title: Gene Rayburn

text: In 1980, Rayburn was a guest star on the television show "The Love Boat". Rayburn appeared as a contestant during a tournament of game show hosts on the original version of "Card Sharks" in 1980 and was a celebrity guest on "Password Plus" several times between 1980 and 1982. He appeared on "Fantasy Island" as a game show host—he and another host played by Jan Murray were game show rivals who vied to win the woman they both loved by creating the ultimate game show, with life-or-death consequences. He once hosted a local New York City show on WNEW-TV, "Helluva Town", and between game show stints in 1982–1983, he returned to WNEW-TV as host of a weekly talk and lifestyles show titled "Saturday Morning Live". He ended his brief tenure to return as co-host of "Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour".


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn's last game show hosting duties were on 1985's "Break the Bank" (he was replaced by Joe Farago after 13 weeks), and "The Movie Masters", an AMC game show that ran from 1989 to 1990. Just before production was to begin on a new Rayburn-emceed "Match Game" revival in 1987, an "Entertainment Tonight" reporter publicly disclosed that Rayburn was 69 years old, much older than many believed. Rayburn had trouble finding jobs after that, blaming the reporter for revealing his age and subjecting him to age discrimination. His daughter Lynne blamed this, and the subsequent lack of work he received, for sending him into a downward spiral.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn portrayed himself on a "Saturday Night Live" sketch in 1990, which featured Susan Lucci (as her character from "All My Children", Erica Kane). He returned as one of Kane's many previous husbands, to stop another marriage (officiated by his old "Choose Up Sides" co-star Don Pardo) with the host of a game show portrayed by Phil Hartman. He also continued to make appearances on talk shows throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, usually to discuss classic game shows, including appearances on "Vicki!" and "The Maury Povich Show" and "The Late Show with Ross Shafer" (Shafer hosted the 1990 "Match Game" revival). In 1992, Rayburn also made an appearance on New York shock jock Howard Stern's late-night TV variety show as one of the stars of his "Hollywood Squares" parody, "Homeless Howiewood Squares", in which homeless people were supposedly the contestants.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn co-hosted—with his wife and Peter Emmons—the Drum Corps International finals of the DCI Championship for two years, which were telecast on PBS from Philadelphia's Franklin Field in 1976 and Denver's original Mile High Stadium in 1977.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn was married to Helen Ticknor from 1940 until her death in October 1996. They had one child, a daughter.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: One of Rayburn’s last TV appearances was a 1998 interview with "Access Hollywood" intended to coincide with the 25th anniversary of "Match Game '73". Portions of the interview have been rebroadcast on Game Show Network, which in 2001 showed portions of another previously unaired interview during the first airing of its "Match Game Blankathon".


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn identified as a liberal politically and was a supporter of Planned Parenthood. Rayburn was also concerned that human overpopulation would become an issue in the 21st century and that it would become more difficult to supply resources such as food if the population grew too large. He expressed these concerns when he appeared on Game Show Hosts week on "Card Sharks" in 1980, where he played for Planned Parenthood as his favorite charity.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn enjoyed needlepoint and did it regularly on his many flights to and from California. He took it up when he knitted socks as a gag on "Rayburn and Finch." Mark Goodson presented him with a needlepoint kit on the air as a gift when "Match Game" became the number one show on daytime television.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Though in poor health and suffering from dementia, Rayburn appeared in person to accept a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. A month later, on November 29, 1999, he died of heart failure at his daughter's home in Gloucester, Massachusetts, at age 81. He was cremated and his ashes spread in the garden of his daughter's home.


title: Gene Rayburn

text: Rayburn's final TV appearance was in an interview for the "A&E Biography" episode profiling the life of his longtime boss Mark Goodson; though taped in late 1999, the episode did not air until June 4, 2000, several months after Rayburn had died.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: The 2021 Major League Baseball season began on April 1, while the regular season ended on October 3. The postseason began on October 5. The World Series then began on October 26 and ended on November 2 with the Atlanta Braves defeating the Houston Astros in six games to win their second title since moving to Atlanta.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: For the second consecutive year, cross-border travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic forced the Toronto Blue Jays to open their home schedule in the United States, with tenures in Dunedin, Florida, and Buffalo, New York. Later, the Canadian government granted an exemption to allow the Blue Jays to return to Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario, beginning July 30.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: The 91st All-Star Game held on July 13 was supposed to be held at Truist Park, the home of the Braves, but league officials moved the game to Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies, following the passage of the Georgia Senate Bill 202 by the Georgia General Assembly, which MLB considered to be restrictive of voting rights.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: This was the final season of the Cleveland Indians competing with that nickname. On December 14, 2020, the team announced that they would unveil their new moniker and associated uniform and stadium changes before the 2022 season to replace the 106-year-old nickname. On July 23, the Indians revealed that their new nickname would be the "Guardians", debuting the following season.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: Major League Baseball announced the 2021 regular season schedule on July 9, 2020. A full 162-game season was played. As has been the case since 2013, all teams played their four division opponents 19 times each for a total of 76 games. They played six to seven games against each of the other ten same-league opponents for a total of 66 games, and 20 interleague games. For the second season in a row, interleague play will be between corresponding regions (AL East vs. NL East, AL Central vs. NL Central, and AL West vs. NL West) rather than continue the annual rotation. This included the New York Mets and New York Yankees being scheduled to play a series from September 10–12, which featured commemorations of the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2001. The 20 interleague games each team played consisted of two three-game series (one home, one away) against its natural rival (total of six games), two two-game series (one home, one away) against each team for two other opponents (total of eight games), and a single three-game series against each team for the last two (one home, one away; total of six games).


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: The MLB at Field of Dreams game, originally scheduled for 2020 but canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, featured a matchup between the New York Yankees and the Chicago White Sox at a purpose-built ballpark in Dyersville, Iowa on August 12. The White Sox won the game 9–8 when Tim Anderson hit a walk-off two-run home run in the bottom of the ninth.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: The 2021 MLB Little League Classic featured a matchup between the Los Angeles Angels and the Cleveland Indians at Bowman Field in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, on August 22. The Indians won the game 3–0.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: On February 9, Major League Baseball announced the following temporary rule changes for the 2020 season would continue in the 2021 regular season:


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: An increase of the active roster size to 26 players, originally planned for the 2020 season, took effect. Other changes that had also been planned—a limit of 13 pitchers on active rosters and restrictions on position players pitching—were waived for 2021.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: COVID-19 protocols from the 2020 season remain in effect, but may be eased by teams once 85% of their tier-one staff (players, manager staff) are fully vaccinated.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: On June 15, MLB announced that any player found with a foreign substance (used to doctor a baseball or to improve their grip on a baseball) would be immediately ejected from the game, and would receive a 10-game suspension. Heightened enforcement of existing rules that prohibit such substances began after widespread use by pitchers to increase their grip and spin rate.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: Players were selected through fan votes (50%) and votes from a panel of experts (50%). The winners were selected based on merit, with no set number of nominees per position and no distinction between leagues.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: The Nike MLB "City Connect" program aims to create new uniform designs inspired by the teams' home cities.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: The Milwaukee Brewers' Miller Park was renamed American Family Field after Madison, Wisconsin-based American Family Insurance outbid the Miller Brewing Company for the ballpark's naming rights. Miller's 20-year contract expired at the end of the 2020 season.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: On March 31, the Miami Marlins announced that Marlins Park would be renamed to LoanDepot Park, as the naming rights were sold to Lake Forest, California-based LoanDepot.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: Unlike 2020, where all games (except the NLCS and World Series) were played behind closed doors, all MLB teams allowed in-person attendance this season; initial capacities were determined by teams and local health officials, and gradually increased to full capacity over the course of the season as active cases declined and more local residents received COVID-19 vaccines. To help promote vaccination, a number of teams announced that they would sponsor walk-in clinics at their home games (with the Seattle Mariners being the first to do so), and offer promotions such as merchandise or game tickets for those who use the clinics (Atlanta, New York Mets and Yankees), or other promotions for vaccinated spectators at games.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: On February 18, the Toronto Blue Jays announced that they would open the home portion of their schedule at TD Ballpark in Dunedin, Florida due to travel restrictions enforced by the Canadian federal government. On May 5, it was announced that the Blue Jays would return to Sahlen Field in Buffalo—where the team played the majority of their home games in 2020—on June 1. On July 16, the Blue Jays received a National Interest Exemption from the Canadian government to host games at Rogers Centre beginning July 30.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: This was the eighth and final year of the contracts with Fox, ESPN, and TBS before the new seven-year deals begin in 2022. FS1 televised games on Tuesday nights and on Saturday, both during the afternoon and evening. Fox also aired some Saturday night games. ESPN televised games on its flagship "Sunday Night Baseball" as well as Monday and Wednesday night games and holiday games on Memorial Day and Labor Day. ESPN Sunday Night Baseball telecasts were exclusive.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: TBS televised 13 straight weeks of Sunday afternoon games and also televised the National League postseason. The American League postseason was split between ESPN, Fox/FS1, and MLB Network (AL Wild Card on ESPN, the ALDS split between FS1 and MLB Network, and the ALCS on Fox and FS1). For the 22nd straight year, the 2021 World Series aired exclusively on Fox.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: A three-game series between the Philadelphia Phillies and the San Francisco Giants, whose regional television rights were both held by the NBC Sports Regional Networks, aired exclusively and nationally on NBC's streaming service Peacock. The first time that NBC Sports produced a nationally televised Major League Baseball game since the year 2000.


title: 2021 Major League Baseball season

text: ABC televised a "Sunday Night Baseball" matchup between the Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs on August 8. The broadcast marked ABC's first broadcast of "Sunday Night Baseball" and the first regular season game it has broadcast since its involvement in The Baseball Network in 1995. Former ABC broadcaster and 2021 Ford C. Frick Award winner Al Michaels appeared as a special guest.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: The sayings of Jesus on the cross (sometimes called the Seven Last Words from the Cross) are seven expressions biblically attributed to Jesus during his crucifixion. Traditionally, the brief sayings have been called "words".


