled map. The "Valor" map pack contained five new maps: Crossing, Ironclad, La Bourgade, Stalag 23, and Wildwood. The pack was released on January 27, 2007, for 800 MP ($10). The final map pack, "Bravo", contained five new maps of which two were remade from "": Gare Centrale, Marseilles, Aller Haut, Seine River, and Rimling. The pack was released on May 31, 2007, for 800 MP. The price of the map packs was later reduced to 400 MP ($5) each.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: "Call of Duty 3" was unveiled by Activision shortly before E3 2006. It was revealed that Treyarch would be developing the title (their second in the series after "") which was set to release later that year. The game would be running on Treyarch's own internal engine, NGL. This game served as a launch title for the PlayStation 3 and Wii in North America, Europe and Australia. It was also the only major "Call of Duty" installment not to be released for personal computer platforms and the only numerical sequel to date to have been a console-exclusive game alongside "Big Red One" and "".


title: Call of Duty 3

text: In an interview with Video Gamer, "" senior producer, Noah Heller, revealed the team had eight months to develop "Call of Duty 3".


title: Call of Duty 3

text: "Call of Duty 3" received "generally positive" reviews on all platforms except for the Wii, where it received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. "IGN" gave a score of 8.8, while GameSpot gave an 8.2. The game won various awards from publications for best shooter and sound design. Institutes such as The Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences awarded the game for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design in 2007.


title: Call of Duty 3

text: Upon release, "Call of Duty 3" was one of the best selling titles of November 2006 in the United States. The game debuted at #3 on UK charts and dropped off the top 10 list by February 2007. By the end of 2006, the game had sold approximately 1.1 million units in the US according to NPD Group. By February 3, 2007, total sales in the United States were 2 million units. The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 2 releases of "Call of Duty 3" each received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies per version in the United Kingdom. By November 2013, the game had sold 7.2 million copies worldwide.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Uppalapati Venkata Krishnam Raju (20 January 1940 – 11 September 2022) was an Indian actor and politician. He was known for his works in Telugu cinema and was widely known as ""Rebel Star"" for his rebellious acting style. He was also the winner of the inaugural Nandi Award for Best Actor. Krishnam Raju starred in more than 183 feature films in his career. He made his film debut with the 1966 film "Chilaka Gorinka" produced and directed by K. Pratyagatma. Krishnam Raju had won five Filmfare Awards South and three state Nandi Awards. Krishnam Raju was also an active politician.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Krishnam Raju acted in several successful films such as "Jeevana Tarangalu" (1973), "Krishnaveni" (1974), "Bhakta Kannappa" (1976), "Amara Deepam" (1977), "Sati Savitri" (1978), "Katakatala Rudrayya" (1978), "Mana Voori Pandavulu" (1978), "Rangoon Rowdy" (1979), "Sri Vinayaka Vijayamu" (1979), "Sita Ramulu" (1980), "Taxi Driver" (1981), "Trisulam" (1982), "Dharmaatmudu" (1983), "Bobbili Brahmanna" (1984), "Tandra Paprayudu" (1986), "Marana Sasanam" (1987), "Viswanatha Nayakudu" (1987), "Antima Theerpu" (1988), "Bava Bavamaridi" (1993), "Palnati Pourusham" (1994), "Billa" (2009), "Rebel" (2012), "Rudrama Devi" (2015).


