title: Eclipse

text: In 5th century AD, solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata, in his treatise "Aryabhatiya." Aryabhata states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and explains eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. Aryabhata provides the computation and the size of the eclipsed part during an eclipse. Indian computations were very accurate that 18th-century French scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by only 41 seconds, whereas Le Gentil's charts were long by 68 seconds.


title: Eclipse

text: By the 1600s, European astronomers were publishing books with diagrams explaining how lunar and solar eclipses occurred. In order to disseminate this information to a broader audience and decrease fear of the consequences of eclipses, booksellers printed broadsides explaining the event either using the science or via astrology.


title: Eclipse

text: Before eclipses were understood as well as they are today, there was a much more fearful connotation surrounding the seemingly inexplicable events. There was very considerable confusion regarding eclipses before the 17th century because eclipses were not very accurately or scientifically described until Johannes Kepler provided a scientific explanation for eclipses in the early seventeenth century. Typically in mythology, eclipses were understood to be one variation or another of a spiritual battle between the sun and evil forces or spirits of darkness. The phenomenon of the sun seeming to disappear was a very fearful sight to all who did not understand the science of eclipses as well as those who supported and believed in the idea of mythological gods. The sun was highly regarded as divine by many old religions, and some even viewed eclipses as the sun god being overwhelmed by evil spirits. More specifically, in Norse mythology, it is believed that there is a wolf by the name of Fenrir that is in constant pursuit of the sun, and eclipses are thought to occur when the wolf successfully devours the divine sun. Other Norse tribes believe that there are two wolves by the names of Sköll and Hati that are in pursuit of the sun and the moon, known by the names of Sol and Mani, and these tribes believe that an eclipse occurs when one of the wolves successfully eats either the sun or the moon. Once again, this mythical explanation was a very common source of fear for the majority of people at the time who believed the sun to be a sort of divine power or god because the known explanations of eclipses were quite frequently viewed as the downfall of their highly regarded god. Similarly, other mythological explanations of eclipses describe the phenomenon of darkness covering the sky during the day as a war between the gods of the sun and the moon.


title: Eclipse

text: In most types of mythologies and certain religions, eclipses were seen as a sign that the gods were angry and that danger was soon to come, so people often altered their actions in an effort to dissuade the gods from unleashing their wrath. In the Hindu religion, for example, people often sing religious hymns for protection from the evil spirits of the eclipse, and many people of the Hindu religion refuse to eat during an eclipse to avoid the effects of the evil spirits. Hindu people living in India will also wash off in the Ganges River, which is believed to be spiritually cleansing, directly following an eclipse to clean themselves of the evil spirits. In early Judaism and Christianity, eclipses were viewed as signs from God, and some eclipses were seen as a display of God's greatness or even signs of cycles of life and death. However, more ominous eclipses such as a blood moon were believed to be a divine sign that God would soon destroy their enemies.


title: Eclipse

text: The gas giant planets have many moons and thus frequently display eclipses. The most striking involve Jupiter, which has four large moons and a low axial tilt, making eclipses more frequent as these bodies pass through the shadow of the larger planet. Transits occur with equal frequency. It is common to see the larger moons casting circular shadows upon Jupiter's cloudtops.


title: Eclipse

text: The eclipses of the Galilean moons by Jupiter became accurately predictable once their orbital elements were known. During the 1670s, it was discovered that these events were occurring about 17 minutes later than expected when Jupiter was on the far side of the Sun. Ole Rømer deduced that the delay was caused by the time needed for light to travel from Jupiter to the Earth. This was used to produce the first estimate of the speed of light.


title: Eclipse

text: On the other three gas giants (Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) eclipses only occur at certain periods during the planet's orbit, due to their higher inclination between the orbits of the moon and the orbital plane of the planet. The moon Titan, for example, has an orbital plane tilted about 1.6° to Saturn's equatorial plane. But Saturn has an axial tilt of nearly 27°. The orbital plane of Titan only crosses the line of sight to the Sun at two points along Saturn's orbit. As the orbital period of Saturn is 29.7 years, an eclipse is only possible about every 15 years.


title: Eclipse

text: The timing of the Jovian satellite eclipses was also used to calculate an observer's longitude upon the Earth. By knowing the expected time when an eclipse would be observed at a standard longitude (such as Greenwich), the time difference could be computed by accurately observing the local time of the eclipse. The time difference gives the longitude of the observer because every hour of difference corresponded to 15° around the Earth's equator. This technique was used, for example, by Giovanni D. Cassini in 1679 to re-map France.


title: Eclipse

text: On Mars, only partial solar eclipses (transits) are possible, because neither of its moons is large enough, at their respective orbital radii, to cover the Sun's disc as seen from the surface of the planet. Eclipses of the moons by Mars are not only possible, but commonplace, with hundreds occurring each Earth year. There are also rare occasions when Deimos is eclipsed by Phobos. Martian eclipses have been photographed from both the surface of Mars and from orbit.


title: Eclipse

text: Pluto, with its proportionately largest moon Charon, is also the site of many eclipses. A series of such mutual eclipses occurred between 1985 and 1990. These daily events led to the first accurate measurements of the physical parameters of both objects.


title: Eclipse

text: Eclipses are impossible on Mercury and Venus, which have no moons. However, as seen from the Earth, both have been observed to transit across the face of the Sun. There are on average 13 transits of Mercury each century. Transits of Venus occur in pairs separated by an interval of eight years, but each pair of events happen less than once a century. According to NASA, the next pair of Venus transits will occur on December 10, 2117 and December 8, 2125. Transits of Mercury are much more common.


title: Eclipse

text: A binary star system consists of two stars that orbit around their common centre of mass. The movements of both stars lie on a common orbital plane in space. When this plane is very closely aligned with the location of an observer, the stars can be seen to pass in front of each other. The result is a type of extrinsic variable star system called an eclipsing binary.


title: Eclipse

text: The maximum luminosity of an eclipsing binary system is equal to the sum of the luminosity contributions from the individual stars. When one star passes in front of the other, the luminosity of the system is seen to decrease. The luminosity returns to normal once the two stars are no longer in alignment.


title: Eclipse

text: The first eclipsing binary star system to be discovered was Algol, a star system in the constellation Perseus. Normally this star system has a visual magnitude of 2.1. However, every 2.867 days the magnitude decreases to 3.4 for more than nine hours. This is caused by the passage of the dimmer member of the pair in front of the brighter star. The concept that an eclipsing body caused these luminosity variations was introduced by John Goodricke in 1783.


title: Eclipse

text: Sun - Earth - Moon: Lunar eclipse | penumbral eclipse | partial lunar eclipse | central lunar eclipse


title: Eclipse

text: Other types: Solar eclipses on Jupiter | Solar eclipses on Saturn | Solar eclipses on Uranus | Solar eclipses on Neptune | Solar eclipses on Pluto


title: Sam Seder

text: Samuel Lincoln Seder (born November 28, 1966) is an American actor, political commentator, and media host. His works include the film "Who's the Caboose?" (1997) as well as the television shows "Beat Cops" (2001) and "Pilot Season" (2004). He also appeared in "Next Stop Wonderland" (1998) and made guest appearances on "Spin City" (1997), "Sex and the City" (2000), "America Undercover" (2005), and "Maron" (2015). Since 2010, he has hosted a daily political talk show, "The Majority Report with Sam Seder". He also voices Hugo, a recurring character on the animated comedy series "Bob's Burgers". He has written for such television shows as "Entourage", "Two and a Half Men", and "Friends".


title: Sam Seder

text: Seder was born to a Jewish family in New York City, and raised in Worcester, Massachusetts. One of three children, his father, J. Robert Seder, is a well-known lawyer in Worcester. Seder earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in Religious Studies from Connecticut College and enrolled at Boston University School of Law. He later dropped out to pursue a career in comedy.


title: Sam Seder

text: In March 2004, Seder became co-host of Air America Radio's "The Majority Report" alongside Janeane Garofalo.


title: Sam Seder

text: During Mark J. Green's restructuring plan to transform Air America into a profitable leader in progressive talk radio, called "Air America 2.0", "The Sam Seder Show" was cancelled on April 13, 2007, and replaced by WOR Radio Network late night radio show host Lionel. Seder was relegated to a Sunday show entitled "Seder on Sunday". Lionel soon lost two-thirds of Seder's live affiliates and listenership. The final "Seder on Sunday" was broadcast on June 1, 2008.


title: Sam Seder

text: Seder also occasionally substituted for Randi Rhodes when Rhodes was on Air America, as well as Mike Malloy on "The Mike Malloy Show" on the Nova M Radio network. In 2008 he also began a collaboration with Marc Maron on "Maron v. Seder", an hour-long video webcast. In January 2009, "Maron v. Seder" was renamed "Breakroom Live with Maron & Seder" and aired live from the kitchen in the Air America offices weekdays. Seder and Maron also hosted a post-show chat with viewers after each episode. Air America Media cancelled "Breakroom Live with Maron & Seder" in July 2009. In 2010, Air America was shut down.


title: Sam Seder

text: In November 2009, Seder hosted a pilot for NBC of an American version of "Have I Got News for You". Three years later, in November 2012, it was announced Seder would again be the host of an American version of the show, this time on TBS.


title: Sam Seder

text: In November 2010, Seder began an independent online podcast, called "The Seder Channel" (later renamed "The Majority Report w/Sam Seder"). The live talk-show format closely matches the previous Air America program, with politically oriented commentary by Seder and co-hosts, and interviews with various guests. Seder offers listeners different tiered levels of access to content around the show via crowdfunding platform Patreon.


title: Sam Seder

text: In late 2010, Seder began occasionally serving as substitute host of "Countdown with Keith Olbermann" when Olbermann was on vacation. In December 2010, Seder also became co-host of the nationally syndicated progressive radio interview program "Ring of Fire", co-hosted by Farron Cousins and Florida-based attorney Mike Papantonio.