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: The seven sayings are gathered from the four canonical gospels. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus cries out to God. In Luke, he forgives his killers, reassures the penitent thief, and commends his spirit to the Father. In John, he speaks to his mother, says he thirsts, and declares the end of his earthly life. This is an example of the Christian approach to the construction of a gospel harmony, in which material from different gospels is combined, producing an account that goes beyond each gospel.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Since the 16th century, these sayings have been widely used in sermons on Good Friday, and entire books have been written on theological analysis of them. The Seven Last Words from the Cross are an integral part of the liturgy in the Anglican, Catholic, Protestant, and other Christian traditions. Several composers have set the sayings to music.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: In the following table, the seven sayings are arranged according to their traditional order. However, all seven sayings cannot be found in any one account of Jesus' crucifixion. The ordering is a harmonisation of the texts from each of the four canonical gospels. Three of the sayings appear only in Luke and three only in John. One other saying appears both in Matthew and Mark, and another ("It is finished") is only directly quoted in John but alluded to in Matthew and Mark.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Quotations here and throughout this article are taken from the King James translation, except where otherwise noted.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: The sayings form part of a Christian meditation that is often used during Lent, Holy Week and Good Friday.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Priest and author Timothy Radcliffe sees the number seven as significant, as the number of perfection in the Bible. He writes that as God created the world in seven days, "these seven words belong to God's completion of that creation".


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: James Dunn considers the seven sayings weakly rooted in tradition and sees them as a part of the elaborations in the diverse retellings of Jesus' final hours. He does, however, argue in favour of the authenticity of the Mark/Matthew saying, in which Jesus seems to describe himself as forsaken by God. This would have been an embarrassment to the early Church, and hence would likely not have been invented. Leslie Houlden states that Luke may have deliberately excluded this saying from his gospel because it did not fit in with the model of Jesus he was presenting.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This first saying of Jesus on the cross is traditionally called "The Word of Forgiveness". It is theologically interpreted as Jesus' prayer for forgiveness for the Roman soldiers who were crucifying him and all others who were involved in his crucifixion.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Some early manuscripts do not include this sentence in Luke 23:34. Biblical scholars such as Bart Ehrman have argued that it was omitted by some scribes because of anti-Judaic sentiment around the second century.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This saying is traditionally called "The Word of Salvation". According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was crucified between two thieves (traditionally named Dismas and Gestas), one of whom supports Jesus' innocence and asks him to remember him when he comes into his kingdom. Jesus replies, "Verily I say unto thee..." (), followed with the only appearance of the word "Paradise" in the gospels (, originally from Persian , "paradise garden").


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: A seemingly simple change in punctuation in this saying has been the subject of doctrinal differences among Christian groups, given the lack of punctuation in the original Greek texts. Catholics and most Protestant Christians usually use a version which reads "today you will be with me in Paradise". This reading assumes a direct voyage to Heaven and has no implications of purgatory. On the other hand, some Protestants who believe in soul sleep have used a reading which emphasizes "I say to you today", leaving open the possibility that the statement was made today, but arrival in Heaven may be later.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This statement is traditionally called "The Word of Relationship" and in it Jesus entrusts Mary, his mother, into the care of "the disciple whom Jesus loved".


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Jesus also addresses his mother as "woman" in John 2:4. Although this sounds dismissive in English, the Greek word is a term of respect or tenderness. Catholic commentators, on the basis of these two passages, often connect Mary with the "woman" of Genesis 3:15, and the "woman clothed with the sun" in Revelation 12, and therefore see this title of "woman" as a justification for the veneration of Mary as a second Eve.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This is the only saying which appears in more than one gospel, and is a quote from Psalm 22:1. In both accounts, the words spoken by Jesus have been transliterated from Aramaic into Greek, and there are slight differences between the two versions (Mark: ; Matthew: ). These differences are most probably due to dialect. Matthew's version seems to have been more influenced by Hebrew, whereas Mark's is perhaps more colloquial.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: In the verses immediately following this saying, in both gospels, the onlookers who hear Jesus' cry mistakenly believe him to be calling for help from Elijah.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This saying is taken by some as an abandonment of the Son by the Father. Another interpretation holds that at the moment when Jesus took upon himself the sins of humanity, the Father had to turn away from the Son because the Father is "of purer eyes than to see evil and cannot look at wrong" (ESV). Other theologians understand the cry as that of one who was truly human and who felt forsaken. Put to death by his foes, very largely deserted by his friends, he may have also felt deserted by God.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Others see these words in the context of Psalm 22 and suggest that Jesus recited these words, perhaps even the whole psalm, "that he might show himself to be the very Being to whom the words refer; so that the Jewish scribes and people might examine and see the cause why he would not descend from the cross; namely, because this very psalm showed that it was appointed that he should suffer these things."


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Although the gospel writers transliterate Jesus's words as "lama sabachthani", the phrase as found in Psalm 22 is (). translates as "left, abandoned, forsaken", but the word "sabachthani" is not found in any early Jewish texts. It may derive from , meaning "to sacrifice, slaughter", in which case the word may have been chosen to emphasise the connection between the crucifixion of Jesus and the Passover sacrifice.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: A. T. Robertson noted that the "so-called Gospel of Peter 1.5 preserves this saying in a Docetic (Cerinthian) form: 'My power, my power, thou hast forsaken me!


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This statement is traditionally called "The Word of Distress" and is compared and contrasted with the encounter of Jesus with the Samaritan woman at the well in John 4.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Only John records this saying, but all four gospels relate that Jesus was offered a drink of sour wine. In Mark and Matthew, a sponge was soaked in the wine and lifted up to Jesus on a reed; John says the same, but states that the sponge was affixed to a hyssop branch. This may have been intended as symbolically significant, as hyssop branches are often mentioned in the Old Testament in the context of the use of sacrificial blood for ritual purification.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This statement of Jesus is interpreted by John as fulfilment of the prophecy given in Psalm 69:21, "in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink"; hence the quotation from John's gospel includes the comment "that the scripture might be fulfilled". The Jerusalem Bible cross-references Psalm 22:15: "my palate is drier than a potsherd, and my tongue is stuck to my jaw".


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: This statement is traditionally called "The Word of Triumph" and is theologically interpreted as the announcement of the end of the earthly life of Jesus, in anticipation for the Resurrection.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: The Greek word translated "It is finished" is (). The verse has also been translated as "It is consummated." On business documents or receipts it has been used to denote "The debt is paid in full".


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: The utterance after consuming the beverage and immediately before death is mentioned, but not explicitly quoted, in Mark 15:37 and Matthew 27:50 (both of which state that Jesus "cried with a loud voice, and gave up the ghost").


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: From Psalm 31:5, this saying, which is an announcement and not a request, is traditionally called "The Word of Reunion" and is theologically interpreted as the proclamation of Jesus joining God the Father in Heaven.


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: The words of Luke 23:46, or the fuller Psalm 31:5, have subsequently been attributed as last words of famous people, especially those considered pious Christians, such as martyrs or saints. These include


title: Sayings of Jesus on the cross

text: Philip the Apostle (died AD 80), Basil the Great (AD 379), Charlemagne (died 814), Ansgar (865), Thomas Becket (1170), Jan Hus (1415), Christopher Columbus (1506), Ludovica Albertoni (1533), Martin Luther (1546), George Wishart (1546), Lady Jane Grey (1554), her father Henry, Duke of Suffolk (1555), Thomas of Villanova (1555), Mary, Queen of Scots (1587), Aloysius Gonzaga (1591), Torquato Tasso (1595), Turibius of Mogrovejo (1606), John Bruen (1625), George Herbert (1633), Covenanters including Hugh Mackail (1666) and James Renwick (1688), and Christian Friedrich Schwarz (1798).


title: Astral plane

text: The astral plane, also called the astral realm or the astral world, is a plane of existence postulated by classical, medieval, oriental, and esoteric philosophies and mystery religions. It is the world of the celestial spheres, crossed by the soul in its astral body on the way to being born and after death, and is generally believed to be populated by angels, spirits or other immaterial beings. In the late 19th and early 20th century the term was popularised by Theosophy and neo-Rosicrucianism.


title: Astral plane

text: Another view holds that the astral plane or world, rather than being some kind of boundary area crossed by the soul, is the entirety of spirit existence or spirit worlds to which those who die on Earth go, and where they live out their non-physical lives. It is understood that all consciousness resides in the astral plane. Some writers conflate this realm with heaven or paradise or union with God itself, and others do not. Paramahansa Yogananda wrote in "Autobiography of a Yogi", "The astral universe . . . is hundreds of times larger than the material universe . . .[with] many astral planets, teeming with astral beings." (p.416) When Alice Bailey writes of seeing "Masters . . . upon the inner spiritual planes [who]. . . work with Christ and the planetary hierarchy," she refers to a vision she had of the unseen astral realm that these and countless other beings inhabit. Christ being in that realm, it is hard to construe it as a non-heaven.


title: Astral plane

text: The "Barzakh", "olam mithal" or intermediate world in Islam is a related concept. In Judaism, it is known as the "World of "Yetzirah"", according to Lurianic Kabbalah.


title: Astral plane

text: Plato and Aristotle taught that the stars were composed of a type of matter different from the four earthly elements - a fifth, ethereal element or quintessence. In the "astral mysticism" of the classical world the human psyche was composed of the same material, thus accounting for the influence of the stars upon human affairs. In his commentaries on Plato's Timaeus, Proclus wrote;


title: Astral plane

text: Man is a little world (mikros cosmos). For, just like the Whole, he possesses both mind and reason, both a divine and a mortal body. He is also divided up according to the universe. It is for this reason, you know, that some are accustomed to say that his consciousness corresponds with the nature of the fixed stars, his reason in its contemplative aspect with Saturn and in its social aspect with Jupiter, (and) as to his irrational part, the passionate nature with Mars, the eloquent with Mercury, the appetitive with Venus, the sensitive with the Sun and the vegetative with the Moon.


