title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse expressed some of his Calvinist beliefs in his painting, "Landing of the Pilgrims", through the depiction of simple clothing as well as the people's austere facial features. His image captured the psychology of the Federalists; Calvinists from England brought to North America ideas of religion and government, thus linking the two countries. This work attracted the attention of the notable artist, Washington Allston. Allston wanted Morse to accompany him to England to meet the artist Benjamin West. Allston arranged—with Morse's father—a three-year stay for painting study in England. The two men set sail aboard the "Libya" on July 15, 1811.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In England, Morse perfected his painting techniques under Allston's watchful eye; by the end of 1811, he gained admittance to the Royal Academy. At the academy, he was moved by the art of the Renaissance and paid close attention to the works of Michelangelo and Raphael. After observing and practicing life drawing and absorbing its anatomical demands, the young artist produced his masterpiece, the "Dying Hercules". (He first made a sculpture as a study for the painting.)


title: Samuel Morse

text: To some, the "Dying Hercules" seemed to represent a political statement against the British and also the American Federalists. The muscles symbolized the strength of the young and vibrant United States versus the British and British-American supporters. During Morse's time in Britain, the Americans and British were engaged in the War of 1812. Both societies were conflicted over loyalties. Anti-Federalist Americans aligned themselves with the French, abhorred the British, and believed a strong central government to be inherently dangerous to democracy.


title: Samuel Morse

text: As the war raged on, Morse's letters to his parents became more anti-Federalist in tone. In one such letter, Morse wrote:


title: Samuel Morse

text: I assert ... that the Federalists in the Northern States have done more injury to their country by their violent opposition measures than a French alliance could. Their proceedings are copied into the English papers, read before Parliament, and circulated through their country, and what do they say of them ... they call them [Federalists] cowards, a base set, say they are traitors to their country and ought to be hanged like traitors.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Although Jedidiah Morse did not change Samuel's political views, he continued as an influence. Critics believe that the elder Morse's Calvinist ideas are integral to Morse's "Judgment of Jupiter," another significant work completed in England. Jupiter is shown in a cloud, accompanied by his eagle, with his hand spread above the parties and he is pronouncing judgment. Marpessa, with an expression of compunction and shame, is throwing herself into the arms of her husband. Idas, who tenderly loved Marpessa, is eagerly rushing forward to receive her while Apollo stares with surprise.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Critics have suggested that Jupiter represents God's omnipotence—watching every move that is made. Some call the portrait a moral teaching by Morse on infidelity. Although Marpessa fell victim, she realized that her eternal salvation was important and desisted from her wicked ways. Apollo shows no remorse for what he did but stands with a puzzled look. Many American paintings throughout the early nineteenth century had religious themes, and Morse was an early exemplar of this. "Judgment of Jupiter" allowed Morse to express his support of Anti-Federalism while maintaining his strong spiritual convictions. Benjamin West sought to present the "Jupiter" at another Royal Academy exhibition, but Morse's time had run out. He left England on August 21, 1815, to return to the United States and begin his full-time career as a painter.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The decade 1815–1825 marked significant growth in Morse's work, as he sought to capture the essence of America's culture and life. He painted the Federalist former President John Adams (1816). The Federalists and Anti-Federalists clashed over Dartmouth College. Morse painted portraits of Francis Brown—the college's president—and Judge Woodward (1817), who was involved in bringing the Dartmouth case before the U.S. Supreme Court.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse also sought commissions among the elite of Charleston, South Carolina. Morse's 1818 painting of Mrs. Emma Quash symbolized the opulence of Charleston. The young artist was doing well for himself. Between 1819 and 1821, Morse went through great changes in his life, including a decline in commissions due to the Panic of 1819.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse was commissioned to paint President James Monroe in 1820. He embodied Jeffersonian democracy by favoring the common man over the aristocrat.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse had moved to New Haven. His commissions for "The House of Representatives" (1821) and a portrait of the Marquis de Lafayette (1825) engaged his sense of democratic nationalism. "The House of Representatives" was designed to capitalize on the success of François Marius Granet's "The Capuchin Chapel in Rome," which toured the United States extensively throughout the 1820s, attracting audiences willing to pay the 25-cent admission fee.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The artist chose to paint the House of Representatives, in a similar way, with careful attention to architecture and dramatic lighting. He also wished to select a uniquely American topic that would bring glory to the young nation. His subject did just that, showing American democracy in action. He traveled to Washington D.C. to draw the architecture of the new Capitol and placed eighty individuals within the painting. He chose to portray a night scene, balancing the architecture of the Rotunda with the figures, and using lamplight to highlight the work. Pairs of people, those who stood alone, individuals bent over their desks working, were each painted simply but with faces of character. Morse chose nighttime to convey that Congress' dedication to the principles of democracy transcended day.


title: Samuel Morse

text: "The House of Representatives" failed to draw a crowd when exhibited in New York City in 1823. By contrast, John Trumbull's "Declaration of Independence" had won popular acclaim a few years earlier. Viewers may have felt that the architecture of "The House of Representatives" overshadows the individuals, making it hard to appreciate the drama of what was happening.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse was honored to paint the Marquis de Lafayette, the leading French supporter of the American Revolution. He felt compelled to paint a grand portrait of the man who helped to establish a free and independent America. He features Lafayette against a magnificent sunset. He has positioned Lafayette to the right of three pedestals: one has a bust of Benjamin Franklin, another of George Washington, and the third seems reserved for Lafayette. A peaceful woodland landscape below him symbolized American tranquility and prosperity as it approached the age of fifty. The developing friendship between Morse and Lafayette and their discussions of the Revolutionary War affected the artist after his return to New York City.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In 1826, he helped found the National Academy of Design in New York City. He served as the academy's president from 1826 to 1845 and again from 1861 to 1862.


title: Samuel Morse

text: From 1830 to 1832, Morse traveled and studied in Europe to improve his painting skills, visiting Italy, Switzerland, and France. During his time in Paris, he developed a friendship with the writer James Fenimore Cooper. As a project, he painted miniature copies of 38 of the Louvre's famous paintings on a single canvas (6 ft. x 9 ft), which he entitled "The Gallery of the Louvre." He completed the work upon his return to the United States.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In 1832, after his return to the United States, Morse was appointed professor of painting and sculpture at the University of the City of New York, now New York University.


title: Samuel Morse

text: On a subsequent visit to Paris in 1839, Morse met Louis Daguerre. He became interested in the latter's daguerreotype—the first practical means of photography. Morse wrote a letter to the "New York Observer" describing the invention, which was published widely in the American press and provided broad awareness of the new technology. Mathew Brady, one of the earliest photographers in American history, famous for his depictions of the Civil War, initially studied under Morse and later took photographs of him.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Some of Morse's paintings and sculptures are on display at his Locust Grove estate in Poughkeepsie, New York.


title: Samuel Morse

text: While returning by ship from Europe in 1832, Morse encountered Charles Thomas Jackson of Boston, a man who was well schooled in electromagnetism. Witnessing various experiments with Jackson's electromagnet, Morse developed the concept of a single-wire telegraph. He set aside his painting, "The Gallery of the Louvre". The original Morse telegraph, submitted with his patent application, is part of the collections of the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution. In time, the Morse code that he developed would become the primary language of telegraphy in the world. It is still the standard for rhythmic transmission of data.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Meanwhile, William Cooke and Professor Charles Wheatstone had learned of the Wilhelm Weber and Carl Gauss electromagnetic telegraph in 1833. They had reached the stage of launching a commercial telegraph prior to Morse, despite starting later. In England, Cooke became fascinated by electrical telegraphy in 1836, four years after Morse. Aided by his greater financial resources, Cooke abandoned his primary subject of anatomy and built a small electrical telegraph within three weeks. Wheatstone also was experimenting with telegraphy and (most importantly) understood that a single large battery would not carry a telegraphic signal over long distances. He theorized that numerous small batteries were far more successful and efficient in this task. (Wheatstone was building on the primary research of Joseph Henry, an American physicist.) Cooke and Wheatstone formed a partnership and patented the electrical telegraph in May 1837, and within a short time had provided the Great Western Railway with a stretch of telegraph. However, within a few years, Cooke and Wheatstone's multiple-wire signaling method would be overtaken by Morse's cheaper method.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In an 1848 letter to a friend, Morse describes how vigorously he fought to be called the sole inventor of the electromagnetic telegraph despite the previous inventions.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse encountered the problem of getting a telegraphic signal to carry over more than a few hundred yards of wire. His breakthrough came from the insights of Professor Leonard Gale, who taught chemistry at New York University (he was a personal friend of Joseph Henry). With Gale's help, Morse introduced extra circuits or relays at frequent intervals and was soon able to send a message through of wire. This was the great breakthrough he had been seeking. Morse and Gale were soon joined by Alfred Vail, an enthusiastic young man with excellent skills, insights, and money.


title: Samuel Morse

text: At the Speedwell Ironworks in Morristown, New Jersey on January 11, 1838, Morse and Vail made the first public demonstration of the electric telegraph. Although Morse and Alfred Vail had done most of the research and development in the ironworks facilities, they chose a nearby factory house as the demonstration site. Without the repeater, Morse devised a system of electromagnetic relays. This was the key innovation, as it freed the technology from being limited by distance in sending messages. The range of the telegraph was limited to , and the inventors had pulled of wires inside the factory house through an elaborate scheme. The first public transmission, with the message, "A patient waiter is no loser", was witnessed by a mostly local crowd.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse traveled to Washington, D.C. in 1838 seeking federal sponsorship for a telegraph line but was not successful. He went to Europe, seeking both sponsorship and patents, but in London discovered that Cooke and Wheatstone had already established priority. After his return to the US, Morse finally gained financial backing by Maine congressman Francis Ormand Jonathan Smith. This funding may be the first instance of government support to a private researcher, especially funding for applied (as opposed to basic or theoretical) research.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse made his last trip to Washington, D.C., in December 1842, stringing "wires between two committee rooms in the Capitol, and sent messages back and forth" to demonstrate his telegraph system. Congress appropriated $30,000 (equal to $ today) in 1843 for construction of an experimental telegraph line between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore along the right-of-way of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. An impressive demonstration occurred on May 1, 1844, when news of the Whig Party's nomination of Henry Clay for U.S. president was telegraphed from the party's convention in Baltimore to the Capitol Building in Washington.