title: Sam Seder

text: On September 1, 2004, Seder was briefly detained by the United States Secret Service during his live, on-site coverage of that year's Republican National Convention at Madison Square Garden. Shortly after Zell Miller gave his speech, Seder began searching (with a sign in hand) on the convention floor for a willing homosexual Republican to interview live on radio. Shortly thereafter, he was physically removed from the floor and – after brief questioning – asked to leave the convention. Seder later commented that his wearing of a lapel pin that he had been given by a Secret Service agent at the Democratic National Convention earlier that year had kept him from being ejected from the convention completely.


title: Sam Seder

text: On November 28, 2017, American social media personality Mike Cernovich published a post on "Medium" that resurfaced a deleted tweet Seder wrote in 2009 joking about convicted statutory rapist and fugitive film director Roman Polanski. The tweet read, "Don't care re Polanski, but I hope if my daughter is ever raped it is by an older truly talented man w/ a great sense of mise en scene." Cernovich insisted the tweet proved Seder tacitly endorsed Polanski's sex crime. He then approached multiple journalists and news outlets, including MSNBC, to break the story. MSNBC Senior Vice President of Communications Errol Cockfield Jr. asked Seder that night to explain the tweet. Seder replied to Cockfield in an email explaining the point being made in the tweet and the context in which he wrote it. Seder also provided other tweets supporting his claim.


title: Sam Seder

text: The next day, Seder received a voicemail from Cockfield indicating MSNBC's upper management was seriously considering cutting ties with him. Seder responded that MSNBC was making a mistake and that, "there's no story here." Seder further warned Cockfield that if they moved forward with the termination, "You guys are going to be the story." Seder also requested a formal termination email. Seder never received the email, leading him to believe that this employment status was still undecided. On December 3, Seder was notified by Jon Levine of "TheWrap" that they had been contacted by MSNBC who had decided to terminate Seder's contract and were about to break the story through their own publication. Seder immediately sent Cockfield an inquiry regarding his status. Cockfield, at first, did not have a status update but later confirmed MSNBC was, in fact, dropping Seder.


title: Sam Seder

text: The next day, "TheWrap" announced that MSNBC had severed ties with Seder by not renewing his contract due to the controversial tweet. Seder defended the tweet by pointing out that, taken in context of the current events around the time he posted it, it was a satiric response to a petition urging Polanski's release from detention in Switzerland. An anonymous MSNBC source defended the termination, "It gives us pause when we see alt-right figures whipping up attention about our action but the reality is Seder made a rape joke." After news of the termination broke, Cernovich released a Twitter video celebrating his triumph.


title: Sam Seder

text: Seder noted that advertisers on "The Majority Report with Sam Seder" podcast were also being contacted and pressured by Cernovich and his team to cut ties with the show over the tweet. In response, Seder launched a GoFundMe campaign to help maintain funding for the show in the face of potential loss of advertising revenue. In an episode of the podcast titled, "I'm Under Attack By the Nazi Alt-Right", Seder said, "this smear involves the willful misinterpretation of a tweet that I posted in 2009" and that he will "never be ashamed of criticizing those who would excuse the predation of women or girls."


title: Sam Seder

text: Seder revealed plans to use a portion of the GoFundMe proceeds to produce a three-minute video educating people on Cernovich's tactics. He surmised Cernovich's ploy had been retribution for his frequent criticism of Donald Trump as well as Republican Alabama Senate candidate Roy Moore who was accused of sexual assault. Further, Seder chided MSNBC's decision to terminate his employment concluding, "I think they're afraid of those people."


title: Sam Seder

text: The news of Seder's dismissal sparked a backlash. Over 12,000 people signed a petition protesting Seder's termination, arguing that Cernovich had acted in malice and was deliberately mischaracterizing the tweet. "AV Club" wrote that "MSNBC has now fully bought into that smear campaign ... whose openly stated goal is the destruction of news outlets just like it through the use of blatantly manipulative trolling techniques. "Mother Jones" rebuked MSNBC for capitulating "to the demands of a lunatic conservative." "HuffPost" chided that Cernovich was now MSNBC's new "De Facto Ombudsman." MSNBC primetime anchor Chris Hayes tweeted, "The entire culture and our politics are now dominated by people who have weaponized bad faith and shamelessness." Hayes tweeted several times against the decision by his own network, including: "Also, I reiterate my longstanding position that people shouldn't be fired for a tweet, *particularly* one that is obviously being read in manifestly bad faith." Actress and comedian Sarah Silverman also tweeted in support of Seder.


title: Sam Seder

text: There was considerable dissent within MSNBC over Seder's termination. Some employees expressed concerns that his firing would encourage other far-right personalities to launch similar smear campaigns. A senior MSNBC employee characterized the capitulation as "really weak" and "pathetic". MSNBC's management itself was unsettled by the celebratory reaction from the far-right. On December 7, 2017, MSNBC decided to reverse their decision to terminate Seder's employment. MSNBC President Phil Griffin said in a statement, "Sometimes you just get one wrong, and that's what happened here. We made our initial decision for the right reasons—because we don't consider rape to be a funny topic to be joked about. But we've heard the feedback, and we understand the point Sam was trying to make in that tweet was actually in line with our values, even though the language was not. Sam will be welcome on our air going forward." In response, Seder issued a statement while accepting his job back:


title: Sam Seder

text: "Columbia Journalism Review" cited the incident as an example of a broader pattern of far-right media personalities using online smear campaigns to get mainstream journalists fired. Cernovich acknowledged that "some are saying Seder was making a joke or being sarcastic." However, he said he did not misrepresent the tweet, but merely "reported on what [Seder] said." Cernovich added that "[t]he left isn't going to stop going through our tweets so we aren't going to stop going through theirs. I wish we would get over people trying to find someone saying a naughty thing. I've been saying that for years. And nobody wants to listen. So fine, we will play by the same rules."


title: Sam Seder

text: On August 9, 2005, Seder's wife Nicole Cattell gave birth to their first child, Myla. On March 7, 2013, she gave birth to their second child, Saul.


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: Gaëtan Dugas (; February 19, 1952 – March 30, 1984) was a Québécois Canadian flight attendant and a relatively early HIV patient who once was widely regarded as "Patient Zero," or the primary case for AIDS in the United States. This claim was later found to be incorrect.


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: In March 1984, a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study tracked the sexual liaisons and practices of gay and bisexual men, especially in California and New York. Dugas was code-named "Patient O" (meaning out of state) to indicate his role in a cluster of 40 AIDS cases in the United States. This was misinterpreted as "Patient Zero" and media later extrapolated this information to mean that he was the original carrier of AIDS in the country, although the report itself made no such claim. After a new genetic analysis of stored blood samples, bolstered by some historical detective work, scientists declared that he did not bring HIV to the United States and was not Patient Zero.


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: Dugas worked as a flight attendant for Air Canada and died in Quebec City in March 1984 as a result of kidney failure caused by AIDS-related infections.


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: A study published in "The American Journal of Medicine" in 1984 titled "Cluster of Cases of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome" examined the sexual contacts of gay men infected with AIDS to determine if their histories were consistent with the hypothesis that AIDS was caused by an infectious agent. A graph included with the paper traced the sequence of infection among 40 men and labelled one of the nodes as "Patient 0" (with other nodes including the place of residence and a number indicating the sequence in which they developed AIDS symptoms, such as "NY 14"). The paper later stated:


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: The researchers later stated they had originally intended to designate Dugas as "Patient O", with "O" standing for "Out-of-California" but at some point it was changed to a "0".


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: Dugas is featured prominently in Randy Shilts's 1987 book "" (1987), which documents the outbreak of the AIDS epidemic in the United States. Shilts refers to Dugas as "Patient Zero" and portrays him as having almost sociopathic behaviour by allegedly intentionally infecting, or at least recklessly endangering, others with the virus. Dugas is described as being a charming, handsome sexual athlete who, according to his own estimation, averaged hundreds of sex partners per year. He claimed to have had over 2,500 sexual partners across North America since becoming sexually active in 1972. In David France's 2016 book "How to Survive a Plague", Shilts's editor expressed his regret for having "made a conscious decision to vilify Dugas in the book and publicity campaign in order to spur sales."


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: Genetic analysis historically provided some support for the Patient Zero theory, in which Dugas was believed to be part of a cluster of homosexual men who travelled frequently, were extremely sexually active, and died of AIDS at a very early stage in the epidemic.


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: A number of authorities have since voiced reservations about the implications of the CDC's Patient Zero study and characterizations of Dugas as being responsible for bringing HIV to cities such as Los Angeles and San Francisco. In the Patient Zero study, the average length of time between sexual contact and the onset of symptoms was months. While Shilts's book does not make such an allegation, the rumour that Dugas was the principal disseminator of the virus became widespread. In 1988, Andrew R. Moss published an opposing view in "The New York Review of Books".


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: In 2016, a group of researchers led by evolutionary biologist Dr. Michael Worobey conducted a genetic study that looked at blood samples taken from gay and bisexual men in 1978 and 1979 as part of a hepatitis B study, and based on the results of the data, concluded that Dugas was not the source of the virus in the U.S. "On the family tree of the virus, Dugas fell in the middle, not at the beginning." "Beliefs about Patient Zero," Worobey concludes, "are unsupported by scientific data." Worobey's paper, published in "Nature" in October 2016, finds "neither biological nor historical evidence that he was the primary case in the US or for subtype B as a whole."


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: A study by historian Richard McKay of Cambridge and others identified several causes for the Patient Zero myth. During early CDC analysis of cases in California, patient 057 (Dugas) was nicknamed patient "O" for "Out-of-California", but this was interpreted by others as Patient Zero. Dugas was particularly helpful in tracing his network of partners, providing names and addresses for many of them, which was further expanded because others remembered his distinctive name. Although many of the patients analysed reported in excess of 1000 sexual partners, most remembered "only a handful" of names, making their contacts to other cases more difficult to trace. Richard McKay later extended this study into a book, "Patient Zero and the Making of the AIDS Epidemic." This book also contains the most definitive biography of Dugas' life, constructed through numerous interviews with friends, family, and lovers.