title: Astral plane

text: Such doctrines were commonplace in mystery-schools and Hermetic and gnostic sects throughout the Roman Empire and influenced the early Christian church.


title: Astral plane

text: Among Muslims the "astral" world-view was soon rendered orthodox by Quranic references to the Prophet's ascent through the seven heavens. Scholars took up the Greek Neoplatonist accounts as well as similar material in Hindu and Zoroastrian texts. The expositions of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), the Brotherhood of Purity and others, when translated into Latin in the Norman era, were to have a profound effect upon European mediaeval alchemy and astrology. By the 14th century Dante was describing his own imaginary journey through the astral spheres of Paradise.


title: Astral plane

text: Throughout the Renaissance, philosophers, Paracelsians, Rosicrucians and alchemists continued to discuss the nature of the astral world intermediate between earth and the divine. Once the telescope established that no spiritual heaven was visible around the solar system, the idea was superseded in mainstream science.


title: Astral plane

text: According to occult teachings the astral plane can be visited consciously through astral projection, meditation and mantra, near death experience, lucid dreaming, or other means. Individuals that are trained in the use of the astral vehicle can separate their consciousness in the astral vehicle from the physical body at will. The first stage in development, according to Ramacharaka, is "mastery of the physical body and its care and attention", which pertains not only to the physical body but also to its double in the astral. In addition, one must spend time tuning the "instinctive mind". The first three subdivisions of the instinctive mind are passions, desires, and lusts. The second stage is the intellect, otherwise known as the sharpening of the mind. Someone operating largely out of the instinctive mind would "have only a glimmering of intellect", therefore those who are centered in the intellect would only have an inkling of the spiritual. Once both stages are completed the spiritual mind can be awakened.


title: Astral plane

text: In early theosophical literature the term "astral" may refer to the aether. Later theosophical authors such as Annie Besant and C. W. Leadbeater make the astral finer than the etheric plane but "denser" than the mental plane. In order to create a unified view of seven bodies and remove earlier Sanskrit terms, an etheric plane was introduced and the term "astral body" was used to replace the former kamarupa - sometimes termed the "body of emotion, illusion or desire". Some of those propounding such claims explain their belief that letting go of desires is spiritual progress by noting that, the more one lets go of earthly 'desire' feelings, the less tied down to the physical world, a world of illusion, and the more connected to the astral, where all is visible and known.


title: Astral plane

text: According to Max Heindel's Rosicrucian writings, "desire-stuff" may be described as a type of force-matter, in incessant motion, responsive to the slightest "feeling". The desire world is also said to be the abode of the dead for some time subsequent to death. It is also the home of the archangels. In the higher regions of the desire world thoughts take a definite form and color perceptible to all, all is light and there is but one long day.


title: Astral plane

text: In his book "Autobiography of a Yogi", Paramhansa Yogananda provides details about the astral planes learned from his guru. Yogananda claims that nearly all individuals enter the astral planes after death. There they work out the seeds of past karma through astral incarnations, or (if their karma requires) they return to earthly incarnations for further refinement. Once an individual has attained the meditative state of nirvikalpa samadhi in an earthy or astral incarnation, the soul may progress upward to the "illumined astral planet" of Hiranyaloka. After this transitional stage, the soul may then move upward to the more subtle causal spheres where many more incarnations allow them to further refine before final unification.


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: Anne Christine Winters (born June 3, 1994) is an American actress. She has played roles in the FX's series "Tyrant" as Emma Al-Fayeed, ABC's series "Wicked City" as Vicki Roth, and Netflix's series "13 Reasons Why" as Chlöe Rice. She also starred in the films "Sand Castles" (2014), "Pass the Light" (2015), "The Bride He Bought Online" (2015), "Mom and Dad" (2017), and "Night School" (2018).


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: In 2017, she began starring as cancer patient Mia Phillips in go90's drama series "Zac & Mia", for which she won the 2018 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Digital Daytime Drama Series. In the 2022 third season of the Hulu science fiction series "The Orville", she played the role of Ensign Charly Burke.


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: Anne Christine Winters was born in Dallas, Texas, to Karen and Harry Winters. She grew up in nearby Lewisville. Winters was educated at Prestonwood Christian Academy, a private Baptist school in Plano. When she was ten years old, Winters sang a solo at the American Airlines Center to a crowd of over 24,000 people. She originally planned to attend Southern Methodist University for her college education, but chose instead to relocate to Los Angeles in order to pursue her acting career.


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: Winters made her film debut as Young Kathleen in the straight-to-DVD film "A Christmas Snow". She then appeared in the straight-to-DVD film "Cooper and the Castle Hills Gang". In 2013, she guest starred in the Disney Channel sitcom "Liv and Maddie" as Kylie Kramer, appearing in the episode "Steal-A-Rooney". From 2013 to 2014, Winters had a recurring role as Kelsey in the ABC Family/Freeform drama series "The Fosters".


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: From 2014 to 2016, Winters starred in the regular role of Emma Al-Fayeed in the drama series "Tyrant", created by Gideon Raff for the FX network. She was credited as a guest star during "Tyrant" second season, appearing in only four of the 13 episodes, and continued her role in the third season. Winters starred in a leading role in the 2014 independent drama film, "Sand Castles", directed by Clenét Verdi-Rose, opposite actors Jordon Hodges and Clint Howard. She won the Leonardo da Vinci Horse Award for Best Ensemble Cast at the MIFF Awards with her co-stars. Also in 2014, Winters starred as Kelly Decker in the action film "Fatal Instinct".


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: In 2015, she appeared as Gwen in the faith-based film "Pass the Light", directed by Malcolm Goodwin. She also starred as Avery Lindstrom in the Lifetime television film "The Bride He Bought Online", directed by . That same year, she was cast as Vicki Roth in ABC's crime drama series "Wicked City". Winters co-starred as Valerie York in the NBC pilot sequel to the teen drama film "Cruel Intentions", alongside the film's original star Sarah Michelle Gellar. Winters won Best Supporting Actress at the 2016 Nice International Film Festival for her role in the drama film "The Tribe".


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: In 2017, she appeared opposite Nicolas Cage and Selma Blair in the horror comedy film "Mom and Dad", directed by Brian Taylor. Since 2017, Winters has had a lead role in the AwesomenessTV and go90 drama series "Zac & Mia", portraying teenage cancer patient Mia Phillips. She won the 2018 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Digital Daytime Drama Series for her performance in the role.


title: Anne Winters (actress)

text: Winters portrays Chlöe Rice, the new head cheerleader and "It" girl of Liberty High in a recurring role of the second and third seasons of Netflix's drama series "13 Reasons Why", and appeared in the 2018 comedy film "Night School", directed by Malcolm D. Lee. She has been cast in the ABC drama series "Grand Hotel".


title: NLAW

text: The Saab Bofors Dynamics NLAW (pronounced: ""N-LAW"", IPA: ), also known as the MBT LAW or RB 57 (see ), is a fire-and-forget, lightweight shoulder-fired, and disposable (single-use) line of sight (LOS) missile system, designed for infantry use. The missile uses a soft-launch system and is guided by predicted line of sight (PLOS). It can carry out an overfly top attack (OTA) on an armoured vehicle, or a direct attack (DA) on structures and non-armoured vehicles.


title: NLAW

text: The system was developed in Sweden by prime contractor Saab Bofors Dynamics, on behalf of the British and Swedish defence authorities who procured the system in a joint venture. It was mainly produced in the United Kingdom by Team MBT LAW UK, which included 14 subcontractors, most notably Thales Air Defence. Users of the weapon include Finland, Indonesia, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom.


title: NLAW

text: The name "NLAW" initially referred to the original British development programme which Saab won the contract for with the "MBT LAW". NLAW stands for "Next-generation Light Anti-tank Weapon" or "Next-Generation Light Anti-armour Weapon". The N is written as "Next generation" or "Next-generation", while LAW is written as "Light Anti-tank Weapon" or "Light Anti-Armour Weapon". MBT LAW stands for "Main Battle Tank Light Anti-armour Weapon". NLAW has since development become the international designation of the weapon, while MBT LAW exist as a designation for the weapon in the British Army.


title: NLAW

text: The name "RB 57" derives from the weapon's designation in Swedish service – "robot 57" ("missile 57") – which has the abbreviation "rb 57". At times the expanded form "pansarvärnsrobot 57" ("anti-armour missile 57"), "pvrb 57" for short, can also be found. The 5 indicates its missile class and the 7 indicates its consecutive number in that class ("robot 57" = 7th missile of the 5th class).


title: NLAW

text: In 1997, the British Defence Procurement Agency (DPA) began issuing invitations to tender for a new man-portable anti-tank weapon, to replace the obsolescent British LAW 80s. Swedish Bofors of the Celsius Group (later bought by Saab AB), American Lockheed Martin, and German Dynamit Nobel replied with offers; due to the limited spots of the NLAW-trials come January 2001, only the two former were rewarded with Project Definition Phase contracts in 1999. Bofors began development of the so-called MBT LAW the same year.


title: NLAW

text: In May 2002, Saab Bofors Dynamics' MBT LAW was selected as winner over Matra BAe Dynamics' Kestrel (the British derivative of Lockheed Martin's FGM-172 SRAW) in the NLAW-trials. In June, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) was signed between the British DPA and the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (FMV), who also showed interest in the system. Accordingly, the NLAW-programme became a British–Swedish joint venture (primarily led by the DPA) assigned to Saab Bofors Dynamics (full development and production).


