title: Titanomachy

text: When Uranus met to consort with Gaia on Mount Othrys, Cronus ambushed Uranus, and with the adamantine sickle, sliced off his genitals, casting them across the Mediterranean. After doing so, Cronus freed the imprisoned Hecatonchires and Cyclopes, by slicing open Gaia's womb and promptly imprisoned them in Tartarus. Cronus also quickly imprisoned Uranus deep below Tartarus. In doing this, he became the Ruler of the Titans. But Uranus cursed Cronus so that Cronus's own children would rebel against his rule, just as Cronus had rebelled against his own father. Uranus' blood that had spilled upon the earth gave rise to the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae. From the mixture of semen and blood from his mutilated genitalia, Aphrodite arose from the sea where they landed in Cyprus.


title: Titanomachy

text: Cronus took his father's title of ruler of land, sky, and sea. He then secured his power by forcing his siblings to bow down to his will.


title: Titanomachy

text: Cronus, paranoid of Uranus's curse and fearing the end of his rule, now turned into the tyrant his father Uranus had once been, swallowing each of his children whole as they were born from his sister-wife Rhea. Rhea, who began to resent Cronus, managed to hide her youngest newborn child Zeus, by tricking Cronus into swallowing a magnetite rock, given to her by her mother Gaia, wrapped in a blanket instead.


title: Titanomachy

text: Rhea brought Zeus to a cave in Crete, where he was raised by Amalthea and the Meliae. Upon reaching adulthood, he masqueraded as Cronus' cupbearer. Once Zeus had been established as a servant of Cronus, Metis gave him a mixture of mustard and wine which would cause Cronus to vomit out his swallowed children, now grown. After freeing his siblings as well as the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes, Zeus led them in rebellion against the Titans.


title: Titanomachy

text: Zeus then waged a war against his father with his disgorged brothers and sisters as allies: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. Zeus released the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes from the earth (where they had been imprisoned by Cronus) and they allied with him as well. The Hecatonchires hurled stones, and the Cyclopes forged for Zeus his iconic thunder and lightning. Fighting on the other side allied with Cronus were the other Titans with the important exception of Themis and her son Prometheus who allied with Zeus (NB. for Hesiod, Clymene is the mother of Prometheus). Atlas was an important leader on the side of Cronus. The war lasted ten years, but eventually Zeus and the other Olympians won, some of the Titans were imprisoned in Tartarus, and the Hecatonchires were made their guards. Atlas was given the special punishment of holding up the sky. In some accounts, when Zeus became secure in his power he relented and gave the Titans their freedom.


title: Titanomachy

text: Hyginus relates the Titanomachy differently: "After Hera saw that Epaphus, born of a concubine, ruled such a great kingdom (Egypt), she saw to it that he should be killed while hunting, and encouraged the Titans to drive Zeus from the kingdom and restore it to Cronus (Saturn). When they tried to mount heaven, Zeus with the help of Athena, Apollo, and Artemis, cast them headlong into Tartarus. On Atlas, who had been their leader, he put the vault of the sky; even now he is said to hold up the sky on his shoulders."


title: Titanomachy

text: Following their victory, the three brothers divided the world amongst themselves: Zeus was given domain over the sky and the air and was recognized as ruler (also known as the Sky Father). Poseidon was given the sea and all the waters, whereas Hades was given the Underworld, the realm of the dead. Each of the other gods were allotted duties according to the nature and proclivities of each. The earth was left common to all to do as they pleased, even to run counter to one another, unless the brothers (Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades) were called to intervene.


title: Titanomachy

text: A somewhat different account of the Titanomachy appeared in a poem that is now lost. The poem was traditionally ascribed to Eumelus of Corinth, a semi-legendary bard of the Bacchiadae ruling family in archaic Corinth, who was treasured as the traditional composer of the "Prosodion", the processional anthem of Messenian independence that was performed on Delos.


title: Titanomachy

text: Even in Antiquity, many authors cited "Titanomachia" without an author's name. The name of Eumelos was attached to the poem as the only name available. From the very patchy evidence, it seems that "Eumelos"' account of the Titanomachy differed from the surviving account of Hesiod's "Theogony" at salient points. It was written in the late seventh-century BC at the earliest.


title: Titanomachy

text: The "Titanomachy" was divided into two books. The battle of Olympians and Titans was preceded by some sort of theogony, or genealogy of the Primeval Gods, in which, the Byzantine writer John the Lydian remarked, the author of Titanomachy placed the birth of Zeus, not in Crete, but in Lydia, which should signify on Mount Sipylus.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: The Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle (EBR) is an American military selective fire battle rifle, and a designated marksman rifle chambered for the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge. It is a variant of the M14 battle rifle and was originally built for use with units of United States Special Operations Command, such as the United States Navy SEALs, Delta Force, and task specific Green Berets ODA teams/units.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: Development began in 2000 with a request by the United States Navy SEALs for a more compact M14 battle rifle. In 2001, Mike Rock Rifle Barrels was the only rifle barrel maker asked by United States Special Operations Command to participate in a SOPMOD conference to create what would be the Mk 14 Mod 0 EBR, with details that include a collapsible stock that was requested for the new rifle and with an aluminum body with telescopic rails. Mike Rock collaborated with engineer Jim Ribordy to make the new rifle. Tests showed that their rifle was effective, but had excessive noise problems.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: In 2003, Ron Smith and Smith Enterprise, Inc. created its own version of the M14 EBR (MK14 SEI), which used a medium heavy weight 457 mm (18.0") barrel and was more widely favored than the rifle made by Rock and Ribordy. The Smith Enterprise-based MK14 was then used as a basis to eventually create the Mk 14 Mod 0 with Springfield Armory, Inc. being tasked to supply the necessary machinery needed to create the weapon in cooperation with the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: United States Navy SEALs were the first to be armed with the EBR in 2004, followed by the U.S. Coast Guard. The U.S. Army also uses the M14 EBR-RI, being created and updated by the Weapons Product Support Integration Directorate of the TACOM Life Cycle Management Command at the Keith L. Ware Test Facility in Rock Island Arsenal, Illinois; having fielded approximately 5,000 units by mid-2010. United States Marine Corps units were also considering the EBR, but wound up instead developing the M39 Enhanced Marksman Rifle.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: In early 2017, the Army began writing a new requirement for an SDM rifle for combat platoons and squads. Although the Army has been using the M14 EBR since 2009, they had to be turned in when returning from theater, and it had weight issues being almost unloaded. A new marksman rifle will equip each combat arms squad weighing about firing standard M80A1 7.62 mm rounds fitted with a rifle optic rather than a telescopic sight. In March 2018, the Army announced that a version of the HK G28, which had already been selected to replace the M110 SASS, would be issued as the service's standard SDMR. Issuing a 7.62 mm SDMR is meant to increase individual squads' ability to defeat enemy body armor that standard 5.56×45mm rounds cannot penetrate. Fielding was planned to start in late 2018.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: This weapon upgrades the standard M14 action and replaces the standard barrel with an barrel bolted onto a telescoping chassis stock system with a pistol grip, a different front sight, Harris bipod, four Picatinny accessory rails (which surround the barrel), and a more effective flash hider in place of the standard lugged USGI flash suppressor. A paddle-type bolt stop similar to that of the M4 carbine is used on the rifle. The EBR chassis system stock is made up entirely of lightweight aircraft alloy.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: A Kydex hand guard and M68 CCO are also added, though they are almost always replaced with a vertical foregrip and magnifying scope for better handling and for use in a designated marksman role. A Wind Talker suppressor can be mounted on the DC Vortex flash hider, though the U.S. military did not adopt one to active service.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: Sage International had some involvement in the decision of whether to invest approximately $120,000 in an injection mold incorporating into the design the rail attachments or machine the replacement stock from a solid billet of aluminum with the latter being selected, which was then shown at the SHOT Show in Orlando in 2003.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: The Mk 14 has been criticised for being too heavy, at when loaded with a 20-round magazine, with most of this weight being at the front of the weapon, making it difficult to aim.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: Several configurations are available on the Mk 14 Mod 0 EBR, including the attachment of an AN/PVS-4 night vision scope. Others had included the capability of adding two different scopes or sights on the Picatinny rails, for more precision or zoom level.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: First fielded in 2013, the Mod 0 replaces the M14's stock and handguard, and the operating rod has been redesigned, connecting the barrel to the stock. Designed for use by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, its parts are coated with manganese phosphate to help resist corrosion.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: The M39 Enhanced Marksman Rifle began development around 2006 at the request of Marine Corps Systems Command, who wanted a versatile semi-automatic rifle that could operate alongside the M40A5. It entered service in 2008, replacing the standard M14 DMR in Marine Corps usage.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: While the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division creates the military Mk 14 Mod 0 and Mod 1 rifles, Sage International was contracted to provide the weapon's chassis-type stock.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: The civilian version created by Smith Enterprise Inc. is also known as the MK14 SEI. The Sage EBR chassis stock is available in a carbine variant known as the M14ALCS/CV. The carbine variant is also known as the MK14 SEI Mod 1.


title: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle

text: Troy Industries has created a replica of the EBR's modular system made by Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division called the Troy Modular Chassis System, which can be used by mounting any functioning M1A or M14 rifle on the MCS. Philippine arms company FERFRANS has created their version of the Mk 14 Mod 0 called the FERFRANS SOPMOD M14/M1A Enhanced Battle Rifle, which uses a Sage International M14/M1A EBR Tactical Stock System aluminum chassis, an M4 buttstock, and a GRSC M4-62 General Purpose Combat Recticle.