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: Robert M. Grant, an AIDS researcher at the University of California, has stated: "No one wants to be the Patient Zero of their village. But this may be helpful because it says, 'Just because you are the first to be diagnosed doesn't mean you started the epidemic.'"


title: Gaëtan Dugas

text: Two films, John Greyson's musical comedy film "Zero Patience" (1993) and Laurie Lynd's documentary "Killing Patient Zero" (2019), have also discussed the Patient Zero myth around Dugas.


title: Trench coat

text: A trench coat or trenchcoat is a variety of coat made of waterproof heavy-duty fabric, originally developed for British Army officers before the First World War, and becoming popular while used in the trenches.


title: Trench coat

text: Originally made from gabardine, a worsted wool fabric waterproofed using lanolin before weaving, the traditional colour of a trench coat was khaki.


title: Trench coat

text: Traditionally trench coats are double-breasted with 10 front buttons, wide lapels, a storm flap, and pockets that button-close. The coat is belted at the waist with a self-belt, with raglan sleeves ending in cuff straps around the wrists that also buckle, to keep water from running down the forearm when using binoculars in the rain. The coat often has epaulets that button-close, which were functional in a military context.


title: Trench coat

text: The trench coat was typically worn as a windbreaker or as a rain jacket, and not for sole protection from the cold in winter. Although many come with removable wool liners for additional warmth, they are usually not as warm as an overcoat. Period advertisements from the First World War reveal that the trench coat was sized to wear over the British Warm, to offer water protection when the temperature was cold enough to require the heavier coat, which explains the traditionally generous sizing of trench coats. Makers in recent years have resized trench coats downwards to conform more closely to overcoat sizing, as two coats would rarely be worn together today.


title: Trench coat

text: Popularised by film stars such as Humphrey Bogart, and Peter Sellers in the Pink Panther films, the trench coat has become a fashion staple, available in many colours, through brands such as Burberry.


title: Trench coat

text: The trench coat was developed as an alternative to the heavy serge greatcoats worn by British and French soldiers in the First World War. Invention of the trench coat is claimed by two British luxury clothing manufacturers, Burberry and Aquascutum, with Aquascutum's claim dating back to the 1850s. Thomas Burberry had invented gabardine fabric in 1879 and submitted a design for a British Army officer's raincoat to the War Office in 1901.


title: Trench coat

text: The trench coat became an optional item of dress in the British Army, and was obtained by private purchase by officers and Warrant Officers Class I who were under no obligation to own them. No other ranks were permitted to wear them. Another optional item was the British Warm, a wool coat similar to the greatcoat that was shorter in length, also worn by British officers and Warrant Officers Class I as an optional piece.


title: Trench coat

text: During the First World War, the design of the trench coat was modified to include epaulettes and D-rings. The shoulder straps were for the attachment of epaulettes or other rank insignia; the D-ring was originally used for attaching map cases, swords, or other equipment to the belt, and there is a popular myth that it was for the attachment of hand grenades.


title: Trench coat

text: This latter design was dubbed "trench coat" by the soldiers in the front line. Many trench coats had large pockets for maps, and cleverly placed flaps and vents to deal with the odour associated with earlier rubber coats.


title: Trench coat

text: A range of waterproof coats was designed and sold during wartime that incorporated War Office requirements with traditional aspects of leisurewear. What became known as the "trench coat" combined the features of a military waterproof cape and the regulation greatcoat designed for British officers. Many veterans returning to civilian life kept the coats, which became fashionable for both men and women.


title: Trench coat

text: During the Second World War, officers of the United Kingdom continued to use the trench coat on the battlefield in inclement weather. Other nations also developed trench coat style jackets, notably the United States and the Soviet Union, and other armies of continental Europe such as Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Poland (and are often seen in war zone photographs in the 1939-40 era, even worn by troops on the attack), although as the war progressed, in the field shorter "field jackets" became more popular, including garments such as the Denison smock used by British commandos, paratroopers, and snipers and the M1941/M1943 field jackets used by the US Army. These garments were shorter and more practical than the trench coat, and as such they allowed the wearer to be more mobile.


title: Trench coat

text: Trench coats have remained fashionable in the decades following the Second World War. Their original role as part of an army officer's uniform lent the trench coat a businesslike respectability, although many prefer to tie the belt in front (rather than use the buckle) to project a more casual look than strict military dress. Humphrey Bogart's Rick Blaine from "Casablanca" and Peter Sellers' Inspector Clouseau wore the trench coat in the public eye. Often, a fedora or an ushanka (during colder weather) was also worn. In the 1960s, radical intellectuals wore trench coats over black turtleneck sweaters, while some Mods wore trench coats as fashionable overcoats, as an alternative to the fishtail parka or Crombie. Streakers and flashers often prefer trench coats since they conceal the wearers’ lack of undergarments and can be opened quickly when the exhibitionists are ready to expose themselves.


title: Trench coat

text: While similar, the heavy metal and Goth fashion trend of black oilcloth dusters are incorrectly referred to as trench coats. Early media reports of the 1999 Columbine High School massacre initially associated the perpetrators (Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold) with members of the "Trenchcoat Mafia", a group of outliers who allegedly wore conspicuous black Australian oilcloth dusters. In the copycat W. R. Myers High School shooting days later, it was rumoured the shooter had worn a trench coat. In the wake of these incidents, many public schools in the US forbade students from wearing trench coats, both because of their cultural associations and on the grounds that they could be used to conceal weapons.


title: Biju Menon

text: Biju Menon (born 9 September 1970) is an Indian actor who predominantly appears in Malayalam films, and also has a few Tamil and Telugu film credits. He made his debut in the 1994 Malayalam film "Puthran". In a career spanning over two decades, he has appeared in over 150 films, and has won one National film award for Best Supporting Actor, three Kerala State Film Awards including one best actor, two Filmfare Awards South and nine Asianet Film Awards.He got the Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor in 2021 for the film "Aarkkariyam".


title: Biju Menon

text: Biju Menon's popular characters include Mahendra Varma in "Mannar Mathai Speaking" (1995), Sharath in "Azhakiya Ravanan" (1996), Akhilachandran in "Krishnagudiyil Oru Pranayakalathu" (1997), SP Firoz Mohammed in "Pathram" (1999), Uthaman in "Kannezhuthi Pottum Thottu" (1999), Vishnu in "Madhuranombarakattu" (2000), Rajeevan in "Meghamalhar" (2001), C.I. Bhadran K. Menon in "Shivam" (2002), Nandakumar Pothuval in "T. D. Dasan Std. VI B" (2010), Jose in "Marykkundoru Kunjaadu" (2010), Philip Idikkula in "Seniors" (2011), Suku in "Ordinary" (2012), Rishikesh in "Run Baby Run" (2012), Shibu/Fr. Sebu in "Romans" (2013), Mamachan in "Vellimoonga" (2014), Lt. Zachariah in "Anarkali" (2015), Kuttiyappan in "Leela" (2016), Baiju in "Rakshadhikari Baiju Oppu" (2017), IRS officer P.L Thomas/Sherlock Toms in "Sherlock Toms" (2017), Manoharan in "Adhyarathri" (2019), and S.I. Ayyapan Nair in "Ayyappanum Koshiyum" (2020).


title: Biju Menon

text: Menon was born on 9 September 1970 to Madathiparambil P. N. Balakrishna Pillai and Malathiyamma Menon. He has four brothers: Soman, Suresh, Rajendran and Sreekumar.


title: Biju Menon

text: Menon had his primary education from J.T.S Technical High School, Thrissur district in Kerala, India. He pursued degree in commerce from St. Thomas College, Thrissur. He also did Master of Social Work (MSW).


title: Biju Menon

text: Biju Menon started his acting career through Malayalam television serials such as "Ningalude Swantham Chanthu", "Parudeesayilekulla Patha" and "Mikhayelinte Santhathikal". He made his debut in films with "Puthran", the debut film of Jude Attipetty and the sequel of "Mikhayelinte Santhathikal". He acted in a number of movies as the villain or the secondary hero. During the late 1990s, he was considered to be a superstar in making. But most of the films with Biju Menon as the hero failed at the box office, in spite of his good performance, though his roles as second hero were popular. He acted with Suresh Gopi in hit movies like "Pathram", "F. I. R." and "Chinthamani Kolacase". During the later 1990s and early 2000s he appeared in a few offbeat movies with directors like T. V. Chandran, Lenin Rajendran and Kamal in the films "Mazha", "Madhuranombarakkattu", "Anyar" and "Meghamalhar".


title: Biju Menon

text: He has appeared in the majority of the films made by director Lal Jose, including "Oru Maravathoor Kanavu", "Chandranudikkunna Dikhil", "Randaam Bhavam", "Pattalam", "Rasikan", "Chanthupottu", "Mulla" and "Spanish Masala". He won the Kerala State Film Award for Second Best Actor twice in his acting career for his roles as Akhilachandran in "Krishnagudiyil Oru Pranayakalathu "(1997) and Nanda Kumar in "T. D. Dasan Std. VI B"(2010). He has also acted as antagonist in Tamil films and has been successful in films like "Majaa" and "Thambi". In May 2018, he proved his versatility as a stage artist and singer in Madhuram 18 Mega Stage Show performing in 15 stages in U.S.A and Canada.