title: NLAW

text: It was developed in Sweden and produced in the United Kingdom, with final assembly done by subcontractor Thales Air Defence; the two teaming partners have a marketing agreement, enabling any potential customer to procure the system from either Saab Bofors Dynamics or Thales Air Defence. The contract signed in June 2002, between Saab and the two defence authorities, was worth approximately 4.8 billion SEK, including development and serial production; Sweden's share in the serial production was estimated at one billion SEK.


title: NLAW

text: With the finalising of agreements between Sweden and the United Kingdom in 2003, the development of the system continued until 2008, when it entered production in the UK. Deliveries of the weapon began in December 2008; it entered the service of the Swedish, Finnish and British armed forces the following year. It has been estimated that the UK requirement for the British Armed Forces was for 14,000 units, or more; it replaced the obsolescent LAW 80 system and the ILAW (AT4 CS) which was used as a substitute until its deployment. In 2005, the Swedish government placed a first order for 2,000 units from Saab. Finland has placed three orders between 2007 and 2017, for a total of 3,000 units. This was followed by Luxembourg, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Switzerland. As of 16 March 2022, the United Kingdom confirmed that it had delivered more than 4,000 of their NLAWs to the Ukrainian military, to be used against Russia during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: NLAW

text: Research for a new Swedish light anti-tank guided missile began in the 1990s by the Swedish Armed Forces, for its mechanized infantry which were lacking both tanks and anti-tank warfare weapons. Initially, the project focused on creating as simple and cost-effective a system as possible; after some analysis, the need for a man-portable anti-tank weapon with great effectiveness at short to mid-range emerged.


title: NLAW

text: In October 1999, the British DPA awarded Bofors (later Saab Bofors Dynamics) with a product definition order to procure a weapon prototype within 22 months, corresponding to the requirements of the British NLAW-programme: To be able to hit a moving target at and a stationary target at , with a maximum weight of ; some of the requirements later made by the Swedish FMV were a lowered backblast area, a minimum effective range of 20 metres, and an environmental adaptation for international operations. Saab Bofors Dynamics, the DPA, and the FMV each paid a third of the assessment-phase cost for the MBT LAW, of £18 million. The FMV invested additional money during the NLAW-trials, while the DPA ceased further funding until a contract was signed.


title: NLAW

text: The project gained momentum in 2002–2003 after being selected by the British and Swedish defence authorities, meeting the demanding requirements from both nations. Both launcher and missile development was done by Saab Bofors Dynamics in Eskilstuna and Karlskoga, Sweden, using technology derived from earlier Bofors systems; such as the RBS 56B BILL 2 (warhead and guidance) and AT4 CS (confined space capability), as well as some further developments. The United Kingdom and Sweden shared the development costs. Full production and delivery was expected to begin by the end of 2006, with the development phase "nearing its end" in 2005 according to Nick Moore (DPA). However, as a result of qualification failures in the tests of November 2006, it was delayed until 2008. Due to the similar requirements made by the Swedish and British defence authorities, the weapon comes with only minor differences in appearance. It uses a single shaped-charge warhead, as opposed to other comparable missiles that have a tandem warhead.


title: NLAW

text: Saab, who also develops the system software, announced in 2015 that they had been able to optimise the guidance system by fine-tuning its "predicted line of sight". An effective range of and up against stationary targets was demonstrated in April 2014. An effective range of against moving targets has also been reported.


title: NLAW

text: As jobs are often the focus of large material orders, a requirement by the British DPA for signing a contract with the winner was that the production of the system would occur in the United Kingdom. For this reason, Saab Bofors Dynamics contracted UK-based Thales Air Defence ahead of the NLAW-programme—while Lockheed Martin contracted Matra BAe Dynamics. To produce the system, Saab and Thales went on to create Team MBT LAW UK which included 14 subcontractors. As per the agreements signed between the United Kingdom and Sweden in 2002–2003, manufacturing occurred mostly in the UK, with final assembly and test done at the Thales Air Defence facilities in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The weapon went into full production in 2008. The final cost for the MBT LAW contract since the beginning of the NLAW-programme, including the assessment phase, development, and manufacture-license, ended up at approximately £400–437 million.


title: NLAW

text: Team MBT LAW UK, which provided components for the system, included: Thales Air Defence (final assembly); BAE Systems Avionics (inertial measurement unit); NP Aerospace (plastic and composite mouldings); FR-HiTemp (control fins and actuators); Raytheon Systems (electronics assemblies); Skeldings (special purpose springs); Thales Missile Electronics (proximity fuze); MetalWeb; BAE Systems RO Defence; EPS Logistics Technology; Express Engineering; Portsmouth Aviation; ICI Nobel Enterprises; Leafield Engineering. The missile's warhead is made in Switzerland by Saab Bofors Dynamics Switzerland Ltd.


title: NLAW

text: More than 24,200 units have been produced. Depending on which source, it costs: £20,000 (2008); US$30,000 (2022); US$33,000 (2022); US$40,000 (2022). Each unit has a shelf life of around 20 years.


title: NLAW

text: The NLAW is a man-portable, soft-launch, and confined-spaces (saltwater countermass) system, allowing the missile to be fired from almost anywhere; the operator can safely fire through any window of a room no bigger than 4 x 2.5 x 2.5 m (high). The missile is first shot out of the launcher with a low-powered ignition system, after which its main rocket ignites and propels it to the target. Guidance uses a predicted line of sight (PLOS) system. For a moving target, the operator maintains tracking for at least 2–3 seconds, the software embedded in the missile's INS system makes a record of operator's aiming movement, and computes the flight path which will intercept the target. After launch, the missile flies autonomously along the pre-programmed flight path, controlled by an inertial guidance system. The system weighs , with a rocket weight of ; the mass of the warhead is . It is unnecessary for the operator to consider the target distance (so long as it is within range), or to stay exposed whilst the missile is in the air (fire-and-forget).


title: NLAW

text: Against tanks and other armoured vehicles, the overfly top attack (OTA) mode is used; the missile flies about one metre above the line of sight, detonating the warhead above the target's weaker top armour via proximity fuze and magnetic sensors. The direct attack (DA) mode is used against non-armoured targets, detonating the warhead on impact via contact fuze as the missile flies on the line of sight. The launcher can be fired only once and is disposed of after use. The operator can adjust the arming distance of the missile, to avoid a premature detonation triggered by the sensors when it flies over non-targets. They can also fire down or up at a 45-degree angle. The missile will auto-destruct at the maximum flight time of 5,6 seconds, which is about . It is designed to operate in all climate conditions and environments, from −38 to +63 degrees Celsius.


title: NLAW

text: Preceding the escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United Kingdom supplied 2,000 NLAW systems to Ukraine, with another 1,615 delivered by 9 March 2022 to bolster Ukraine's military. More NLAWs were requested by the Ukrainian military following reports that they proved highly effective against Russian vehicles, leading to at least 100 more being allocated by Luxembourg. Alongside US FGM-148 Javelin anti-tank missile systems, delivered as a precaution against increased hostilities, the Ukrainian forces reported that NLAWs produced far greater damage against Russian armoured vehicles than their standard Soviet-era equipment. On 24 March 2022, the UK pledged to deliver a further 6,000 NLAWs and a senior Ukrainian military officer also claimed they were the "weapon of choice" for his troops, responsible for 30–40% of Russian tanks destroyed.


title: NLAW

text: An unknown number of launchers were captured by the armed forces of Russia and the pro-Russian self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic during the conflict. A number of these captured weapons were reportedly transferred to Iran as part of a deal to acquire drones.


title: Dutch oven

text: A Dutch oven (not to be confused with masonry oven) is a thick-walled cooking pot with a tight-fitting lid. Dutch ovens are usually made of seasoned cast iron; however, some Dutch ovens are instead made of cast aluminium, or ceramic. Some metal varieties are enameled rather than being seasoned, and these are sometimes called French ovens. Dutch ovens have been used as cooking vessels for hundreds of years. They are often called casserole dishes in some English-speaking countries other than the United States ( means "cooking pot" in French), and in French. They are similar to both the Japanese and the , a traditional Balkan cast-iron oven, and are related to the South African , the Australian Bedourie oven and Spanish .


title: Dutch oven

text: During the 17th century, brass was the preferred metal for English cookware and domestic utensils, and the Dutch produced it at the lowest cost, which, however, was still expensive. In 1702, Abraham Darby was a partner in the Brass Works Company of Bristol, which made malt mills for breweries. Apparently in 1704, Darby visited the Netherlands, where he studied the Dutch methods of working brass, including the casting of brass pots. Darby learned that when making castings, the Dutch used molds made of sand, rather than the traditional loam and clay, and this innovation produced a finer finish on their brassware. In 1706 he started a new brass mill in the Baptist Mills section of Bristol. There, Darby realized that he could sell more kitchen wares if he could replace brass with a cheaper metal, namely, cast iron. Initial experiments to cast iron in sand molds were unsuccessful, but with the aid of one of his workers, James Thomas, a Welshman, he succeeded in casting iron cookware. In 1707 he obtained a patent for the process of casting iron in sand, which derived from the Dutch process. Thus, the term "Dutch oven" has endured for over 300 years, since at least 1710. The "Merriam-Webster Dictionary" and Researching Food History agree that several very different cooking devices were called "Dutch ovens" — a cast-iron pan with legs and a lid; a roughly rectangular box that was open on one side and that was used to roast meats, and a compartment in a brick hearth that was used for baking.


title: Dutch oven

text: American Dutch ovens changed over time during the colonial era. These changes included a shallower pot, legs to hold the oven above the coals, and a lid flange to keep the coals on the lid and out of the food. Paul Revere is credited with the design of the flat lid with a ridge for holding coals as well as the addition of legs to the pots.


title: Dutch oven

text: Colonists and settlers valued cast-iron cookware because of its versatility and durability. Cooks used them to boil, bake, stew, fry, and roast. The ovens were so valuable that wills in the 18th and 19th centuries frequently spelled out the desired inheritor. For example, Mary Ball Washington (mother of President George Washington) specified in her will, dated 20 May 1788, that one-half of her "iron kitchen furniture" should go to her grandson, Fielding Lewis, and the other half to Betty Carter, a granddaughter. This bequest included several Dutch ovens.