title: Krishnam Raju

text: In the late 1990s, he became active in politics. He joined Bharatiya Janata Party and was elected to the 12th and 13th Lok Sabha from Kakinada and Narasapuram constituencies. He served as a Minister of State for the Ministry of External Affairs in the third Vajpayee Ministry from 1999 to 2004. In March 2009, he joined Praja Rajyam Party, founded by Chiranjeevi. In the 2009 general elections, he contested the MP seat from the Rajahmundry constituency and lost.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Uppalapati Venkata Krishnam Raju was born in Mogalthur, West Godavari district, on 20 January 1940, to Uppalapati Veera Venkata Satyanarayana Raju. He completed his early education at Government Boys School in Mogalthur and later at Taylor's High School, in Narasapuram, Andhra Pradesh. He graduated with a B.Com, from Badruka College, in Hyderabad, Telangana. Krishnam Raju was first married to Sitadevi, who passed away. He married Syamaladevi, on 1996, with whom he had three daughters.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Film producer, Uppalapati Surya Narayana Raju, was his younger brother and actor Prabhas' father. Prabhas is his nephew. Another nephew of his, Siddharth Rajkumar, made his acting debut with "Keratam" (2011). Krishnam Raju worked as a journalist for the Andhra Ratna. He was awarded the second best photographer at the state level. He was fond of cameras and had a collection of cameras. He was the owner of Gopi Krishna Movies. At a later age, he suffered from chronic heart rhythm disorder, heart dysfunction, diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, chronic lung disease, chronic kidney disease and chronic bronchitis on nebulized inhalers.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Krishnam Raju entered Tollywood in 1966 with the film "Chilaka Gorinka" directed by Kotayya Pratyagatma alongside Krishna Kumari. The film won Nandi Award for Best Feature Film - Silver for that year, however, the film did not produce the expected results for Raju. Later he acted in the mythological film "Sri Krishnavataram" (1967) which also stars N. T. Rama Rao. In 1968, he appeared in "Nenante Nene". He was at first reluctant to act in the film given the role is of an antagonist and that he debuted in films in a protagonist role. Upon being advised by his peers and co-actors to gain exposure to a diversified character, he took on the role. The film turned out successful. He subsequently received several offers for antagonist roles following the critical praise he garnered in the role. He took upon a few films and later returned to protagonist roles. He acted in many films with the established actors N. T. Rama Rao and Akkineni Nageswara Rao. He also acted in many films with the established actresses Krishna Kumari, Rajasulochana, Jamuna, and Kanchana.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Krishnam Raju acted alongside Kanchana in "Nenante Nene" (1968) and set the trend of handsome villains. Later, he acted in "Bhale Abbayilu" (1969), the Telugu remake of Yash Chopra's 1965 film "Waqt". Later he acted in films such as "Buddhimantudu" (1969), "Manushulu Marali" (1969), "Malli Pelli" (1970), and "Jai Jawan ("1970). He acted opposite Bollywood actress Rekha in "Amma Kosam" (1970) which was her first film as an actress. Later he acted in films such as "Anuradha", "Bhagyavantudu" "("1971), and "Bangaaru Talli" (1971), the remake of the critically acclaimed 1957 Hindi film "Mother India". Later he acted in films such as "Muhammad- bin-Tughluq" (1972) portraying the role of Islamic scholar Ibn Battuta, "Raj Mahal" (1972), "Hantakulu Devaantakulu" (1972) opposite Rajasulochana, "Manavudu Danavudu" (1972) opposite Krishna Kumari, "Neeti-Nijayiti" (1972) opposite Kanchana and "Vintha Dampatulu" (1972) opposite Jamuna. Later he acted in films such as "Badi Panthulu" (1972), "Bala Mitrula Katha" (1972), "Jeevana Tarangalu" (1973), and "Kanna Koduku" (1973). In most of the films, he acted as an antihero, villain, and supporting roles and in leadership roles in a few films.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Krishnam Raju acted in "Bantrothu Bharya" which marks the first collaboration of Krishnam Raju with Dasari Narayana Rao. Later he acted in the critically acclaimed film "Krishnaveni" opposite Vanisri directed by V. Madhusudhana Rao. The film marks the debut of Krishnam Raju as a producer, the film was produced under his own production house Gopi Krishna Movies. Later he acted in "Parivartana" opposite Jamuna, Kanchana and Lakshmi, and "Bharati" opposite Jamuna, "Iddaru Iddare," and "Yavvanam Katesindi". Later he acted in "Bhakta Kannappa" portraying the roles of Arjuna and Kannappa Nayanar directed by Bapu which is the unique Telugu film to win the National Film Award for Best Audiography. Later he acted in the crime drama "Manchiki Maro Peru". Later he acted in "Kurukshetram" portraying the role of Karna directed by Kamalakara Kameswara Rao. Later he acted in "Amara Deepam" which marks the first collaboration of Krishnam Raju with K. Raghavendra Rao. The film earned him Filmfare Best Actor Award (Telugu) and Nandi Award for Best Actor for the year 1977. Later he acted in films such as "Jeevana Teeralu", "Manushulu Chesina Dongalu," and "Sati Savitri". Later he acted in the lavishly made "Katakatala Rudrayya" which grossed made on a budget of . Later he acted in "Mana Voori Pandavulu" which was produced by him and Jaya Krishna. The film garnered Filmfare Best Film Award (Telugu) for the year 1978 and Krishnam Raju shared the award with Jaya Krishna. "Katakataala Rudraiah" and "Mana Voori Pandavulu" was released within a gap of 10 days and both films became blockbusters. Later he acted in films such as "Ramabanam", "Andadu Aagadu" in which he acts in a role of a spy which is parallel to James Bond, which became a smash hit. Later he acted in "Rangoon Rowdy", "Sri Vinayaka Vijayamu" portraying the role of Lord Shiva. Later he acted in films such as "Shivamettina Satyam", "Kalyana Chakravarti," and "Alludu Pattina Bharatam" which were directed by K. Viswanath. Later he acted in "Sita Ramulu", "Bebbuli," and "Prema Tarangalu", the Telugu remake of the 1978 Bollywood blockbuster "Muqaddar Ka Sikandar". In 1981, he acted in "Aadavaallu Meeku Joharlu" directed by K. Balachander. In the same year, he acted in "Agni Poolu" which was based on Yaddanapudi Sulochana Rani's novel of the same name. Later he acted in the musical hit, "Puli Bidda", "Taxi Driver", "Ragile Jwala", "Guvvala Janta", "Rama Lakshmanulu", "Madhura Swapnam", "Talli Kodukula Anubandham", "Nipputo Chelagaatam", "Golconda Abbulu", "Jaggu", "Pralaya Rudrudu," and critically acclaimed "Trisulam". Later he acted in "Nijam Chebite Nerama!", "Adavi Simhalu", "Puli Bebbuli", "Kotikokkadu" and "Dharmaatmudu".