title: Biju Menon

text: He is married to the former Malayalam actress Samyuktha Varma, on 21 November 2002 who co-starred with him in "Mazha", "Madhuranombarakkattu" and "Meghamalhar". The couple has a son Daksh Dharmik, born on 14 September 2006.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Motorola Razr (styled RAZR, pronounced like "razor"; codenamed Siliqua) is a series of mobile phones by Motorola, part of the 4LTR line. The V3 was the first phone shown in the series and was introduced in December 2003 and released in the market in the third quarter of 2004. The V3 model was followed soon thereafter by the improved V3i, including a collaboration with Apple Inc. for iTunes to be built-in. It was launched in 2006.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Because of its unique appearance and thin profile, it was initially marketed as an exclusive fashion phone. However, within a year, its price was lowered and as a result, it sold over 100 million units by July 2006. Leading up to the release, Motorola's cell phone division sales were stagnant and losing money. The success of the Razr made the division profitable again. Over the Razr's four-year run, the V3 model sold more than 130 million units, becoming the best-selling clamshell phone in the world to date.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr series was marketed until July 2007, when the succeeding Motorola Razr2 series was released. The succeeding models were the V8, the V9, and the V9m. However, Razr2 sales were not as good as the original V3 series, with consumers moving to competing products. Because Motorola relied so long upon the Razr and its derivatives and was slow to develop new products in the growing market for feature-rich touchscreen and 3G phones, the Razr appeal declined, leading Motorola to eventually drop behind Samsung and LG in market share for mobile phones. Motorola's strategy of grabbing market share by selling tens of millions of low-cost Razrs cut into margins and resulted in heavy losses in the cellular division.


title: Motorola Razr

text: In October 2011, Motorola revived the Razr brand for a line of Android smartphones: the Droid Razr for Verizon Wireless (known simply as the "Motorola RAZR" on other networks) and an improved variant, the Droid Razr Maxx. The line shared its trademark thinness and stylized tapered corners with the original. In November 2019, Motorola revived the Razr again as a foldable smartphone, which is styled after the clamshell form factor of the original models.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The V3 was first released in Q3 2004. The team of the V3 put together a number of design choices that set the device apart from the competition. The phone had the thinnest profile at the time on a clamshell set, sported an electroluminescent keypad made out of a single metal wafer and used an industry-standard mini-USB port for data, battery charger and headphones, housed in an aluminum body with an external glass screen. It sold 130 million units during its lifespan, being the best selling clamshell phone to date.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Some owners complained about dust accumulating between the V3's plastic screen and LCD glass, possibly through an external side button. Access to the dust required peeling off the plastic cover, usually followed by a replacement cover.


title: Motorola Razr

text: A black version was produced for distribution in the 77th Academy Awards gift bags, and was released in early May 2005. While distribution was initially limited to specific carriers in North America, the black V3 was widely available elsewhere.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The first pink version was released in October 2005, and as of June 2006, was available in the United States from T-Mobile as the Razr V3 Magenta (after T-Mobile and its parent Deutsche Telekom's corporate color). It was called the Razr V3 Pink and available on other carriers, including on T-Mobile networks in other countries in addition to Verizon, Cingular Wireless, Suncom Wireless, and Cellular One (each in a different shade). It was also available in Canada from Bell, Rogers Wireless and Telus, and in the United Kingdom from T-Mobile and Carphone Warehouse. $25 of sales from the Rogers-branded pink V3 went to Rethink Breast Cancer. It was also available in all Movistar-serviced countries and Claro (Telcel).


title: Motorola Razr

text: Another version of the phone was released in South Korea on June 1, 2005. This version had a similar physical appearance but instead of using the GSM standard, it used CDMA to operate on SK Telecom. It was the first CDMA version of the Razr without expandable memory, Bluetooth, and SIM card, since Motorola Korea's system was able to produce its own model before worldwide GSM format release. It had a 1.3-megapixel camera, video recording, 80 MB of internal memory, and a variety of UI features, such as a mobile blog, Yoga graphic book, diet diary, and lottery number generator for wellness theme. It also came in black, pink, and lime models versions. On February 8, 2006 Motorola Korea released its own slide-phone model for the Razr named Z model name MS600. Unlike most other versions, the MS500 version was packaged with a charging dock and had three metal terminals on the backside immediately under the battery cover.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Also, as the add-on to the MS600, the MS500 Lime Razr was in circulation in South Korea since October 2006 along with the Motorola KRZR Black and Motorola KRZR Fire (Red).


title: Motorola Razr

text: A model that based on MS500 released as V3c in China, but with no relation with V3c that released in North America.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr V3re (also known as V3_06) was a GSM model updated to support EDGE and CrystalTalk technology. It was nearly identical to the original V3, having no memory card slot and including a VGA 4x zoom camera. It can be identified by a slightly larger notch under the Motorola logo when closed, a black matte Motorola logo in the battery cover instead of the metallic silver logo in the V3 and a software version starting with R3442A. It was available in North America from T-Mobile and AT&T in the US, Rogers/Fido in Canada and Vivo in Brazil (using both 850 MHz and 1800 MHz). It was available in three colors: orchid pink, silver, and stone grey.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The V3r and V3t were models sold by T-Mobile, AT&T (formerly Cingular), and Canadian cellular providers such as Rogers. These models were virtually identical to the V3 and V3i, except for featuring Motorola's Digital Audio Player (DAP) instead of iTunes. T-Mobile's V3r offered a voice notes feature which permitted forwarding audio recordings to voicemail as the only storage method.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The V3i was announced in November 2005 and addressed some of the faults of the original Razr V3, including a better (1.23-megapixel) camera with 8x digital zoom, an improved external and internal display, and support for microSD cards of up to 512 Mb maximum. V3i was functionally very close to the Motorola V635. The V3i came in two versions: one with iTunes and one with Motorola's Digital Audio Player (DAP). The iTunes version of the phone had a 50 or 100 song limit restriction depending on where the phone model was made. The phone's looks were also subtly changed. It was announced on December 8, 2005, that Motorola had teamed up with Dolce & Gabbana (D&G) to produce a Special Edition Gold Razr V3t. Only 1,000 of these were made and sold for a premium price.


title: Motorola Razr

text: On June 1, 2006, Motorola and Dolce & Gabbana released another limited edition gold phone. This model included a D&G cell phone holder, a signature leather pouch, Bluetooth headphones, and FM earphones. It was available from all major Motorola retailers and select D&G boutiques.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Motorola Razr V3i was released to most worldwide markets in Q4 of 2005–2006. In the U.S. the phone was released through Cingular Wireless on September 6, 2006, with a new activation price of $299, while T-Mobile released the Dolce & Gabbana V3i exclusively in the United States.


title: Motorola Razr

text: On November 21, 2005, a CDMA2000 version of the Razr, known as the Razr V3c, became available to Alltel and SaskTel users. Verizon Wireless followed suit on December 7, 2005. Unlike models for Alltel and other carriers, Verizon's V3c features a proprietary user interface and disables, in software, Bluetooth file transfer capabilities (called OBEX).


title: Motorola Razr

text: In January 2006, Canadian Telus, Bell Mobility and Aliant Mobility, Venezuelan carriers Movistar and Movilnet, and Brazilian Vivo began carrying the V3c. In April 2006 Cricket Communications began selling the V3c. The handset was also made available for Metro PCS. The Razr V3c supported CDMA 2000 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO third-generation wireless technologies.


title: Motorola Razr

text: US Cellular and Alaska Communications Systems also carried the V3c. It had approximately 41.2 MB of internal memory, although only about 36 MB was available for use. The V3c did not support expansion with a memory card.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The original version of the V3c was charcoal gray, and a light pink version called Satin Pink (different from the GSM Magenta/Pink and the AT&T Cotton Candy versions) was released by Verizon Wireless in January 2006. Telus Mobility, Bell, Aliant, and Vivo also carried pink versions of the V3c.


title: Motorola Razr

text: V3m was a CDMA version of the Razr. As an upgrade to the V3c, it featured a microSD card slot for up to 2 GB of memory expansion, a longer-lasting battery, and 40 MB of internal memory. The V3m came in silver, pink, and red although the original release, as well as models that used to be available on the Sprint CDMA network, featured the gunmetal gray color of the V3c. For a limited time Alltel and US Cellular offered a Fire Red color. Partnering with Motorola, US Cellular and Sprint released a special PRODUCT(RED) Razr and Bluetooth H500 headset to help support Global Fund programs which positively impact the lives of women and children affected by HIV/AIDS in Africa.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Verizon Wireless disabled certain features on the V3m including the ability to transfer data files to and from the phone via Bluetooth (a specific protocol called OBEX). Verizon blocked the transfer of most data over USB, such as ringtones. These phones also ran Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless (BREW), which signs each application to the phones Electronic Serial Number, or ESN, thus preventing the use of free applications (including Back-Up Assistant). Equivalent models offered by competitors (such as the V3t) retained these features.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The V3m on Verizon could play .WMA formatted music files placed in the my_music directory of the removable memory chip, but although the telephone could accept a 2 GB memory chip, only a portion ( ~ 600 Mbytes) can be accessed by the music player. Stereo headphone playback could be achieved with a miniature USB to 3.5 mm phone jack adapter containing the appropriate interface circuitry; adapters designed for hands-free handset operation may not work.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Announced in March 2005, the V3x was formerly known as the Motorola V1150. Externally, it appeared to be a larger V3, albeit with enhancements such as a 2.0-megapixel camera. Internally, it was quite different, utilizing a different microprocessor, chipset, an Nvidia GoForce 4200 GPU, and radio ICs. As a 3G product, its feature set was closer to that of phones such as the Motorola V980, e.g., two cameras instead of the single camera typical on GSM or CDMA products. It was not as thin as the V3. It won the "Best 3GSM handset" at the 2006 3GSM World Congress.