title: Dutch oven

text: Westward-bound settlers took Dutch ovens with them. A Dutch oven was among the gear Lewis and Clark carried when they explored the great American Northwest between 1804 and 1806. Mormon pioneers who settled the American West also took along their Dutch ovens. In fact, a statue raised to honor the Mormon handcart companies who entered Utah’s Salt Lake Valley in the 1850s proudly displays a Dutch oven hanging from the front of the handcart. The Dutch oven is also the official state cooking pot of Texas, Utah, and Arkansas.


title: Dutch oven

text: Mountain men exploring the American frontier used Dutch ovens into the late 19th century. Chuckwagons accompanying western cattle drives also carried Dutch ovens from the mid-19th century into the early 20th century.


title: Dutch oven

text: In the Netherlands, a Dutch oven is called a "", which literally translates to roasting pan. Another name for it is "sudderpan", which literally translates to "simmerpan" or "simmering pot". The design most used today is a black enameled steel pan that is suitable for gas and induction heating. The model was introduced in 1891 by BK, a well-known Dutch manufacturer of cookware. Cheaper and lighter in weight than cast iron, it proved to be a revolution in the kitchen. A braadpan is mainly used for frying meat only, but it can also be used for making traditional stews, such as hachée. Cast-iron models exist, but are used less frequently.


title: Dutch oven

text: A camping, cowboy, or chuckwagon Dutch oven usually has three integral legs, a wire bail handle, and a slightly concave, rimmed lid so that coals from the cooking fire can be placed on top as well as below. This provides more uniform internal heat and lets the inside act as an oven. A Dutch oven without integral legs can be used as a conventional pot on a stove, or may be set on a separate welded steel or cast iron tripod stand or on small stones when cooking on hot coals. These ovens are typically made of bare cast iron, although some are aluminium. The bail handle facilitates lifting the Dutch oven onto and off the coals, using a metal hook. Dutch ovens are often used in Scouting outdoor activities.


title: Dutch oven

text: In Australia, a bedourie camp oven is a steel cookpot, shaped and used like a Dutch oven. Named after Bedourie, Queensland, the Bedourie ovens were developed as a more robust, non-breakable alternative to the cast-iron Dutch ovens.


title: Dutch oven

text: In South Africa, a potjie ( ; ) directly translated "pottle or little pot" from Afrikaans or Dutch, is unlike most other Dutch ovens, in that it is round-bottomed. Traditionally it is a single cast, cast-iron pot, reinforced with external double or triple circumscribing ribs, a bail handle for suspending the pot, and three short legs for resting the pot. It is similar in appearance to a cauldron. It has a matching handled lid, which is recessed, and convex to allow for hot coals to rest on top, providing additional heat from above. When the vessel is to be stored long term, care must be taken to avoid rust forming by seasoning. "Potjie" can also refer to the technique of cooking "potjiekos". Among the recipes that require a potjie, there is one for a type of bread called "potbrood", which literally means "pot bread".


title: Dutch oven

text: Among the South African indigenous peoples, specifically Zulus, these pots also became known as phutu pots, after a popular food prepared in it. The larger pots are normally used for large gatherings, "e.g.", funerals or weddings, to prepare large quantities of food. Wooden spoons called "kombe" in the Tsonga language are used for mixing and stirring.


title: Dutch oven

text: This tradition originated in the Netherlands during the Siege of Leiden and was brought to South Africa by Dutch immigrants. It persisted over the years with the Voortrekkers and survives today as a traditional Afrikaner method of cooking. It is still in common use by South African campers, both domestic and international.


title: Dutch oven

text: In Eastern Europe, but mostly in Russia, a chugunok is a cast-iron pot used in a modern oven or in a traditional Russian oven, hearth, or a campfire. A chugunok is used in a variety of cooking methods, including high temperature cooking, low-temperature cooking, thermal cooking, slow cooking, smothering, roasting, baking, braising, and stewing.


title: Dutch oven

text: The shape of a chugunok is similar to a traditional crock with a narrow top and bottom and wider in the middle. When used inside a traditional oven, a long handled holding tool is used with a roller that serves as a lever to lift a heavy chugunok in and out of the oven. Since there are no handles, it's inconvenient to use a chugunok on a kitchen stove.


title: Dutch oven

text: Often several chugunoks of different sizes are used in the oven at the same time to prepare the entire meal. Dishes usually cooked in a chugunok are roast meat with vegetables called "zharkoye", holubtsi, potato babka, stuffed peppers, and baked milk.


title: Dutch oven

text: Dutch ovens are well suited for long, slow cooking, such as in making roasts, stews, and casseroles. Virtually any recipe that can be cooked in a conventional oven can be cooked in a Dutch oven.


title: Dutch oven

text: When cooking over a campfire, it is possible to use old-style lipped cast-iron Dutch ovens as true baking ovens, to prepare biscuits, cakes, breads, pizzas, and even pies. A smaller baking pan can be placed inside the ovens, used and replaced with another as the first batch is completed. It is also possible to stack Dutch ovens on top of each other, conserving the heat that would normally rise from the hot coals on the top. These stacks can be as high as five or six pots.


title: Dutch oven

text: After use Dutch ovens are typically cleaned like other cast-iron cookware: with boiling water, and a soft brush or sponge. Where possible, a cleaned and freshly oiled Dutch oven should be stored in a clean, dry location with the lid ajar or off to promote air circulation and to avoid the smell and taste of rancid oil. If the Dutch oven must be stored with the lid on, a paper towel or piece of newspaper should be placed inside the oven to absorb any moisture.


title: Dutch oven

text: With care, after much use the surfaces of the Dutch oven will become dark black, very smooth, shiny and non-stick. With proper care, a Dutch oven will provide long service.


title: Dutch oven

text: Enameled ovens do not need to be seasoned before use. However, they lose some of the other advantages of bare cast iron.


title: Dutch oven

text: Enameled ovens can usually be cleaned like ordinary cookware, and some brands can be put in the dishwasher.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Barbara Woolworth Hutton (November 14, 1912 – May 11, 1979) was an American debutante, socialite, heiress, and philanthropist. She was dubbed the "Poor Little Rich Girl"—first when she was given a lavish and expensive debutante ball in 1930 amid the Great Depression, and later due to a notoriously troubled private life.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Heiress to one-third of the estate of the retail tycoon Frank Winfield Woolworth, Barbara Hutton was one of the wealthiest women in the world. She endured a childhood marked by the neglect of her father and the early loss of her mother at age four who died from suffocation due to mastoiditis. Rumors have persisted that she committed suicide. This set the stage for a life of difficulty forming relationships. Married and divorced seven times, she acquired grand foreign titles but was maliciously treated and often exploited by several of her husbands. Publicly she was much envied for her possessions, her beauty and her apparent life of leisure; privately she remained deeply insecure, often taking refuge in drink, drugs, and playboys.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hutton had one child, Lance Reventlow, with her second husband, but was an inconsistent and insecure parent and the subsequent divorce ended in a bitter custody battle. She later developed anorexia nervosa and perhaps thereby prevented further childbirth. Her son died in a plane crash in 1972 at the age of 36, leaving her devastated. She died on May 11, 1979, at age 66. At her death, the formerly wealthy Hutton was on the verge of bankruptcy as a result of both lavish spending and exploitation by those entrusted to manage her estate.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Born in New York City, Barbara Hutton was the only child of Edna Woolworth (1883–1917), who was a daughter of Frank W. Woolworth, the founder of the successful Woolworth five-and-dime stores. Barbara's father was Franklyn Laws Hutton (1877–1940), a wealthy co-founder of E. F. Hutton & Company (owned by Franklyn's brother Edward Francis Hutton), a respected New York investment banking and stock brokerage firm. She was a niece by marriage of cereal heiress Marjorie Merriweather Post, who was for a time (1920–1935) married to E.F. Hutton; thus their daughter, actress-heiress Dina Merrill (born Nedenia Hutton), was a first cousin to Barbara Hutton. Merrill related on A&E's "Biography" that for a time Barbara lived with them following the death of her mother and abandonment by her father.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Edna Hutton reportedly died on May 2, 1917, age 33, from suffocation due to mastoiditis, but rumor persists that she committed suicide by poison in despair over her husband's philandering, especially as the coroner decided that no autopsy was necessary. Four-year-old Barbara discovered her mother's body. After her mother's death, she lived with various relatives, and was raised by a governess. Hutton attended Miss Hewitt's Classes, now The Hewitt School in New York's Lenox Hill neighborhood and Miss Porter's School for Girls in Farmington, Connecticut. She became an introverted child who had limited interaction with other children of her own age. Her closest friend and only confidante was her cousin Jimmy Donahue, the son of her mother's sister. Jimmy Donahue inherited a portion of the Woolworth estate with Barbara and also grew up to have notorious, and public, drug, alcohol and relationship problems.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: In 1924, Barbara Hutton's grandmother Jennie (Creighton) Woolworth died and bequeathed to her $26.1 million. Another $2.1 million in stock from Edna's inheritance was placed in a separate trust - both trusts were administered by Franklyn Hutton. By the time of her 21st birthday in 1933, Barbara Hutton's father had increased her inheritance to $42 million (), not including the additional $8 million from her mother's estate, making her one of the wealthiest women in the world.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: In accordance with New York's high society traditions, Barbara Hutton was given a lavish débutante ball in 1930 on her 18th birthday, where guests from the Astor and Rockefeller families, amongst other elites, were entertained by stars such as Rudy Vallee and Maurice Chevalier. The ball cost $60,000, a veritable fortune in the days of the Depression. Public criticism was so severe that she was sent on a tour of Europe to escape the onslaught of the press.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Her first husband, Alexis Mdivani, used her great wealth to his advantage. As a social climber, he and his siblings were part of the "Marrying Mdivanis" from Georgia who claimed to be "princes" after they fled Tbilisi in 1921 due to the Soviet invasion of Georgia. Alexis was already married to Louise Van Alen, a friend Barbara met at Bailey's Beach in Rhode Island and a member of the Astor family, when he met Barbara in Biarritz, France. Their meeting was engineered by Alexis' manipulative sister Roussie who was always propelling her family into wealthy marriages even if a divorce was required. Roussie and Alexis devised a plan that would enable Alexis to divorce Louise, seduce Barbara, and force her into marriage all at once when Alexis, Louise, Barbara, Roussie, and others were visiting San Sebastian, Spain. Roussie timed Louise and other witnesses to a visit a guest cottage while Alexis seduced Barbara. The group caught the couple, prompting Barbara to flee to Paris to avoid facing the scandal, but Roussie threatened Barbara with negative publicity if she did not marry her brother. Alexis and Barbara were married on June 22, 1933, in the Russian Orthodox Church in Paris, France. Barbara's father provided a $1 million dowry. After spending millions of Barbara's inheritance on a home, polo ponies, clothes and men's jewelry, Alexis and Barbara divorced in March 1935.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Count Kurt Haugwitz-Reventlow, with whom she had her only child, a son named Lance, was her second husband. Reventlow dominated her through verbal and physical abuse, which escalated to a savage beating that left her hospitalized and put him in jail. He also persuaded her to give up her American citizenship, and to take his native Danish citizenship for tax purposes, which she did in December 1937 in a New York federal court. At this point she lapsed into drug abuse. Hutton then developed anorexia, which would plague her for the rest of her life and would leave her unable to have further children. Lance Reventlow, the son, became a race car driver and builder of his own well-respected sports car, the Scarab, in the golden age of American sports car racing.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hutton's divorce from Reventlow gave her custody of their son after a bitter court dispute. As her father had done, she left the raising of her child to a governess and private boarding schools.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: In 1938, Hutton had a brief affair with Howard Hughes in London at the Savoy Hotel, where Hughes spent several afternoons with Hutton. Hughes, at the time, was engaged to Katharine Hepburn and had come to London to meet with government officials and arrange permission to overfly Europe as part of a plan to circumnavigate the globe by air. Hutton later recalled that "he felt he must absolutely be in control of a situation."