title: Samuel Morse

text: On May 24, 1844, the line was officially opened as Morse sent the now-famous words, "What hath God wrought," from the Supreme Court chamber in the basement of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D.C., to the B&O's Mount Clare Station in Baltimore. Annie Ellsworth chose these words from the Bible (Numbers 23:23); her father, U.S. Patent Commissioner Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, had championed Morse's invention and secured early funding for it. His telegraph could transmit thirty characters per minute.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In May 1845, the Magnetic Telegraph Company was formed in order to build telegraph lines from New York City toward Philadelphia; Boston; Buffalo, New York; and the Mississippi. Telegraphic lines rapidly spread throughout the United States in the next few years, with 12,000 miles of wire laid by 1850.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse at one time adopted Wheatstone and Carl August von Steinheil's idea of broadcasting an electrical telegraph signal through a body of water or down steel railroad tracks or anything conductive. He went to great lengths to win a lawsuit for the right to be called "inventor of the telegraph" and promoted himself as being an inventor. But Alfred Vail also played an important role in the development of the Morse code, which was based on earlier codes for the electromagnetic telegraph.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse received a patent for the telegraph in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present Beylerbeyi Palace was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid, who personally tested the new invention. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849. The original patent went to the Breese side of the family after the death of Samuel Morse.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In 1856, Morse went to Copenhagen and visited the Thorvaldsens Museum, where the sculptor's grave is in the inner courtyard. He was received by King Frederick VII, who decorated him with the Order of the Dannebrog for the telegraph. Morse expressed his wish to donate his Thorvaldsen portrait from 1831 in Rome to the king. The Thorvaldsen portrait today belongs to Margrethe II of Denmark.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The Morse telegraphic apparatus was officially adopted as the standard for European telegraphy in 1851. Only the United Kingdom (with its extensive overseas empire) kept the needle telegraph of Cooke and Wheatstone.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In 1858, Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system in Puerto Rico, then a Spanish Colony. Morse's oldest daughter, Susan Walker Morse (1819–1885), would often visit her uncle Charles Pickering Walker, who owned the Hacienda Concordia in the town of Guayama. During one of her visits, she met Edward Lind, a Danish merchant who worked in his brother-in-law's Hacienda La Henriqueta in the town of Arroyo. They later married. Lind purchased the Hacienda from his sister when she became a widow. Morse, who often spent his winters at the Hacienda with his daughter and son-in-law, set a two-mile telegraph line connecting his son-in-law's Hacienda to their house in Arroyo. The line was inaugurated on March 1, 1859, in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags. The first words transmitted by Samuel Morse that day in Puerto Rico were:


title: Samuel Morse

text: Puerto Rico, beautiful jewel! When you are linked with the other jewels of the Antilles in the necklace of the world's telegraph, yours will not shine less brilliantly in the crown of your Queen!


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse was a leader in the anti-Catholic and anti-immigration movement of the mid-19th century. In 1836, he ran unsuccessfully for mayor of New York under the anti-immigrant Nativist Party's banner, receiving only 1,496 votes. When Morse visited Rome, he allegedly refused to take his hat off in the presence of the Pope.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse worked to unite Protestants against Catholic institutions (including schools), wanted to forbid Catholics from holding public office, and promoted changing immigration laws to limit immigration from Catholic countries. On this topic, he wrote, "We must first stop the leak in the ship through which muddy waters from without threaten to sink us."


title: Samuel Morse

text: He wrote numerous letters to the New York "Observer" (his brother Sidney was the editor at the time) urging people to fight the perceived Catholic menace. These were widely reprinted in other newspapers. Among other claims, he believed that the Austrian government and Catholic aid organizations were subsidizing Catholic immigration to the United States in order to gain control of the country.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Surely American Protestants, freemen, have discernment enough to discover beneath them the cloven foot of this subtle foreign heresy. They will see that Popery is now, what it has ever been, a system of the darkest political intrigue and despotism, cloaking itself to avoid attack under the sacred name of religion. They will be deeply impressed with the truth, that Popery is a political as well as a religious system; that in this respect it differs totally from all other sects, from all other forms of religion in the country.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In the same book, published in 1835 under the name of "Brutus", in speaking of "the foreign Emissaries of Popery re-warded in their own country," said : "Where is Bishop Kelly of Richmond, Va.? He also sojourns with us until his duties to foreign masters are performed, and then is rewarded by promotion." (Patrick Kelly was a native of Ireland, and the first bishop of Richmond, Virginia. When after a couple of years, differences regarding questions of jurisdiction arose between him and Ambrose Maréchal, Archbishop of Baltimore, Kelly was offered the recently vacant See of Waterford and Lismore in his homeland.)


title: Samuel Morse

text: In the 1850s, Morse became well known as a defender of slavery, considering it to be sanctioned by God. In his treatise "An Argument on the Ethical Position of Slavery," he wrote:


title: Samuel Morse

text: In the United States, Morse held his telegraph patent for many years, but it was both ignored and contested. In 1853, "The Telegraph Patent case – O'Reilly v. Morse" came before the U.S. Supreme Court where, after very lengthy investigation, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that Morse had been the first to combine the battery, electromagnetism, the electromagnet, and the correct battery configuration into a workable practical telegraph. However, in spite of this clear ruling, Morse still received no official recognition from the United States government.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The Supreme Court did not accept all of Morse's claims. The "O'Reilly v. Morse" case has become widely known among patent lawyers because the Supreme Court explicitly denied Morse's claim 8 for any and all use of the electromagnetic force for purposes of transmitting intelligible signals to any distance.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The Supreme Court sustained, however, Morse's claim to such telecommunication when effectuated by means of Morse's inventive "repeater" apparatus. This was an electrical circuit in which a cascade of many sets comprising a relay and a battery were connected in series, so that when each relay closed, it closed a circuit to cause the next battery to power the succeeding relay, as suggested in the accompanying figure. This caused Morse's signal to pass along the cascade without degrading into noise as its amplitude decreased with the distance traveled. (Each time the amplitude of the signal approaches the noise level, the repeater [in effect, a nonlinear amplifier] boosts the signal amplitude well above the noise level.) This use of "repeaters" permitted a message to be sent to great distances, which was previously not feasible.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The Supreme Court thus held that Morse could properly claim a patent monopoly on the system or process of transmitting signals at any distance by means of the repeater circuitry indicated above, but he could not properly claim a monopoly over any and all uses of electromagnetic force to transmit signals. The apparatus limitation in the former type of claim limited the patent monopoly to what Morse taught and gave the world. The lack of that limitation in the latter type of claim (i.e., claim 8) both gave Morse more than was commensurate with what he had contributed to society and discouraged the inventive efforts of others who might come up with different and/or better ways to send signals at a distance using the electromagnetic force.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The problem that Morse faced (the deterioration of the signal with distance) and how he solved it is discussed in more detail in the article "O'Reilly v. Morse". In summary, the solution, as the Supreme Court stated, was the repeater apparatus described in the preceding paragraphs.


title: Samuel Morse

text: The importance of this legal precedent in patent law cannot be overstated, as it became the foundation of the law governing the eligibility of computer program-implemented inventions (as well as inventions implementing natural laws) to be granted patents.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Assisted by the American ambassador in Paris, the governments of Europe were approached about their long neglect of Morse while their countries were using his invention. There was a widespread recognition that something must be done, and in 1858 Morse was awarded the sum of 400,000 French francs (equivalent to about $80,000 at the time) by the governments of France, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Piedmont, Russia, Sweden, Tuscany, and the Ottoman Empire, each of which contributed a share according to the number of Morse instruments in use in each country. In 1858, he was also elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse lent his support to Cyrus West Field's ambitious plan to construct the first transoceanic telegraph line. Morse had experimented with underwater telegraph circuits since 1842. He invested $10,000 in Field's Atlantic Telegraph Company, took a seat on its board of directors, and was appointed honorary "Electrician". In 1856, Morse traveled to London to help Charles Tilston Bright and Edward Whitehouse test a 2,000-mile-length of spooled cable.


title: Samuel Morse

text: After the first two cable-laying attempts failed, Field reorganized the project, removing Morse from direct involvement. Though the cable broke three times during the third attempt, it was successfully repaired, and the first transatlantic telegraph messages were sent in 1858. The cable failed after just three months of use. Though Field had to wait out the Civil War, the cable laid in 1866 proved more durable, and the era of reliable transatlantic telegraph service had begun.


title: Samuel Morse

text: In addition to the telegraph, Morse invented a marble-cutting machine that could carve three-dimensional sculptures in marble or stone. He could not patent it, however, because of an existing 1820 Thomas Blanchard design.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Samuel Morse gave large sums to charity. He also became interested in the relationship of science and religion and provided the funds to establish a lectureship on "the relation of the Bible to the Sciences". Though he was rarely awarded any royalties for the later uses and implementations of his inventions, he was able to live comfortably.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morsemere in Ridgefield, New Jersey takes its name from Morse, who had bought property there to build a home, but died before its completion.


title: Samuel Morse

text: He died in New York City on April 2, 1872, and was interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. By the time of his death, his estate was valued at some $500,000 ($ today).


title: Samuel Morse

text: Despite honors and financial awards received from foreign countries, there was no such recognition in the U.S. until he neared the end of his life when on June 10, 1871, a bronze statue of Samuel Morse was unveiled in Central Park, New York City. An engraved portrait of Morse appeared on the reverse side of the United States two-dollar bill silver certificate series of 1896. He was depicted along with Robert Fulton. An example can be seen on the website of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco's website in their "American Currency Exhibit":


title: Samuel Morse

text: A blue plaque was erected to commemorate him at 141 Cleveland Street, London, where he lived from 1812 to 1815.