title: 2021–22 Eredivisie

text: The 2021–22 Eredivisie was the 66th season of Eredivisie, the premier football competition in the Netherlands. It began on 14 August 2021 and concluded on 15 May 2022.


title: 2021–22 Eredivisie

text: SC Cambuur (promoted after a five-year absence), Go Ahead Eagles and NEC Nijmegen (both promoted after a four-year absence) were promoted from the 2020–21 Eerste Divisie. ADO Den Haag (relegated after thirteen years in the top flight), VVV-Venlo (relegated after four years in the top flight) and FC Emmen (relegated after three years in the top flight) have been relegated to 2021–22 Eerste Divisie.


title: 2021–22 Eredivisie

text: The European play-offs were contested by the four highest ranked teams which were not yet qualified for any European tournament. The matches were played on a home-and-away basis, from 18 to 29 May. The winner received a spot in the second qualifying round of the 2022–23 UEFA Europa Conference League.


title: 2021–22 Eredivisie

text: The seeds were assigned based on the final ranking after the regular season. The best ranked team got the highest seed (lowest number). Eredivisie teams were considered to be better ranked than Eerste Divisie teams.


title: 2021–22 Eredivisie

text: If a match was level at the end of normal playing time, extra time was played (two periods of fifteen minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot-out to determine the winners.


title: 2021–22 Eredivisie

text: Seven teams, six from the Eerste Divisie and one from the Eredivisie, played for a spot in the 2022–23 Eredivisie. The remaining six teams played in the 2022–23 Eerste Divisie. The highest seeded team or the team from the Eredivisie always host the second leg.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and density in response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance. When a substance is heated, molecules begin to vibrate and move more, usually creating more distance between themselves. Substances which contract with increasing temperature are unusual, and only occur within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of linear thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. As energy in particles increases, they start moving faster and faster weakening the intermolecular forces between them, therefore expanding the substance.


title: Thermal expansion

text: If an equation of state is available, it can be used to predict the values of the thermal expansion at all the required temperatures and pressures, along with many other state functions.


title: Thermal expansion

text: A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than "thermal contraction". For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 °C and then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that water has a maximum density at this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Other materials are also known to exhibit negative thermal expansion. Fairly pure silicon has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvin. ALLVAR Alloy 30, a titanium alloy, exhibits an anisotropic negative thermal expansion across a wide range of temperatures


title: Thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy, which also has an effect on the melting point of solids, so, high melting point materials are more likely to have lower thermal expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly more than solids. The thermal expansion of glasses is slightly higher compared to that of crystals. At the glass transition temperature, rearrangements that occur in an amorphous material lead to characteristic discontinuities of coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat. These discontinuities allow detection of the glass transition temperature where a supercooled liquid transforms to a glass. An interesting "cooling-by-heating" effect occurs when a glass-forming liquid is heated from the outside, resulting in a temperature drop deep inside the liquid.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can change the size of many common materials; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion changes the space between particles of a substance, which changes the volume of the substance while negligibly changing its mass (the negligible amount comes from energy-mass equivalence), thus changing its density, which has an effect on any buoyant forces acting on it. This plays a crucial role in convection of unevenly heated fluid masses, notably making thermal expansion partly responsible for wind and ocean currents.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure, such that lower coefficients describe lower propensity for change in size. Several types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear. The choice of coefficient depends on the particular application and which dimensions are considered important. For solids, one might only be concerned with the change along a length, or over some area.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient, and the most relevant for fluids. In general, substances expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are, respectively, approximately twice and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient.


title: Thermal expansion

text: In the general case of a gas, liquid, or solid, the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion is given by


title: Thermal expansion

text: The subscript ""p"" to the derivative indicates that the pressure is held constant during the expansion, and the subscript "V" stresses that it is the volumetric (not linear) expansion that enters this general definition. In the case of a gas, the fact that the pressure is held constant is important, because the volume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well as temperature. For a gas of low density this can be seen from the ideal gas law.


title: Thermal expansion

text: When calculating thermal expansion it is necessary to consider whether the body is free to expand or is constrained. If the body is free to expand, the expansion or strain resulting from an increase in temperature can be simply calculated by using the applicable coefficient of Thermal Expansion.


title: Thermal expansion

text: If the body is constrained so that it cannot expand, then internal stress will be caused (or changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero, through the stress/strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young's modulus. In the special case of solid materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Common engineering solids usually have coefficients of thermal expansion that do not vary significantly over the range of temperatures where they are designed to be used, so where extremely high accuracy is not required, practical calculations can be based on a constant, average, value of the coefficient of expansion.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Linear expansion means change in one dimension (length) as opposed to change in volume (volumetric expansion).


title: Thermal expansion

text: To a first approximation, the change in length measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE). It is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, we may write:


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_3 is a particular length measurement and formula_4 is the rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change in temperature.


title: Thermal expansion

text: This estimation works well as long as the linear-expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature formula_6, and the fractional change in length is small formula_7. If either of these conditions does not hold, the exact differential equation (using formula_4) must be integrated.


title: Thermal expansion

text: For solid materials with a significant length, like rods or cables, an estimate of the amount of thermal expansion can be described by the material strain, given by formula_9 and defined as:


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_11 is the length before the change of temperature and formula_12 is the length after the change of temperature.


title: Thermal expansion

text: is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains, measured in degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Rankine, degrees Celsius, or kelvin,


title: Thermal expansion

text: and formula_16 is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion in "per degree Fahrenheit", "per degree Rankine", “per degree Celsius”, or “per kelvin”, denoted by , , , or , respectively. In the field of continuum mechanics, the thermal expansion and its effects are treated as eigenstrain and eigenstress.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material's area dimensions to a change in temperature. It is the fractional change in area per degree of temperature change. Ignoring pressure, we may write:


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_18 is some area of interest on the object, and formula_19 is the rate of change of that area per unit change in temperature.


title: Thermal expansion

text: This equation works well as long as the area expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature formula_6, and the fractional change in area is small formula_22. If either of these conditions does not hold, the equation must be integrated.


title: Thermal expansion

text: For a solid, we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, and the volumetric (or cubical) thermal expansion coefficient can be written:


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_24 is the volume of the material, and formula_25 is the rate of change of that volume with temperature.


title: Thermal expansion

text: This means that the volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount. For example, a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the temperature is raised by 50 K. This is an expansion of 0.2%. If we had a block of steel with a volume of 2 cubic meters, then under the same conditions, it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters, again an expansion of 0.2%. The volumetric expansion coefficient would be 0.2% for 50 K, or 0.004% K.


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_27 is the fractional change in volume (e.g., 0.002) and formula_6 is the change in temperature (50 °C).


title: Thermal expansion

text: The above example assumes that the expansion coefficient did not change as the temperature changed and the increase in volume is small compared to the original volume. This is not always true, but for small changes in temperature, it is a good approximation. If the volumetric expansion coefficient does change appreciably with temperature, or the increase in volume is significant, then the above equation will have to be integrated:


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_31 is the volumetric expansion coefficient as a function of temperature "T", and formula_32,formula_33 are the initial and final temperatures respectively.


title: Thermal expansion

text: For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is three times the linear coefficient:


title: Thermal expansion

text: This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions. Thus, in an isotropic material, for small differential changes, one-third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis. As an example, take a cube of steel that has sides of length . The original volume will be formula_35 and the new volume, after a temperature increase, will be


title: Thermal expansion

text: We can easily ignore the terms as Δ"L" is a small quantity which on squaring gets much smaller and on cubing gets smaller still.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The above approximation holds for small temperature and dimensional changes (that is, when formula_6 and formula_39 are small); but it does not hold if we are trying to go back and forth between volumetric and linear coefficients using larger values of formula_6. In this case, the third term (and sometimes even the fourth term) in the expression above must be taken into account.


title: Thermal expansion

text: This ratio can be found in a way similar to that in the linear example above, noting that the area of a face on the cube is just formula_42. Also, the same considerations must be made when dealing with large values of formula_6.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Put more simply, if the length of a cubic solid expands from 1.00 m to 1.01 m then the area of one of its sides expands from 1.00 m to 1.02 m and its volume expands from 1.00 m to 1.03 m.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals (with less than cubic symmetry, for example martensitic phases) and many composites, will generally have different linear expansion coefficients formula_16 in different directions. As a result, the total volumetric expansion is distributed unequally among the three axes. If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic, even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal changes. In such cases it is necessary to treat the coefficient of thermal expansion as a tensor with up to six independent elements. A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study the expansion by x-ray powder diffraction. The thermal expansion coefficient tensor for the materials possessing cubic symmetry (for e.g. FCC, BCC) is isotropic.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion coefficients of solids usually show little dependence on temperature (except at very low temperatures) whereas liquids can expand at different rates at different temperatures. However, there are some known exceptions: for example, cubic boron nitride exhibits significant variation of its thermal expansion coefficient over a broad range of temperatures. Another example is paraffin which in its solid form has a thermal expansion coefficent that is dependent on tempertaure.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Since gases fill the entirety of the container which they occupy, the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient at constant pressure, formula_45, is the only one of interest.


title: Thermal expansion

text: For an ideal gas, a formula can be readily obtained by differentiation of the ideal gas law, formula_46. This yields


title: Thermal expansion

text: where formula_48 is the pressure, formula_49 is the molar volume (formula_50, with formula_51 the total number of moles of gas), formula_52 is the absolute temperature and formula_53 is equal to the gas constant.