title: Krishnam Raju

text: In 1984, Krishnam Raju acted in "Yuddham", "Sardar", "Babulugaadi Debba", "Kondaveeti Nagulu" and "S. P. Bhayankar". Later, he acted in the Tollywood industrial hit "Bobbili Brahmanna" which earned him Filmfare Best Actor Award (Telugu) and Nandi Award for Best Actor. He also remade the film in Hindi as "Dharm Adhikari" with Dilip Kumar and Jeetendra in 1986. Later, he acted in films such as "Raraju", "Bharatamlo Shankaravam", "Rowdy", "Bandee", "Tirugubatu", "Aggi Raju", "Bullet", "Ukku Manishi", "Ravana Brahma", "Neti Yugadharmam," and "Ugra Narasimham". In 1986, he acted in "Tandra Paparayudu" portraying the role of Tandra Paparayudu which earned him the Filmfare Best Actor Award for the year 1986. The film premiered at the 11th International Film Festival of India. Later, he acted in films such as "Sardar Dharmanna" and "Marana Shasanam" which earned him the Filmfare Best Actor Award for the year 1987. In 1987, he acted in "Brahma Nayudu", "Viswanatha Nayakudu" portraying the role of Srikrishnadevaraya. Later, he acted in films such as "Maarana Homam", "Kirai Dada", "Maa Inti Maha Raju", "Antima Teerpu", "Prithvi Raj", "Prachanda Bharatam", "Dharma Teja", "Prana Snehitulu", "Simha Swapnam", "Shri Ramachandrudu", "Bhagawan", "Two Town Rowdy", "Yama Dharma Raju" and "Neti Siddhartha".


title: Krishnam Raju

text: In 1991, Krishnam Raju acted in "Vidhata", "Bava Bavamaridi", "Jailor Gaari Abbayi", "Andaroo Andare", and "Gangmaster". In 1994, he acted in "Palnati Pourusham" & this film was a super hit at the box office. Later, he acted in "Rikshaw Rudraiah", "Simha Garjana", "Nayudugaari Kutumbam", "Tata Manavadu", "Kutumba Gowravam," and "Maa Nannaku Pelli" which won Nandi Award for Akkineni Award for Best Home-viewing Feature Film. In 1997, he entered Sandalwood and acted in two Kannada films viz "Hai Bangalore" and "Simhada Mari". Later he acted in "Sultan", "Vamsoddharakudu," and "Neeku Nenu Naaku Nuvvu" which won Nandi Award for Akkineni Award for Best Home-viewing Feature Film. Later he acted in "Raam" and "Billa", a film of the "Don film series," and acted with Prabhas for the first time. Later he acted in "Thakita Thakita" and "Rebel". "Billa" marks the second innings of his production house, Gopi Krishna Movies. Krishnam Raju said in an interview that he would produce films continuously under the banner. Later he acted in "Chandee", "Yevade Subramanyam," and the first Indian 3D historical film, "Rudhramadevi" where he portrays the role of Ganapati Devudu, father of Rudrama Devi. Raju's last film was "Radhe Shyam" (2022), in which he played the role of Paramahamsa.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: He contested an unsuccessful election in 1992 from Narasapuram on a Congress ticket. After a brief hibernation, he rejoined politics, accepting an invitation from the Bharatiya Janata Party. He won the 1998 Lok Sabha elections from Kakinada. He set a record with a thumping majority of over 165,000 votes, the maximum majority compared to any of the other constituencies in Andhra Pradesh which ensured him a berth at the centre. He was on the advisory committees of the Information and Broadcasting and Commerce and Industry Ministries during 1998–99.


title: Krishnam Raju

text: The Ban on Cow Slaughter Bill, 1999 was introduced in the Lok Sabha by Yogi Adityanath which provided for a complete prohibition on the slaughter of cows for all purposes. The statement of objects and reasons appended to the Bill stated, "Article 48 of the Constitution enjoins on the State to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines and in particular to take steps for preserving and improving the breeds and prohibiting the slaughter of cow and its progeny. Given the consideration that the cow and its entire progeny must be saved to provide milk, as well as manure, it becomes imperative to impose a complete ban on cow slaughter."