title: Samuel Morse

text: According to his "The New York Times" obituary published on April 3, 1872, Morse received respectively the decoration of the Atiq Nishan-i-Iftikhar (English: Order of Glory) [first medal on wearer's right depicted in photo of Morse with medals], set in diamonds, from Sultan Abdülmecid of Turkey (c.1847), a "golden snuff box containing the Prussian gold medal for scientific merit" from the King of Prussia (1851); the "Great Gold Medal of Arts and Sciences" from the King of Württemberg (1852); and the "Great Golden Medal of Science and Arts" from Emperor of Austria (1855); a cross of Chevalier in the Légion d'honneur from the Emperor of France; the "Cross of a Knight" of the Order of the Dannebrog from the King of Denmark (1856); the Cross of Knight Commander of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, from the Queen of Spain, besides being elected member of innumerable scientific and art societies in this [United States] and other countries. Other awards include Order of the Tower and Sword from the kingdom of Portugal (1860), and Italy conferred on him the insignia of chevalier of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus in 1864. Morse's telegraph was recognized as an IEEE Milestone in 1988.


title: Samuel Morse

text: On April 1, 2012, Google announced the release of "Gmail Tap", an April Fools' Day joke that allowed users to use Morse Code to send text from their mobile phones. Morse's great-great-grandnephew Reed Morse—a Google engineer—was instrumental in the prank, which became a real product.


title: Aniline

text: Aniline is an organic compound with the formula CHNH. Consisting of a phenyl group attached to an amino group, aniline is the simplest aromatic amine. It is an industrially significant commodity chemical, as well as a versatile starting material for fine chemical synthesis. Its main use is in the manufacture of precursors to polyurethane, dyes, and other industrial chemicals. Like most volatile amines, it has the odor of rotten fish. It ignites readily, burning with a smoky flame characteristic of aromatic compounds. It is toxic to humans.


title: Aniline

text: Relative to benzene, it is electron-rich. It thus participates more rapidly in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. Likewise, it is also prone to oxidation: while freshly purified aniline is an almost colorless oil, exposure to air results in gradual darkening to yellow or red, due to the formation of strongly colored, oxidized impurities. Aniline can be diazotized to give a diazonium salt, which can then undergo various nucleophilic substitution reactions.


title: Aniline

text: “Aniline” is ultimately from Portuguese "anil" which means "the indigo shrub", with suffix "-ine" indicating "derived substance".


title: Aniline

text: Like other amines, aniline is both a base (p"K" = 4.6) and a nucleophile, although less so than structurally similar aliphatic amines.


title: Aniline

text: Because an early source of the benzene from which they are derived was coal tar, aniline dyes are also called coal tar dyes.


title: Aniline

text: In aniline, the C−N bond length is 1.41 Å, compared to 1.47 Å for cyclohexylamine, indicating partial π-bonding between N and C. The C(aryl)-NH distance in anilines is highly sensitive to substituent effects. This distance is 1.34 Å in 2,4,6-trinitroaniline vs 1.44 Å in 3-methylaniline.


title: Aniline

text: The amine in anilines is a slightly pyramidalized molecule, with hybridization of the nitrogen somewhere between sp and sp. The nitrogen is described as having high p character. The amino group in aniline is flatter (i.e., it is a "shallower pyramid") than that in an aliphatic amine, owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The observed geometry reflects a compromise between two competing factors: 1) stabilization of the N lone pair in an orbital with significant s character favors pyramidalization (orbitals with s character are lower in energy), while 2) delocalization of the N lone pair into the aryl ring favors planarity (a lone pair in a pure p orbital gives the best overlap with the orbitals of the benzene ring π system).


title: Aniline

text: Consistent with these factors, substituted anilines with electron donating groups are more pyramidalized, while those with electron withdrawing groups are more planar. In the parent aniline, the lone pair is approximately 12% s character, corresponding to sp hybridization. (For comparison, alkylamines generally have lone pairs in orbitals that are close to sp.)


title: Aniline

text: The pyramidalization angle between the C–N bond and the bisector of the H–N–H angle is 142.5°. For comparison, in more strongly pyramidal methylamine, this value is ~125°, while that of formamide has an angle of 180°.


title: Aniline

text: Industrial aniline production involves two steps. First, benzene is nitrated with a concentrated mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid at 50 to 60 °C to yield nitrobenzene. The nitrobenzene is then hydrogenated (typically at 200–300 °C) in the presence of metal catalysts:


title: Aniline

text: The reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline was first performed by Nikolay Zinin in 1842, using inorganic sulfide as a reductant (Zinin reaction). The reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline was also performed as part of reductions by Antoine Béchamp in 1854, using iron as the reductant (Bechamp reduction).


title: Aniline

text: In commerce, three brands of aniline are distinguished: aniline oil for blue, which is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of equimolecular quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidines; and aniline oil for safranine, which contains aniline and ortho-toluidine and is obtained from the distillate (échappés) of the fuchsine fusion.


title: Aniline

text: Many analogues of aniline are known where the phenyl group is further substituted. These include toluidines, xylidines, chloroanilines, aminobenzoic acids, nitroanilines, and many others. They often are prepared by nitration of the substituted aromatic compounds followed by reduction. For example, this approach is used to convert toluene into toluidines and chlorobenzene into 4-chloroaniline. Alternatively, using Buchwald-Hartwig coupling or Ullmann reaction approaches, aryl halides can be aminated with aqueous or gaseous ammonia.


title: Aniline

text: The chemistry of aniline is rich because the compound has been cheaply available for many years. Below are some classes of its reactions.


title: Aniline

text: The oxidation of aniline has been heavily investigated, and can result in reactions localized at nitrogen or more commonly results in the formation of new C-N bonds. In alkaline solution, azobenzene results, whereas arsenic acid produces the violet-coloring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into quinone, whereas chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts (especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potassium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene; in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia, and oxalic acid; in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives 4-aminophenol and para-amino diphenylamine. Oxidation with persulfate affords a variety of polyanilines. These polymers exhibit rich redox and acid-base properties.


title: Aniline

text: Like phenols, aniline derivatives are highly susceptible to electrophilic substitution reactions. Its high reactivity reflects that it is an enamine, which enhances the electron-donating ability of the ring. For example, reaction of aniline with sulfuric acid at 180 °C produces sulfanilic acid, .


title: Aniline

text: If bromine water is added to aniline, the bromine water is decolourised and a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline is formed. To generate the mono-substituted product, a protection with acetyl chloride is required:


title: Aniline

text: The reaction to form 4-bromoaniline is to protect the amine with acetyl chloride, then hydrolyse back to reform aniline.


title: Aniline

text: The largest scale industrial reaction of aniline involves its alkylation with formaldehyde. An idealized equation is shown:


title: Aniline

text: Aniline is a weak base. Aromatic amines such as aniline are, in general, much weaker bases than aliphatic amines. Aniline reacts with strong acids to form the anilinium (or phenylammonium) ion ().


title: Aniline

text: Traditionally, the weak basicity of aniline is attributed to a combination of inductive effect from the more electronegative sp carbon and resonance effects, as the lone pair on the nitrogen is partially delocalized into the pi system of the benzene ring. (see the picture below):


title: Aniline

text: Missing in such an analysis is consideration of solvation. Aniline is, for example, more basic than ammonia in the gas phase, but ten thousand times less so in aqueous solution.


title: Aniline

text: Aniline reacts with acyl chlorides such as acetyl chloride to give amides. The amides formed from aniline are sometimes called anilides, for example is acetanilide. At high temperatures aniline and carboxylic acids react to give the anilides.


title: Aniline

text: "N"-Methylation of aniline with methanol at elevated temperatures over acid catalysts gives "N"-methylaniline and "N","N"-dimethylaniline:


title: Aniline

text: "N"-Methylaniline and "N","N"-dimethylaniline are colorless liquids with boiling points of 193–195 °C and 192 °C, respectively. These derivatives are of importance in the color industry. Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides to form secondary and tertiary amines.


title: Aniline

text: Boiled with carbon disulfide, it gives sulfocarbanilide (diphenylthiourea) (), which may be decomposed into phenyl isothiocyanate (), and triphenyl guanidine ().


title: Aniline

text: Aniline and its ring-substituted derivatives react with nitrous acid to form diazonium salts. Through these intermediates, the amine group can be converted to a hydroxyl (), nitrile (), or halide group (, where X is a halogen) via Sandmeyer reactions. This diazonium salt can also be reacted with and phenol to produce a dye known as benzeneazophenol, in a process called "coupling".


title: Aniline

text: In this reaction primary aromatic amine reacts with sodium nitrile and with 2 moles of HCl which is known as Ice cold mixture because the temperature use to be 0.5 °C and it forms benzene diazonium salt as major product and water and sodium chloride.


title: Aniline

text: It reacts with nitrobenzene to produce phenazine in the Wohl-Aue reaction. Hydrogenation gives cyclohexylamine.


title: Aniline

text: Being a standard reagent in laboratories, aniline is used for many niche reactions. Its acetate is used in the aniline acetate test for carbohydrates, identifying pentoses by conversion to furfural. It is used to stain neural RNA blue in the Nissl stain.


title: Aniline

text: Aniline is predominantly used for the preparation of methylenedianiline and related compounds by condensation with formaldehyde. The diamines are condensed with phosgene to give methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, a precursor to urethane polymers.


title: Aniline

text: Other uses include rubber processing chemicals (9%), herbicides (2%), and dyes and pigments (2%). As additives to rubber, aniline derivatives such as phenylenediamines and diphenylamine, are antioxidants. Illustrative of the drugs prepared from aniline is paracetamol (acetaminophen, Tylenol). The principal use of aniline in the dye industry is as a precursor to indigo, the blue of blue jeans.