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hughes had met Hepburn on the set of one of Cary Grant's movies, while visiting with Grant. Howard Hughes and Cary Grant were close, long-time friends.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: As World War II threatened in 1939, Hutton moved to California. She was active during the war, giving money to assist the Free French Forces and donating her yacht to the Royal Navy. Using her high-profile image to sell war bonds, she received positive publicity after being derided by the press as a result of her marriage scandals. In Hollywood, she met Cary Grant, one of the biggest movie stars of the day, and later married him on July 8, 1942. The press dubbed the married couple "Cash and Cary", though Grant did not need her money nor did he need to benefit from her name, and he appeared to genuinely care for Hutton. Nevertheless, this marriage also failed. Grant did not seek or receive any money from Hutton in their divorce settlement.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hutton left California and moved to Paris, France, before acquiring a palace in Tangier. Hutton then began dating Igor Troubetzkoy, an expatriate Russian prince of very limited means but world renown. In the spring of 1948 in Zurich, Switzerland, she married him. That year, he was the driver of the first Ferrari to ever compete in Grand Prix motor racing when he raced in the Monaco Grand Prix, and later won the Targa Florio. He ultimately filed for divorce. Hutton's subsequent attempted suicide made headlines around the world. Labeled by the press as the "Poor Little Rich Girl", her life made great copy and the media exploited her for consumption by a fascinated public.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Her next marriage, lasting 53 days (December 30, 1953 – February 20, 1954), was to Dominican diplomat Porfirio Rubirosa, a notorious international playboy who meanwhile continued his affair with actress Zsa Zsa Gabor. She was granted Dominican citizenship in 1953.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: In a scathing review of the marriage ceremony in the "Milwaukee Sentinel", Phyllis Battelle coined the oft-quoted phrase: "The bride, for her fifth wedding, wore black and carried a scotch-and-soda."


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hutton then spent time with Americans James Douglas and Philip Van Rensselaer. Her lavish spending continued; already the owner of several mansions around the world, in 1959 she built a luxurious Japanese-style palace on a 30-acre (120,000 m) estate in Cuernavaca, Mexico.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Her next husband was an old friend, German tennis star Baron Gottfried von Cramm. This marriage also ended in divorce. He later died in an automobile crash near Cairo, Egypt, in 1976.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: In Tangier, Hutton met her seventh husband, Prince Pierre Raymond Doan Vinh na Champassak. This marriage, too, was short-lived. Raymond Doan was an adopted member of the former royal family of the Kingdom of Champasak (roughly located in modern Laos).


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hutton lived with Frederick McEvoy, purchasing a chalet at a ski resort in Franconia, New Hampshire, after her marriage to actor Cary Grant. The couple never married and remained friends until McEvoy's death in 1951.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Hutton frequently appeared intoxicated in public and was notorious throughout her life for lavish spending. She was known to make gifts to total strangers.


title: Barbara Hutton

text: Over the years, apart from an important inheritance which included Old Master paintings and important sculptures, she also personally acquired a magnificent collection of her own which included the spectrum of arts, porcelain, valuable jewelry, including elaborate historic pieces that had once belonged to Marie Antoinette and Empress Eugénie of France, and important pieces by Fabergé and Cartier. Among her pieces of jewelry was the Pasha Diamond, which she purchased as an unusual octagonal brilliant-cut but had recut into a round brilliant, bringing it down to .


title: Barbara Hutton

text: The death of her only son Lance Reventlow in an air crash in 1972 sent Hutton into a state of despair. By this time, her fortune had diminished, due to her extreme generosity, including donating Winfield House to the United States government as a residence for its UK ambassador. Alleged questionable deals by her longtime lawyer, Graham Mattison, also ate away at her fortune. Eventually she began liquidating assets in order to raise funds to live, yet continued to spend money on strangers willing to pay a little attention to her. She spent her final years in Los Angeles, living at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel, where she died from a heart attack in May 1979, aged 66. One biographer wrote that, at her death, $3,500 was all that remained of her fortune, but some who actually knew her said that was not the case. She was interred in the Woolworth family mausoleum at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The Rape of the Sabine Women ( ), also known as the Abduction of the Sabine Women or the Kidnapping of the Sabine Women, was an incident in Roman mythology in which the men of Rome committed a mass abduction of young women from the other cities in the region. It has been a frequent subject of painters and sculptors, particularly during the Renaissance and post-Renaissance eras.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The word "rape" (cognate with "rapto" in Portuguese and other Romance languages, meaning "kidnap") is the conventional translation of the Latin word used in the ancient accounts of the incident. Modern scholars tend to interpret the word as "abduction" or "kidnapping" as opposed to a sexual assault. In languages such as Spanish, the event is also remembered as a mass abduction.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: According to Roman historian Livy, the abduction of Sabine women occurred in the early history of Rome shortly after its founding in the mid-8th century BC and was perpetrated by Romulus and his predominantly male followers; it is said that after the foundation of the city, the population consisted solely of Latins and other Italic people, in particular male bandits. With Rome growing at such a steady rate in comparison to its neighbors, Romulus became concerned with maintaining the city's strength. His main concern was that with few women inhabitants there would be no chance of sustaining the city's population, without which Rome might not last longer than a generation. On the advice of the Senate, the Romans then set out into the surrounding regions in search of wives to establish families with. The Romans negotiated unsuccessfully with all the peoples that they appealed to, including the Sabines, who populated the neighboring areas. The Sabines feared the emergence of a rival society and refused to allow their women to marry the Romans. Consequently, the Romans devised a plan to abduct the Sabine women during the festival of Neptune Equester. They planned and announced a festival of games to attract people from all the nearby towns. According to Livy, many people from Rome's neighboring townsincluding Caeninenses, Crustumini, and Antemnatesattended the festival along with the Sabines, eager to see the newly established city for themselves. At the festival, Romulus gave a signal by "rising and folding his cloak and then throwing it round him again," at which the Romans grabbed the Sabine women and fought off the Sabine men. In total, thirty Sabine women were abducted by the Romans at the festival. All of the women abducted at the festival were said to have been virgins except for one married woman, Hersilia, who became Romulus' wife and would later be the one to intervene and stop the ensuing war between the Romans and the Sabines. The indignant abductees were soon implored by Romulus to accept the Roman men as their new husbands.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Outraged at what had happened, the king of the Caeninenses entered upon Roman territory with his army. Romulus and the Romans met the Caeninenses in battle, killed their king, and routed their army. Romulus later attacked Caenina and took it upon the first assault. Returning to Rome, he dedicated a temple to Jupiter Feretrius (according to Livy, the first temple dedicated in Rome) and offered the spoils of the enemy king as "spolia opima". According to the "Fasti Triumphales", Romulus celebrated a triumph over the Caeninenses on 1 March 752 BC.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: At the same time, the army of the Antemnates invaded Roman territory. The Romans retaliated, and the Antemnates were defeated in battle and their town captured. According to the "Fasti Triumphales", Romulus celebrated a second triumph in 752 BC over the Antemnates.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Roman colonists were subsequently sent to Antemnae and Crustumerium by Romulus, and many citizens of those towns also migrated to Rome (particularly the families of the captured women).