title: Krishnam Raju

text: In 2000, Krishnam Raju moved a motion in the Lok Sabha for the introduction of The Prohibition of Cow Slaughter Bill, 2000 with the following statement of objects and reasons, "Article 48 of the Constitution enjoins upon the State to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines and in particular to take steps for preserving and improving the breeds and prohibiting the slaughter of cow and its progeny. G. M. Banatwala, raised the issue regarding the legislative competence of Parliament to enact legislation on the subject. Banatwala referred to the opinion given by the then Attorney General, M.C. Setalvad in the Lok Sabha on 1 April 1984 on the issue, to the effect that it was outside the legislative competence of that House to come forward with any Bill concerning the organisation of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. However, the Chairman of the Lok Sabha in his ruling on the point raised by Banatwala inter alia observed that the Chair does not decide whether the Bill is constitutionally within the legislative competence of the House or not. Further, the House also does not take a decision on the specific question of vires of the Bill. The motion moved by was, therefore, put to the vote of the House and adopted. Accordingly, the Chair permitted the introduction of the Bill by Krishnam Raju."


title: Krishnam Raju

text: Raju died on 11 September 2022, at the age of 82, from bacterial and fungal pneumonia followed by cardiac arrest, at the Asian Institute of Gastroenterology Hospitals in Hyderabad, India, which he entered for post-COVID-19 issues on 5 August 2022.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: Senjutsu (, loosely translated as "tactics and strategy") is the seventeenth studio album by British heavy metal band Iron Maiden, released on 3 September 2021. Their first album in six years, it was a critical and commercial success, praised for its ambitious epic scope. Two singles, "The Writing on the Wall" and "Stratego", were released to promote the album.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: "Senjutsu" is the band's first studio album in nearly six years (although having been put on hold for well over two years), following "The Book of Souls" (2015), marking the longest gap between two Iron Maiden studio albums. This is also their second studio double album, and their first studio album since "Powerslave" (1984) to have no songwriting contributions from guitarist Dave Murray in any way, as well as the first since "Virtual XI" (1998) to feature multiple songs written by bassist Steve Harris alone.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: The name of the album is rendered on the right side of the cover art by the actual vertical Japanese spelling of "senjutsu" (戦術), and on the left side by a font reminiscent of Japanese characters. Although it is not a concept album, doom is a recurring theme throughout.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: The "Senjutsu" album, released on September 3, 2021, received a positive response from most fans and music critics, eventually reaching the top of the bestseller lists of 27 countries, including Belgium (Wallonia and Flanders), Chile, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Mexico, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, Croatia, Malaysia, Serbia, Indonesia, Russia, South Africa, Finland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, India and South Korea.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: In the comparison of sales of physical albums in the UK, the double-disc release took the first position, also noted on the European Album Chart Top 200. The album was ranked second on the world music charts. 17th studio effort also gave the band its highest chart position in the US debuting at number three on Billboard Top 200 Albums Chart and number one on Billboard's Physical Albums Chart. "Senjutsu" was also in the Top 3 bestsellers in the USA (the highest in the group's history so far), Australia, Ireland, Great Britain (first on the lists in Wales and Scotland), Singapore, Israel, UEA, Japan, the Netherlands, France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Montenegro, Poland, Estonia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nepal, Honduras, Uruguay, Cyprus, Latvia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, Taiwan, Malta and Ukraine.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: In South America and Africa, the album went on sale only one week after the official release date. At the same time as Iron Maiden's album, the latest releases of the most popular representatives of the pop scene and rap such as Drake, Kanye West, Imagine Dragons and Billie Eilish. In total, the group's seventeenth album reached the top three bestsellers in 55 countries around the world and the Top 5 bestsellers in 63 countries. "Senjutsu" turned out to be a tremendous achievement, strengthening the group's brand on the global music market.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: The album "Senjutsu" marks the second use of the band's original logotype (with the extended letters R, M and N) on a studio album cover since "The X Factor" (1995), the previous one being for "The Book of Souls" (2015). The album cover by Mark Wilkinson presents Eddie dressed up as a samurai and holding a katana. An English illustrator told UK's Metal Hammer magazine: "I knew I would have difficulty just plonking Eddie into samurai costume. The higher caste warriors usually had many layers of highly ornate, dense fabric both to project and pad them out on the battlefield – I couldn't see such a costume working for the skeletal figure of Eddie. Besides, he would look far too flamboyant. I also resisted putting the traditional samurai helmet on his head. It would cover too much detail of the early kabuki-style 'mask' of red warpaint I had sketched out for him. The helmet 'cowl' and 'fukigaeshi' earpieces were like skin and bone attachments. Eddie's head was like a cyborg – part creature, part machine – especially with all the bashed in metal and torn rustic leather of the rest of his costume".


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album has an average score of 83 based on 15 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". "AllMusic" awarded it 4 out of five, stating, "Clocking in at just over 80 minutes, the epic Senjutsu is another distended late-career triumph, albeit one that requires multiple spins to set up camp in your Homeric metal-craving cranium". "Wall of Sound" scored the album 9/10, calling it an "(...) epic and triumphant return for the lads... better balanced [than "The Book of Souls"]... with some interesting songwriting". "The Guardian" awarded it with the highest note and praising "Senjutsu" as "(...) an ambitious, eccentric master piece". "Classic Rock"’s journalist Dave Ling awarded "Senjutsu" with 4.5 stars out of 5 describing band’s effort as "(…) a remarkable album from a band that still has plenty to say and to offer".