title: Aniline

text: Aniline was first isolated in 1826 by Otto Unverdorben by destructive distillation of indigo. He called it "Crystallin". In 1834, Friedlieb Runge isolated a substance from coal tar that turned a beautiful blue color when treated with chloride of lime. He named it "kyanol" or "cyanol". In 1840, Carl Julius Fritzsche (1808–1871) treated indigo with caustic potash and obtained an oil that he named "aniline", after an indigo-yielding plant, anil ("Indigofera suffruticosa"). In 1842, Nikolay Nikolaevich Zinin reduced nitrobenzene and obtained a base that he named "benzidam". In 1843, August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that these were all the same substance, known thereafter as "phenylamine" or "aniline".


title: Aniline

text: In 1856, while trying to synthesise quinine, von Hofmann's student William Henry Perkin discovered mauveine and went into industry producing the first commercial synthetic dye. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsin, safranin, and induline. At the time of mauveine's discovery, aniline was expensive. Soon thereafter, applying a method reported in 1854 by Antoine Béchamp, it was prepared "by the ton". The Béchamp reduction enabled the evolution of a massive dye industry in Germany. Today, the name of BASF, originally "Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik" (English: Baden Aniline and Soda Factory), now the largest chemical supplier, echoes the legacy of the synthetic dye industry, built via aniline dyes and extended via the related azo dyes. The first azo dye was aniline yellow.


title: Aniline

text: In the late 19th century, derivatives of aniline such as acetanilide and phenacetin emerged as analgesic drugs, with their cardiac-suppressive side effects often countered with caffeine. During the first decade of the 20th century, while trying to modify synthetic dyes to treat African sleeping sickness, Paul Ehrlich – who had coined the term "chemotherapy" for his "magic bullet" approach to medicine – failed and switched to modifying Béchamp's atoxyl, the first organic arsenical drug, and serendipitously obtained a treatment for syphilis – salvarsan – the first successful chemotherapy agent. Salvarsan's targeted microorganism, not yet recognized as a bacterium, was still thought to be a parasite, and medical bacteriologists, believing that bacteria were not susceptible to the chemotherapeutic approach, overlooked Alexander Fleming's report in 1928 on the effects of penicillin.


title: Aniline

text: In 1932, Bayer sought medical applications of its dyes. Gerhard Domagk identified as an antibacterial a red azo dye, introduced in 1935 as the first antibacterial drug, prontosil, soon found at Pasteur Institute to be a prodrug degraded "in vivo" into sulfanilamide – a colorless intermediate for many, highly colorfast azo dyes – already with an expired patent, synthesized in 1908 in Vienna by the researcher Paul Gelmo for his doctoral research. By the 1940s, over 500 related sulfa drugs were produced. Medications in high demand during World War II (1939–45), these first "miracle drugs", chemotherapy of wide effectiveness, propelled the American pharmaceutics industry. In 1939, at Oxford University, seeking an alternative to sulfa drugs, Howard Florey developed Fleming's penicillin into the first systemic antibiotic drug, penicillin G. (Gramicidin, developed by René Dubos at Rockefeller Institute in 1939, was the first antibiotic, yet its toxicity restricted it to topical use.) After World War II, Cornelius P. Rhoads introduced the chemotherapeutic approach to cancer treatment.


title: Aniline

text: Some early American rockets, such as the Aerobee and WAC Corporal, used a mixture of aniline and furfuryl alcohol as a fuel, with nitric acid as an oxidizer. The combination is hypergolic, igniting on contact between fuel and oxidizer. It is also dense, and can be stored for extended periods. Aniline was later replaced by hydrazine.


title: Aniline

text: Aniline is toxic by inhalation of the vapour, ingestion, or percutaneous absorption. The IARC lists it in Group 3 ("not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans") due to the limited and contradictory data available. The early manufacture of aniline resulted in increased incidents of bladder cancer, but these effects are now attributed to naphthylamines, not anilines.


title: Aniline

text: Exposure of rats to aniline can elicit a response that is toxic to the spleen, including a tumorigenic response. Rats exposed to aniline in drinking water, showed a significant increase in oxidative DNA damage to the spleen, detected as a 2.8-fold increase in 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in their DNA. Although the base excision repair pathway was also activated, its activity was not sufficient to prevent the accumulation of 8-OHdG. The accumulation of oxidative DNA damages in the spleen following exposure to aniline may increase mutagenic events that underlie tumorigenesis.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: Lia Marie Johnson (born November 23, 1996) is an American actress, singer, and Internet personality, who in 2014 was profiled by "Adweek" as one of the "10 biggest young stars on YouTube". She first received recognition for her work on her YouTube channel, where she rose to fame for creating skits and song covers. She also made appearances in the Fine Brothers web series "Kids React" (2010–2011).


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: Johnson starred in the sketch comedy series "AwesomenessTV" (2013–2014), where she was recognized for portraying Terry the Tomboy, whom she also played in the Nickelodeon television movie "Terry the Tomboy" (2014). In 2015, Johnson made her singing debut with the single "Moment Like You". The following year, she signed with Capitol Records, and released the single "DNA", which was featured in the YouTube Premium film "The Thinning" (2016), which she also starred in as Ellie Harper, a role she reprised in its sequel "" (2018). She also starred in the web series "T@gged" (2016–2018).


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: Johnson was born in Wahiawa, Hawaii. She has four sisters and a brother. Her family eventually settled in California. In 2012, in a combined episode of "Teens React" and "Elders React" about the 2012 United States presidential election, Johnson stated that she was a Democrat.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: Johnson's YouTube account was created in 2007, with videos uploaded by her mother which featured her performances at talent shows, and church recitals. After two years, Johnson began to control the output of the channel, creating content that has come to include personal commentary, sketch comedy, and musical performances.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: In 2010, Johnson began to work with the Fine Brothers as a recurring guest on their "Kids React" series. This exposure increased the traffic to her own channel and became an early source of her online fame. In the aftermath of the initial series episodes, she was surprised by the phenomenon of strangers knowing her and approaching her as fans, and remarked "I think "Kids React" was my very first viral video, 'cus everyone knew my name after that."


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: In 2011, Johnson was added to the recurring cast of the spin-off series "Teens React", and in 2014 was moved again to the newly established "YouTubers React", which featured herself and various well known YouTube personalities. In 2014, Johnson appeared at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, and starred in "Terry the Tomboy", a spin-off film based on the eponymous character she portrays on the Nickelodeon sketch comedy series, "AwesomenessTV".


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: In 2015, she covered the single "Latch" by Disclosure, singing with Alejandro Luis Manzano of Boyce Avenue, and released it on YouTube. The song was originally performed by singer Sam Smith. Johnson has also been featured on the covers of "Adweek" and "BYou Magazine". On January 9, 2015, Johnson released her first single, "Moment Like You", along with a music video which can be found on her YouTube channel. She appeared in the music video for Post Malone's single "Go Flex", which was released on April 28, 2016.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: On September 28, she explained to her fans that she had signed to Capitol Records, and was continuing to work on the music album she had been recording for the previous two years. The following month she released her first single produced by Howard Benson through Capitol Records titled "DNA" which surpassed 1 million Spotify streams. On February 17, 2017 Johnson released her second single "Cold Heart Killer". The music video for the song was released on March 10, 2017. A year later, Johnson debuted her third single “Champagne” on May 17, 2018.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: Starting mid November 2019, Lia teased a new project on her Instagram page, with one promotional photo being posted every day. Seven days later, Lia announced her fourth single titled, "Moonflower," on November 23, 2019. Johnson released her fifth single, “Like a God”, on March 12, 2020.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: In the first half of 2021, Johnson began posting personal videos and covers on her YouTube channel again after four years of inactivity. She released the single "Lifts" on January 1, 2021, followed by "Nectar" on March 19 and "Venus Sunrise" on April 30. An accompanying music video was issued for all three songs.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: In 2022, Johnson announced she had moved to England with her boyfriend. Following this, in October of the same year, Johnson started teasing upcoming music that she had been preparing for 2023.


title: Lia Marie Johnson

text: Johnson is In a relationship with English musician, Charlie Hudson. The couple have been seen together since late 2021. The pair also released a duet song in 2021. Hudson is also believed to be managing Johnson, under his company ‘Alter Ego’.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: Thomalla was born in East Berlin, East Germany on 6 October 1989, the daughter of actors Simone Thomalla and André Vetters. She grew up in Berlin until she was seven and moved to Cologne with her mother. After completing her fourth year of school, she and her mother moved to Kleinmachnow, then to Gelsenkirchen a year later. She also lived there after the separation of her mother from Rudi Assauer. Like her mother, Thomalla practised kickboxing as a recreational sport; she also partook in some amateur fights.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: From 2007 to 2009, Thomalla attended the Constantin School for Acting, Dance and Singing in Bochum. In 2006, she played her first television role as the daughter of Barbara Rudnik and Henry Hübchen with TV director Sigi Rothemund in the ARD crime series "Commissario Laurenti."