title: Motorola Razr

text: In Japan, a 3G(W-CDMA) NTT DoCoMo version of the V3x was released in late August 2006. This version had IrDA.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Announced in July 2006, the V3xx was a 3G category 5/6 (3.6 Mbit/s) HSDPA and EDGE supported handset. It was extremely similar in appearance to the compact V3i design, but incorporated an improved feature set with a 1.3-megapixel camera, 50 MB of internal memory, support for microSD and Bluetooth A2DP. Like the V3x, it was also equipped with a secondary screen and a higher resolution 240x320 pixel (QVGA) main screen. The V3xx was made available for purchase internationally on the 3 network in November 2006 and was available on AT&T (formerly Cingular). The secondary camera was not available in the United States. The built-in GPU, manufactured by Nvidia (model GoForce 4800) was capable of rendering 3D images through OpenGL ES. The phone included a much faster CPU as well, improving the performance of all features, including 3G/data. With the new CPU, the V3xx also included a fast USB V2.0 for rapid ringtone/image/mp3 file downloads. Older V3's were limited to USB V1.1.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Unlike with the V3 and V3i which were both quad-band GSM, and thus worked on any GSM network, the V3xx came in different variants depending on the local frequency bands used for GSM and UMTS/HSDPA. The North American V3xx was tri-band (850/1800/1900 MHz) GSM and dual-band (850/1900 MHz) UMTS/HSDPA, whereas the version sold in Europe and Asia was tri-band (900/1800/1900 MHz) GSM and single-band (2.1 GHz) UMTS/HSDPA. This was likely due to the need to fit the internal components of the V3xx into a small casing; in early 2007 global phones that supported quad-band GSM and tri-band UMTS/HSDPA were considerably bulkier than the V3xx.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The M702iS version was released as the NTT DoCoMo version of the V3xx which did not have GSM and HSDPA but rather IrDA.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Motorola Razr maxx (or MotoRazr maxx) was released at the end of 2006 in Europe and on April 27, 2007, elsewhere. The maxx was an upgrade to the popular V3x and was Motorola's second HSDPA 3.5G phone after the Razr V3xx. Although almost identical to the V3x in use and features, the maxx supported additional external touch keys for music control and retained the size of the original Razr V3.


title: Motorola Razr

text: This handset was released on Telstra's NextG network under the original name "Motorola Razr maxx V6". It featured compatibility with both the original 2100 MHz band and the NextG band, 850 MHz. The phone was branded with the Telstra logo and on-screen graphics. The phone was released by Telstra for outright purchase in late 2006 at a price of about A$800. The phone was repackaged late in 2007 and sold with a prepaid plan for $250, locked for use only with Telstra SIM cards. Many of the post-paid phones sold by Telstra in 2007 were inadvertently locked.


title: Motorola Razr

text: This handset was released on Hutchison's 3 network under the name "Motorola Razr maxx V6". The phone and home screen were branded with the 3 logo. Internal memory was increased to 60 MB.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr maxx Ve was available exclusively in the United States for Verizon Wireless customers. The maxx Ve featured EV-DO instead of HSDPA and CDMA2000 1x instead of GSM/UMTS.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr maxx was a 3G HSDPA and EDGE handset predated by the Razr V3x. Initially known as the "maxx V6," it was released in Europe by the end of 2006. The original version had a 2.0-megapixel camera with LED flash, a large screen with 240x320 QVGA display (like the V3xx) and 50 megabytes of internal storage. While gaining a significantly improved feature set, it maintained the same thin profile of the original Razr V3. Key to its design was a glass fascia with external touch-sensitive controls for MP3s.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Verizon Wireless version became available on April 24, 2007. It did not feature a second camera on the inside of the phone; instead, there was a shutter button for focusing and picture taking.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Like the previous Model MS500, Motorola Korea announced its Korean version of WCDMA Razr HSDPA, known as Razr Luk. The MS500W upgrades its screen to 2.2 inch TFT QVGA, 1.3-megapixel camera with Bluetooth, and microSDHC support. The model features different color pattern compare to previous MS500, and hit the Korean market by late February 2009.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr VE20 was an updated CDMA model of the original Razr. It was released in the U.S. for Sprint, Alltel, and US Cellular. It incorporated some of the design elements of the Razr² V9m at a reduced price. Its rounded clamshell body was almost as thin as the Razr V3m. It featured a QVGA main display, outer display with virtual touch keys, 2-megapixel camera, stereo Bluetooth, and a microSD memory card slot up to 8 Gb.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr2 was the successor to the Razr series. The Razr2 was 2 mm thinner than its predecessor but slightly wider. Some versions featured Motorola's MotoMagx operational platform, based on the MontaVista Linux OS. The Razr2 was made available on every US carrier, and EVDO, GSM and HSDPA versions of it were released by late 2007. The Razr2 line consisted of 4 models: V8, V9, V9m, and V9x.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The phone improved picture quality, speed, and multimedia capabilities over the original Razr. It also featured an external screen with touch-sensitive buttons which allowed users to use some of the phone features without opening it, and Motorola's CrystalTalk technology to improve call quality and help reduce background noise. Different color variants were released, including a Luxury Edition and a Ferrari Edition.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr brand returned in 2011 with the introduction of the Motorola Droid Razr smartphone (the "Droid" name only used by Verizon in the USA), featuring a thin body like the original Razr V3. The line included:


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr (2020), also called the Razr 2019, depending on the source, is a foldable smartphone with a design reminiscent of the classic Razr V3. It was designed with nostalgia in mind – its design was supposed to remind people of the early 21st century, a time many look back at with fondness and sentiment. It was supposed to be a capable, modern, Android-running smartphone with a "high-tech" folding display and advanced modern features such as a fingerprint sensor, inside of a body that already felt familiar to many. It features a display that folds horizontally, like the familiar V3 and other Razr models from the 2000s, unlike most folding smartphones, which fold vertically.


title: Motorola Razr

text: Motorola presented the phone on November 14, 2019. It was priced at $1,499 and initially only available on Verizon Wireless. The phone was originally expected to launch in January 2020, but was subsequently delayed until February 6, 2020. When it launched, it was received with mixed reviews. Many reviewers felt it was too expensive for its specifications. Its camera, battery life, weak build quality, and price were criticized, while the design and software were praised. PC Magazine summed it up: "Motorola's gorgeous folding Razr doesn't deliver the performance you expect from a $1,500 phone". The Verge wrote harshly: "I wish I could tell you exactly where I think the Motorola Razr went wrong, but there are too many options to choose from".


title: Motorola Razr

text: On September 9, 2020, Motorola announced the second generation of Motorola Razr (2020), called the Razr 5G. The second generation included many improvements over the first generation and was initially priced at $1399.99 in the US. It was, however, also criticized for reasons similar to the first phone. The Verge wrote: "It’s better than the original in every way but still costs too much".


title: Motorola Razr

text: Being the slimmest phone during its release in 2004, the Razr easily stood out amongst other phone models. It was one of the most popular mobile phones since its first release, having been spotted in the hands of celebrities and business people alike until the advent of smartphones, and it is frequently seen in reruns of movies and TV shows.


title: Motorola Razr

text: The Razr became identified as a "fashion" product and an iconic cell phone in the mid-2000s. The Razr was used in several television shows and featured in several movies. In the 2006 film "A Good Year", Russell Crowe's character Max Skinner used a BlackBerry whilst working as a high-flying London financier, but chose a black Razr to accompany his later laid-back life in rural Provence. Notable TV occasions were the season three finale of the TV series "Lost" in which Jack Shephard used a Razr (an important plot point which anchors the episode's chronology), the HBO hit sitcom Entourage had characters specifically Ari Gold using it, and the US hit series "Burn Notice" in which Michael Westen used a Razr until 2009. In Season 5 of 24, President Charles Logan used a Razr as his personal cell phone. Contestants on the NBC adventure reality show "Treasure Hunters" were given Razrs for communication with the host and each other throughout the season. The Product Red edition of the Razr was launched by Oprah Winfrey and Bono for charity. A grey V3 was also used by Jeremy Clarkson on BBC's "Top Gear" during outtakes when he got a call at the start of the show. Even in 2012, the Razr was used as CIA-special agent Rex Matheson's phone in the 4th season of "Torchwood".


title: Motorola Razr

text: It was popularised in South India through the movie "Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu", in which Kamal Haasan was seen using the phone. In the computer game , the character Leet can be seen holding one. In "Prison Break" Series, Alexander Mahone used the Motorola V3. Also, in the 2006 film " The Devil Wears Prada", characters played by Meryl Streep and Stanley Tucci used Moto Razr phones.


title: Motorola Razr

text: In the 2017 Square Enix game "", the main character's phone is a Motorola RAZR, decorated with stickers.


title: Temporal lobe

text: The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain.


title: Temporal lobe

text: The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memory, language comprehension, and emotion association.


title: Temporal lobe

text: The temporal lobe consists of structures that are vital for declarative or long-term memory. Declarative (denotative) or explicit memory is conscious memory divided into semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (events). Medial temporal lobe structures that are critical for long-term memory include the hippocampus, along with the surrounding hippocampal region consisting of the perirhinal, parahippocampal, and entorhinal neocortical regions. The hippocampus is critical for memory formation, and the surrounding medial temporal cortex is currently theorized to be critical for memory storage. The prefrontal and visual cortices are also involved in explicit memory.


title: Temporal lobe

text: Research has shown that lesions in the hippocampus of monkeys results in limited impairment of function, whereas extensive lesions that include the hippocampus and the medial temporal cortex result in severe impairment.


title: Temporal lobe

text: The temporal lobe communicates with the hippocampus and plays a key role in the formation of explicit long-term memory modulated by the amygdala.


title: Temporal lobe

text: The temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex, which is important for the processing of semantics in both language and vision in humans. Wernicke's area, which spans the region between temporal and parietal lobes, plays a key role (in tandem with Broca's area in the frontal lobe) in language comprehension, whether spoken language or signed language. FMRI imaging shows these portions of the brain are activated by signed or spoken languages. These areas of the brain are active in children's language acquisition whether accessed via hearing a spoken language, watching a signed language, or via hand-over-hand tactile versions of a signed language


title: Temporal lobe

text: The functions of the left temporal lobe are not limited to low-level perception but extend to comprehension, naming, and verbal memory.