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: As with the band’s former album "The Book of Souls", both "Kerrang!" and "Metal Hammer" magazines gave the album high marks: the former titled it as "Metal legends Iron Maiden make a stunning surprise return with their 17th studio album, Senjutsu" the latter "Iron Maiden's Senjutsu: an electrifying, cinematic masterpiece" and awarded it with 4.5 out of five stars. "Blabbermouth.net" were also extremely positive, scoring band's 17th studio album 9/10 and deeming the release in words: "Senjutsu is a modern gem from one of the greatest heavy metal bands ever, if not the absolute greatest".


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: The American magazine "Rolling Stone" appreciated "Senjutsu" and awarded it with 4 out of five stars and highly positive opinion: "Iron Maiden age gracefully, make metal for the ages on ‘Senjutsu’. Long-running metal firebrands have matured their sound on LP 17 without sacrificing any of their epic grit". Rolling Stone went on to name the album one of the top 50 albums of 2021, and the best metal album of 2021. "Ultimate Classic Rock" praised album with an enthusiastic review claiming that "Steve Harris seems to have fulfilled his ambition of turning Maiden into a no-holds-barred prog band, albeit with a taste for riffs and melodies that remain specifically theirs. Blue-collar Genesis, if you will, delivered with intricacy and a spirit of unity. After a four-decade career brimming with epic records in this vein, their 17th album, Senjutsu, may be one of Iron Maiden's most epic".


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: An international online magazine "PopMatters" scored the album 8/10, advising the listeners to "(...) let the world’s greatest heavy metal band take you on yet another excursion. It’s not without its share of bumps and plenty of familiar scenery, but after more than 40 years, it’s as exhilarating as ever". British magazine "NME" gave Iron Maiden’s album 4 out of five stars and described "Senjutsu" as "(…) an instant classic in Iron Maiden’s 41-year journey. The powerhouse metal sound that’s earned them a religious following in every far-flung corner of the globe remains firm. But here, they take things further; ultimately letting imaginations run wild in an album that’s more confident and idea-packed than ever before".


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: The animated video for "The Writing on the Wall" was nominated for the 2021 UK Music Video Awards in the category "Best Animation in a Video". The song was listed among "The 35 Best Metal Songs of 2021" by American online magazine Loudwire, reaching #14. "The Writing on the Wall" reached the 13th position on "Top 40 Rock Songs of 2021" published by Ultimate Classic Rock. Consequence of Sound put the song on "Top Hard Rock and Metal Songs of 2021" list, it's reached the 2nd position. "The Writing on the Wall" made Italian Radio Freccia Top 20 Hits of the Year list to reach the 2nd position. Another Italian portal Inside Music put the composition among the "Top 5 Best Songs of 2021" on the 2nd position. "The Writing on the Wall" was listed among "Best Songs of 2021" by Polish music magazine Teraz Rock, reaching the 2nd position. The song was chosen as "The Song of the Year" by the journalists of Metal Hammer (Greek Edition) and Finnish Tuonela Magazine.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: The band and the "Senjutsu" album were nominated in the categories "Band of the Year", "Album of the Year", "Vocalist of the Year" and "Video of the Year" for the prestigious Czech Žebřík Music Awards. Eventually the double studio album was the "Album of the Year" category winner and animated video for "The Writing on the Wall" achieved the third position, so same as Bruce Dickinson as "Vocalist of the Year". "Senjutsu" was also nominated in the "International Album of the Year" category for the Spanish Grammy's Premios Odeón Award. Band's seventeenth album was honored with the Top.HR Music Awards by The Croatian Discography Association and the Croatian branch of RTL in the "Bestselling International Album" category. The Top.HR Music Awards has been presented since 2020 and is the local equivalent of the Grammy. Both the band and their latest studio effort were the winners of annual readers' poll announced by German edition of Rock Hard magazine. "Senjutsu" album was honoured with Polish Antyradio Award in category "Album of the Year – World". The album, "The Writing on the Wall" single and the band were nominated for the Planet Rock Awards (The Rocks 2022) in the categories: "Best Album", "Best Single" and "Best British Band". The British formation's won in the last category, "Senjutsu" took second place among the best albums, the single reached third place and Iron Maiden were named "The Greatest Metal Band of All Time". In 2022, the band turned out to be the most awarded artist in the history of The Rocks.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: "Darkest Hour" was listed among "Best 50 Rock and Metal Songs of 2021" by Audio Ink Radio. The second single called "Stratego" made the "Top 10 Best Guitar Riffs of 2021" list published by Guitar World. "Hell on Earth" was voted the fourth best song of 2021 in Ultimate Guitars' awards poll. The song was ranked as the sixth best song of 2021 by Toru Sugaya of the Japanese website Gekirock. "The Parchment" was listed among "Best Hard Rock Songs of 2021" published by Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet, the album's longest composition reached the 4th position. Promo videos for album’s songs "Stratego" and "The Writing on the Wall" were listed among "Best Music Videos of 2021 (Rock and Alternative)" by Promonews TV.