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: In 2009, she applied for an open casting for the model casting show "Germany's Next Topmodel". In 2009 and 2010, she appeared in the Sat.1 daily soap "Eine wie Keine" ("One Like No Other") with Chris Putzer. She was a candidate at "Let's Dance" and won the title of Dancing Star 2010, together with her dance partner Massimo Sinató. In 2012, Thomalla appeared in the ensemble of the comedy series" Die Dreisten Drei" on Sat.1, alongside Oliver Beerhenke and Mirco Nontschew.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: In 2010, she was ranked third in the list of FHM's Sexiest Women. Like her mother, Thomalla was photographed for the German edition of Playboy, with the pictures released in May 2012. Thomalla won first place in the online selection of "Die 25 schönsten Stars in 25 Jahren" ("The 25 Most Beautiful Stars in 25 Years"). In the October 2015 edition of Playboy, Thomalla was portrayed together with her mother and 23 other women, including Christine Theiss, Tina Ruland, Regina Halmich, Katarina Witt, Charlotte Engelhardt, and Miriam Gössner.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: In 2014, she advertised for the cosmetic product line of the discounter Lidl and the following year for its fashion brand. She took over additional hosting at the Wok World Cup broadcast on ProSieben in March and at the TV total Stock Car Crash Challenge in October 2015. On 30 January 2015, Thomalla hosted the 10th SemperOpernball in Dresden alongside Gunther Emmerlich. On 2 March 2015, she appeared on the talk show "Hart aber Fair" ("Tough but Fair"), which dealt with the issue of gender equality. She was heavily criticized for her appearance on the show. On 8 September 2015, the issue of equality at "Hart aber Fair" in the same cast, supplemented by two other guests, was discussed again.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: In 2016, Thomalla was part of the jury of the RTL dance show "Dance Dance Dance", alongside DJ BoBo and Cale Kalay. Later that year, she was on the jury of the tattoo show" Pain & Fame "on Sixx, where the best tattoo artists in Germany competed. In September 2016, she brought out a shoe collection.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: In December 2017, there was criticism for a promotional photo for a gambling provider. Thomalla was scarcely clothed tied to a cross. The President of the Central Committee of German Catholics and the Cultural Commissioner of the Evangelical Church criticized the photo.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: In the talk show "Maischberger", Thomalla said about the #MeToo campaign: "I think the campaign is an insult to the true rape victims." These incidents and other comments about the #MeToo campaign sparked criticism.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: She has been a supporter of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) political party since 2012.


title: Sophia Thomalla

text: Thomalla dated Rammstein singer Till Lindemann from April 2011 to November 2015. On 11 March 2016, she married Norwegian singer Andy LaPlegua in Marietta, Georgia. In May 2017, she announced their divorce. From 2017 until 2018, Thomalla was in a relationship with British musician Gavin Rossdale. In March 2019, she began dating German goalkeeper Loris Karius with whom she later moved to Istanbul, Turkey, where he was playing football. Since 2021, Thomalla has been dating German tennis player Alexander Zverev.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: Alpha (Α or α) and omega (Ω or ω) are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, and a title of Christ and God in the Book of Revelation. This pair of letters is used as a Christian symbol, and is often combined with the Cross, Chi-rho, or other Christian symbols.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: The first written record we have of the phrase "alpha and omega" is from some old manuscripts of the Christian New Testament.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: The phrase "I am the Alpha and the Omega" (Koiné Greek: "ἐγώ εἰμί τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ"), is an appellation of Jesus and of the Father in the Book of Revelation (verses 1:8, 21:6, and 22:13). The first part of this phrase ("I am the Alpha and the Omega") is first found in Chapter 1 verse 8 ("1:8"), and is found in every manuscript of Revelation that has 1:8. Several later manuscripts repeat "I am the Alpha and the Omega" in 1:11 too, but do not receive support here from most of the oldest manuscripts, including the Alexandrine, Sinaitic, and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus. It is, therefore, omitted in some modern translations. Scholar Robert Young stated, with regard to "I am the Alpha and the Omega" in 1:11, the "oldest [manuscripts] omit" it.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: A similar reference is in Isaiah 44, where the Father says to be the first and the one who is after all.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: Alpha (Α) and omega (Ω) are the first and last letters, respectively, of the classical (Ionic) Greek alphabet. Thus, the phrase "I am the alpha and the omega" is further clarified with the additional phrase, "the beginning and the end" in Revelation 21:6, 22:13. The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet were used because the book of Revelation is in the New Testament, which was originally written in Greek.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: This phrase is interpreted by many Christians to mean that Jesus has existed for all eternity or that God is eternal. Many commentators and dictionaries ascribe the title "the alpha and the omega" to both God and to Christ. "Barnes' Notes on the New Testament" (1974) claims: "It cannot be absolutely certain that the writer meant to refer to the Lord Jesus specifically here ... There is no real incongruity in supposing, also, that the writer here meant to refer to God as such." Most Christian denominations also teach that the title applies to God (Jesus, the Father and the Holy Spirit).


title: Alpha and Omega

text: The letters Alpha and Omega, in juxtaposition, are often used as a Christian visual symbol (see examples). The symbols were used in early Christianity and appear in the Roman catacombs. The letters were shown hanging from the arms of the cross in Early Christian art, and some cruces gemmatae, jeweled crosses in precious metal, have formed letters hanging in this way, called pendilia; for example, in the , which is based upon the Asturian Victory Cross. In fact, despite always being in Greek, the letters became more common in Western than Eastern Orthodox Christian art. They are often shown to the left and right of Christ's head, sometimes within his halo, where they take the place of the Christogram used in Orthodox art.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: In Hebrew, the word "emet" (אמת, meaning "truth"), is referred to as the "Seal of God." [Cf. Isaiah 44:6] The word is composed of the first, middle, and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet.


title: Alpha and Omega

text: The Qur'an gives "al-ʾAwwal" (ٱلْأَوَّل), meaning "The First" and "al-ʾĀkhir" (ٱلْآخِر), meaning "The Last" as two of the names of God: .


title: Alpha and Omega

text: Some dialects of the APL programming language support the direct function syntax where the left (optional) and right arguments are denoted by the letters alpha and omega. For example, the following function computes the sum of the left argument and twice the right argument:


title: Nowhere Boy

text: Nowhere Boy is a 2009 British biographical drama film, directed by Sam Taylor-Wood in her directorial debut. Written by Matt Greenhalgh, it is based on Julia Baird's biography of her half-brother, the musician John Lennon. "Nowhere Boy" is about the teenage years of Lennon (Aaron Johnson), his relationships with his aunt Mimi Smith (Kristin Scott Thomas) and his mother Julia Lennon (Anne-Marie Duff), the creation of his first band, the Quarrymen, and its evolution into the Beatles.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: Following its premiere at the London Film Festival on 29 October 2009, "Nowhere Boy" opened in British theatres on 26 December 2009. Nearly a year later, in October 2010, the film received its US release, coinciding with the 70th anniversary of Lennon's birth. "Nowhere Boy" received positive reviews from critics and was a moderate hit at the box office, earning £4.3 million on a £1.2 million budget.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The drama tells the story of John Lennon's teenage years from 1955 to 1960. John was separated from his mother, Julia Lennon, when he was five. His aunt and uncle, Mimi and George Smith, raised him like a son. John is close to his Uncle George, who dies suddenly when John is 14. John becomes curious about his mother, who has since had three daughters, one of whom was given up for adoption. He becomes obsessed with rock and roll music during a visit to Blackpool with Julia. When John is suspended from school, Julia allows him to stay at her house during the day to keep Mimi from finding out. Julia teaches John how to play the banjo. Mimi discovers their arrangement, but John refuses to go home with her and stays at Julia's. A week later, John overhears Julia and her common-law husband arguing about him, so he returns to Mimi's.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: When John wants to start a rock 'n' roll band, Mimi buys him a guitar. John forms a band named the Quarrymen. At their first gig at a village fête, John meets Paul McCartney. Paul auditions and joins the band. Paul and John soon begin composing songs together. As the Quarrymen gain popularity, John meets Paul's friend, George Harrison, who becomes the band's lead guitarist.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: At a birthday party Julia throws for John, he confronts her about his absent father, Alf Lennon. He wants to know why Julia gave him up. He also confronts Mimi, who says Julia cheated on Alf and did not want to stay with him. Alf had asked 5-year-old John to choose whom he wanted to live with. John initially chose his father, though he then wanted to stay with his mother. Without either parent having the time or money to legally determine custody, Mimi became John's custodian. John is upset by this revelation, and leaves in a drunken anger.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: John moves out to live on his own. Over time, he, Julia, and Mimi become friendly. When Julia is fatally hit by a car, John is consumed by anger. Two years later, he goes to travel to Hamburg with his newly formed band, the Beatles. Mimi asks John to call her as soon as he arrives. The film ends with the caption, "John phoned Mimi as soon as he arrived in Hamburg...and every week thereafter for the rest of his life."


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The film was the directorial debut of conceptual artist/photographer Sam Taylor-Johnson. The screenplay was written by Matt Greenhalgh, who also wrote the Joy Division film "Control". It was shot on location in Liverpool, the last house on the right at the end of Sussex Road in Ickenham, Middlesex and at Ealing Studios in West London. Some of the interior school scenes were filmed at Sacred Heart Catholic College in Crosby.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: Following the announcement of the film, initial media accounts indicated that it would be based on the book "Imagine This: Growing Up With My Brother John Lennon" by Lennon's half sister Julia Baird. However, the credits for the completed film do not reference either the book or Baird, with sole writing credit accorded to screenwriter Matt Greenhalgh. The director consulted both Paul McCartney and Yoko Ono about the script, with both firmly correcting the depiction of Mimi to be less strict and more loving of John.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The film received a National Lottery funding of £1.2 million from the UK Film Council Premier Fund, with an additional £35,500 from its Development Fund to create the script. The film also received a grant from Film4 (the film division of Channel 4).