title: Thermal expansion

text: For an isobaric thermal expansion we have formula_54, so that formula_55 and the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient is:


title: Thermal expansion

text: which is a strong function of temperature; doubling the temperature will halve the thermal expansion coefficient.


title: Thermal expansion

text: In October 1848, William Thomson, a 24 year old professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Glasgow, published a paper "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale".


title: Thermal expansion

text: In a footnote Thomson calculated that "infinite cold" (absolute zero) was equivalent to −273 °C (he called the temperature in °C as the "temperature of the air thermometers" of the time). This value of "−273" was considered to be the temperature at which the ideal gas volume reaches the zero. By considering a thermal expansion linear with temperature (i.e. a constant coefficient of thermal expansion), the value of the absolute zero was linearly extrapolated as the negative reciprocal of 0.366/100 °C — the accepted average coefficient of thermal expansion of an ideal gas in the temperature interval 0 °C-100 °C, giving a remarkable consistency to the currently accepted value of -273.15 °C.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The thermal expansion of liquids is usually higher than in solids because the intermolecular forces present in liquids are relatively weak and its constituent molecules are more mobile. Unlike solids, liquids have no definite shape and they take the shape of the container. Consequently, liquids have no definite length and area, so linear and areal expansions of liquids only have significance in that they may be applied to topics such as thermometry and estimates of sea level rising due to global climate change. However, "α" is sometimes still calculated from the experimental value of "α".


title: Thermal expansion

text: In general, liquids expand on heating. However water is an exception to this general behavior: below 4 °C it contracts on heating, leading to a negative thermal expansion coefficient. At higher temperatures water shows more typical behavior, with a positive thermal expansion coefficient.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container. When a liquid expands in a vessel, the vessel expands along with the liquid. Hence the observed increase in volume (as measured by the liquid level) is not the actual increase in its volume. The expansion of the liquid relative to the container is called its "apparent expansion", while the actual expansion of the liquid is called "real expansion" or "absolute expansion". The ratio of apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit rise of temperature to the original volume is called its "coefficient of apparent expansion". The absolute expansion can be measured by a variety of techniques, including ultrasonic methods.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Historically, this phenomenon complicated the experimental determination of thermal expansion coefficients of liquids, since a direct measurement of the change in height of a liquid column generated by thermal expansion is a measurement of the apparent expansion of the liquid. Thus the experiment simultaneously measures "two" coefficients of expansion and measurement of the expansion of a liquid must account for the expansion of the container as well. For example, when a flask with a long narrow stem, containing enough liquid to partially fill the stem itself, is placed in a heat bath, the height of the liquid column in the stem will initially drop, followed immediately by a rise of that height until the whole system of flask, liquid and heat bath has warmed through. The initial drop in the height of the liquid column is not due to an initial contraction of the liquid, but rather to the expansion of the flask as it contacts the heat bath first. Soon after, the liquid in the flask is heated by the flask itself and begins to expand. Since liquids typically have a greater percent expansion than solids for the same temperature change, the expansion of the liquid in the flask eventually exceeds that of the flask, causing the level of liquid in the flask to rise. For small and equal rises in temperature, the increase in volume (real expansion) of a liquid is equal to the sum of the apparent increase in volume (apparent expansion) of the liquid and the increase in volume of the containing vessel. The absolute expansion of the liquid is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of the containing vessel.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The expansion and contraction of the materials must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it fits over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a 'shrink fit'. Induction shrink fitting is a common industrial method to pre-heat metal components between 150 °C and 300 °C thereby causing them to expand and allow for the insertion or removal of another component.


title: Thermal expansion

text: There exist some alloys with a very small linear expansion coefficient, used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures. One of these is Invar 36, with expansion approximately equal to 0.6 K. These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Pullinger's apparatus is used to determine the linear expansion of a metallic rod in the laboratory. The apparatus consists of a metal cylinder closed at both ends (called a steam jacket). It is provided with an inlet and outlet for the steam. The steam for heating the rod is supplied by a boiler which is connected by a rubber tube to the inlet. The center of the cylinder contains a hole to insert a thermometer. The rod under investigation is enclosed in a steam jacket. One of its ends is free, but the other end is pressed against a fixed screw. The position of the rod is determined by a micrometer screw gauge or spherometer.


title: Thermal expansion

text: To determine the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of a metal, a pipe made of that metal is heated by passing steam through it. One end of the pipe is fixed securely and the other rests on a rotating shaft, the motion of which is indicated by a pointer. A suitable thermometer records the pipe's temperature. This enables calculation of the relative change in length per degree temperature change.


title: Thermal expansion

text: The control of thermal expansion in brittle materials is a key concern for a wide range of reasons. For example, both glass and ceramics are brittle and uneven temperature causes uneven expansion which again causes thermal stress and this might lead to fracture. Ceramics need to be joined or work in concert with a wide range of materials and therefore their expansion must be matched to the application. Because glazes need to be firmly attached to the underlying porcelain (or other body type) their thermal expansion must be tuned to 'fit' the body so that crazing or shivering do not occur. Good example of products whose thermal expansion is the key to their success are CorningWare and the spark plug. The thermal expansion of ceramic bodies can be controlled by firing to create crystalline species that will influence the overall expansion of the material in the desired direction. In addition or instead the formulation of the body can employ materials delivering particles of the desired expansion to the matrix. The thermal expansion of glazes is controlled by their chemical composition and the firing schedule to which they were subjected. In most cases there are complex issues involved in controlling body and glaze expansion, so that adjusting for thermal expansion must be done with an eye to other properties that will be affected, and generally trade-offs are necessary.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion can have a noticeable effect on gasoline stored in above-ground storage tanks, which can cause gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in winter, or less compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in summer.


title: Thermal expansion

text: Heat-induced expansion has to be taken into account in most areas of engineering. A few examples are:


title: Thermal expansion

text: For isotropic materials the coefficients linear thermal expansion "α" and volumetric thermal expansion "α" are related by .


title: Thermal expansion

text: For liquids usually the coefficient of volumetric expansion is listed and linear expansion is calculated here for comparison.


title: Thermal expansion

text: For common materials like many metals and compounds, the thermal expansion coefficient is inversely proportional to the melting point.


title: Thermal expansion

text: In the table below, the range for "α" is from 10 K for hard solids to 10 K for organic liquids. The coefficient "α" varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation; see for example the variation vs. temperature of the volumetric coefficient for a semicrystalline polypropylene (PP) at different pressure, and the variation of the linear coefficient vs. temperature for some steel grades (from bottom to top: ferritic stainless steel, martensitic stainless steel, carbon steel, duplex stainless steel, austenitic steel). The highest linear coefficient in a solid has been reported for a Ti-Nb alloy.


title: Localhost

text: In computer networking, localhost is a hostname that refers to the current device used to access it. It is used to access the network services that are running on the host via the loopback network interface. Using the loopback interface bypasses any local network interface


title: Localhost

text: The local loopback mechanism may be used to run a network service on a host without requiring a physical network interface, or without making the service accessible from the networks the computer may be connected to. For example, a locally installed website may be accessed from a Web browser by the URL


title: Localhost

text: The name "localhost" normally resolves to the IPv4 loopback address , and to the IPv6 loopback address .


title: Localhost

text: IPv4 network standards reserve the entire address block 127.0.0.0/8 (more than 16 million addresses) for loopback purposes. That means any packet sent to any of those addresses is looped back. The address is the standard address for IPv4 loopback traffic; the rest are not supported by all operating systems. However, they can be used to set up multiple server applications on the host, all listening on the same port number. The IPv6 standard assigns only a single address for loopback: .


title: Localhost

text: The resolution of the name "localhost" to one or more IP addresses is normally configured by the following lines in the operating system's hosts file:


title: Localhost

text: The name may also be resolved by Domain Name System (DNS) servers, but queries for this name should be resolved locally, and should not be forwarded to remote name servers.


title: Localhost

text: In addition to the mapping of "localhost" to the loopback addresses ( and ), "localhost" may also be mapped to other IPv4 (loopback) addresses and it is also possible to assign other, or additional, names to any loopback address. The mapping of "localhost" to addresses other than the designated loopback address range in the hosts file or in DNS is not guaranteed to have the desired effect, as applications may map the name internally.


title: Localhost

text: In the Domain Name System, the name "localhost" is reserved as a top-level domain name, originally set aside to avoid confusion with the hostname used for loopback purposes. IETF standards prohibit domain name registrars from assigning the name "localhost".


title: Localhost

text: The name "localhost" is reserved for loopback purposes by RFC 6761 ("Special-Use Domain Names"), which achieved the Proposed Standard maturity level in February 2013. The standard sets forth a number of special considerations governing the use of the name in the Domain Name System:


title: Localhost

text: The IPv4 loopback addresses are reserved within the IPv4 address space by the IETF "Special Use IPv4 Addresses" standard (RFC 5735). The reservation can be traced back to the November 1986 "Assigned Numbers" standard (RFC 990).


title: Localhost

text: In contrast, the IETF "IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture" standard (RFC 4291) reserves the single IPv6 loopback address within the IPv6 address space. The standard precludes the assignment of that address to any physical interface, as well as its use as the source or destination address in any packet sent to remote hosts. Any such packet that is erroneously transmitted is not supposed to be routed, and should be dropped by all routers or hosts that receive it.