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The Sabines themselves finally declared war, led into battle by their king, Titus Tatius. Tatius almost succeeded in capturing Rome, thanks to the treason of Tarpeia, daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, Roman governor of the citadel on the Capitoline Hill. She opened the city gates for the Sabines in return for "what they bore on their arms", thinking she would receive their golden bracelets. Instead, the Sabines crushed her to death with their shields, and her body was buried on or thrown from a rock known ever since by her name, the Tarpeian Rock.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The Romans attacked the Sabines who now held the citadel, in what would become known as the Battle of the Lacus Curtius. The Roman advance was led by Hostus Hostilius, the Sabine defence by Mettus Curtius. Hostus fell in battle, and the Roman line gave way. The Romans retreated to the gate of the Palatium. Romulus rallied his men, promising to build a temple to the Roman God Jove on the site. He then led them back into battle. Mettus Curtius was unhorsed and fled on foot, and the Romans appeared to be winning.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The battle came to an end, and the Sabines agreed to unite in one nation with the Romans. Titus Tatius jointly ruled with Romulus until Tatius's death five years later.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The new Sabine residents of Rome settled on the Capitoline Hill, which they had captured in the battle.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The motivation behind the abduction of the Sabine women is contested among ancient sources. Livy writes that Rome's motivation for abducting the Sabine women was solely to increase the city's population and claims that no direct sexual assault took place during the abduction. Livy says that Romulus offered the Sabine women free choice as well as civic and property rights. According to Livy, Romulus spoke to each of them in person, declaring "that it was all owing to the pride of their parents in denying right of intermarriage to their neighbours. They would live in honourable wedlock, and share all their property and civil rights, anddearest of all to human naturewould be the mothers of freemen." Scholars like Dionysius of Halicarnassus argue that it was an attempt to secure an alliance with the Sabines through the women's newly founded relationships with Roman men. Livy's account is reinforced in some ways through the works of Cicero. In Cicero's work "De re publica", he reiterates Livy's view that the plan to abduct the Sabine women at the festival was done in order "to strengthen the new state" and "safeguard the resources of his kingdom and people." Unlike Livy, Cicero, and Dionysius, Ovid sees the abduction of the Sabine as an avenue for the men of Rome to fulfill their sexual desires rather than an attempt at taking wives to produce children for the city. While he does make note of the issue surrounding Rome's lack of women, he does not make it out to be a factor in the planning of the abduction.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: While it is clear that the story was part of the founding mythology of Rome, its historicity is disputed and considered unlikely to have happened by many historians, or at least not to have happened in the way described. Theodor Mommsen (as well as later historians such as such as ) believed that the story was likely spread during the later fourth century BC after the Samnite Wars as a tale to explain the assimilation of Samnites into Rome after a combination of wars and alliances, and sending similar events into the distant past. The story likely gained relevance again during the time period where the coins depicting the event were minted, in 89 BC. This would have been made during the Social War, a conflict between Rome and its Italian allies over their status and whether they deserved Roman citizenship. A story from Rome's past wherein Rome came into conflict with its neighbors, showed a capacity for brutal violence, but ultimately avoided a war after the Sabines submitted to unification with Rome, would have been powerful one for Rome to send at the time.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Many treatments of the legend combined a suitably inspiring example of the hardiness and courage of ancient Romans with the opportunity to depict multiple figures, including heroically semi-nude figures in intensely passionate struggle.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The subject was popular during the Renaissance as symbolising the importance of marriage for the continuity of families and cultures. It was also an example of a battle subject in which the artist could demonstrate his skill in depicting female as well as male figures in extreme poses, with the added advantage of a sexual theme. It was depicted regularly on 15th-century Italian "cassoni" and later in larger paintings. A comparable opportunity from the New Testament was afforded by the theme of the Massacre of the Innocents.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The 16th-century Italo-Flemish sculptor Giambologna sculpted a representation of this theme with three figures (a man lifting a woman into the air while a second man crouches), carved from a single block of marble. This sculpture is considered Giambologna's masterpiece. Originally intended as nothing more than a demonstration of the artist's ability to create a complex sculptural group, its subject matter, the legendary rape of the Sabines, had to be invented after Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, decreed that it be put on public display in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Piazza della Signoria, Florence.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The proposed site for the sculpture, opposite Benvenuto Cellini's statue of Perseus, prompted suggestions that the group should illustrate a theme related to the former work, such as the rape of Andromeda by Phineus. The respective rapes of Proserpina and Helen were also mooted as possible themes. It was eventually decided that the sculpture was to be identified as one of the Sabine virgins.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The work is signed ("The work of Johannes of Boulogne of Flanders, 1582"). An early preparatory bronze featuring only two figures is in the Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte in Naples. Giambologna then revised the scheme, this time with a third figure, in two wax models now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The artist's full-scale gesso for the finished sculpture, executed in 1582, is on display at the Galleria dell'Accademia in Florence.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Bronze reductions of the sculpture, produced in Giambologna's own studio and imitated by others, were a staple of connoisseurs' collections into the 19th century.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Nicolas Poussin produced two major versions of this subject. His initial version was entitled "The Abduction of the Sabine Women" and was most likely completed around 1633–1634. The painting depicts Romulus giving the signal to the Romans for the abduction. According to the Met, the subject matter of Poussin's work allowed him to highlight his understanding of pose and gesture as well as his knowledge of Roman architecture. This version of the painting currently resides at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Poussin's second version, entitled "The Rape of the Sabine Women", is essentially a recreation of his original work and was likely completed around 1637–1638. The architectural setting of this work is more developed than in the original. This painting currently resides in the Louvre Museum in Paris. According to the Louvre, painting multiple versions of one subject was not uncommon throughout Poussin's career.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Peter Paul Rubens painted his version of "The Rape of the Sabine Women" around 1635–40. It now resides in the National Gallery, London. The painting depicts the moment Romulus gave the signal for the Romans to abduct the Sabine women. Rubens emphasizes the violence of the abduction and sexualizes it by depicting women with exposed breasts and a soldier lifting up a woman's skirt.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Johann Heinrich Schönfeld painted a version of this subject entitled "The Rape of the Sabine Women" in the late 1630s. His work now resides at the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Jacques Stella painted a version of the Rape of the Sabine Women entitled "The Rape of the Sabines" in the mid-17th century. Stella's depiction of the scene is said to have so closely resembled Nicholas Poussin's works that following his death his version was mistaken for a Poussin. This work now resides at Princeton University's Art Museum.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Jacques-Louis David painted the other end of the story, when the women intervene to reconcile the warring parties. "The Sabine Women Enforcing Peace by Running Between the Combatants" (also known as "The Intervention of the Sabine Women") was completed in 1799. It is in the Louvre Museum.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: David had begun work on it in 1796, when France was at war with other European nations, after a period of civil conflict culminating in the Reign of Terror and the Thermidorian Reaction, during which David himself had been imprisoned as a supporter of Robespierre. After David's estranged wife visited him in jail, he conceived the idea of telling the story to honor his wife, with the theme being love prevailing over conflict. The painting was also seen as a plea for the French people to reconcile their differences after the bloodshed of the French Revolution.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The painting depicts Romulus's wife Hersilia – the daughter of Titus Tatius, leader of the Sabines – rushing between her husband and her father and placing her babies between them. A vigorous Romulus prepares to strike a half-retreating Tatius with his spear, but hesitates. Other soldiers are already sheathing their swords.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The English 19th-century satirical painter John Leech included in his "Comic History of Rome" a depiction of the Rape of the Sabine Women, where the women are portrayed, with a deliberate anachronism, in Victorian costume and being carried off from the "Corona et Anchora" ("Crown and Anchor", a common English pub sign in seafaring towns).


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: "The masters must be copied over and over again", Degas said, "and it is only after proving yourself a good copyist that you should reasonably be permitted to draw a radish from nature." Degas first received permission to copy paintings at the Louvre in 1853 when he was eighteen. He was most interested in the great works of the Italian Renaissance and of his own classical French heritage, hence this detailed copy of Poussin's painting.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Charles Christian Nahl painted the subject in a trio of works entitled "The Abduction", "The Captivity", and "The Invasion".


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Pablo Picasso visited this theme in his several versions of the "Rape of the Sabine Women" (1962–63), one of which is in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. These are based on David's version. These conflate the beginning and end of the story, depicting the brutish Romulus and Tatius ignoring and trampling on the exposed figure of Hersilia and her child.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The episode of the Rape of the Sabine Women is recounted by Cicero, Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Plutarch. The poetry of Ovid also contains several allusions to this episode and it is included on the shield of Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The midrash "Sefer haYashar" (first attested in 1624) portrays the story as part of a war between the Sabines, descended from Tubal, and the Roman Kittim (). A more detailed version of this narrative is found in the earlier mediaeval rabbinic work "Yosippon".


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The story was parodied by Lady Carlotta, the mischief-making character in Saki's short story "The Schartz-Metterklume Method".


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Stephen Vincent Benét wrote a short story called "The Sobbin' Women" that parodied the legend. Later adapted into the 1954 musical "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers", it tells the story of seven gauche but sincere backwoodsmen, one of whom gets married, encouraging the others to seek partners. After a social where they meet girls they are attracted to, they are denied the chance to pursue their courtship by the latter's menfolk. Following the Roman example, they abduct the girls. As in the original tale, the women are at first indignant but are eventually won over.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: In 1962, a Spanish "sword and sandal" film based on the story was made, directed by Alberto Gout. Titled "El Rapto de las Sabinas," the film was released in the USA under the titles "The Rape of the Sabine Women" and "The Shame of the Sabine Women."