title: Senjutsu (album)

text: In the summary of the Japanese magazine Burrn! the "Senjutsu" album was recognized as the second most important album of 2021, the illustration adorning it was also appreciated (2nd position), the single "The Writing on the Wall" was selected as the fourth best song in 2021. Steve Harris as bassist and composer was recognized as the best musician in these categories and Iron Maiden maintained the title of "Best Foreign Group". Adrian Smith was recognized as the fourth best guitarist in the world. The album was nominated for Fonogram – Magyar Zenei Díj, the Hungarian equivalent of the Grammy, in the category "Best Hard Rock / Metal Album". "Senjutsu" was awarded with Sklizen Award established by Czech Spark Magazine. Band's seventeenth album was the winner in "Best Album of the Year" category.


title: Web development

text: Web development is the work involved in developing a website for the Internet (World Wide Web) or an intranet (a private network). Web development can range from developing a simple single static page of plain text to complex web applications, electronic businesses, and social network services. A more comprehensive list of tasks to which Web development commonly refers, may include Web engineering, Web design, Web content development, client liaison, client-side/server-side scripting, Web server and network security configuration, and e-commerce development.


title: Web development

text: Among Web professionals, "Web development" usually refers to the main non-design aspects of building Web sites: writing markup and coding. Web development may use content management systems (CMS) to make content changes easier and available with basic technical skills.


title: Web development

text: For larger organizations and businesses, Web development teams can consist of hundreds of people (Web developers) and follow standard methods like Agile methodologies while developing Web sites. Smaller organizations may only require a single permanent or contracting developer, or secondary assignment to related job positions such as a graphic designer or information systems technician. Web development may be a collaborative effort between departments rather than the domain of a designated department. There are three kinds of Web developer specialization: front-end developer, back-end developer, and full-stack developer. Front-end developers are responsible for behavior and visuals that run in the user browser, while back-end developers deal with the servers. Since the commercialization of the Web with Tim Berners-Lee developing the World Wide Web at CERN, the industry has boomed and has become one of the most used technologies ever.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades ( ; ; 450 – 404 BC) was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last of the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician.


title: Alcibiades

text: During the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed his political allegiance several times. In his native Athens in the early 410s BC, he advocated an aggressive foreign policy and was a prominent proponent of the Sicilian Expedition. After his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him, he fled to Sparta, where he served as a strategic adviser, proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens. However, Alcibiades made powerful enemies in Sparta too, and defected to Persia. There he served as an adviser to the satrap Tissaphernes until Athenian political allies brought about his recall. He served as an Athenian general (strategos) for several years, but enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time.


title: Alcibiades

text: Scholars have argued that had the Sicilian expedition been under Alcibiades's command instead of that of Nicias, the expedition might not have met its eventual disastrous fate. In the years when he served Sparta, Alcibiades played a significant role in Athens's undoing; the capture of Decelea and the revolts of several critical Athenian subjects occurred either at his suggestion or under his supervision. Once restored to his native city, however, he played a crucial role in a string of Athenian victories that eventually brought Sparta to seek a peace with Athens. He favored unconventional tactics, frequently winning cities over by treachery or negotiation rather than by siege. Alcibiades's military and political talents frequently proved valuable to whichever state currently held his allegiance, but his propensity for making powerful enemies ensured that he never remained in one place for long; and, by the end of the war that he had helped to rekindle in the early 410s, his days of political relevance were a bygone memory.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades was born in Athens. The family of his father, Cleinias, had old connections with the Spartan aristocracy through a relationship of "xenia", and the name "Alcibiades" was of Spartan origin. Alcibiades' mother was Deinomache, the daughter of Megacles, head of the powerful Alcmaeonid family, and could trace her family back to Eurysaces and the Telamonian Ajax. Alcibiades thereby, through his mother, belonged to the powerful and controversial family of the Alcmaeonidae; the renowned Pericles and his brother Ariphron were Deinomache's cousins, as her father and their mother were siblings. His paternal grandfather, also named Alcibiades, was a friend of Cleisthenes, the famous constitutional reformer of the late sixth century BC. After the death of Cleinias at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC), Pericles and Ariphron became his guardians.


title: Alcibiades

text: According to Plutarch, Alcibiades had several famous teachers, including Socrates, and was well trained in the art of rhetoric. He was noted, however, for his unruly behavior, which was mentioned by ancient Greek and Latin writers on several occasions. It was believed that Socrates took Alcibiades as a student because he believed he could change Alcibiades from his vain ways. Xenophon attempted to clear Socrates's name at trial by relaying information that Alcibiades was always corrupt and that Socrates merely failed in attempting to teach him morality.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades took part in the Battle of Potidaea in 432 BC, where Socrates was said to have saved his life. Alcibiades later returned the favour by rescuing Socrates at the Battle of Delium in 424 BC. Alcibiades had a particularly close relationship with Socrates, whom he admired and respected. Plutarch and Plato describe Alcibiades as Socrates's beloved, the former stating that Alcibiades "feared and reverenced Socrates alone, and despised the rest of his lovers".