title: Localhost

text: The processing of any packet sent to a loopback address is implemented in the link layer of the TCP/IP stack. Such packets are never passed to any network interface controller (NIC) or hardware device driver and must not appear outside of a computing system or be routed by any router. This permits software testing and local services in the absence of any hardware network interfaces.


title: Localhost

text: Looped-back packets are distinguished from any other packets traversing the TCP/IP stack only by the special IP address they were addressed to. Thus, the services that ultimately receive them respond according to the specified destination. For example, an HTTP service could route packets addressed to and to different Web servers, or to a single server that returns different web pages. To simplify such testing, the hosts file may be configured to provide appropriate names for each address.


title: Localhost

text: Packets received on a non-loopback interface with a loopback source or destination address must be dropped. Such packets are sometimes referred to as Martian packets. As with any other bogus packets, they may be malicious and any problems they might cause can be avoided by applying bogon filtering.


title: Localhost

text: The releases of the MySQL database differentiate between the use of the hostname "localhost" and the use of the addresses and . When using "localhost" as the destination in a client connector interface of an application, the MySQL application programming interface connects to the database using a Unix domain socket, while a TCP connection via the loopback interface requires the direct use of the explicit address.


title: Localhost

text: One notable exception to the use of the addresses is their use in Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) traceroute error detection, in which their property of not being routable provides a convenient means to avoid delivery of faulty packets to end users.


title: Krautrock

text: Krautrock (also called , German for ) is a broad genre of experimental rock that developed in West Germany in the late 1960s and early 1970s among artists who blended elements of psychedelic rock, avant-garde composition, and electronic music, among other eclectic sources. These artists incorporated hypnotic rhythms, extended improvisation, musique concrète techniques, and early synthesizers, while generally moving away from the rhythm & blues roots and song structure found in traditional Anglo-American rock music. Prominent groups associated with the krautrock label included Neu!, Can, Faust, Tangerine Dream, Kraftwerk, Cluster, Ash Ra Tempel, Popol Vuh, Amon Düül II and Harmonia.


title: Krautrock

text: The term "krautrock" was popularized by British music journalists as a humorous umbrella-label for the diverse German scene, though many so-labeled artists disliked the term. The movement was partly born out of the radical student protests of 1968, as German youth rebelled against their country's legacy in World War II and sought a popular music distinct from traditional German music and American pop. The period contributed to the development of ambient music and techno, and influenced subsequent genres such as post-punk, new-age music, and post-rock.


title: Krautrock

text: Krautrock has been described as a broad genre encompassing varied approaches, but commonly drawing on psychedelia, avant-garde collage, electronic sounds, and rock music, while typically featuring "improvisation and hypnotic, minimalistic rhythms." "Los Angeles Magazine" summarized the genre as "American psychedelica meets icy Germanic detachment." "Melody Maker" described the style as "where the over-reaching ambition and untethered freakitude of late '60s acid rock is checked and galvanised by a proto-punk minimalism ... music of immense scale that miraculously avoided prog-rock's bombastics.” AllMusic described it as expanding on the territory associated with art rock and progressive rock, but diverging from the American and British groups' emphasis on jazz and classical elements in favor of "a droning, pulsating sound that owed more to the avant garde than to rock & roll."


title: Krautrock

text: Despite a common approach and generational attitude among artists, the "New Statesman" argues that "in truth, no two Krautrock acts sound remotely alike. Compare the dreamy synthesiser washes of Tangerine Dream with the alien noise collages of Faust or the psychedelic funk of Can." However, a common feature is the "motorik" beat: the 4/4 beat often used by drummers associated with krautrock, characterised by a kick drum-heavy, pulsating groove, that created a forward-flowing feel. The motorik beat was used by Can in the song "Mother Sky", by Neu! on their debut album, and by Kraftwerk in the song "Autobahn" on their album of the same name, later being adopted by other krautrock bands. It has been widely used in many different styles of music beyond krautrock. According to "XLR8R", the term krautrock is often used by critics to signify the "mesmerizing motorik rhythms pioneered by Can and Neu!", but contested that "they represent merely a tiny fraction of the music that emerged from Germany during krautrock's Golden Age".


title: Krautrock

text: Krautrock emerged in West Germany during the 1960s and early 1970s. The music was partially inspired by broad cultural developments such as the revolutionary 1968 German student movement, with many young people having both political and aesthetic concerns. Youth rebelled against both dominant American influence and conservative German entertainment such as Schlager music, seeking to liberate themselves from Germany's Nazi legacy in World War II and create a new popular culture. Dieter Moebius, of the bands Cluster and Harmonia, noted that "we were a lot of the times on the streets instead of studying. As young people we were not very proud to be German [...] we were all tired of listening to bad German music and imitations of American music. Something had to happen." The movement saw artists merge elements of varied genres such as psychedelic rock, avant-garde forms of electronic music, funk rhythm, jazz improvisation and "ethnic" music styles, typically reflecting a "genuine sense of awe and wonder."


title: Krautrock

text: Core influences on these German artists included avant-garde composers Karlheinz Stockhausen and Terry Riley, and bands such as the Mothers of Invention, the Velvet Underground, the Beatles, and Pink Floyd. A significant influence was the work of American minimalists such as Riley, Tony Conrad, and La Monte Young, as well as the late '60s albums of jazz musician Miles Davis, particularly his jazz fusion work on "In a Silent Way" (1969). Some artists drew on ideas from 20th century classical music and musique concrète, particularly composer Stockhausen (with whom, for example, Irmin Schmidt and Holger Czukay of Can had previously studied), and from the new experimental directions that emerged in jazz during the 1960s and 1970s (mainly the free jazz pieces by Ornette Coleman or Albert Ayler). "The Quietus" noted the influence of Jimi Hendrix and James Brown on krautrock musicians. Moving away from the patterns of song structure and melody of much rock music in America and Britain, some in the movement were drawn to a more mechanical and electronic sound.


title: Krautrock

text: Until around 1973, the word ("German Rock") was used to refer to the new groups from West Germany. Other names thrown around by the British and American music press were "Teutonic rock", "Überrock" and "Götterdämmer rock". West Germany's music press initially used as a pejorative, but the term lost its stigma after the music gained success in Britain. The term derives from the ethnic slur "kraut". "Kraut" in German can refer to herbs, weeds, and drugs.


title: Krautrock

text: Various sources claim that "krautrock" was originally a humorous term coined in the early 1970s, either by British disc jockey John Peel or by the UK music newspaper "Melody Maker", in which experimental German bands found an early and enthusiastic following. The first use of the term however, was found in a full page advertisement from "Popo Music Management" and "Bacillus Records" promoting German Rock in the UK, in April 1971. The music emerging in Germany was first covered extensively in three concurrent issues of the UK music paper New Musical Express in the month of December 1972, by journalist Ian MacDonald.


title: Krautrock

text: Its musicians tended to reject the name "krautrock". This was also the case for "kosmische Musik". Musicologist Julian Cope, in his book "Krautrocksampler", says "krautrock is a subjective British phenomenon", based on the way the music was received in the UK rather than on the actual West German music scene out of which it grew. For instance, while one of the main groups originally tagged as krautrock, Faust, recorded a seminal 12-minute track they titled "Krautrock", they would later distance themselves from the term, saying: "When the English people started talking about krautrock, we thought they were just taking the piss... and when you hear the so-called 'krautrock renaissance', it makes me think everything we did was for nothing."


title: Krautrock

text: Kosmische Musik ("cosmic music") is a term which came into regular use before "krautrock" and was preferred by some German artists who disliked the English label; today, it is often used synonymously with krautrock. More specifically, it may describe 1970s German electronic music which uses synthesizers and incorporates themes related to space or otherworldliness; it is also used as a German analogue to the English term "space rock". The style was often instrumental and characterized by "spacy", ambient soundscapes. Artists used synthesizers such as the EMS VCS 3 and Moog Modular, as well as sound processing effects and tape-based approaches. They largely rejected rock music conventions, and instead drew on "serious" electronic compositions.


title: Krautrock

text: The term "kosmische Musik" was coined by Edgar Froese and later used by record producer Rolf-Ulrich Kaiser as a marketing name for bands such as Ash Ra Tempel, Tangerine Dream, and Klaus Schulze. The following year, Rolf-Ulrich Kaiser's Ohr Records when he released the compilation "Kosmische Musik" (1972) featuring tracks by Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze, Ash Ra Tempel, and Popol Vuh. Kaiser eventually began referring to the style as "cosmic rock" to signify that the music belonged in a rock idiom. German producer Conny Plank was a central figure in the kosmische sound, emphasizing texture, effects processing, and tape-based editing techniques. Plank oversaw kosmische recordings such as Kraftwerk's "Autobahn", Neu!'s "Neu! 75", and Cluster's "Zuckerzeit".


title: Krautrock

text: Several of these artists would later distance themselves from the term. Other proposed names for the style at the time were "Berlin School" and "Dusseldorf School," though none remained definitive. The style would later lead to the development of new-age music, with which it shared several characteristics. It would also exert lasting influence on subsequent electronic music and avant-garde rock.


title: Krautrock

text: Krautrock has proved to be highly influential on a succession of other musical styles and developments. Early contemporary enthusiasts outside Germany included Hawkwind and in particular Dave Brock who supposedly penned the sleeve notes for the British edition of Neu!'s first album Faust's budget release "The Faust Tapes" has been cited as a formative teenage influence by several musicians growing up in the early 1970s such as Julian Cope (who has always cited krautrock as an influence, and wrote the book "Krautrocksampler" on the subject). The genre also had a strong influence on David Bowie's "Station to Station" (1976) and the experimentation it inspired led to his 'Berlin Trilogy'.