title: Temporal lobe

text: The medial temporal lobes (near the sagittal plane) are thought to be involved in encoding declarative long term memory. The medial temporal lobes include the hippocampi, which are essential for memory storage, therefore damage to this area can result in impairment in new memory formation leading to permanent or temporary anterograde amnesia.


title: Temporal lobe

text: Individuals who suffer from medial temporal lobe damage have a difficult time recalling visual stimuli. This neurotransmission deficit is not due to lacking perception of visual stimuli, but rather to the inability to interpret what is perceived. The most common symptom of inferior temporal lobe damage is visual agnosia, which involves impairment in the identification of familiar objects. Another less common type of inferior temporal lobe damage is prosopagnosia which is an impairment in the recognition of faces and distinction of unique individual facial features.


title: Temporal lobe

text: Pick's disease, also known as "frontotemporal amnesia", is caused by atrophy of the frontotemporal lobe. Emotional symptoms include mood changes, which the patient may be unaware of, including poor attention span and aggressive behavior towards themselves or others. Language symptoms include loss of speech, inability to read or write, loss of vocabulary and overall degeneration of motor ability.


title: Temporal lobe

text: Temporal lobe epilepsy is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures; symptoms include a variety of sensory (visual, auditory, olfactory, and gustation) hallucinations, as well as an inability to process semantic and episodic memories.


title: Temporal lobe

text: Schizophrenia is a severe psychotic disorder characterized by severe disorientation. Its most explicit symptom is the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations. The cause of such hallucinations has been attributed to deficits in the left temporal lobe, specifically within the primary auditory cortex. Decreased gray matter, among other cellular deficits, contribute to spontaneous neural activity that affects the primary auditory cortex as if it were experiencing acoustic auditory input. The misrepresentation of speech in the auditory cortex results in the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenic patients. Structural and functional MRI techniques have accounted for this neural activity by testing affected and non-affected individuals with external auditory stimuli.


title: White Australia policy

text: The White Australia policy is a term encapsulating a set of historical policies that aimed to forbid people of non-European ethnic origin, especially Asians (primarily Chinese) and Pacific Islanders, from immigrating to Australia, starting in 1901. Governments progressively dismantled such policies between 1949 and 1973.


title: White Australia policy

text: Competition in the gold fields between European and Chinese miners, and labour union opposition to the importation of Pacific Islanders (primarily South Sea Islanders) into the sugar plantations of Queensland, reinforced demands to eliminate or minimize low-wage immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands. From the 1850s colonial governments imposed restrictions on family members joining Chinese miners already in Australia. The colonial authorities levied a special tax on Chinese immigrants and from which other immigrants were exempted. Towards the end of the 19th century labour unions pushed to stop Chinese immigrants working in the furniture and market garden industries.


title: White Australia policy

text: Soon after Australia became a federation in January 1901, the federal government of Edmund Barton passed the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901; this was drafted by Alfred Deakin, who would eventually become Australia's second Prime Minister. The passage of this bill marked the commencement of the White Australia Policy as Australian federal government policy. Subsequent acts further strengthened the policy up to the start of World War II.


title: White Australia policy

text: These policies effectively gave British migrants preference over all others through the first four decades of the 20th century. During World War II, Prime Minister John Curtin reinforced the policy, saying "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."


title: White Australia policy

text: Successive governments dismantled the policy in stages after the conclusion of World War II. The Menzies and Holt Governments (1949–1967) partially dismantled the racist policy between 1949 and 1966 by allowing non-British Europeans to immigrate to Australia, and the Whitlam Government passed laws to ensure that race would be totally disregarded as a component for immigration to Australia in 1973. In 1975 the Whitlam Government passed the "Racial Discrimination Act", which made racially-based selection criteria unlawful. In the decades since, Australia has maintained large-scale multi-ethnic immigration. , Australia's migration program allows people from any country to apply to immigrate to Australia, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, culture, religion, or language, provided that they meet the criteria set out in law.


title: White Australia policy

text: The discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 led to an influx of immigrants from all around the world. The colony of New South Wales had a population of just 200,000 in 1851, but the huge influx of settlers spurred by the Australian gold rushes transformed the Australian colonies economically, politically and demographically. Over the next 20 years, 40,000 Chinese men and over 9,000 women (mostly Cantonese) immigrated to the goldfields seeking prosperity.


title: White Australia policy

text: Gold brought great wealth but also new social tensions. Multi-ethnic migrants came to New South Wales in large numbers for the first time. Competition on the goldfields, particularly resentment among white miners towards the successes of Chinese miners, led to tensions between groups and eventually a series of significant racist protests and riots, including the Buckland riot in 1857 and the Lambing Flat riots between 1860 and 1861. Governor Hotham, on 16 November 1854, appointed a Royal Commission on Victorian goldfields problems and grievances. This led to restrictions being placed on Chinese immigration and residency taxes levied from Chinese residents in Victoria from 1855 with New South Wales following suit in 1861. These restrictions remained in force until the early 1870s.


title: White Australia policy

text: Melbourne Trades Hall was opened in 1859 with Trades and Labour Councils and Trades Halls opening in all cities and most regional towns in the following forty years. During the 1880s Trade unions developed among shearers, miners, and stevedores (wharf workers), but soon spread to cover almost all blue-collar jobs. Shortages of labour led to high wages for a prosperous skilled working class, whose unions demanded and got an eight-hour day and other benefits unheard of in Europe.


title: White Australia policy

text: Australia gained a reputation as "the working man's paradise." Some employers hired Chinese labourers who were cheaper and more hard working. This produced a reaction which led to all the colonies restricting Chinese and other Asian immigration. This was the genesis of the White Australia Policy. The "Australian compact", based around centralised industrial arbitration, a degree of government assistance particularly for primary industries, and White Australia, was to continue for many years before gradually dissolving in the second half of the 20th century.


title: White Australia policy

text: The growth of the sugar industry in Queensland in the 1870s led to searching for labourers prepared to work in a tropical environment. During this time, thousands of "Kanakas" (Pacific Islanders) were brought into Australia as indentured workers. This and related practices of bringing in non-white labour to be cheaply employed was commonly termed "blackbirding" and refers to the recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work on plantations, particularly the sugar cane plantations of Queensland (Australia) and Fiji. In the 1870s and 1880s, the trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions, were harder workers and refused unionisation.


title: White Australia policy

text: Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas. It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned. Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875 and 1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation which excluded all further Chinese immigration. Asian immigrants already residing in the Australian colonies were not expelled and retained the same rights as their Anglo and Southern compatriots, although faced significant discrimination.


title: White Australia policy

text: Agreements were made to further increase these restrictions in 1895 following an Inter-colonial Premier's Conference where all colonies agreed to extend entry restrictions to all non-white races. However, in attempting to enact this legislation, the Governors of New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania reserved the bills, due to a treaty with Japan, and they did not become law. Instead, the Natal Act of 1897 was introduced, restricting "undesirable persons" rather than any specific race.


title: White Australia policy

text: The British government in London was not pleased with legislation that discriminated against certain subjects of its Empire, but decided not to disallow the laws that were passed. Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain explained in 1897:We quite sympathize with the determination...of these colonies...that there should not be an influx of people alien in civilisation, alien in religion, alien in customs, whose influx, moreover, would seriously interfere with the legitimate rights of the existing labouring population.


title: White Australia policy

text: In writing about the preoccupations of the Australian population in early Federation Australia before World War I in "ANZAC to Amiens", the official historian of the war, Charles Bean, considered the White Australia policy and defined it as follows:"White Australia Policy" – a vehement effort to maintain a high Western standard of economy, society and culture (necessitating at that stage, however it might be camouflaged, the rigid exclusion of Oriental peoples).


title: White Australia policy

text: Immigration was a prominent topic in the lead up to Australian Federation. At the third Session of the Australasian Federation Convention of 1898, Western Australian premier and future federal cabinet member John Forrest summarised the feeling of the Anglo-Saxon people in Australia:


title: White Australia policy

text: The Barton Government which came to power following the first elections of the Commonwealth parliament in 1901 was formed by the Protectionist Party with the support of the Australian Labor Party. The support of the Labor Party was contingent upon restricting non-white immigration, reflecting the attitudes of the Australian Workers Union and other labour organisations at the time, upon whose support the Labor Party was founded.


title: White Australia policy

text: The first Parliament of Australia quickly moved to restrict immigration to maintain Australia's "British character", and the Pacific Island Labourers Bill and the Immigration Restriction Bill were passed shortly before parliament rose for its first Christmas recess. The Colonial Secretary in Britain had however made it clear that a race-based immigration policy would run "contrary to the general conceptions of equality which have ever been the guiding principle of British rule throughout the Empire". The Barton Government therefore conceived of the "language dictation test", which would allow the government, at the discretion of the minister, to block unwanted migrants by forcing them to sit a test in "any European language". Race had already been established as a premise for exclusion among the colonial parliaments, so the main question for debate was who exactly the new Commonwealth ought to exclude, with the Labor Party rejecting Britain's calls to placate the populations of its non-white colonies and allow "aboriginal natives of Asia, Africa, or the islands thereof". There was opposition from Queensland and its sugar industry to the proposals of the Pacific Islanders Bill to exclude "Kanaka" labourers, however Barton argued that the practice was "veiled slavery" that could lead to a "negro problem" similar to that in the United States, and the Bill was passed.


title: White Australia policy

text: The new Federal Parliament, as one of its first pieces of legislation, passed the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (1 Edward VII 17 1901) to "place certain restrictions on immigration and... for the removal... of prohibited immigrants". The Act drew on similar legislation in South Africa. Edmund Barton, the prime minister, argued in support of the Bill with the following statement: "The doctrine of the equality of man was never intended to apply to the equality of the Englishman and the Chinaman."


