title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christians generally believe in individual salvation from sin through receiving Jesus Christ as their Lord and savior Son of God. Jews believe in individual and collective participation in an eternal dialogue with God through tradition, rituals, prayers and ethical actions. Christianity generally believes in a Triune God, one person of whom became human. Judaism emphasizes the Oneness of God and rejects the Christian concept of God in human form.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism's purpose is to carry out what it holds to be the covenant between God and the Jewish people. The Torah (), both written and oral, tells the story of this covenant, and provides Jews with the terms of the covenant. The Oral Torah is the primary guide for Jews to abide by these terms, as expressed in tractate Gittin 60b ("the Holy One, Blessed be He, did not make His covenant with Israel except by virtue of the Oral Law") to help them learn how to live a holy life, and to bring holiness, peace and love into the world and into every part of life, so that life may be elevated to a high level of kedushah, originally through study and practice of the Torah, and since the destruction of the Second Temple, through prayer as expressed in tractate Sotah 49a "Since the destruction of the Temple, every day is more cursed than the preceding one; and the existence of the world is assured only by the kedusha...and the words spoken after the study of Torah."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Since the adoption of the Amidah, the acknowledgement of God through the declaration from Isaiah 6:3 "Kadosh [holy], kadosh, kadosh, is HaShem, Master of Legions; the whole world is filled with His glory". as a replacement for the study of Torah, which is a daily obligation for a Jew, and sanctifies God in itself. This continuous maintenance of relationship between the individual Jew and God through either study, or prayer repeated three times daily, is the confirmation of the original covenant. This allows the Jewish people as a community to strive and fulfill the prophecy "I, the Lord, have called you in righteousness, and will hold your hand and keep you. And I will establish you as a covenant of the people, for a light unto the nations." (i.e., a role model) over the course of history, and a part of the divine intent of bringing about an age of peace and sanctity where ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means (see also Jewish principles of faith).


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: According to Christian theologian Alister McGrath, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of then contemporary Second Temple Judaism with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the messiah, with Isaiah 49:6, "an explicit parallel to 42:6" quoted by Paul the Apostle in Acts 13:47 and reinterpreted by Justin Martyr. According to Christian writers, most notably Paul, the Bible teaches that people are, in their current state, sinful, and the New Testament reveals that Jesus is both the Son of man and the Son of God, united in the hypostatic union, God the Son, God made incarnate; that Jesus' death by crucifixion was a sacrifice to atone for all of humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as Savior and Lord saves one from Divine Judgment, giving Eternal life. Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant. His famous Sermon on the Mount is considered by some Christian scholars to be the proclamation of the New Covenant ethics, in contrast to the Mosaic Covenant of Moses from Mount Sinai.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Hebrew Bible is composed of three parts; the Torah (Instruction, the Septuagint translated the Hebrew to "nomos" or "Law"), the Nevi'im (Prophets) and the Ketuvim (Writings). Collectively, these are known as the Tanakh. According to Rabbinic Judaism the Torah was revealed by God to Moses; within it, Jews find 613 Mitzvot (commandments).