title: IQOO

text: iQOO is a Chinese consumer electronics manufacturer headquartered in Dongguan, Guangdong. The company was founded on 30 January 2019 as a subsidiary of the consumer electronics manufacturer Vivo based in the same city.


title: IQOO

text: In March 2019, the world's second largest smartphone manufacturer, BBK Electronics, announced iQOO as a sub-brand of Vivo as its newest member to its smartphone brand lineup along with Oppo, Vivo, Realme and OnePlus. The brand was introduced in India in February 2020. The iQOO is also a performance focused sub-brand giving more importance to build and market their phones specifically for gaming and other performance intense tasks, rather than their Vivo phones focusing mainly on camera and sound quality. The smartphone iQOO 3 introduced on 25 February 2020 is their first smartphone with Snapdragon 865 giving a competitive advantage for gamers. The smartphones are sold online initially. .


title: IQOO

text: During 2020–2021, the iQOO introduced six smartphones in the Chinese market and three smartphones in the Indian market, as of May 2021.


title: IQOO

text: iQOO 3 is a 5G smartphone launched in 2020 with Snapdragon 865 processor and iQOO UI 1.0 based on Android 10. The phone has a Super AMOLED display with support for HDR10+ and Corning Gorilla Glass 6. It has an aluminium frame with a glass back, and has UFS 3.1 for storage. It comes with a quad camera on the rear equipped with a 48mp primary senor capable of recording at 4K@30/60fps. It has support for wifi 6 and has an indisplay fingerprint scanner. It supporta 55w fast charging capable of charging the 4400 mAh to 50% in 15 minutes.


title: IQOO

text: While introducing iQOO 3, along with it iQOO UI 1.0 is also introduced as its custom UI of iQOO on top of Android 10 for its smartphone lineup with customisable 'Always on' display and gaming focus features.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Jeep Compass is a compact crossover SUV introduced for the 2007 model year, and is currently in its second generation. The first generation Compass and Patriot, its rebadged variant, were among Jeep's first crossover SUVs. The second-generation Compass debuted in September 2016 in Brazil and at the Los Angeles International Auto Show in November 2016, sharing a modified platform with the Renegade. It is positioned between the smaller Renegade and the larger Cherokee globally or the Commander in South America.


title: Jeep Compass

text: Four years prior to the introduction of the production Jeep Compass, a concept vehicle with the same name had its world premiere in Detroit at the 2002 North American International Auto Show. It featured a two-door body, all-wheel drive and a 3.7-liter V6 engine.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The 3.7 L Power-Tech V6 engine from the Jeep Liberty was not available in the new Compass for 2007, though the production model Compass kept the concept car's styling cues and some of its features. The production model Compass also had four doors instead of the two doors on the concept car.


title: Jeep Compass

text: Jeep debuted the production version of the Compass at the 2006 North American International Auto Show in January. The first Compass was assembled on 30 May 2006, in Belvidere, Illinois, where the Dodge Neon was produced.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Compass did not carry the "Trail Rated" badge found on other SUVs in the Jeep family for the 2007-2010 model years, but received the "Trail Rated" badge for the 2011 model year. The Compass targets first-time Jeep buyers and those who drive primarily on paved roads.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Compass and Patriot are both based on the DaimlerChrysler/Mitsubishi GS platform. These vehicles are differentiated by their styling and marketing: The Patriot is a traditionally styled 4-door Jeep wagon, while the Compass has a softer hatchback look, similar to the Dodge Caliber.


title: Jeep Compass

text: For 2011, Jeep redesigned the Compass to more closely resemble the Grand Cherokee, while keeping its own identity. The 2011 Jeep Compass also receives a revised suspension for better handling, a revised interior with more standard equipment, and more option packages including a Freedom Drive II Off-Road Package which includes a continuously variable transmission fitted with a low-range setting, all-terrain tires inside 17-inch aluminum wheels, skid plates, a four-wheel-drive system, and an increase ground clearance of a full inch.


title: Jeep Compass

text: A special edition Compass model commemorated Jeep's 70th anniversary in 2011, and included various upgrades, special interiors, badges, wheels, and was available in only three exterior colors: Bronze Star, Bright Silver, and Black.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Compass uses a 2.4 L "World" I4 gasoline engine. The 2.0 L World engine is available on the 4X2 Sport model with . A 2.0 L l-R4 TDi Volkswagen-designed diesel engine was available for the European and Australian markets, replaced in 2011 by the 2.2 L Mercedes-Benz OM651.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Compass also features two electronically controlled four-wheel drive systems. Freedom Drive I and Freedom Drive II, Freedom Drive I is a full-time four-wheel drive system with locking capabilities; Freedom Drive II is based on Freedom Drive I but by using the vehicle's CVT transmission it is capable of a 19:1 gear reduction simulating a low-range usually found in vehicles with dedicated transfer cases.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The base model version has front wheel drive (FWD). The Trail Rated version of the Compass has passed the same testing of off-road ability as other Jeep vehicles in terms of traction, ground clearance, maneuverability, articulation, and water fording.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Sport serves as the base model. It includes features such as seventeen-inch alloy wheels, an AM/FM stereo with single-disc CD player and four speakers, a heater, cloth seating surfaces, and manual, roll-up windows and manual door locks. Features such as power windows and door locks, a seven-speaker Boston Acoustics premium sound system with a 368-watt external amplifier, and air conditioning are options. The 2014-2016 Jeep Compass Sport and Sport SE, The Electronic Vehicle Information Center (EVIC) does not come as standard equipment. An EVIC gives the user information such as gas mileage, number of miles to empty, service intervals, tire pressure, etc.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Latitude is the midrange model. It added features onto the Sport, such as air conditioning, keyless entry, a security system, and power windows and door locks. The EVIC comes as an optional component with the security and cargo convenience package. This option comes with an alarm, tonneau cover, tire pressure monitoring display, garage door opener, and an electronic vehicle information center. The model became available in 2011.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Limited is the top-of-the-line model. It added features such as leather-trimmed seats, had an available sunroof, and remote starter.


title: Jeep Compass

text: A 70th Anniversary Edition was based on the Sport model. It added air conditioning, unique leather-trimmed seats, unique alloy wheels, a sunroof, side-impact airbags, a seven-speaker Boston Acoustics premium sound system with a 368-watt external amplifier, power windows and door locks, keyless entry, and a security alarm. This special edition model was only offered in 2011 to celebrate Jeep's 70th anniversary. All Jeep models for 2011 only offered a 70th Anniversary Edition model (Compass, Patriot, Wrangler, Wrangler Unlimited, Liberty, and the Grand Cherokee).


title: Jeep Compass

text: An Altitude Edition model was made available in 2012. It was based upon the Latitude model and added black-painted alloy wheels, leather-trimmed seats, a sunroof, and a Boston Acoustics premium sound system with a 368-watt external amplifier. The Altitude package was available on the Jeep Grand Cherokee only at first, but then was available on the Compass, Patriot, Wrangler, and Wrangler Unlimited as well. All models except the Jeep Grand Cherokee dropped this model (the Grand Cherokee model continued to offer this model for the 2013 model year). The Altitude name was chosen in a contest to name a Grand Cherokee concept car. Because of the Altitude's popularity, Jeep decided to offer it on all models except for the Jeep Liberty, which had been discontinued.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Jeep Patriot and first generation Jeep Compass were phased out during the 2016 model year, replaced by a single redesigned Compass SUV that FCA debuted in late 2016.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The second-generation of Jeep Compass debuted on 27 September 2016 in Brazil and at the Los Angeles International Auto Show in November 2016, replacing the Jeep Patriot and first generation Compass. Production for North American-market Compass models was moved to Toluca, Mexico, while Jeep Cherokee (KL) production will move from Toledo, Ohio to Belvidere, Illinois, where the first-generation Compass and Jeep Patriot were both assembled.


title: Jeep Compass

text: Using a stretched version of the same platform as the Renegade, the Compass is available in four distinct trim levels: the base Sport, the mid-level Latitude, the higher-end Limited, and the off-road-focused Trailhawk. All trim levels are available with either front-wheel drive or four-wheel drive, with the exception of the Trailhawk, which is only available in a 4WD configuration.


title: Jeep Compass

text: In the United States, the Compass comes equipped with a 2.4 L "Tigershark" four-cylinder engine. More than 65 percent of the upper body structure and the frame is made of high-strength steel. Styling of the second-generation Compass is inspired by two of its larger siblings, the Jeep Cherokee (KL) and Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2). Styling elements taken from the Grand Cherokee include headlamps integrated into the front grille and a narrow front grille with a black finish, while the Cherokee lends some of its rear end styling elements, basic interior design, and 2.4 L "Tigershark" inline four-cylinder (I4) gasoline engine and ZF-sourced nine-speed 948TE automatic transmission to the overall design of the Compass.


title: Jeep Compass

text: Available features include FCA's UConnect 4C 8.4 and 8.4N touch-screen infotainment systems, a Beats Premium Audio System with a 506-watt digital amplifier, eighteen-inch aluminum alloy wheels, Jeep's Command-View panoramic sunroof, LED front headlamps, Forward Collision Warning, a ParkView rear-view backup camera system, front and rear parking sensors, Blind Spot Information System (BLIS), and Jeep's Selec-Terrain full-time four-wheel-drive system (standard on the Trailhawk model).