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Tom Stoppard's play "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead" (1966) features a group of all-male players offering to put on a performance of "The Rape of the Sabine Women", to the disgust of the title characters.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: The latest adaptation is a film without dialogue, "The Rape of the Sabine Women", which was produced in 2005 by Eve Sussman and the Rufus Corporation.


title: The Rape of the Sabine Women

text: Scholars have cited parallels between the Rape of the Sabine Women, the Æsir–Vanir War in Norse mythology, and the Iliad of Greek mythology, providing support for a Proto-Indo-European "war of the functions". Regarding these parallels, J. P. Mallory states:


title: James Longstreet

text: James Longstreet (January 8, 1821January 2, 1904) was one of the foremost Confederate generals of the American Civil War and the principal subordinate to General Robert E. Lee, who called him his "Old War Horse". He served under Lee as a corps commander for most of the battles fought by the Army of Northern Virginia in the Eastern Theater, and briefly with Braxton Bragg in the Army of Tennessee in the Western Theater.


title: James Longstreet

text: After graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point, Longstreet served in the United States Army during the Mexican–American War. He was wounded in the thigh at the Battle of Chapultepec, and during recovery married his first wife, Louise Garland. Throughout the 1850s, he served on frontier duty in the American Southwest. In June 1861, Longstreet resigned his U.S. Army commission and joined the Confederate Army. He commanded Confederate troops during an early victory at Blackburn's Ford in July and played a minor role at the First Battle of Bull Run.


title: James Longstreet

text: Longstreet made significant contributions to most major Confederate victories, primarily in the Eastern Theater as one of Robert E. Lee's chief subordinates in the Army of Northern Virginia. He performed poorly at Seven Pines by accidentally marching his men down the wrong road, causing them to arrive late, but played an important role in the Confederate success of the Seven Days Battles in the summer of 1862, where he helped supervise repeated attacks which drove the Union army away from the Confederate capital of Richmond. Longstreet led a devastating counterattack that routed the Union army at Second Bull Run in August. His men held their ground in defensive roles at Antietam and Fredericksburg. He did not participate in the Confederate victory at Chancellorsville, as he and most of his soldiers had been detached on the comparatively minor Siege of Suffolk. Longstreet's most controversial service was at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, where he openly disagreed with General Lee on the tactics to be employed and reluctantly supervised several unsuccessful attacks on Union forces. Afterward, Longstreet was, at his own request, sent to the Western Theater to fight under Braxton Bragg, where his troops launched a ferocious assault on the Union lines at Chickamauga that carried the day. Afterward, his performance in semi-autonomous command during the Knoxville campaign resulted in a Confederate defeat. Longstreet's tenure in the Western Theater was marred by his central role in numerous conflicts amongst Confederate generals. Unhappy serving under Bragg, Longstreet and his men were sent back to Lee. He ably commanded troops during the Battle of the Wilderness in 1864, where he was seriously wounded by friendly fire. He later returned to the field, serving under Lee in the Siege of Petersburg and the Appomattox campaign.


title: James Longstreet

text: Longstreet enjoyed a successful post-war career working for the U.S. government as a diplomat, civil servant, and administrator. His support for the Republican Party and his cooperation with his old friend, President Ulysses S. Grant, as well as critical comments he wrote about Lee's wartime performance, made him anathema to many of his former Confederate colleagues. His reputation in the South further suffered when he led African-American militia against the anti-Reconstruction White League at the Battle of Liberty Place in 1874. Authors of the Lost Cause movement focused on Longstreet's actions at Gettysburg as a principal reason for why the South lost the Civil War. As an elderly man, he married Helen Dortch Longstreet, a woman several decades younger than him, who after his death worked to restore her husband's image. Since the late 20th century, Longstreet's reputation has undergone a slow reassessment. Many Civil War historians now consider him among the war's most gifted tactical commanders.


title: James Longstreet

text: James Longstreet was born on January 8, 1821, in Edgefield District, South Carolina, an area that is now part of North Augusta, Edgefield County. He was the fifth child and third son of James Longstreet (1783–1833), of Dutch descent, and Mary Ann Dent (1793–1855) of English descent, originally from New Jersey and Maryland respectively, who owned a cotton plantation close to where the village of Gainesville would be founded in northeastern Georgia. James's ancestor Dirck Stoffels Langestraet immigrated to the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1657, but the name became Anglicized over the generations. James's father was impressed by his son's "rocklike" character on the rural plantation, giving him the nickname Peter, and he was known as Pete or Old Pete for the rest of his life. Longstreet's father decided on a military career for his son but felt that the local education available to him would not be adequate preparation. At the age of nine, James was sent to live with his aunt Frances Eliza and uncle Augustus Baldwin Longstreet in Augusta, Georgia. James spent eight years on his uncle's plantation, Westover, just outside the city while he attended the Academy of Richmond County. His father died from a cholera epidemic while visiting Augusta in 1833. Although James's mother and the rest of the family moved to Somerville, Alabama, following his father's death, James remained with his uncle.


title: James Longstreet

text: As a boy, Longstreet enjoyed swimming, hunting, fishing, and riding horses. He became adept at shooting firearms. Northern Georgia was very rural frontier territory during Longstreet's boyhood, and Southern aristocratic traditions had not yet taken hold. As a result, Longstreet's manners were sometimes rather rough in spite of his plantation background. He dressed unceremoniously and at times used coarse language, although not in the presence of women. In his old age, Longstreet described his aunt and uncle as caring and loving. He made no known political statements before the war and appears to have been largely uninterested in politics. But Augustus, as a lawyer, judge, newspaper editor, and Methodist minister, was a fierce states' rights partisan who supported South Carolina during the Nullification crisis (1828–1833), ideas to which Longstreet probably would have been exposed. Augustus was also known for drinking whiskey and playing card games at a time when many Americans considered them immoral, habits he passed on to Longstreet.


title: James Longstreet

text: In 1837, Augustus attempted to obtain an appointment for his nephew to the United States Military Academy, but the vacancy for his congressional district had already been filled. Longstreet was instead appointed the following year by a relative Reuben Chapman, who represented the First District of Alabama, where Mary Longstreet lived. Longstreet was a poor student. By his own admission in his memoirs, he "had more interest in the school of the soldier, horsemanship, exercise, and the outside game of foot-ball than in the academic courses".


title: James Longstreet

text: Longstreet ranked in the bottom third of every subject during his four years at the academy. In January of his third year, Longstreet initially failed his mechanics exam, but took a second test two days later and passed. Longstreet's engineering instructor in his fourth year was Dennis Hart Mahan, a man who stressed swift maneuvering, protection of interior lines, and positioning troops in strategic points rather than attempting to destroy the enemy's army outright. Although Longstreet earned modest grades in the course, he used similar tactics during the Civil War. Longstreet was also a disciplinary problem at West Point. He earned a large number of demerits, especially in his final two years. His offenses included visiting after taps, absence at roll call, an untidy room, long hair, causing a disturbance during study time, and disobeying orders. Biographer Jeffry D. Wert says, "Longstreet was neither a model student nor a gentleman."


title: James Longstreet

text: Longstreet was popular with his classmates, however, and befriended a number of men who would become prominent during the Civil War, including George Henry Thomas, William Rosecrans (his West Point roommate), John Pope, Daniel Harvey Hill, Lafayette McLaws, George Pickett, and Ulysses S. Grant. Longstreet ranked 54th out of 56 cadets when he graduated in 1842. He was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the United States Army.


title: James Longstreet

text: After a brief furlough, Longstreet was stationed for two years at the 4th U.S. Infantry at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, under the command of Lieutenant colonel John Garland. In 1843, he was joined by his friend, Lieutenant Ulysses Grant. In 1844, Longstreet met Garland's daughter and his future first wife Maria Louisa Garland, called Louise by her family. At about the same time as Longstreet began courting Louise, Grant courted Longstreet's fourth cousin, Julia Dent, and that couple eventually married. Longstreet attended the Grant wedding on August 22, 1848, in St. Louis, but his role at the ceremony remains unclear. Grant biographers Jean Edward Smith and Ron Chernow state that Longstreet served as Grant's best man at the wedding. John Y. Simon, editor of Julia Grant's memoirs, concluded that Longstreet "may have been a groomsman", and Longstreet biographer Donald Brigman Sanger called the role of best man "uncertain" while noting that neither Grant nor Longstreet mentioned such a role in either of their memoirs.


title: James Longstreet

text: Later in 1844, the regiment, along with the Third Infantry, was transferred to Camp Salubrity near Natchitoches, Louisiana, as part of the Army of Observation under Major General Zachary Taylor. On March 8, 1845, Longstreet received a promotion to second lieutenant, and was transferred to the Eighth Infantry, stationed at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida. He served for the month of August on court-martial duty in Pensacola. The regiment was then transferred to Corpus Christi, Texas, where he was reunited with the officers of the Third and Fourth Regiments, including Grant. The men passed the winter by staging plays.


title: James Longstreet

text: Longstreet served with distinction in the Mexican–American War with the 8th U.S. Infantry. He fought under Zachary Taylor as a lieutenant in May 1846 in the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. He recounted both of these battles in his memoirs but wrote nothing about his personal role in them. On June 10, Longstreet was given command of Company A of the Eighth Infantry of William J. Worth's Second Division. He fought again with Taylor's army at the Battle of Monterrey in September 1846. During the battle, about 200 Mexican lancers drove back a group of American troops. Longstreet, commanding companies A and B, led a counterattack, killing or wounding almost half of the lancers.


title: James Longstreet

text: On February 23, 1847, he was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. General-in-Chief Winfield Scott ordered Worth's division out of Taylor's army and under his direct command in order to participate in an assault on the Mexican capital of Mexico City. Worth's division was sent first to Lobos Island. From there it sailed 180 miles (289.7 km) south to the city of Veracruz. Worth led Scott's army in its amphibious approach on the city, arriving there on March 9. Scott besieged the city and subjected it to regular bombardments. It surrendered on March 29. The American army then marched north towards the capital. In August, Longstreet served in the Battle of Churubusco, a pivotal battle as the U.S. Army moved closer to capturing Mexico City. The Eighth Infantry was the only force in Worth's division to reach the Mexican earthworks. Longstreet carried the regimental banner under heavy Mexican fire. The troops found themselves stuck in a ditch and could only scale the Mexican defenses by standing on each other. In the fierce hand-to-hand combat that ensued, the Americans prevailed. Longstreet received a brevet promotion to captain for his actions at Churubusco.