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Rabbinic tradition asserts that God revealed two Torahs to Moses, one that was written down, and one that was transmitted orally. Whereas the written Torah has a fixed form, the Oral Torah is a living tradition that includes not only specific supplements to the written Torah (for instance, what is the proper manner of "shechita" and what is meant by "Frontlets" in the Shema), but also procedures for understanding and talking about the written Torah (thus, the Oral Torah revealed at Sinai includes debates among rabbis who lived long after Moses). The Oral Law elaborations of narratives in the Bible and stories about the rabbis are referred to as "aggadah". It also includes elaboration of the 613 commandments in the form of laws referred to as "halakha". Elements of the Oral Torah were committed to writing and edited by Judah HaNasi in the Mishnah in 200 CE; much more of the Oral Torah were committed to writing in the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, which were edited around 600 CE and 450 CE, respectively. The Talmuds are notable for the way they combine law and lore, for their explication of the midrashic method of interpreting texts, and for their accounts of debates among rabbis, which preserve divergent and conflicting interpretations of the Bible and legal rulings.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the Mishneh Torah, the Tur, and the Shulchan Aruch. The latter, which was based on earlier codes and supplemented by the commentary by Moshe Isserles that notes other practices and customs practiced by Jews in different communities, especially among Ashkenazim, is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews. The Zohar, which was written in the 13th century, is generally held as the most important esoteric treatise of the Jews.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: All contemporary Jewish movements consider the Tanakh, and the Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah and Talmuds as sacred, although movements are divided as to claims concerning their divine revelation, and also their authority. For Jews, the Torah—written and oral—is the primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, "Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christians accept the Written Torah and other books of the Hebrew Bible (alternatively called Old Testament) as Scripture, although they generally give readings from the Koine Greek Septuagint translation instead of the Biblical Hebrew/Biblical Aramaic Masoretic Text. Two notable examples are:


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Instead of the traditional Jewish order and names for the books, Christians organize and name the books closer to that found in the Septuagint. Some Christian denominations (such as Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox), include a number of books that are not in the Hebrew Bible (the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books or Anagignoskomena, see Development of the Old Testament canon) in their biblical canon that are not in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Septuagint. Christians reject the Jewish Oral Torah, which was still in oral, and therefore unwritten, form in the time of Jesus.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christians believe that God has established a New Covenant with people through Jesus, as recorded in the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles, and other books collectively called the New Testament (the word "testament" attributed to Tertullian is commonly interchanged with the word "covenant"). For some Christians, such as Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, this New Covenant includes authoritative sacred traditions and canon law. Others, especially Protestants, reject the authority of such traditions and instead hold to the principle of "sola scriptura", which accepts only the Bible itself as the final rule of faith and practice. Anglicans do not believe in "sola scriptura". For them scripture is the longest leg of a 3-legged stool: scripture, tradition and reason. Scripture cannot stand on its own since it must be interpreted in the light of the Church's patristic teaching and ecumenical creeds. Additionally, some denominations include the "oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles", which they believe have been handed down to this day by apostolic succession.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christians refer to the biblical books about Jesus as the New Testament, and to the canon of Hebrew books as the Old Testament. Judaism does not accept the retronymic labeling of its sacred texts as the "Old Testament", and some Jews refer to the New Testament as the Christian Testament or Christian Bible. Judaism rejects all claims that the Christian New Covenant supersedes, abrogates, fulfills, or is the unfolding or consummation of the covenant expressed in the Written and Oral Torahs. Therefore, just as Christianity does not accept that Mosaic law has any authority over Christians, Judaism does not accept that the New Testament has any religious authority over Jews.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Many Jews view Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah, or Mosaic law: on one hand Christians speak of it as God's absolute word, but on the other, they apply its commandments with a certain selectivity. Some Jews contend that Christians cite commandments from the Old Testament to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class and of equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments that God states explicitly be a "lasting covenant." Some translate the Hebrew as a "perpetual covenant."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christians explain that such selectivity is based on rulings made by early Jewish Christians in the Book of Acts, at the Council of Jerusalem, that, while believing gentiles did not need to fully convert to Judaism, they should follow some aspects of Torah like avoiding idolatry and fornication and blood. This view is also reflected by modern Judaism, in that Righteous gentiles need not convert to Judaism and need to observe only the Noahide Laws, which also contain prohibitions against idolatry and fornication and blood.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Some Christians agree that Jews who accept Jesus should still observe all of Torah, see for example Dual-covenant theology, based on warnings by Jesus to Jews not to use him as an excuse to disregard it, and they support efforts of those such as Messianic Jews (Messianic Judaism is considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity) to do that, but some Protestant forms of Christianity oppose all observance to the Mosaic law, even by Jews, which Luther criticised as Antinomianism.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: A minority view in Christianity, known as Christian Torah-submission, holds that the Mosaic law as it is written is binding on all followers of God under the New Covenant, even for gentiles, because it views God's commands as "everlasting" and "good."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Traditionally, both Judaism and Christianity believe in the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, for Jews the God of the Tanakh, for Christians the God of the Old Testament, the creator of the universe. Judaism and major sects of Christianity reject the view that God is entirely immanent (although some see this as the concept of the Holy Ghost) and within the world as a physical presence (although Christians believe in the incarnation of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely transcendent, and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek Unknown God. Both religions reject atheism on one hand and polytheism on the other.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Christianity posits that God exists as a Trinity; in this view God exists as three distinct persons who share a single divine essence, or substance. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three persons are distinct and unconfused, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the Incarnation of God the Son who was born as Jesus of Nazareth, who is believed to be at once fully God and fully human. There are denominations self-describing as Christian who question one or more of these doctrines, however, see Nontrinitarianism. By contrast, Judaism sees God as a single entity, and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the material world in such fashion. Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence ("Ein Sof", without end) and immanence ("Shekhinah", in-dwelling), these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: A minority Jewish view, which appears in some codes of Jewish law, is that while Christian worship is polytheistic (due to the multiplicity of the Trinity), it is permissible for them to swear in God's name, since they are referring to the one God. This theology is referred to in Hebrew as Shituf (literally "partnership" or "association"). Although worship of a trinity is considered to be not different from any other form of idolatry for Jews, it may be an acceptable belief for non-Jews (according to the ruling of some Rabbinic authorities).