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Compass is assembled at plants in Italy, Mexico, Brazil, China, and India. North American and European models are manufactured in Melfi, Italy (designation: BU/520) and Toluca, Mexico (designation: MP/522); moved from Belvidere, Illinois. In Brazil, the second-generation Jeep Compass start production the 26 September 2016 at FCA new Goiana, Pernambuco Assembly Plant (designation: M1/551). Chinese models were produced by the GAC Fiat Chrysler joint venture (designation: M4/553) Production of the first-generation Compass and Patriot ended early 2017, with production of the second generation Compass beginning in spring of 2017 for North American models. Assembled at Fiat's facility in Ranjangaon, Maharashtra, it is Jeep's first model assembled in India (designation: M6/566). The right-hand drive version is solely produced at the Indian plant.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Compass was unveiled in India on 12 April 2017 and assembled in the FCA India Pune plant since 1 July 2017. In addition to manufacturing for the Indian market, Jeep also exports the Indian-made Compass to many right-hand drive markets such as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Brunei, Japan, Indonesia, Nepal, and Thailand. The India-spec model is available with two engine options - a 1.4-liter I4, turbocharged "MultiAir" petrol, and a 2.0-liter I4, turbocharged "Multijet II" diesel engine. In 2017 Jeep sold about 10,000 Compasses in India from the day of release until the middle of December.


title: Jeep Compass

text: In 2020, a facelift for the model was first launched in China, with slight visual changes to the exterior of the vehicle, and a completely redesigned interior. In January 2021, the Compass facelift was released in India. It gets a revised front profile, a larger grille, a new front bumper with a larger air dam, slimmer headlights with Integrated LED DRLs, LED fog lights, and new alloy wheels.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The 2022 US model includes over-the-air updates and includes collision warning with automatic braking, lane-keep assist, pedestrian/cycle detection, active lane management, blind-spot monitor, and rear cross-traffic alert. It also includes a semi-autonomous assist system called Highway Assist that allows for hand-on-wheel and eyes-on-road automated driving.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The 2022 Compass lineup consists of existing Sport, Latitude, Trailhawk, Limited, and High Altitude models, although a new Latitude Lux model, slotting between the mid-range Latitude and luxury-oriented Limited trims, becomes available. A limited-edition (RED) Edition model is also available, based on the Limited trim. The sole engine remains the naturally-aspirated 2.4-liter Tigershark four-cylinder gasoline engine producing 177 horsepower and 172 lb. ft. of torque (down 3 horsepower and 3 lb. ft. of torque, from 180 and 175, respectively). All four-wheel drive models receive the nine-speed 948TE automatic ZF 9HP transmission as standard equipment, while front wheel drive models receive the six-speed Aisin automatic transmission as standard. Sport and Latitude models are available with front-wheel-drive with optional all-wheel-drive, while all other models now include standard all-wheel-drive.


title: Jeep Compass

text: In addition to the standard trim levels, Altitude and High Altitude Special Editions are available for the Latitude and Limited trim levels respectively and added "blacked-out" exterior accents, black alloy wheels, as well as other features to their respective trim levels.


title: Jeep Compass

text: The Upland Special Edition model is also available for the base Sport trim level and adds black alloy wheels, blue accent trim for the exterior badging, Trailhawk-inspired exterior styling elements, and blue stitching on the interior. It is only available with four-wheel-drive (4WD), the 2.4 L I4 engine, and an automatic transmission.


title: Jeep Compass

text: An 80th Anniversary Edition version of the Latitude trim level, that adds unique exterior accents and a few extra features, is available for the 2021 model year.


title: Jeep Compass

text: For 2022, Jeep unveiled a line of vehicles in partnership with Product Red, with each brand releasing a special-edition vehicle with (RED) branding. The Product Red Jeep Compass is based on the Limited trim level, and is available exclusively in Redline 3-Coat Pearl Metallic paired with a Black perforated leather-trimmed interior with red interior stitching. In addition, the Compass (RED) Edition includes special exterior badging, and wheels from the Limited-based High Altitude Edition. In addition to a special-edition vehicle, Jeep will also release branded (RED) merchandise that will be available for purchase. Proceeds from each sale of a (RED)-branded vehicle will be donated to the Product Red Foundation.


title: The Second Sex

text: The Second Sex () is a 1949 book by the French existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir, in which the author discusses the treatment of women in the present society as well as throughout all of history. Beauvoir researched and wrote the book in about 14 months between 1946 and 1949. She published the work in two volumes: "Facts and Myths", and "Lived Experience". Some chapters first appeared in the journal "Les Temps modernes".


title: The Second Sex

text: One of Beauvoir's best-known and controversial books (banned by the Vatican), "The Second Sex" is regarded as a groundbreaking work of feminist philosophy, and as the starting inspiration point of second-wave feminism.


title: The Second Sex

text: Beauvoir asks, "What is woman?" She argues that man is considered the default, while woman is considered the "Other": "Thus, humanity is male, and man defines woman not herself, but as relative to him." Beauvoir describes the relationship of ovum to sperm in various creatures (fish, insects, mammals), leading up to the human being. She describes women's subordination to the species in terms of reproduction, compares the physiology of men and women, concluding that values cannot be based on physiology and that the facts of biology must be viewed in light of the ontological, economic, social, and physiological context.


title: The Second Sex

text: Authors whose views Beauvoir rejects include Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, and Friedrich Engels. Beauvoir argues that while Engels, in his "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" (1884), maintained that "the great historical defeat of the female sex" is the result of the invention of bronze and the emergence of private property, his claims are unsupported.


title: The Second Sex

text: According to Beauvoir, two factors explain the evolution of women's condition: participation in production, and freedom from reproductive slavery. Beauvoir writes that motherhood left woman "riveted to her body", like an animal, and made it possible for men to dominate her and Nature. She describes man's gradual domination of women, starting with the statue of a female Great Goddess found in Susa, and eventually the opinion of ancient Greeks like Pythagoras, who wrote, "There is a good principle that created order, light, and man and a bad principle that created chaos, darkness, and woman." Men succeed in the world by transcendence, but immanence is the lot of women. Beauvoir writes that men oppress women when they seek to perpetuate the family and keep patrimony intact. She compares women's situation in ancient Greece with Rome. In Greece, with exceptions like Sparta, where there were no restraints on women's freedom, women were treated almost like slaves. In Rome, because men were still the masters, women enjoyed more rights, but, still discriminated against on the basis of their sex, had only empty freedom.


title: The Second Sex

text: Discussing Christianity, Beauvoir argues that, with the exception of the German tradition, it and its clergy have served to subordinate women. She also describes prostitution and the changes in dynamics brought about by courtly love that occurred about the twelfth century. Beauvoir describes, from the early fifteenth century, "great Italian ladies and courtesans", and singles out the Spaniard Teresa of Ávila as successfully raising "herself as high as a man". Through the nineteenth century, women's legal status remained unchanged, but individuals (like Marguerite de Navarre) excelled by writing and acting. Some men helped women's status through their works. Beauvoir finds fault with the Napoleonic Code, criticizes Auguste Comte and Honoré de Balzac, and describes Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as an anti-feminist. The Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century gave women an escape from their homes, but they were paid little for their work. Beauvoir traces the growth of trade unions and participation by women. She examines the spread of birth control methods and the history of abortion. Beauvoir relates the history of women's suffrage, and writes that women like Rosa Luxemburg and Marie Curie "brilliantly demonstrate that it is not women's inferiority that has determined their historical insignificance: It is their historical insignificance that has doomed them to inferiority".


title: The Second Sex

text: Beauvoir provides a presentation about the "everlasting disappointment" of women, for the most part from a male heterosexual's point of view. She covers female menstruation, virginity, and female sexuality, including copulation, marriage, motherhood, and prostitution. To illustrate man's experience of the "horror of feminine fertility", Beauvoir quotes the "British Medical Journal" of 1878 in which a member of the British Medical Association writes, "It is an indisputable fact that meat goes bad when touched by menstruating women." She quotes poetry by André Breton, Léopold Sédar Senghor, Michel Leiris, Paul Verlaine, Edgar Allan Poe, Paul Valéry, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and William Shakespeare, along with other novels, philosophers, and films. Beauvoir writes that sexual division is maintained in homosexuality.


title: The Second Sex

text: and Stendhal, Beauvoir writes that these "examples show that the great collective myths are reflected in each singular writer". "Feminine devotion is demanded as a duty by Montherlant and Lawrence; less arrogant, Claudel, Breton, and Stendhal admire it as a generous choice..." She finds that woman is "the "privileged Other"", that "Other" is defined in the "way the "One" chooses to posit himself", and writes that, "But the only earthly destiny reserved to the woman equal, child-woman, soul sister, woman-sex, and female animal is always man." Beauvoir writes that, "The absence or insignificance of the female element in a body of work is symptomatic... It loses importance in a period like ours in which each individual's particular problems are of secondary import."


title: The Second Sex

text: Beauvoir writes that "mystery" is prominent among men's myths about women. She also writes that mystery is not confined by sex to women, but, instead, by situation, and that it pertains to any slave. She thinks it disappeared during the eighteenth century when men, however briefly, considered women to be peers. She quotes Arthur Rimbaud, who writes that, hopefully, one day, women can become fully human beings when man gives her her freedom.