title: White Australia policy

text: The Attorney General tasked with drafting the legislation was Alfred Deakin. Deakin supported Barton's position over that of the Labor Party in drafting the Bill (the ALP wanted more direct methods of exclusion than the dictation test) and redacted the more vicious racism proposed for the text in his Second Reading of the Bill. In seeking to justify the policy, Deakin said he believed that the Japanese and Chinese might be a threat to the newly formed federation and it was this belief that led to legislation to ensure they would be kept out:It is not the bad qualities, but the good qualities of these alien races that make them so dangerous to us. It is their inexhaustible energy, their power of applying themselves to new tasks, their endurance and low standard of living that make them such competitors.Early drafts of the Act explicitly banned non-Europeans from migrating to Australia but objections from the British government, which feared that such a measure would offend British subjects in India and Britain's allies in Japan, caused the Barton government to remove this wording. Instead, a "dictation test" was introduced as a device for excluding unwanted immigrants. Immigration officials were given the power to exclude any person who failed to pass a 50-word dictation test. At first this was to be in any European language, but was later changed to include "any" language. The tests were written in such a way to make them nearly impossible to pass. The first of these tests was written by Federal MP Stewart Parnaby as an example for officers to follow when setting future tests. The "Stewart" test was unofficially standardised as the English version of the test, due to its extremely high rates of failure resulting from a very sophisticated use of language. While specifically asked by Barton to carry out this task, Parnaby allegedly shared similar views to Donald Cameron despite never publicly admitting so.


title: White Australia policy

text: The legislation found strong support in the new Australian Parliament, with arguments ranging from economic protection to outright racism. The Labor Party wanted to protect "white" jobs and pushed for more explicit restrictions. A few politicians spoke of the need to avoid hysterical treatment of the question. Member of Parliament Bruce Smith said he had "no desire to see low-class Indians, Chinamen or Japanese...swarming into this country... But there is obligation...not (to) unnecessarily offend the educated classes of those nations" Donald Cameron, a Free Trade Party member from Tasmania, expressed a rare note of dissension:


title: White Australia policy

text: Outside parliament, Australia's first Catholic cardinal, Patrick Francis Moran was politically active and denounced anti-Chinese legislation as "unChristian". The popular press mocked the cardinal's position and the small European population of Australia generally supported the legislation and remained fearful of being overwhelmed by an influx of non-British migrants from the vastly different cultures of the highly populated nations to Australia's north.


title: White Australia policy

text: The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 imposed a dictation test, in any European language, for any non-European migrant to Australia. From 1905, the immigration officer could choose any language (for example Scottish Gaelic), which effectively meant that the immigration officer could restrict immigration if he wanted to. Further discriminatory legislation was the Postal and Telegraph Services Act 1901 (1 Edward VII 12 1901), which required any ship carrying mail to and from Australia to only have a white crew.


title: White Australia policy

text: In 1901, there were approximately 9,800 Pacific Islander labourers in Queensland. In 1901, the Australian parliament passed the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (1 Edward VII 16 1901). The result of these statutes was that 7,500 Pacific Islanders (called "Kanakas") working mostly on plantations in Queensland were deported, and entry into Australia by Pacific Islanders was prohibited after 1904. Those exempted from repatriation, along with a number of others who escaped deportation, remained in Australia to form the basis of what is today Australia's largest non-indigenous black ethnic group. Today, the descendants of those who remained are officially referred to as South Sea Islanders.


title: White Australia policy

text: Māori generally benefited from the same immigration and voting rights as European New Zealanders in Australia, making them a notable exception to the White Australia policy. In 1902, with the "Commonwealth Franchise Act", Māori residents in Australia were granted the right to vote, a right denied to Indigenous Australians. During that same period, their right to settle in Australia was facilitated by their shared status as British subjects. The Australian government granted equal rights to Māori only reluctantly. In 1905, the New Zealand government made a formal complaint about the exclusion of two Māori shearers, after which the Australian government changed its customs regulations to allow Māori to freely enter the country. Other Pacific Islanders were still subject to the White Australia policy.


title: White Australia policy

text: At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference following the First World War, Japan sought to include a racial equality clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Japanese policy reflected their desire to remove or to ease the immigration restrictions against Japanese (especially in the United States and Canada), which Japan regarded as a humiliation and affront to its prestige.


title: White Australia policy

text: Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes was already concerned by the prospect of Japanese expansion in the Pacific. Australia, Japan and New Zealand had seized the German colonial empire's territories in the Pacific in the early stages of the war and Hughes was concerned to retain German New Guinea as vital to the defence of Australia. The Treaty ultimately granted Australia a League of Nations Mandate over German New Guinea and Japan to the South Seas Mandate immediately to its north – thus bringing Australian and Japanese territory to a shared border – a situation altered only by Japan's Second World War invasion of New Guinea.


title: White Australia policy

text: Hughes vehemently opposed Japan's racial equality proposition. Hughes recognised that such a clause would be a threat to White Australia and made it clear to British Prime Minister David Lloyd George that he would leave the conference if the clause was adopted. When the proposal failed, Hughes reported in the Australian parliament:The White Australia is yours. You may do with it what you please, but at any rate, the soldiers have achieved the victory and my colleagues and I have brought that great principle back to you from the conference, as safe as it was on the day when it was first adopted.


title: White Australia policy

text: Australian anxiety at the prospect of Japanese expansionism and war in the Pacific continued through the 1930s. Billy Hughes, by then a minister in the United Australia Party's Lyons Government, made a notable contribution to Australia's attitude towards immigration in a 1935 speech in which he argued that "Australia must... populate or perish". However Hughes was forced to resign in 1935 after his book "Australia and the War Today" exposed a lack of preparation in Australia for what Hughes correctly supposed to be a coming war.


title: White Australia policy

text: Between the Great Depression starting in 1929 and the end of World War II in 1945, global conditions kept immigration to very low levels. At the start of the war, Prime Minister John Curtin (ALP) reinforced the message of the White Australia policy by saying: "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."


title: White Australia policy

text: Following the 1942 Fall of Singapore, Australians feared invasion by Imperial Japan. Australian cities were bombed by the Japanese airforce and Navy and Axis naval forces menaced Australian shipping, while the Royal Navy remained pre-occupied with the battles of the Atlantic and Mediterranean in the face of Nazi aggression in Europe. A Japanese invasion fleet headed for the Australian Territory of New Guinea was only halted by the intervention of the United States Navy in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Australia received thousands of refugees from territories falling to advancing Japanese forces – notably thousands of Dutch who fled the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). Aboriginal Australians, Torres Strait Islanders, Papua New Guineans and Timorese served in the frontline of the defence of Australia, bringing Australia's racially discriminatory immigration and political rights policies into focus and wartime service gave many Indigenous Australians confidence in demanding their rights upon return to civilian life.


title: White Australia policy

text: During the war, talk arose about the possibility of abolishing the policy. Spokesman for the Labor Party demanded that it be continued:The policy of White Australia is now, perhaps, the most outstanding political characteristic of this country, and it has been accepted not only by those closely associated with it, but also by those who watched and studied "this interesting experiment" from afar. Only those who favor the exploitation of a servile coloured race for greed of gain, and a few professional economists and benighted theologians, are now heard in serious criticism of a White Australia; but...they are encouraged by the ill-timed and inappropriate pronouncements of what are, after all, irresponsible officials.


title: White Australia policy

text: Following the trauma of Second World War, Australia's vulnerability during the Pacific War and its relatively small population compared to other nations led to policies summarised by the slogan, "populate or perish". According to author Lachlan Strahan, this was an ethnocentric slogan that in effect was an admonition to fill Australia with Europeans or else risk having it overrun by Asians. Immigration Minister Arthur Calwell stated in 1947 to critics of the government's mass immigration programme: "We have 25 years at most to populate this country before the yellow races are down on us."


title: White Australia policy

text: During the war, many non-white refugees, including Malays, Indonesians and Filipinos, arrived in Australia, but Calwell controversially sought to have them all deported. The Chifley Government introduced the "Aliens Deportation Act 1948", which had its weaknesses exposed by the High Court case "O'Keefe v Calwell", and then passed the "War-time Refugees Removal Act 1949" which gave the immigration minister sweeping powers of deportation. In 1948, Iranian Baháʼís seeking to immigrate to Australia were classified as "Asiatic" by the policy and were denied entry. In 1949, Calwell's successor Harold Holt allowed the remaining 800 non-white refugees to apply for residency, and also allowed Japanese "war brides" to settle in Australia. In the meantime, encouraging immigration from Europe, Australia admitted large numbers of immigrants from mostly Italy, Greece and Yugoslavia, as well as its traditional source of immigration, the British Isles. The Australian Government promoted the assimilation of migrants to Australia from continental Europe, who were expected to become mainstream Australians.


title: White Australia policy

text: Australian policy began to shift towards significantly increasing immigration. Legislative changes over the next few decades continuously opened up immigration in Australia.


title: White Australia policy

text: This was despite comments Menzies made in a discussion with radio 2UE's Stewart Lamb in 1955, where he appeared to be a defender of the White Australia Policy. Menzies: "I don't want to see reproduced in Australia the kind of problem they have in South Africa or in America or increasingly in Great Britain. I think it's been a very good policy and it's been of great value to us and most of the criticism of it that I've ever heard doesn't come from these oriental countries it comes from wandering Australians."


title: White Australia policy

text: In 1963, a paper "Immigration: Control or Colour Bar?" was published by a group of students and academics at Melbourne University. It proposed eliminating the White Australia policy, and was influential towards this end.