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The film premiered in the UK on 26 December 2009. Its US release was on 8 October 2010, coinciding with that weekend's celebrations of the 70th anniversary of Lennon's birth.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: HanWay Films represented worldwide sales. Distributor Icon Entertainment International took the rights for the United Kingdom and Australia. Mars Distribution acquired the rights for France. The Weinstein Company distributed the film in the United States, Germany and Latin America.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The film had its world premiere on 29 October 2009 at the closing night of the London Film Festival. The film was screened at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival on 27 January. It screened again at the Maui Film Festival in Wailea, Hawaii, on 18 June 2010, the Traverse City Film Festival in Traverse City, Michigan on 27 July 2010, and at The Fest For Beatles Fans convention in Chicago on 14 August 2010.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The film has received mostly positive reviews from film critics. Based on 135 reviews, it holds an 80% "Certified Fresh" rating on review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes. The site's critical consensus of the film is: "Don't expect any musical insights, but this look at John Lennon's early life benefits from its restrained, low-key approach and some fine acting from Aaron Johnson." In "The New York Times", reviewer Manohla Dargis concluded, "It's a pleasant-enough creation story to revisit, one weighted down by melodrama and lifted up by some rocking tunes."


title: Nowhere Boy

text: "Nowhere Boy" was nominated for four British Academy Film Awards: Outstanding British Film, Best Supporting Actress (one each for Anne-Marie Duff and Kristin Scott Thomas), and Outstanding Debut by a British director (Sam Taylor-Wood). The film also won the Audience Choice Award for Best Feature at the San Diego Film Festival in 2010.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: The soundtrack features several of the songs played by The Quarrymen at the time depicted in the film. New recordings were made featuring performances by Johnson and the Nowhere Boys. Sangster was able to play the guitar before landing his role, but, as he is right-handed, learned how to play left-handed, à la McCartney. Producers negotiated with Yoko Ono for the rights to use Lennon's song "Mother" in the film, which Yoko gave after having watched a private screening of the movie. In addition to the featured songs, British electronica duo Goldfrapp provide the film's instrumental score. The soundtrack was released digitally on 11 December 2009 and in stores as a two-disc album by Sony Music Entertainment on 29 December 2009.


title: Nowhere Boy

text: Disc 1 contains songs featured in the film, and Disc 2 is made up of rock and roll classics that inspired the film and Lennon himself.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Bodyguard is a 2011 Indian Hindi-language romantic action film directed by Siddique from a screenplay by Siddique, J.P. Chowksey, Kiran Kotrial and Aloke Upadhyaya. It is a remake of the 2010 Malayalam film of the same name directed by Siddique and stars Salman Khan and Kareena Kapoor, with Raj Babbar, Mahesh Manjrekar and Hazel Keech in supporting roles. In the film, bodyguard Lovely Singh (Khan) is hired to shadow Divya Rana (Kapoor), and falls in love with Chhaya, a fake identity created by Divya.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The film broke many records upon its release. Within the first day of its release, it went on to become the highest opening day grosser for a Hindi film. The film set another box office record, netting in its first week, thus becoming the highest opening week grossing Bollywood film until then. The film became a major commercial success with a worldwide gross of .


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Lovely Balwant Singh is assigned as Divya Rana's bodyguard to protect her against militant political adversaries led by Ranjan Mahatre targeting her father Sartaj Rana, who saved Lovely's mother in a car accident years prior. Divya becomes irritated with Lovely's constant protection, and creates Chhaya, a fellow university student claiming to be in love with Lovely. Although initially hesitant, Lovely gradually grows close to the mysterious Chhaya; Divya's success in gaining greater freedom from his protection allows her to go to a nightclub, where she is attacked and held hostage by Mahatre's men, only to be saved by Lovely.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Divya soon falls in love with Lovely; afraid to reveal her identity, she calls Lovely as Chhaya, and asks him to run away with her. Sartaj is informed by a maid Savita that Lovely and Divya will elope, and sends his men to kill Lovely. Unable to convince Sartaj that Lovely is in love with someone else, Divya tells her friend, Maya, to meet Lovely at a railway station in her place, and tell him the truth. Seeing Sartaj's men at the railway station, Maya then tells Lovely she is Chhaya, and the pair depart. Years later, Lovely, now a successful businessman living in Canada, returns to visit a retired Sartaj with his son, Sartaj Singh.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Lovely finds Divya still living with her parents, with Sartaj stating his dangerous political career restricted Divya's chances at finding personal love. On the last day of their visit, Sartaj Singh asks Divya to accompany him home as his mother; Sartaj Singh learns of his mother Maya's past from a diary she wrote to him as Maya was dying from cancer, writing her early death was a punishment for her actions. Sartaj Singh apologizes to Divya on his mother's behalf. Lovely tells Sartaj Singh to apologize to Divya, but Sartaj asks Lovely to marry Divya. At the same railway station his parents left, Sartaj Singh disposes of the diary in the trash, but is seen by Lovely, who recovers it, and finds out the truth. He then calls Divya and addresses her as Chhaya; Divya is overwhelmed with joy and the couple finally unite, where they leave for Canada.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The film's production company, Reel Life Production Pvt. Ltd, was bought by Reliance Entertainment for 450 million. This earned Reliance the co-producer status and an equal share in the IPR for perpetuity.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The film director Siddique first offered the female lead to Nayantara but she refused because she was not interested to play the same role in the original. The role then went to Kareena Kapoor.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Neerupa Menon, a mutual friend of director Siddique and Alvira Khan, introduced him to Alvira Khan Agnihotri and Atul Agnihotri, the to-be co-producers of the film, suggesting that he should venture into Bollywood. Siddique sent his original Malayalam film to Alvira and Atul as a result of the suggestion and they convinced Salman Khan to watch the film. After watching the film, Khan was very impressed with it and agreed to do the Hindi remake.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Shooting for the film began on 16 January 2011 at the Symbiosis International University campus situated in Pune. The classrooms and academic block of Symbiosis Institute of Business Management were used in the Lavale campus. The shooting later continued in the city of Patiala (Punjab). Two songs from the film were scheduled to be shot in Europe but were later shifted to Film City in Mumbai to cut costs as the film had already exceeded its initial budget.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: "Bodyguard" opened across 2,250 screens in 70 Indian cities and with 482 prints across the overseas territory, released in Dolby Surround 7.1. Reliance Entertainment set aside a marketing and print budget of around for the film, one of the highest ever in Bollywood. The satellite rights of the film were sold to STAR network for for seven years.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave a score of 4/5 and said "BODYGUARD works for varied reasons – it has a simple, captivating story with a dramatic twist in the tale, the chemistry between the lead actors is poor but the music is well juxtaposed in the narrative. But its biggest USP is, without doubt, Salman Khan. He carries the film on his broad and brawny shoulders and that alone is the imperative reason for watching this film." Komal Nahta of "Koimoi", while praising the performance of Salman Khan, gave it a rating of 4/5 and wrote, "Bodyguard will prove to be a hit because of Salman Khan's performance." "Zee News" gave the film 4 stars and praised the directorial skills of Siddique: "Kudos to filmmaker Siddique to have presented Salman Khan in a way never seen before! And the action sequences are breathtaking." "Oneindia.in" awarded the movie 4 stars and stated, "Overall, Bodyguard is a good masala entertainer and it can be a perfect time-passer for this Eid and Ganesh festive seasons. Salman's fans should not miss to watch this movie." "Samay Live" gave it 4 stars and wrote; "There are stunning events of twist in the film which will keep you stay with your seats till the end. Shivesh Kumar of "IndiaWeekly" awarded the movie 4 out of 5 stars. Kaveree Bamzai of "India Today" awarded the movie 3 stars and stated: "Anyone who has watched Khan's recent movies will recognise the signs – a killer dialogue which will be remembered till the next blockbuster is manufactured, a signature ring tone, and a pre-fight ritual-in this case, it is taking off his watch. In his review for "The Times of India", Gaurav Malani wrote: "Salman Khan is cool and convincing in the title role. His subdued act and charming innocence wins your heart. Kareena Kapoor is likeable ... Bodyguard doesn't catch you off guard. But it's a decent entertainer nonetheless." Phelim O'Neill of "The Guardian" praised the technical aspects of the film and awarded three of five stars: "Bollywood movies have improved dramatically in technical terms over the last few years. Here the fight and stunt sequences are afforded as much care and attention as the song and dance scenes; it's all top-notch stuff." "Daily Bhaskar" awarded the movie three out of five stars and wrote: "Salman, Kareena and Siddique serve a good Eid biryani for the audience by blending romance, action and comedy." Shubha Shetty-Saha of "MiD DAY" gave it two and a half stars saying, "The film is obviously not expected to be intellectually stimulating. But to give it due credit, it provides loads of entertainment, the kind you may have come to expect of a Salman Khan film." Sukanya Verma of Rediff gave it 2.5 of 5 stars and stated: "A standard entertainer with generic ingredients like action, emotion, romance, comedy, song and dance, the Hindi remake of Malayalam super-hit Bodyguard is like a mediocre Pizza Margherita that's gone stingy on the mozzarella, bland on the sauce with nothing except a half-crunchy base and uneven scattering of basil leaves."


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The film also received a few negative reviews. Andy Webster of "The New York Times" said "If only the film's archly slick director, Siddique, had adopted the same winking attitude toward the romantic arc. A twist near the end sends this contrived movie into a maudlin stratosphere from which it doesn't recover. But at least, in Ms. Keech's supporting presence, understated yet palpable, we sense a performer of emerging, and remarkable, star power." Nikhat Kazmi of "The Times of India" gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "The film, a remake of a South Indian hit, may end up as another blockbuster, like most Salman films have been doing in the recent past. Yet, sadly, this one's mostly bluster." Sonia Chopra from "Sify" gave the film 2.5 stars and said "Bodyguard is endurable (and I say this without any condescension) for those who can forgive the haphazard story and be happy enjoying the songs and watching Salman and Kareena onscreen." Saibal Chatterjee from "NDTV" gave the film 2/5 stars and concluded that "If you value the mop on your scalp and the grey cells in your head and want guard yourself against this potentially mind-numbing body blow, give it a miss. Better be safe than sorry!" Aniruddha Guha of "Daily News and Analysis" gave it 2 stars and wrote: "Salman is charming as ever, and the fact that he’s playing a slightly different character would have actually worked to the film’s advantage if it was backed by a better script." Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" gave it 2 out of 5 stars and called it a lazy remake. Mayank Shekhar of "Hindustan Times" panned the film giving it one and a half stars. He argued that the film "for more parts, is a sappy romantic pap". Shubra Gupta from "The Indian Express" also gave it one and a half stars and said "'Bodyguard' can also safely be called in which Salman Continues to Give Us Those Ones." The Hindu in its review said "It's the Salman version of a Karan Johar film of the Nineties that is bound to be compared with the sappiness of Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, given the drama at the end."