title: The Second Sex

text: Presenting a child's life beginning with birth, Beauvoir contrasts a girl's upbringing with a boy's, who at age 3 or 4 is told he is a "little man". A girl is taught to be a woman and her "feminine" destiny is imposed on her by society. She has no innate "maternal instinct". A girl comes to believe in and to worship a male god and to create imaginary adult lovers. The discovery of sex is a "phenomenon as painful as weaning" and she views it with disgust. When she discovers that men, not women, are the masters of the world this "imperiously modifies her consciousness of herself". Beauvoir describes puberty, the beginning of menstruation, and the way girls imagine sex with a man. She relates several ways that girls in their late teens accept their "femininity", which may include running away from home, fascination with the disgusting, following nature, or stealing. Beauvoir describes sexual relations with men, maintaining that the repercussions of the first of these experiences informs a woman's whole life. Beauvoir describes women's sexual relations with women. She writes that "homosexuality is no more a deliberate perversion than a fatal curse".


title: The Second Sex

text: Beauvoir writes that "to ask two spouses bound by practical, social and moral ties to satisfy each other sexually for their whole lives is pure absurdity". She describes the work of married women, including housecleaning, writing that it is "holding away death but also refusing life". She thinks, "what makes the lot of the wife-servant ungratifying is the division of labor that dooms her wholly to the general and inessential". Beauvoir writes that a woman finds her dignity only in accepting her vassalage which is bed "service" and housework "service". A woman is weaned away from her family and finds only "disappointment" on the day after her wedding. Beauvoir points out various inequalities between a wife and husband whom find themselves in a threesome and finds they pass the time not in love but in "conjugal love". She thinks that marriage "almost always destroys woman". She quotes Sophia Tolstoy who wrote in her diary: "you are stuck there forever and there you must sit". Beauvoir thinks marriage is a perverted institution oppressing both men and women.


title: The Second Sex

text: In Beauvoir's view, abortions performed legally by doctors would have little risk to the mother. She argues that the Catholic Church cannot make the claim that the souls of the unborn would not end up in heaven because of their lack of baptism because that would be contradictory to other Church teachings. She writes that the issue of abortion is not an issue of morality but of "masculine sadism" toward woman. Beauvoir describes pregnancy, which is viewed as both a gift and a curse to woman. In this new creation of a new life the woman loses her self, seeing herself as "no longer anything ... [but] a passive instrument". Beauvoir writes that, "maternal sadomasochism creates guilt feelings for the daughter that will express themselves in sadomasochistic behavior toward her own children, without end", and makes an appeal for socialist child rearing practices.


title: The Second Sex

text: Beauvoir describes a woman's clothes, her girl friends and her relationships with men. She writes that "marriage, by frustrating women's erotic satisfaction, denies them the freedom and individuality of their feelings, drives them to adultery". Beauvoir describes prostitutes and their relationships with pimps and with other women, as well as hetaeras. In contrast to prostitutes, hetaeras can gain recognition as an individual and if successful can aim higher and be publicly distinguished. Beauvoir writes that women's path to menopause might arouse woman's homosexual feelings (which Beauvoir thinks are latent in most women). When she agrees to grow old she becomes elderly with half of her adult life left to live. A woman might choose to live through her children (often her son) or her grandchildren but she faces "solitude, regret, and ennui". To pass her time she might engage in useless "women's handiwork", watercolors, music or reading, or she might join charitable organizations. While a few rare women are committed to a cause and have an end in mind, Beauvoir concludes that "the highest form of freedom a woman-parasite can have is stoic defiance or skeptical irony".


title: The Second Sex

text: According to Beauvoir, while a woman knows how to be as active, effective and silent as a man, her situation keeps her being "useful", preparing food, clothes, and lodging. She worries because she does not "do" anything, she complains, she cries, and she may threaten suicide. She protests but doesn't escape her lot. She may achieve happiness in "Harmony" and the "Good" as illustrated by Virginia Woolf and Katherine Mansfield. Beauvoir thinks it is pointless to try to decide whether a woman is superior or inferior, and that it is obvious that the man's situation is "infinitely preferable". She writes, "for woman there is no other way out than to work for her liberation".


title: The Second Sex

text: Beauvoir describes narcissistic women, who might find themselves in a mirror and in the theater, and women in and outside marriage: "The day when it will be possible for the woman to love in her strength and not in her weakness, not to escape from herself but to find herself, not out of resignation but to affirm herself, love will become for her as for man the source of life and not a mortal danger." Beauvoir discusses the lives of several women, some of whom developed stigmata. Beauvoir writes that these women may develop a relation "with an unreal: her double or god; or she creates an unreal relation with a real being...". She also mentions women with careers who are able to escape sadism and masochism. A few women have successfully reached a state of equality, and Beauvoir, in a footnote, singles out the example of Clara and Robert Schumann. Beauvoir says that the goals of wives can be overwhelming: as a wife tries to be elegant, a good housekeeper and a good mother. Singled out are "actresses, dancers and singers" who may achieve independence. Among writers, Beauvoir chooses only Emily Brontë, Woolf and ("sometimes") Mary Webb (and she mentions Colette and Mansfield) as among those who have tried to approach nature "in its inhuman freedom". Beauvoir then says that women don't "challenge the human condition" and that in comparison to the few "greats", a woman comes out as "mediocre" and will continue at that level for quite some time. A woman could not have been Vincent van Gogh or Franz Kafka. Beauvoir thinks that perhaps, of all women, only Saint Teresa lived her life for herself. She says it is "high time" a woman "be left to take her own chances".


title: The Second Sex

text: In her conclusion, Beauvoir looks forward to a future when women and men are equals, something the "Soviet revolution "promised"" but did not ever deliver. She concludes that, "to carry off this supreme victory, men and women must, among other things and beyond their natural differentiations, unequivocally affirm their brotherhood."


title: The Second Sex

text: The first French publication of "The Second Sex" sold around 22,000 copies in a week. It has since been translated into 40 languages and edited by multiple book publishers. The Vatican placed the book on its "List of Prohibited Books". The sex researcher Alfred Kinsey was critical of "The Second Sex", holding that while it was an interesting literary production, it contained no original data of interest or importance to science. In 1960, Beauvoir wrote that "The Second Sex" was an attempt to explain "why a woman's situation, still, even today, prevents her from exploring the world's basic problems." The attack on psychoanalysis in "The Second Sex" helped to inspire subsequent feminist arguments against psychoanalysis, including those of Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" (1963), Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics" (1969), and Germaine Greer's "The Female Eunuch" (1970). Millett commented in 1989 that she did not realize the extent to which she was indebted to Beauvoir when she wrote "Sexual Politics".


title: The Second Sex

text: The philosopher Judith Butler writes that Beauvoir's formulation that "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman" distinguishes the terms "sex" and "gender". Borde and Malovany-Chevallier, in their complete English version, translated this formulation as "One is not born, but rather becomes, woman" because in this context (one of many different usages of "woman" in the book), the word is used by Beauvoir to mean woman as a construct or an idea, rather than woman as an individual or one of a group. Butler writes that the book suggests that "gender" is an aspect of identity which is "gradually acquired". Butler sees "The Second Sex" as potentially providing a radical understanding of gender.


title: The Second Sex

text: The biographer Deirdre Bair, writing in her "Introduction to the Vintage Edition" in 1989, relates that "one of the most sustained criticisms" has been that Beauvoir is "guilty of unconscious misogyny", that she separated herself from women while writing about them. Bair writes that the French writer Francis Jeanson and the British poet Stevie Smith made similar criticisms: in Smith's words, "She has written an enormous book about women and it is soon clear that she does not like them, nor does she like being a woman." Bair also quotes British scholar C. B. Radford's view that Beauvoir was "guilty of painting women in her own colors" because "The Second Sex" is "primarily a middle-class document, so distorted by autobiographical influences that the individual problems of the writer herself may assume an exaggerated importance in her discussion of femininity.


title: The Second Sex

text: The classical scholar David M. Halperin writes that Beauvoir gives an idealized account of sexual relations between women in "The Second Sex", suggesting that they reveal with particular clarity the mutuality of erotic responsiveness that characterizes women's eroticism. The critic Camille Paglia praised "The Second Sex", calling it "brilliant" and "the supreme work of modern feminism." Paglia writes that most modern feminists do not realize the extent to which their work has simply repeated or qualified Beauvoir's arguments. In "Free Women, Free Men" (2017) Paglia writes that as a sixteen-year-old, she was "stunned by de Beauvoir's imperious, authoritative tone and ambitious sweep through space and time", which helped inspire her to write her work of literary criticism "Sexual Personae" (1990).


title: The Second Sex

text: The Spanish-language translation of "The Second Sex" (printed in Argentina) was banned in Francoist Spain in 1955. Spanish feminists smuggled in copies of the book and circulated it in secret. A full Castilian Spanish translation of "The Second Sex" was published in 1998.


title: The Second Sex

text: The Catholic Church's Vatican-based leadership condemned "The Second Sex" and added the book in its list of prohibited books, known as "Index Librorum Prohibitorum," The book remained banned until the policy of prohibition itself was abolished in 1966.


title: The Second Sex

text: The rise of second wave feminism in the United States spawned by Betty Friedan’s book, "The Feminine Mystique", which was inspired by Simone de Beauvoir’s, "The Second Sex," took significantly longer to reach and impact the lives of European women. Even though "The Second Sex" was published in 1949 and "Feminine Mystique" was published in 1963, the French were concerned that expanding equality to include matters of the family was detrimental to French morals. In 1966, abortion in Europe was still illegal and contraception was extremely difficult to access. Many were afraid that legalization would "take from men 'the proud consciousness of their virility' and make women 'no more than objects of sterile voluptuousness'". The French Parliament in 1967 decided to legalize contraception but only under strict qualifications.