title: White Australia policy

text: Labor Party members Don Dunstan and Gough Whitlam set about removing the White Australia policy from the Labor platform. Attempts in 1959 and 1961 failed, with Labor leader Arthur Calwell stating, "It would ruin the Party if we altered the immigration policy ... it was only cranks, long hairs, academics and do-gooders who wanted the change". However, Dunstan persisted in his efforts, and in 1965, the White Australia Policy was removed from the Labor platform at their national conference; Dunstan personally took credit for the change.


title: White Australia policy

text: In 1966, the Holt Liberal Government effectively dismantled the White Australia policy and increased access to non-European migrants, including refugees fleeing the Vietnam War. After a review of immigration policy in March 1966, Immigration Minister Hubert Opperman announced applications for migration would be accepted from well-qualified people "on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily and their possession of qualifications positively useful to Australia". At the same time, Harold Holt's government decided to allow foreign non-whites to become permanent residents and citizens after five years (the same as for Europeans), and also removed discriminatory provisions in family reunification policies.


title: White Australia policy

text: As a result, annual non-European settler arrivals rose from 746 in 1966 to 2,696 in 1971, while annual part-European settler arrivals rose from 1,498 to 6,054.


title: White Australia policy

text: Leader of the Labor Party from 1960 to 1967 Arthur Calwell supported the White European Australia policy. This is reflected by Calwell's comments in his 1972 memoirs, "Be Just and Fear Not", in which he made it clear that he maintained his view that non-European people should not be allowed to settle in Australia. He wrote:


title: White Australia policy

text: I am proud of my white skin, just as a Chinese is proud of his yellow skin, a Japanese of his brown skin, and the Indians of their various hues from black to coffee-coloured. Anybody who is not proud of his race is not a man at all. And any man who tries to stigmatise the Australian community as racist because they want to preserve this country for the white race is doing our nation great harm... I reject, in conscience, the idea that Australia should or ever can become a multi-racial society and survive.


title: White Australia policy

text: Whitlam brought about the comprehensive legal end of the White Australia policy in 1973 as Prime Minister. The Whitlam Labor government implemented a series of amendments preventing the enforcement of racial aspects of the immigration law. These amendments:


title: White Australia policy

text: The "Racial Discrimination Act 1975" made the use of racial criteria for any official purpose illegal.


title: White Australia policy

text: It was not until the Fraser Liberal government's review of immigration law in 1978 that all selection of prospective migrants based on country of origin was entirely removed from official policy.


title: White Australia policy

text: In 1981, the Minister for Immigration announced a Special Humanitarian Assistance Programme (SHP) for Iranians to seek refuge in Australia and by 1988 some 2,500 Baháʼís and many more others had arrived in Australia through either SHP or Refugee Programmes. The last selective immigration policy, offering relocation assistance to British nationals, was finally removed in 1982.


title: White Australia policy

text: Australia's contemporary immigration programme has two components: a programme for skilled and family migrants and a humanitarian programme for refugees and asylum seekers. By 2010, the post-war immigration programme had received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. The population tripled in the six decades to around 21 million in 2010, comprising people originating from 200 countries.


title: White Australia policy

text: Non-European and non-Christian immigration has increased substantially since the dismantling of the White Australia policy.


title: White Australia policy

text: The policy had the effect of creating a population of overwhelmingly European, and largely Anglo-Celtic, descent. In refusing immigration by people of other ethnic origins, it also effectively limited the immigration of practitioners of non-Christian faiths. Consequently, the White Australia policy ensured that Christianity (specifically Anglicanism) remained the religion of the majority of Australians. However, the percentage of Australians who are religious is dropping significantly each year.


title: White Australia policy

text: In 2019, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 34% of the population, a higher proportion than in any other nation with a population of over 10 million. 162,417 permanent immigrants were admitted to Australia in 2017–18. Most immigrants are skilled, but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees. In 2018 the five largest immigrant groups were those born in England (4%), Mainland China (2.6%), India (2.4%), New Zealand (2.3%) and the Philippines (1.1%).


title: White Australia policy

text: The story of Australia since the Second World War – and particularly since the final relegation of the white Australia policy – has been one of ever-increasing ethnic and cultural diversity. Successive governments have sustained a large program of multi-ethnic immigration from all continents.


title: White Australia policy

text: Discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity was legally permitted until 1975. Australia's new official policy on racial diversity is: "to build on our success as a culturally diverse, accepting and open society, united through a shared future". The White Australia policy continues to be mentioned in modern contexts, although it is generally only mentioned by politicians when denouncing their opposition. As Leader of the Opposition, John Howard argued for restricting Asian immigration in 1988 as part of his One Australia policy; in August 1988, he said: I do believe that if it is – in the eyes of some in the community – that it's too great, it would be in our immediate-term interest and supporting of social cohesion if it [Asian immigration] were slowed down a little, so the capacity of the community to absorb it was greater.Howard later retracted and apologised for the remarks, and was returned to the leadership of the Liberal Party in 1995. The Howard Government (1996–2007) in turn ran a large programme of non-discriminatory immigration and, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Asian countries became an increasingly important source of immigration over the decade from 1996 to 2006, with the proportion of migrants from Southern and Central Asian countries doubling from 7% to 14%. The proportion of immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa also increased. By 2005–06, China and India were the third and fourth largest sources of all migration (after New Zealand and the United Kingdom). In 2005–06, there were 180,000 permanent additions of migrants to Australia (72% more than the number in 1996–97). This figure included around 17,000 through the humanitarian programme, of whom Iraqis and Sudanese accounted for the largest portions. China became Australia's biggest source of migrants for the first time in 2009, surpassing New Zealand and Britain.


title: White Australia policy

text: The Australian historian John Fitzgerald wrote that the White Australia policy, with its definition that to be Australian was to be white, had a powerful impact on forging the identity of the Chinese-Australian community as a marginalized community. Fitzgerald noted that even in the early 21st century, many Chinese-Australians who had been born and grew up in Australia automatically referred to white Australians as "the Australians" and to themselves as "the Chinese".


title: White Australia policy

text: Historian Geoffrey Blainey achieved mainstream recognition for the anti-multiculturalist cause when he wrote that multiculturalism threatened to transform Australia into a "cluster of tribes". In his 1984 book "All for Australia", Blainey criticised multiculturalism for tending to "emphasise the rights of ethnic minorities at the expense of the majority of Australians" and also for tending to be "anti-British", even though "people from the United Kingdom and Ireland form the dominant class of pre-war immigrants and the largest single group of post-war immigrants."


title: White Australia policy

text: According to Blainey, such a policy, with its "emphasis on what is different and on the rights of the new minority rather than the old majority," was unnecessarily creating division and threatened national cohesion. He argued that "the evidence is clear that many multicultural societies have failed and that the human cost of the failure has been high" and warned that "we should think very carefully about the perils of converting Australia into a giant multicultural laboratory for the assumed benefit of the peoples of the world."


title: White Australia policy

text: For the millions of Australians who have no other nation to fall back upon, multiculturalism is almost an insult. It is divisive. It threatens social cohesion. It could, in the long-term, also endanger Australia's military security because it sets up enclaves which in a crisis could appeal to their own homelands for help.


title: White Australia policy

text: Blainey remained a persistent critic of multiculturalism into the 1990s, denouncing multiculturalism as "morally, intellectually and economically ... a sham". Historian Andrew Roberts, in his 2006 book "A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900" praised the White Australia policy as being necessary to "protect Australia as an English-speaking nation". Roberts wrote the White Australia policy was the "right" immigration policy to pursue as he accused Asian immigrants of spreading infectious diseases and stated "Australia had the right (and duty) to protect herself" from Asian immigration. Views such as those expressed by Roberts have been in the minority. In 2009, the Australian historian Erin Ihde described the White Australia policy as "discredited" both within the historians' community and with the general public. Ihde wrote that the White Australia policy remains a difficult subject within the Australian popular memory of the past as it was the fear of the so-called "Yellow Peril" in the form of Asian immigration and the possibility of Asian nations such as China and Japan posing a military threat to Australia that played a major role in the formation of the Australian federation in 1901. Ihde argued the White Australia policy was not an aberration in Australian history, nor was it marginal, making it problematic to integrate into a positive view of Australian history.


title: White Australia policy

text: Despite the overall success and generally bipartisan support for Australia's multi-ethnic immigration programme, there remain voices of opposition to immigration within the Australian electorate. At its peak, Pauline Hanson's One Nation Party received 9% of the national vote at the 1998 Federal Election.


title: White Australia policy

text: Hanson was widely accused of trying to take Australia back to the days of the White Australia policy, particularly through reference to Arthur Calwell, one of the policy's strongest supporters. In her maiden address to the Australian Parliament following the 1996 election, Hanson said:I and most Australians want our immigration policy radically reviewed and that of multiculturalism abolished. I believe we are in danger of being swamped by Asians. Between 1984 and 1995, 40 per cent of all migrants coming into this country were of Asian origin. They have their own culture and religion, form ghettos and do not assimilate.Hanson's remarks generated wide interest in the media both nationally and internationally, but she herself did not retain her seat in Parliament at the 1998 election or subsequent 2001 and 2004 federal elections. Hanson also failed to win election in the 2003 and 2011 New South Wales state elections. In May 2007, Hanson, with her new Pauline's United Australia Party, continued her call for a freeze on immigration, arguing that African migrants carried disease into Australia. Hanson returned to politics in 2014 and ran in the Queensland election. She won a Queensland senate seat in the 2016 election, and retained it again in 2022.


title: White Australia policy

text: Topics related to racism and immigration in Australia are still regularly connected by the media to the White Australia policy. Some examples of issues and events where this connection has been made include:


title: White Australia policy

text: reconciliation with Indigenous Australians; mandatory detention and the "Pacific Solution"; the 2005 Cronulla riots, and the 2009 attacks on Indians in Australia. Former opposition Labor party leader Mark Latham, in his book "The Latham Diaries", described the ANZUS alliance as a legacy of the White Australia policy.