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism teaches that the purpose of the Torah is to teach us how to act correctly. God's existence is a given in Judaism, and not something that most authorities see as a matter of required belief. Although some authorities see the Torah as commanding Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the Shema Yisrael, the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of God's laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Much of Christianity also teaches that God wants people to perform good works, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called Legalism, the exception being dual-covenant theology. Some Christian denominations hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus, which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism), while others (including most Protestants) hold that faith alone is necessary for salvation. Some argue that the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the definition of "faith" used. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission". Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see Ontotheology). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "sola fide") define faith as being implicitly ontological—mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In both religions, offenses against the will of God are called sin. These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called venial sin; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called mortal sin. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter Hell in the afterlife. Both the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church define sin more or less as a "macula", a spiritual stain or uncleanliness that constitutes damage to man's image and likeness of God.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Hebrew has several words for sin, each with its own specific meaning. The word "pesha", or "trespass", means a sin done out of rebelliousness. The word "aveira" means "transgression". And the word "avone", or "iniquity", means a sin done out of moral failing. The word most commonly translated simply as "sin", "het", literally means "to go astray". Just as Jewish law, "halakha" provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born with free will, and morally neutral, with both a "yetzer hatov", (literally, "the good inclination", in some views, a tendency towards goodness, in others, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and a "yetzer hara", (literally "the evil inclination", in some views, a tendency towards evil, and in others, a tendency towards base or animal behavior and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. It does not teach that choosing good is impossible—only at times more difficult. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, the habitual gossip, and the malicious person)


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The rabbis recognize a positive value to the "yetzer hara": one tradition identifies it with the observation on the last day of creation that God's accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In contrast to the Jewish view of being morally balanced, Original Sin refers to the idea that the sin of Adam and Eve's disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. Paul the Apostle in Romans and I Corinthians placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Protestants teach the Sacrament of Baptism is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and Sanctifying Grace (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit", following the terminology in the Gospel of St. John. Most Protestants believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that baptism is a symbol of the grace already received.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Hebrew word for "love", "ahavah" (אהבה), is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in Genesis 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in I Samuel 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in Song of Songs. Christians will often use the Greek of the Septuagint to make distinctions between the types of love: "philia" for brotherly, "eros" for romantic and "agape" for self-sacrificing love.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, literary critic Harold Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself", also called the second Great Commandment. Talmudic sages Hillel and Rabbi Akiva commented that this is a major element of the Jewish religion. Also, this commandment is arguably at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the Torah, Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the midrashic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature. Bernard Jacob Bamberger considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3—"You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy"—to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The only statements in the Tanakh about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty. (although this interpretation is disputed, the passage could refer to an injury to a woman that causes a premature, live birth).