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Upon release, the film opened to a phenomenal response at the domestic box office and packed cinema halls, "witnessing 100% occupancy across shows", according to "The Economic Times". Box Office India reported that ""Bodyguard" has smashed all records" and the film went on to become the highest opener of all time across India, grossing , thus breaking the record of "Dabangg" (2010). The film grossed an additional and on its second and third day respectively, bringing the total nett collections to . On its fourth day of release, it netted around , and on its fifth day, taking the total nett collection over the extended five-day weekend to . The film continued its successful run at the box office netting on Monday, on Tuesday, and on Wednesday. The total nett collections of the extended nine-day first week were . During its second weekend, the film raked in another nett."Bodyguard" netted a total of in India at the end of its run.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Meanwhile, the film grossed a record-breaking 1.1 million Dirhams on Tuesday, its opening day in Dubai, making it the highest opening day ever. The film collected $1.25 million in four days, and $1.7 million in six days in the United Arab Emirates. In the United Kingdom, the film ranked at number 9 in the UK Top 10, and collected an impressive £64,000 on Tuesday, its first day of release, though it was a limited release with screens at only 32 cinemas. On Wednesday, a full release in 51 cinemas raked in £195,000, making it the highest opening day ever for any Indian film, and breaking the box office record for week-day collection set by "My Name is Khan". The film grossed £840,000 in six days. In the North America, the film collected $295,000 on its first day of release, and $3.8 million in four days. In Australia, the film collected $100,000 in three days, and $250,000 in five days. In Pakistan, the film collected Rs. 5 million on its first day of release. In the overall overseas market, "Bodyguard" grossed $3.8 million in four days, while the total collections amounted to $5.25 million over the extended weekend. As of 4 January 2012, the film has grossed $8.3 million ($14 million in 2020) from all overseas markets.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The film's songs are composed by Himesh Reshammiya along with one song by Pritam Chakraborty while the lyrics are penned by Neelesh Misra and Shabbir Ahmed. The music rights were sold to T-Series for 60 million.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The melody of the song "Teri Meri" is inspired from the very old carols representing spiritual singing of Orthodox Romanian Church tradition, usually sung on Christmas Celebrations by many Orthodox Christians (which can be Romanian celebrities, such as Cleopatra Stratan in 2009 or Paula Seling in 2009/ priests in 2008/ or sung by normal people) to express their joy for Christ's birth. Carols preserves some of the oldest Romanian poetic achievements being inspired from Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition, occupying an important place in the creation of Romanian people.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: The translation of the original Romanian spiritual song "La Vifleem Colo-n Jos" lyrics should be emphasized and compared with the Indian version, since for Christians Orthodox may represent a blasphemy the fact the copyrights of the melody were taken and changed the lyrics of something which it is not owned.


title: Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)

text: Upon release, the album received mixed reviews from critics. Joginder Tuteja from "Bollywood Hungama" gave it 4 out of 5 stars, concluding: "The music of "Bodyguard" has in it to be hugely popular amongst audience as it has everything for everybody. For the lovers of conventional music there is 'Desi Beats' while for Salman's fans there is the title track 'Bodyguard'. And then for those who are hunting for melody which boasts of a much longer shelf life, there is 'Teri Meri' and 'I Love You' (by Pritam) which are all set to rule the charts in days to come." Devesh Sharma of "Filmfare" awarded it 3 out of 5 stars and wrote: "Himesh, despite being a little rusty, is back in action and let’s hope he continues what he is best at and keeps his acting ambitions under check." On the other hand, Rediff gave it −5 stars and wrote: "Box office possibilities aside, the soundtrack is not write-off material but nothing to write home too with only awful, average and alright on its menu." Similarly, Ruchika Kher of the Indo-Asian News Service also gave the album 2 stars and noted: "On the whole, the album is quite average. Though none of the songs is very bad, there isn't any that really stands out and grabs attention."


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla Autopilot is a suite of advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) features offered by Tesla that amounts to SAE International Level 2 vehicle automation. Its features are lane centering, traffic-aware cruise control, automatic lane changes, semi-autonomous navigation on limited access freeways, self-parking, and the ability to summon the car from a garage or parking spot. With all of these features, the driver is responsible and the car requires constant supervision. The company claims the features reduce accidents caused by driver negligence and fatigue from long-term driving. In October 2020, Consumer Reports called Tesla Autopilot "a distant second" in driver assistance systems (behind Cadillac's Super Cruise), although it was ranked first in the "Capabilities and Performance" and "Ease of Use" category. Collisions and deaths involving Tesla cars with Autopilot engaged have drawn the attention of the press and government agencies. In late 2022, a class action suit was filed against Tesla for defrauding customers regarding Autopilot and Full Self-Driving.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: As an upgrade to the capabilities of Autopilot, the company's stated intent is to offer full autonomous driving (SAE Level 5) at a future time, acknowledging that technical and regulatory hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal. From 2016 through 2022, Elon Musk, Tesla’s CEO, has repeatedly made inaccurate predictions as to when Tesla would be able to achieve Level 5 autonomy. In 2019, some experts criticized Tesla vehicles' lack of lidar, which is used by other companies working on autonomous driving. In October 2020, Tesla started a Full Self-Driving (FSD) capability beta program in the United States; , Tesla has over 100,000 people in this program. Some industry observers criticized Tesla's decision to use untrained consumers to validate the beta software as dangerous and irresponsible.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Elon Musk first discussed the Tesla Autopilot system publicly in 2013, noting that "Autopilot is a good thing to have in planes, and we should have it in cars." Over the ensuing decade, Autopilot went through a series of hardware and software enhancements, gradually approaching the goal of full autonomy, which , remained a work in progress. Autopilot, as initially introduced in 2014, referred to automatic parking and low-speed summoning on private property, using sensor and computing hardware developed by Mobileye. By 2016, the Mobileye-based Autopilot had added automatic emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, and lane centering capabilities when Tesla and Mobileye dissolved their partnership that July. Enhanced Autopilot (EA) was announced later in 2016 as an extra-cost option that used a new hardware suite developed by Tesla; the key distinguishing feature for EA, "Navigate on Autopilot", which uses the new hardware suite to guide the vehicle on controlled-access roads, from on-ramp to off-ramp, was delayed until 2018. At the same time that EA was introduced, Tesla also offered Full Self-Driving (FSD) as an upgrade option to EA in 2016, which would extend machine-guided driving capabilities to local roads. FSD beta testing started in October 2020.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In October 2014, Tesla offered customers the ability to pre-purchase Autopilot that was not designed for self-driving. Initial versions were built in partnership with Mobileye, but Mobileye ended the partnership in July 2016 because Tesla "was pushing the envelope in terms of safety".


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla cars manufactured after September 2014 had the initial hardware (hardware version 1 or HW1) that supported Autopilot. The first Autopilot software release came in October 2015 as part of Tesla software version 7.0. Version 7.1 removed some features to discourage risky driving.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Version 8.0 processed radar signals to create a point cloud similar to lidar to help navigate in low visibility. In November 2016, Autopilot 8.0 was updated to encourage drivers to grip the steering wheel. By November 2016, Autopilot had operated for 300 million miles (500 million km).


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In October 2016, Autopilot sensors and computing hardware transitioned to hardware version 2 (HW2) for new cars, the upgraded hardware collectively was called Autopilot 2.0 to distinguish it from the original Autopilot/HW1 vehicles. At the time it was launched, Autopilot 2.0 vehicles with HW2 actually had fewer features than HW1 vehicles; for example, HW2 vehicles were unable to be summoned in 2016.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla also used the term Enhanced Autopilot (EA) to refer to planned capabilities that would be coming to HW2 vehicles; the signature EA feature announced in December 2016 was "Navigate on Autopilot", which allows machine-controlled driving on controlled-access highways from on-ramp to off-ramp, including the abilities to change lanes without driver input, transition from one freeway to another, and exit. HW2 vehicles were updated in January and February 2017 with software version 8.0, which included traffic-aware cruise control and autosteer (lane-centering) on divided highways and 'local roads' up to a speed of . Software version 8.1 for HW2 arrived in March 2017, providing HW2 cars feature parity with HW1 cars, but not "Navigate on Autopilot".