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades was married to Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus, a wealthy Athenian. His bride brought with her a large dowry, which significantly increased Alcibiades' already substantial family fortune. According to Plutarch, Hipparete loved her husband, but she attempted to divorce him because he consorted with courtesans but prevented her from appearing at court. He seized her in court and carried her home again through the crowded Agora. She lived with him until her death, which came soon after, and gave birth to two children, a son named Alcibiades the Younger and a daughter. Alcibiades was famed throughout his life for his physical attractiveness, of which he was inordinately vain.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades first rose to prominence when he began advocating aggressive Athenian action after the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty, an uneasy truce between Sparta and Athens signed midway through the Peloponnesian War, came at the end of seven years of fighting during which neither side had gained a decisive advantage. Historians Arnold W. Gomme and Raphael Sealey believe, and Thucydides reports, that Alcibiades was offended that the Spartans had negotiated that treaty through Nicias and Laches, overlooking him on account of his youth.


title: Alcibiades

text: Disputes over the interpretation of the treaty led the Spartans to dispatch ambassadors to Athens with full powers to arrange all unsettled matters. The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well, but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to the ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions. He urged them to renounce their diplomatic authority to represent Sparta, and instead allow him to assist them through his influence in Athenian politics. The representatives agreed and, impressed with Alcibiades, they alienated themselves from Nicias, who genuinely wanted to reach an agreement with the Spartans. The next day, during the Assembly, Alcibiades asked them what powers Sparta had granted them to negotiate and they replied, as agreed, that they had not come with full and independent powers. This was in direct contradiction to what they had said the day before, and Alcibiades seized on this opportunity to denounce their character, cast suspicion on their aims, and destroy their credibility. This ploy increased Alcibiades's standing while embarrassing Nicias, and Alcibiades was subsequently appointed General. He took advantage of his increasing power to orchestrate the creation of an alliance between Argos, Mantinea, Elis, and other states in the Peloponnese, threatening Sparta's dominance in the region. According to Gomme, "it was a grandiose scheme for an Athenian general at the head of a mainly Peloponnesian army to march through the Peloponnese cocking a snook at Sparta when her reputation was at its lowest". This alliance, however, would ultimately be defeated at the Battle of Mantinea.


title: Alcibiades

text: Somewhere in the years 416–415 BC, a complex struggle took place between Hyperbolos on one side and Nicias and Alcibiades on the other. Hyperbolos tried to bring about the ostracism of one of this pair, but Nicias and Alcibiades combined their influence to induce the people to expel Hyperbolos instead. This incident reveals that Nicias and Alcibiades each commanded a personal following, whose votes were determined by the wishes of the leaders.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades was not one of the Generals involved in the capture of Melos in 416–415 BC, but Plutarch describes him as a supporter of the decree by which the grown men of Melos were killed and the women and children enslaved. An oration urging Alcibiades' ostracism, "Against Alcibiades" (historically attributed to the orator Andocides but not in fact by him), alleges that Alcibiades had a child by one of these enslaved women.


title: Alcibiades

text: In 415 BC, delegates from the Sicilian city of Segesta () arrived at Athens to plead for the support of the Athenians in their war against Selinus. During the debates on the undertaking, Nicias was vehemently opposed to Athenian intervention, explaining that the campaign would be very costly and attacking the character and motives of Alcibiades, who had emerged as a major supporter of the expedition. On the other hand, Alcibiades argued that a campaign in this new theatre would bring riches to the city and expand the empire, just as the Persian Wars had. In his speech Alcibiades predicted (over-optimistically, in the opinion of most historians) that the Athenians would be able to recruit allies in the region and impose their rule on Syracuse, the most powerful city of Sicily. In spite of Alcibiades's enthusiastic advocacy for the plan, it was Nicias, not he, who turned a modest undertaking into a massive campaign and made the conquest of Sicily seem possible and safe. It was at his suggestion that the size of the fleet was significantly increased from 60 ships to "140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1300 archers, slingers, and light armed men". Philosopher Leo Strauss underscores that the Sicilian expedition surpassed everything undertaken by Pericles. Almost certainly Nicias's intention was to shock the assembly with his high estimate of the forces required, but, instead of dissuading his fellow citizens, his analysis made them all the more eager. Against his wishes Nicias was appointed General along with Alcibiades and Lamachus, all three of whom were given full powers to do whatever was in the best interests of Athens while in Sicily.


title: Alcibiades

text: One night during preparations for the expedition, the hermai, heads of the god Hermes on a plinth with a phallus, were mutilated throughout Athens. This was a religious scandal, resulted in a charge of "asebeia" (impiety) against Alcibiades, and was seen as a bad omen for the mission. Plutarch explains that Androcles, a political leader, used false witnesses who accused Alcibiades and his friends of mutilating the statues, and of profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries. Later his opponents, chief among them being Androcles and Thessalus, Cimon's son, enlisted orators to argue that Alcibiades should set sail as planned and stand trial on his return from the campaign. Alcibiades was suspicious of their intentions, and asked to be allowed to stand trial immediately, under penalty of death, in order to clear his name. This request was denied, and the fleet set sail soon after, with the charges unresolved.