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Talmud states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the woman), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and abortion—in restricted circumstances—has always been legal under Jewish law. Rashi, the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus "lav nefesh hu": "it is not a person." The Talmud contains the expression "ubar yerech imo"—the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." The Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the quickening of the fetus.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact mandates, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the woman. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus. They also allow abortion if the woman were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the pregnant woman, the man who impregnated her, and their Rabbi.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the Torah. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism has many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the Talmud teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and thus would "place an obstacle in front of a blind man" (i.e., makes it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, Jews have committed suicide or mass suicide (see Masada, First French persecution of the Jews, and York Castle for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name". These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities. Where some Jews regard them as examples of heroic martyrdom, but others saying that while Jews should always be willing to face martyrdom if necessary, it was wrong for them to take their own lives.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic moral dilemma of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Sermon on the Mount records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must turn the other cheek. This has led four Protestant Christian denominations to develop a theology of pacifism, the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the "peace churches", and have incorporated Christ's teachings on nonviolence into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and the Church of the Brethren. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments, see also Evangelical counsels. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice. See also But to bring a sword.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Although the Hebrew Bible has many references to capital punishment, the Jewish sages used their authority to make it nearly impossible for a Jewish court to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the Cities of Refuge and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those unintentionally guilty of capital offences. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christianity usually reserved the death penalty for heresy, the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and witchcraft or similar non-Christian practices. For example, in Spain, unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those crypto-Jews who had accepted baptism under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. It is presently acknowledged by most of Christianity that these uses of capital punishment were deeply immoral.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet that has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws have been superseded, for example citing what Jesus taught in Mark 7: what you eat doesn't make you unclean but what comes out of a man's heart makes him unclean—although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting, and continues to observe the Council of Jerusalem's apostolic decree of Act 15.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Some Christian denominations observe some biblical food laws, for example the practice of Ital in Rastafari. Jehovah's Witnesses do not eat blood products and are known for their refusal to accept blood transfusions based on not "eating blood".