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In August 2017, Tesla announced hardware version 2.5 (HW2.5), which upgraded the on-board processor and added redundant systems. Software version 9.0 was released in October 2018, in preparation for the release of "Navigate on Autopilot" for HW2/HW2.5 vehicles with EA, which was implemented later that month. At the same time, Tesla removed the option to purchase the "Full Self-Driving" upgrade. In a November 2018 test drive, "The Verge" reporter Andrew J. Hawkins called the beta "Navigate on Autopilot" system "the feature that could give Tesla an edge as it grows from niche company to global powerhouse". As initially released, "Navigate on Autopilot" would suggest lane changes, but could not change lanes until the suggestion had been confirmed by the driver through the turn signal stalk.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In March 2019, Tesla transitioned to hardware version 3 (HW3) for new cars. Completely automated lane changes without requiring driver confirmation using "Navigate on Autopilot" were added as an option in an April software update, although "Consumer Reports" called it "far less competent" than a human driver. To comply with the new United Nations Economic Commission for Europe regulation related to automatically commanded steering function, Tesla provided an updated Autopilot in May, limited to Europe. In September, Tesla released software version 10 to Early Access Program (EAP) testers, citing improvements in driving visualization and automatic lane changes.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: A video to demonstrate Full Self-Driving, the system designed to extend automated driving to local roads, was released by Elon Musk in November 2016; the main interior camera was arranged to show the person in the driver's seat does not touch the steering wheel or pedals during the demonstration. The video also shows perspectives from the vehicle's cameras and image recognition.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: At the time, FSD was acknowledged to be "some way off in the future." The option to purchase the FSD upgrade to EA was removed from Tesla's website in October 2018; Elon Musk tweeted the upgrade was "causing too much confusion". Technology analyst Rob Enderle called the removal of the upgrade option "incredibly stupid", adding "don't release a system that doesn't work and make it hard to order." During a January 2019 earnings call, Elon Musk reiterated "full self-driving capability is there", referring to "Navigate on Autopilot", an EA feature limited to controlled-access highways. The EA option was replaced by FSD in 2019 without offering "Navigate on Autopilot"-like functionality for local roads; autosteer and traffic-aware cruise control were transferred to the basic Autopilot feature set, which was made standard on all new Teslas.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In September 2020, Tesla reintroduced the term Enhanced Autopilot to distinguish the existing subset of features which included high-speed highway travel and low-speed parking and summoning, from FSD, which would add medium-speed city road travel. Tesla released a "beta" version of its FSD software (which extended "Navigate on Autopilot"-like machine-controlled driving and navigation to 'local roads') in the United States in October 2020 to EAP testers. The EA option tier was made available to all buyers by June 2022, and the FSD beta had expanded to approximately 160,000 testers in the United States and Canada by September. In November, the FSD beta was extended to all owners in North America that had purchased the option.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In 2016, the initial price of Autopilot (called "Enhanced Autopilot") was $5,000, and FSD was an add-on for $3,000. In April 2019, basic Autopilot was included in every Tesla car, and FSD was $5,000, growing to $10,000 in October 2020 and $15,000 in September 2022. As the price of FSD increased, the fraction of buyers who purchased it steadily declined, from an estimated 37% in 2019 to 22% in 2020 to 12% in 2021. Starting in 2021, the company offers a subscription for FSD for $199 per month or $99 per month if the customer has already purchased Enhanced Autopilot.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Full Self-Driving (FSD) capability is a pre-release upgrade package to Autopilot offering additional ADAS features, such as traffic light recognition. , more than 100,000 people had beta access to FSD, including employees, early access program members, and opt-in users who met certain safety score criteria. The FSD Beta was opened on November 23, 2022, to any owner in North America that had paid for the option.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla's approach to try to achieve SAE Level 5 is to train a neural network using the behavior of hundreds of thousands of Tesla drivers using chiefly visible light cameras and information from components used for other purposes in the car (the coarse-grained two-dimensional maps used for navigation; the ultrasonic sensors used for parking, etc.) Tesla has made a deliberate decision to not use lidar, which Elon Musk has called "stupid, expensive and unnecessary". This makes Tesla's approach markedly different from that of other companies like Waymo and Cruise which train their neural networks using the behavior of highly trained drivers, and are additionally relying on highly detailed (centimeter-scale) three-dimensional maps and lidar in their autonomous vehicles.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: According to Elon Musk, full autonomy is "really a software limitation: The hardware exists to create full autonomy, so it's really about developing advanced, narrow AI for the car to operate on." The Autopilot development focus is on "increasingly sophisticated neural nets that can operate in reasonably sized computers in the car". According to Musk, "the car will learn over time", including from other cars.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla's software has been trained based on 3 billion miles driven by Tesla vehicles on public roads, . Alongside tens of millions of miles on public roads, competitors have trained their software on tens of billions of miles in computer simulations, . In terms of computing hardware, Tesla designed a self-driving computer chip that has been installed in its cars since March 2019 and also developed a neural network training supercomputer ("Tesla Dojo"); other vehicle automation companies such as Waymo regularly use custom chipsets and neural networks as well.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In December 2015, Musk predicted "complete autonomy" by 2018. At the end of 2016, Tesla expected to demonstrate full autonomy by the end of 2017, and in April 2017, Musk predicted that in around two years, drivers would be able to sleep in their vehicle while it drives itself. In 2018 Tesla revised the date to demonstrate full autonomy to be by the end of 2019.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In January 2020, Musk claimed the FSD software would be "feature complete" by the end of 2020, adding that feature complete "doesn't mean that features are working well". In August 2020, Musk stated that 200 software engineers, 100 hardware engineers and 500 "labelers" were working on Autopilot and FSD. In early 2021, Musk stated that Tesla would provide SAE Level 5 autonomy by the end of 2021. An email conversation between Tesla and the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) retrieved via a Freedom of Information Act request by PlainSite contradicts Musk's forward-looking statement.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In October 2020, Tesla first released a beta version of its FSD software to early access program testers, a small group of users in the United States. Musk stated that the testing of FSD beta "[w]ill be extremely slow [and] cautious" and "be limited to a small number of people who are expert [and] careful drivers". The release of the beta program renewed concern regarding whether the technology is ready for testing on public roads. In January 2021, the number of employees and customers testing the beta FSD software was "nearly 1,000" expanding in May 2021 to several thousand employees and customers.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In October 2021, Tesla began the wide release of the FSD beta to approximately 1,000 more drivers in the US, and the beta became accessible to Tesla drivers who achieved a 100 / 100 on a proprietary safety scoring system. By November 2021 there were about 11,700 FSD beta testers and about 150,000 vehicles using Tesla's safety score system, which then grew to 60,000 users participating in FSD beta by January 2022, and 100,000 users by April 2022. , FSD beta has been used to drive 35 million miles. In November 2022, the FSD beta was opened to all North American owners who had purchased the option, regardless of safety score.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Dojo is an artificial intelligence (AI) neural network training supercomputer announced by Musk on Tesla's AI Day on August 19, 2021. It had previously been mentioned by Musk in April 2019 and August 2020. In September 2021, a Tesla Dojo whitepaper was released. According to Musk, Project Dojo will be operational in 2022.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: The Dojo supercomputer uses Tesla-designed D1 chips. According to Tesla's senior director of Autopilot hardware, Ganesh Venkataramanan, the chip uses a "7-nanometer manufacturing process, with 362 teraflops of processing power", and "Tesla places 25 of these chips onto a single 'training tile', and 120 of these tiles come together... amounting to over an exaflop [a million teraflops] of power". (, Nvidia says the (non-Dojo) Tesla AI-training center uses 720 nodes of eight Nvidia A100 Tensor Core GPUs (5,760 GPUs in total) for up to 1.8 exaflops of performance.) Tesla claimed that Dojo will be the fastest AI-training computer among competing offerings from Intel and Nvidia.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: The performance of Dojo is not comparable with general purpose supercomputers designed for scientific research, such as those on the TOP500 list, as they use vastly different architectures — Dojo computes with lower precision floating point numbers to perform neural network training efficiently, and it is believed that the computer will have limited performance and applicability to more general applications.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla's self-driving strategy has been criticized as dangerous and obsolete as it was abandoned by other companies years ago. Most experts believe that Tesla's approach of trying to achieve autonomous vehicles by eschewing high-definition maps and lidar is not feasible. Auto analyst Brad Templeton has criticized Tesla's approach by arguing, "The no-map approach involves forgetting what was learned before and doing it all again." In a May 2021 study by Guidehouse Insights, Tesla was ranked last for both strategy and execution in the autonomous driving sector. Some news reports in 2019 state "practically everyone views [lidar] as an essential ingredient for self-driving cars" and "experts and proponents say it adds depth and vision where camera and radar alone fall short."


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: An August 2021 study conducted by Missy Cummings "et al" found three Tesla Model 3 cars exhibited "significant between and within vehicle variation on a number of metrics related to driver monitoring, alerting, and safe operation of the underlying autonomy... suggest[ing] that the performance of the underlying artificial intelligence and computer vision systems was extremely variable."


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In September 2021, legal scholars William Widen and Philip Koopman argued that Tesla's advertising of FSD as an SAE Level 2 system was misleading to "avoid regulatory oversight and permitting processes required of more highly automated vehicles". Instead, they argued FSD should be considered a SAE Level 4 technology and urged state Departments of Transportation in the U.S. to classify it as such since publicly available videos show that "beta test drivers operate their vehicles "as if" to validate SAE Level 4 (high driving automation) features, often revealing dramatically risky situations created by use of the vehicles in this manner."


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Tesla's Autopilot is classified as Level 2 under the SAE six levels (0 to 5) of vehicle automation. At this level, the car can act autonomously, but requires the driver to monitor the driving at all times and be prepared to take control at a moment's notice. Tesla's owner's manual states that Autopilot should not be used on city streets or on roads where traffic conditions are constantly changing; however, some FSD capabilities ("traffic and stop sign control (beta)"), and future FSD capabilities ("autosteer on city streets") are advertised for city streets.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Vehicles manufactured after late September 2014 are equipped with a camera mounted at the top of the windshield, forward looking radar in the lower grille and ultrasonic acoustic location sensors in the front and rear bumpers that provide a 360-degree view around the car. The computer is the Mobileye EyeQ3. This equipment allows the Tesla Model S to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles, and other vehicles.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Auto lane change can be initiated by the driver turning on the lane changing signal when safe (due to the ultrasonic sensors' 16-foot limited range capability), and then the system completes the lane change. In 2016 the system did not detect pedestrians or cyclists, and while Autopilot detects motorcycles, there have been two instances of HW1 cars rear-ending motorcycles.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: Upgrading from Hardware 1 to Hardware 2 is not offered as it would require substantial work and cost.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: HW2, included in vehicles manufactured after October 2016, includes an Nvidia Drive PX 2 GPU for CUDA based GPGPU computation. Tesla claimed that HW2 provided the necessary equipment to allow FSD at SAE Level 5. The hardware includes eight surround cameras and 12 ultrasonic sensors, in addition to forward-facing radar with enhanced processing capabilities. The Autopilot computer is replaceable to allow for future upgrades. The radar is able to observe beneath and ahead of the vehicle in front of the Tesla; the radar can see vehicles through heavy rain, fog or dust. Tesla claimed that the hardware was capable of processing 200 frames per second.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: When "Enhanced Autopilot" was enabled in February 2017 by the v8.0 (17.5.36) software update, testing showed the system was limited to using one of the eight onboard cameras—the main forward-facing camera. The v8.1 software update released a month later enabled a second camera, the narrow-angle forward-facing camera.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: In August 2017, Tesla announced that HW2.5 included a secondary processor node to provide more computing power and additional wiring redundancy to slightly improve reliability; it also enabled dashcam and "sentry mode" capabilities. During this time, the supplier for the system's radar components was changed from Bosch to Continental.


title: Tesla Autopilot

text: According to Tesla's director of Artificial Intelligence Andrej Karpathy, Tesla had as of Q3 2018 trained large neural networks but they could not be deployed to Tesla vehicles built up to that time due to their insufficient computational resources. HW3 provides the necessary resources to run these neural networks.