title: Alcibiades

text: As Alcibiades had suspected, his absence emboldened his enemies, and they began to accuse him of other sacrilegious actions and comments and even alleged that these actions were connected with a plot against the democracy. According to Thucydides, the Athenians were always in fear and took everything suspiciously. When the fleet arrived in Catania, it found the state trireme "Salaminia" waiting to bring Alcibiades and the others indicted for mutilating the hermai or profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries back to Athens to stand trial. Alcibiades told the heralds that he would follow them back to Athens in his ship, but in Thurii he escaped with his crew; in Athens he was convicted "in absentia" and condemned to death. His property was confiscated and a reward of one talent was promised to whoever succeeded in killing any who had fled. Meanwhile, the Athenian force in Sicily, after a few early victories, moved against Messina, where the Generals expected their secret allies within the city to betray it to them. Alcibiades, however, foreseeing that he would be outlawed, gave information to the friends of the Syracusans in Messina, who succeeded in preventing the admission of the Athenians. With the death of Lamachus in battle some time later, command of the Sicilian Expedition fell into the hands of Nicias, admired by Thucydides (however a modern scholar has judged him to be an inadequate military leader).


title: Alcibiades

text: After his disappearance at Thurii, Alcibiades quickly contacted the Spartans, "promising to render them aid and service greater than all the harm he had previously done them as an enemy" if they would offer him sanctuary. The Spartans granted this request and received him among them. Because of this defection, the Athenians condemned him to death "in absentia" and confiscated his property. In the debate at Sparta over whether to send a force to relieve Syracuse, Alcibiades spoke and instilled fear of Athenian ambition into the Spartan ephors by informing them that the Athenians hoped to conquer Sicily, Italy, and even Carthage. Yale historian Donald Kagan believes that Alcibiades knowingly exaggerated the plans of the Athenians to convince the Spartans of the benefit they stood to gain from his help. Kagan asserts that Alcibiades had not yet acquired his "legendary" reputation, and the Spartans saw him as "a defeated and hunted man" whose policies "produced strategic failures" and brought "no decisive result". If accurate, this assessment underscores one of Alcibiades's greatest talents, his highly persuasive oratory. After making the threat seem imminent, Alcibiades advised the Spartans to send troops and most importantly, a Spartan commander to discipline and aid the Syracusans.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades served as a military adviser to Sparta and helped the Spartans secure several crucial successes. He advised them to build a permanent fort at Decelea, just over ten miles (16 km) from Athens and within sight of the city. By doing this, the Spartans cut the Athenians off entirely from their homes and crops and the silver mines of Sunium. This was part of Alcibiades's plan to renew the war with Athens in Attica. The move was devastating to Athens and forced the citizens to live within the long walls of the city year round, making them entirely dependent on their seaborne trade for food. Seeing Athens thus beleaguered on a second front, members of the Delian League began to contemplate revolt. In the wake of Athens's disastrous defeat in Sicily, Alcibiades sailed to Ionia with a Spartan fleet and succeeded in persuading several critical cities to revolt.


title: Alcibiades

text: In spite of these valuable contributions to the Spartan cause, Alcibiades fell out of favor with the Spartan government at around this time, ruled by Agis II. Leotychides, the son born by Agis's wife Timaea, Queen of Sparta, shortly after this, was believed by many to be Alcibiades's son. An alternate account asserts that Alcibiades took advantage of King Agis' absence with the Spartan Army in Attica and seduced his wife, Timonassa.


title: Alcibiades

text: Alcibiades's influence was further reduced after the retirement of Endius, the ephor who was on good terms with him. It is alleged that Astyochus, a Spartan Admiral, was sent orders to kill him, but Alcibiades received warning of this order and defected to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, who had been supporting the Peloponnesian forces financially in 412 BC.


title: Alcibiades

text: On his arrival in the local Persian court, Alcibiades won the trust of the powerful satrap and made several policy suggestions which were well received. According to Thucydides, Alcibiades immediately began to do all he could with Tissaphernes to injure the Peloponnesian cause. At his urging, the satrap reduced the payments he was making to the Peloponnesian fleet and began delivering them irregularly. Alcibiades next advised Tissaphernes to bribe the Generals of the cities to gain valuable intelligence on their activities. Lastly, and most importantly, he told the satrap to be in no hurry to bring the Persian fleet into the conflict, as the longer the war dragged out the more exhausted the combatants would become. This would allow the Persians to more easily conquer the region in the aftermath of the fighting. Alcibiades tried to convince the satrap that it was in Persia's interest to wear both Athens and Sparta out at first, "and after docking the Athenian power as much as he could, forthwith to rid the country of the Peloponnesians".