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism does not see human beings as inherently flawed or sinful and needful of being saved from it, but rather capable with a free will of being righteous, and unlike Christianity does not closely associate ideas of "salvation" with a New Covenant delivered by a Jewish messiah, although in Judaism Jewish people will have a renewed national commitment of observing God's commandments under the New Covenant, and the Jewish Messiah will also be ruling at a time of global peace and acceptance of God by all people.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism holds instead that proper living is accomplished through good works and heartfelt prayer, as well as a strong faith in God. Judaism also teaches that gentiles can receive a share in "the world to come". This is codified in the Mishna Avot 4:29, the Babylonian Talmud in tractates Avodah Zarah 10b, and Ketubot 111b, and in Maimonides's 12th century law code, the "Mishneh Torah", in "Hilkhot Melachim" (Laws of Kings) 8.11.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Protestant view is that every human is a sinner, and being saved by God's grace, not simply by the merit of one's own actions, pardons a damnatory sentence to Hell.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In Judaism, one must go "to those he has harmed" to be entitled to forgiveness. This means that in Judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from God for wrongs the person has done to other people. This also means that, unless the victim forgave the perpetrator before he died, murder is unforgivable in Judaism, and they will answer to God for it, though the victims' family and friends can forgive the murderer for the grief they caused them.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Thus the "reward" for forgiving others is not God's forgiveness for wrongs done to others, but rather help "in obtaining forgiveness from the other person."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Sir Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, summarized: "it is not that God forgives, while human beings do not. To the contrary, we believe that just as only God can forgive sins against God, so only human beings can forgive sins against human beings."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgment. Most Christians (the exception is Full Preterism) believe in the future Second Coming of Jesus, which includes the Resurrection of the Dead and the Last Judgment. Those who have accepted Jesus as their personal saviour will be saved and live in God's presence in the Kingdom of Heaven, those who have not accepted Jesus as their saviour, will be cast into the Lake of fire (eternal torment, finite torment, or simply annihilated), see for example The Sheep and the Goats.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a "book of life" that one is written into, indicating that God judges each person each year even after death. This annual judgment process begins on Rosh Hashanah and ends with Yom Kippur. Additionally, God sits daily in judgment concerning a person's daily activities. Upon the anticipated arrival of the Messiah, God will judge the nations for their persecution of Israel during the exile. Later, God will also judge the Jews over their observance of the Torah.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: There is little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as actual places, and there are few references to the afterlife in the Hebrew Bible. One is the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by the Witch of Endor at King Saul's command. Another is a mention by the Prophet Daniel of those who sleep in the earth rising to either everlasting life or everlasting abhorrence.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Early Hebrew views were more concerned with the fate of the nation of Israel as a whole, rather than with individual immortality. A stronger belief in an afterlife for each person developed during the Second Temple period but was contested by various Jewish sects. Pharisees believed that in death, people rest in their graves until they are physically resurrected with the coming of the Messiah, and within that resurrected body the soul would exist eternally. Maimonides also included the concept of resurrection in his Thirteen Principles of Faith.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the Torah: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days, then got on with their lives.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In Judaism, Heaven is sometimes described as a place where God debates Talmudic law with the angels, and where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral Torah. Jews do not believe in "Hell" as a place of eternal torment. Gehenna is a place or condition of purgatory where Jews spend up to twelve months purifying to get into heaven, depending on how sinful they have been, although some suggest that certain types of sinners can never be purified enough to go to heaven and rather than facing eternal torment, simply cease to exist. Therefore, some violations like suicide would be punished by separation from the community, such as not being buried in a Jewish cemetery (in practice, rabbis often rule suicides to be mentally incompetent and thus not responsible for their actions). Judaism also does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan since God's dominion is total and Satan is only one of God's angels.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Catholics also believe in a purgatory for those who are going to heaven, but Christians in general believe that Hell is a fiery place of torment that never ceases, called the Lake of Fire. A small minority believe this is not permanent, and that those who go there will eventually either be saved or cease to exist. Heaven for Christians is depicted in various ways. As the Kingdom of God described in the New Testament and particularly the Book of Revelation, Heaven is a new or restored earth, a World to Come, free of sin and death, with a New Jerusalem led by God, Jesus, and the most righteous of believers starting with 144,000 Israelites from every tribe, and all others who received salvation living peacefully and making pilgrimages to give glory to the city.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In Christianity, promises of Heaven and Hell as rewards and punishments are often used to motivate good and bad behavior, as threats of disaster were used by prophets like Jeremiah to motivate the Israelites. Modern Judaism generally rejects this form of motivation, instead teaching to do the right thing because it's the right thing to do. As Maimonides wrote:


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: "A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come. It is not proper to serve God in this fashion. For one who serves thus serves out of fear. Such a way is not that of the prophets and sages. Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve God in this way. These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love. One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it. It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be God, called "My friend" (Isaiah 41:8 – "ohavi" = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone. It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be God, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: "You shall love the Lord your God" (Deuteronomy 6:5). When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Jews believe that a descendant of King David will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of Israel and usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. Jews refer to this person as Moshiach or "anointed one", translated as messiah in English. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is that he is fully human and born of human parents without any supernatural element. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the prophets of the Tanakh. In his commentary on the Talmud, Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon) wrote:


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Christian view of Jesus as Messiah goes beyond such claims and is the fulfillment and union of three anointed offices; a prophet like Moses who delivers God's commands and covenant and frees people from bondage, a High Priest in the order of Melchizedek overshadowing the Levite priesthood and a king like King David ruling over Jews, and like God ruling over the whole world and coming from the line of David.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: For Christians, Jesus is also fully human and fully divine as the Word of God who sacrifices himself so that humans can receive salvation. Jesus sits in Heaven at the Right Hand of God and will judge humanity in the end times when he returns to earth.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find many references to Jesus. This can take the form of specific prophesy, and in other cases of foreshadowing by types or forerunners. Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, and that the entire Old Testament of the Bible is a prophecy about the coming of Jesus.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Catholicism teaches "Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus" ("Outside the Church there is no salvation"), which some, like Fr. Leonard Feeney, interpreted as limiting salvation to Catholics only. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. In recent times, its teaching has been most notably expressed in the Vatican II council documents "Unitatis Redintegratio" (1964), "Lumen gentium" (1964), "Nostra aetate" (1965), an encyclical issued by Pope John Paul II: "Ut unum sint" (1995), and in a document issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, "Dominus Iesus" in 2000. The latter document has been criticised for claiming that non-Christians are in a "gravely deficient situation" as compared to Catholics, but also adds that "for those who are not formally and visibly members of the Church, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church, but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Pope John Paul II on 2 October 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: "...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united". On 6 December the Pope issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: "The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the Beatitudes—the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life—will enter God's kingdom." He further added, "All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom." On 13 August 2002 American Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of Reform and Conservative Judaism, called "Reflections on Covenant and Mission", which affirmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion. The document stated: "Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God" and "Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom." However, many Christian denominations still believe it is their duty to reach out to "unbelieving" Jews.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Jews do not need to be converted to find salvation, and that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or "metanoia", which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught that there is no salvation outside the church. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the Gospel by heretics. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision. Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism is not a proselytizing religion. Orthodox Judaism deliberately makes it very difficult to convert and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking intense, formal, and supervised work over years aimed towards that goal. Some less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In the past, scholars understood Judaism to have an evangelistic drive, but today's scholars are inclined to the view that it was often more akin just to "greater openness to converts" rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. Indeed, Scholars have revisited the traditional claims about Jewish proselytizing and have brought forward a variety of new insights. McKnight and Goodman have argued persuasively that a distinction ought to be made between the passive reception of converts or interested Pagans, and an active desire or intent to convert the non-Jewish world to Judaism.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Chabad-Lubavitch branch of Hasidic Judaism has been an exception to this non-proselytizing standard, since in recent decades it has been actively promoting Noahide Laws for gentiles as an alternative to Christianity.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly evangelistic religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to "Therefore go and make disciples of all nations". Historically, evangelism has on rare occasions led to forced conversion under threat of death or mass expulsion.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Many Jews view Jesus as one in a long list of failed Jewish claimants to be the Messiah, none of whom fulfilled the tests of a prophet specified in the Law of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims that Jews find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers, and because evangelism is still an active aspect of many churches' activities, many Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a non-person. In answering the question "What do Jews think of Jesus", philosopher Milton Steinberg claims, for Jews, Jesus cannot be accepted as anything more than a teacher. "In only a few respects did Jesus deviate from the Tradition," Steinberg concludes, "and in all of them, Jews believe, he blundered."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in Jewish traditions concerning the story of the Akedah, the binding of Isaac. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story in the Torah whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin. Judaism is more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in the world according to God's will, rather than a hope of a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. Gehenna, a term that also appears in the New Testament and translated as hell) as well as a Heaven (Gan Eden), but the religion does not intend it as a focus.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Judaism views the worship of Jesus as inherently polytheistic, and rejects the Christian attempts to explain the Trinity as a complex monotheism. Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated, but some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular holiday.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including monotheism, the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts. Christians believe that Judaism requires blood sacrifice to atone for sins, and believe that Judaism has abandoned this since the destruction of the Second Temple. Most Christians consider the Mosaic Law to have been a necessary intermediate stage, but that once the crucifixion of Jesus occurred, adherence to civil and ceremonial Law was superseded by the New Covenant.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Some Christians adhere to New Covenant theology, which states that with the arrival of his New Covenant, Jews have ceased being blessed under his Mosaic covenant. This position has been softened or disputed by other Christians, where Jews are recognized to have a special status under the Abrahamic covenant. New Covenant theology is thus in contrast to Dual-covenant theology.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Some Christians who view the Jewish people as close to God seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their beliefs as a means to respect their "parent" religion of Judaism, or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. Christians embracing aspects of Judaism are sometimes criticized as Biblical Judaizers by Christians when they pressure gentile Christians to observe Mosaic teachings rejected by most modern Christians.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Commonwealth Theology(CT) asserts that Judeo-Christian tensions were exacerbated in the fall of Jerusalem and by the subsequent Jewish Revolt. As a result, early Christian theologies formulated in the Roman capitals of Rome and Constantinople began to include anti-Semitic attitudes, which have been carried forward and embraced by the Protestant Reformers. Dispensation Theology, formalized in the 1830s by John Darby, holds that "God has not rejected His people whom He foreknew." Dispensationalism, however, maintains that God's special dealings with Israel have been interrupted by the Church Age. Commonwealth Theology, on the other hand, recognizes the continuity of God's "congregation in the wilderness" as presently consisting of the Jews (house of Judah) and the Nations (Gentiles), among whom are abiding the historically scattered Northern Kingdom (house of Israel). Commonwealth Theology views the Jews as already included in Commonwealth of Israel even while in unbelief, but nevertheless unsaved in their unbelieving state. CT recognizes that both the reconciliation of the Jewish house and the reconciliation of the estranged house of Israel (among the Gentiles) was accomplished by the cross; and that the salvation of "All Israel" is a process that began on the Day of Pentecost. The full realization of the "one new man" created through the peace (between the Jews and "you Gentiles") made by his cross will take place in Ezekiel's two sticks made one, when both houses of Israel will be united under the Kingdom of David.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and rabbinic movements from the mid- to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Of particular importance is the figure of James the brother of Jesus, the leader of the Christian Church in Jerusalem until he was killed in the year 62, who was known for his righteous behavior as a Jew, and set the terms of the relationship between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians in dialogue with Paul. To him is attributed a letter which emphasizes the view that faith must be expressed in works. The neglect of this mediating figure has often damaged Christian-Jewish relations. Modern scholarship is engaged in an ongoing debate over which term should be used as the proper designation for Jesus' first followers. Many scholars believe that the term Jewish Christians is anachronistic given the fact that there is no consensus on the date of the birth of Christianity. The very concepts of Christianity and Judaism can be seen as essentializing, since these are changing and plural traditions. Clearly, the first Christians would not have believed that they were exchanging one religion for another, because they believed that the resurrection of Jesus was the fulfillment of Jewish prophecies, and they believed that the mission to the gentiles which was initiated by Saul (Paul of Tarsus) was a secondary activity. Some modern scholars have suggested that the designations "Jewish believers in Jesus" and "Jewish followers of Jesus" better reflect the original context.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In addition to Christianity and Judaism's varying views on each other as religions, there has also been a long and often painful history of conflict, persecution and at times, reconciliation, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship with each other over time. Since the end of the Second World War and The Holocaust, Christianity has embarked on a process of introspection with regard to its Jewish roots and its attitudes toward Judaism. The eradication of the anti-Jewish tendencies is but one dimension of this ongoing Christian introspection, that attempts to engage a variety of legacies that disturb modern believers (Anti-Semitism, slavery, racial and ethnic prejudice, colonialism, sexism, homophobia and religious persecution).