title: The Second Sex

text: Social feminists then went further to claim that women “were fundamentally different from men in psychology and in physiology…” and stressed gender differences rather than simply equality, demanding that women have the right of choice to stay home and raise a family, if they so desired, by issue of a financial allowance, advocated by the Catholic church, or to go into the workforce and have assistance with childcare through government mandated programs, such as nationally funded daycare facilities and parental leave. The historical context of the times was a belief that "a society cut to the measure of men ill served women and harmed the overall interests of society". As a result of this push for public programs, European women became more involved in politics and by the 1990s held six to seven times more legislative seats than the United States, enabling them to influence the process in support of programs for women and children.


title: The Second Sex

text: Many commentators have pointed out that the 1953 English translation of "The Second Sex" by H. M. Parshley, frequently reissued, is poor. A reviewer from "The New York Times" described the zoologist hired to do the translation as having "a college undergraduate’s knowledge of French." The delicate vocabulary of philosophical concepts is frequently mistranslated, and great swaths of the text have been excised. The English publication rights to the book are owned by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc and although the publishers had been made aware of the problems with the English text, they long stated that there was really no need for a new translation, even though Beauvoir herself explicitly requested one in a 1985 interview: "I would like very much for another translation of "The Second Sex" to be done, one that is much more faithful; more complete and more faithful."


title: The Second Sex

text: The publishers gave in to those requests, and commissioned a new translation to Constance Borde and Sheila Malovany-Chevallier. The result, published in November 2009, has met with generally positive reviews from literary critics, who credit Borde and Malovany-Chevallier with having diligently restored the sections of the text missing from the Parshley edition, as well as correcting many of its mistakes.


title: The Second Sex

text: Other reviewers, however, including Toril Moi, one of the most vociferous critics of the original 1953 translation, are critical of the new edition, voicing concerns with its style, syntax and philosophical and syntactic integrity.


title: The Second Sex

text: The "New York Times" reviewer cites some confused English in the new edition where Parshley's version was smoother, saying, "Should we rejoice that this first unabridged edition of 'The Second Sex' appears in a new translation? I, for one, do not."


title: American Film Institute

text: The American Film Institute (AFI) is an American nonprofit film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the motion picture arts in the United States. AFI is supported by private funding and public membership fees.


title: American Film Institute

text: The institute is composed of leaders from the film, entertainment, business, and academic communities. The board of trustees is chaired by Kathleen Kennedy and the board of directors chaired by Robert A. Daly guide the organization, which is led by President and CEO, film historian Bob Gazzale. Prior leaders were founding director George Stevens Jr. (from the organization's inception in 1967 until 1980) and Jean Picker Firstenberg (from 1980 to 2007).


title: American Film Institute

text: The American Film Institute was founded by a 1965 presidential mandate announced in the Rose Garden of the White House by Lyndon B. Johnson—to establish a national arts organization to preserve the legacy of American film heritage, educate the next generation of filmmakers, and honor the artists and their work. Two years later, in 1967, AFI was established, supported by the National Endowment for the Arts, the Motion Picture Association of America and the Ford Foundation.


title: American Film Institute

text: The original 22-member Board of Trustees included actor Gregory Peck as chairman and actor Sidney Poitier as vice-chairman, as well as director Francis Ford Coppola, film historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., lobbyist Jack Valenti, and other representatives from the arts and academia.


title: American Film Institute

text: The institute established a training program for filmmakers known then as the Center for Advanced Film Studies. Also created in the early years were a repertory film exhibition program at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts and the AFI Catalog of Feature Films — a scholarly source for American film history. The institute moved to its current eight-acre Hollywood campus in 1981. The film training program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate school.


title: American Film Institute

text: AFI moved its presentation of first-run and auteur films from the Kennedy Center to the historic AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center, which hosts the AFI DOCS film festival, making AFI the largest nonprofit film exhibitor in the world. AFI educates audiences and recognizes artistic excellence through its awards programs and 10 Top 10 Lists.


title: American Film Institute

text: In 1969, the institute established the AFI Conservatory for Advanced Film Studies at Greystone, the Doheny Mansion in Beverly Hills, California. The first class included filmmakers Terrence Malick, Caleb Deschanel, and Paul Schrader. That program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate film school located in the hills above Hollywood, California, providing training in six filmmaking disciplines: cinematography, directing, editing, producing, production design, and screenwriting. Mirroring a professional production environment, Fellows collaborate to make more films than any other graduate level program. Admission to AFI Conservatory is highly selective, with a maximum of 140 graduates per year.


title: American Film Institute

text: In 2013, Emmy and Oscar-winning director, producer, and screenwriter James L. Brooks ("As Good as It Gets", "Broadcast News", "Terms of Endearment") joined as the artistic director of the AFI Conservatory where he provides leadership for the film program. Brooks' artistic role at the AFI Conservatory has a rich legacy that includes Daniel Petrie, Jr., Robert Wise, and Frank Pierson. Award-winning director Bob Mandel served as dean of the AFI Conservatory for nine years. Jan Schuette took over as dean in 2014 and served until 2017. Film producer Richard Gladstein was dean from 2017 until 2019, when Susan Ruskin was appointed.


title: American Film Institute

text: AFI Conservatory's alumni have careers in film, television and on the web. They have been recognized with all of the major industry awards—Academy Award, Emmy Award, guild awards, and the Tony Award.


title: American Film Institute

text: Among the alumni of AFI are Andrea Arnold ("Red Road", "Fish Tank"), Darren Aronofsky ("Requiem for a Dream", "Black Swan"), Carl Colpaert ("Gas Food Lodging", "Hurlyburly", "Swimming with Sharks"), Doug Ellin ("Entourage"), Todd Field ("In the Bedroom", "Little Children"), Jack Fisk ("Badlands", "Days of Heaven", "There Will Be Blood"), Carl Franklin ("One False Move", "Devil in a Blue Dress", "House of Cards"), Patty Jenkins ("Monster", "Wonder Woman"), Janusz Kamiński ("Lincoln", "Schindler's List", "Saving Private Ryan"), Matthew Libatique ("Noah", "Black Swan"), David Lynch ("Mulholland Drive", "Blue Velvet"), Terrence Malick ("Days of Heaven", "The Thin Red Line", "The Tree of Life"), Melina Matsoukas (Queen and Slim), Rachel Morrison (Black Panther, Fruitvale Station), Victor Nuñez, ("Ruby in Paradise", "Ulee's Gold"), Wally Pfister ("Memento", "The Dark Knight", "Inception"), Robert Richardson ("Platoon"), Ari Aster ("Hereditary", "Midsommar"), and many others.


title: American Film Institute

text: The AFI Catalog, started in 1968, is a web-based filmographic database. A research tool for film historians, the catalog consists of entries on more than 60,000 feature films and 17,000 short films produced from 1893 to 2011, as well as AFI Awards Outstanding Movies of the Year from 2000 through 2010. Early print copies of this catalog may also be found at local libraries.


title: American Film Institute

text: Created in 2000, the AFI Awards honor the ten outstanding films ("Movies of the Year") and ten outstanding television programs ("TV Programs of the Year"). The awards are a non-competitive acknowledgment of excellence.


title: American Film Institute

text: The awards are announced in December, and a private luncheon for award honorees takes place the following January.


title: American Film Institute

text: The AFI 100 Years... series, which ran from 1998 to 2008 and created jury-selected lists of America's best movies in categories such as Musicals, Laughs and Thrills, prompted new generations to experience classic American films. The juries consisted of over 1,500 artists, scholars, critics, and historians. "Citizen Kane" was voted the greatest American film twice.


title: American Film Institute

text: AFI operates two film festivals: AFI Fest in Los Angeles, and AFI Docs (formally known as Silverdocs) in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.


title: American Film Institute

text: AFI Fest is the American Film Institute's annual celebration of artistic excellence. It is a showcase for the best festival films of the year and an opportunity for master filmmakers and emerging artists to come together with audiences in the movie capital of the world. It is the only festival of its stature that is free to the public. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognizes AFI Fest as a qualifying festival for the Short Films category for the annual Academy Awards.


title: American Film Institute

text: The festival has paid tribute to numerous influential filmmakers and artists over the years, including Agnès Varda, Pedro Almodóvar and David Lynch as guest artistic directors, and has screened scores of films that have produced Oscar nominations and wins.


title: American Film Institute

text: Held annually in June, AFI Docs (formerly Silverdocs) is a documentary festival in Washington, D.C. The festival attracts over 27,000 documentary enthusiasts.


title: American Film Institute

text: The AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center is a moving image exhibition, education and cultural center located in Silver Spring, Maryland. Anchored by the restoration of noted architect John Eberson's historic 1938 Silver Theatre, it features 32,000 square feet of new construction housing two stadium theatres, office and meeting space, and reception and exhibit areas.


title: American Film Institute

text: The AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center presents film and video programming, augmented by filmmaker interviews, panels, discussions, and musical performances.


title: American Film Institute

text: The Directing Workshop for Women is a training program committed to educating and mentoring participants in an effort to increase the number of women working professionally in screen directing. In this tuition-free program, each participant is required to complete a short film by the end of the year-long program.


title: American Film Institute

text: Alumnae of the program include Maya Angelou, Anne Bancroft, Dyan Cannon, Ellen Burstyn, Jennifer Getzinger, Lesli Linka Glatter, Lily Tomlin, Susan Oliver and Nancy Malone.