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Persecution, forcible conversion, and forcible displacement of Jews (i.e. hate crimes) occurred for many centuries, along with occasional gestures at reconciliation which also occurred from time to time. Pogroms were a common occurrence throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictive land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and ghettoization, mandatory dress codes, and at times, humiliating actions and torture. All of these actions and restrictions had major effects on Jewish cultures. From the fifth century onward, Church councils imposed ever-increasing burdens and limitations on the Jews. Among the decrees:


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: marriages between a Jew and a Christian were forbidden ( Orleans, 533 and 538; Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589 and 633). Jews and Christians forbidden to eat together (Vannes, 465; Agde, 506; Epaone, 517; Orleans, 538; Macon, 583; Clichy, 626–7). Jews banned from public office ( Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589; Paris, 614–5; Clichy, 626–7; Toledo, 633). Jews were forbidden to appear in public during Easter ( Orleans, 538; Macon, 583) and to work on Sunday (Narbonne, 589).


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: By the end of the first millennium, the Jewish population in the Christian lands had been decimated, expelled, forced into conversion or worse. Only a few small and scattered communities survived.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: There have also been non-coercive outreach and missionary efforts such as the Church of England's Ministry Among Jewish People, founded in 1809.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: For Martin Buber, Judaism and Christianity were variations on the same theme of messianism. Buber made this theme the basis of a famous definition of the tension between Judaism and Christianity:


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Pre-messianically, our destinies are divided. Now to the Christian, the Jew is the incomprehensibly obdurate man who declines to see what has happened; and to the Jew, the Christian is the incomprehensibly daring man who affirms in an unredeemed world that its redemption has been accomplished. This is a gulf which no human power can bridge.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church, as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the régime.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Following the Holocaust, attempts have been made to construct a new Jewish-Christian relationship of mutual respect for differences, through the inauguration of the interfaith body the Council of Christians and Jews in 1942 and International Council of Christians and Jews. The Seelisberg Conference in 1947 established 10 points relating to the sources of Christian antisemitism. The ICCJ's "Twelve points of Berlin" sixty years later aim to reflect a recommitment to interreligious dialogue between the two communities.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews. In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: In 2012, the book "Kosher Jesus" by Orthodox Rabbi Shmuley Boteach was published. In it, he takes the position that Jesus was a wise and learned Torah-observant Jewish rabbi. Boteach says he was a beloved member of the Jewish community. At the same time, Jesus is said to have despised the Romans for their cruelty, and fought them courageously. The book states that the Jews had nothing whatsoever to do with the murder of Jesus, but rather that blame for his trial and killing lies with the Romans and Pontius Pilate. Boteach states clearly that he does not believe in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah. At the same time, Boteach argues that "Jews have much to learn from Jesus - and from Christianity as a whole - without accepting Jesus' divinity. There are many reasons for accepting Jesus as a man of great wisdom, beautiful ethical teachings, and profound Jewish patriotism." He concludes by writing, as to Judeo-Christian values, that "the hyphen between Jewish and Christian values is Jesus himself."


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: On 3 December 2015, the Center for Jewish-Christian Understanding and Cooperation (CJCUC) spearheaded a petition of Orthodox rabbis from around the world calling for increased partnership between Jews and Christians.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: The unprecedented Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity, entitled ""To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians"", was initially signed by over 25 prominent Orthodox rabbis in Israel, the United States, and Europe, and as of 2016 had over 60 signatories.


title: Christianity and Judaism

text: On 31 August 2017, representatives of the Conference of European Rabbis, the Rabbinical Council of America, and the Commission of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel issued and presented the Holy See with a statement entitled "Between Jerusalem and Rome". The document pays particular tribute to the Second Vatican Council's Declaration "Nostra Aetate", whose fourth chapter represents the "Magna Carta" of the Holy See's dialogue with the Jewish world. The Statement "Between Jerusalem and Rome" does not hide the theological differences that exist between the two faith traditions while all the same it expresses a firm resolve to collaborate more closely, now and in the future.


title: Ronda

text: Ronda () is a town in the Spanish province of Málaga. It is located about west of the city of Málaga, within the autonomous community of Andalusia. Its population is about 35,000. Ronda is known for its cliff-side location and a deep chasm that carries the Guadalevín River and divides the town.


title: Ronda

text: Around the city are remains of prehistoric settlements dating to the Neolithic Age, including the rock paintings of Cueva de la Pileta. Ronda was, however, first settled by the early Celts, who called it Arunda in the sixth century BC. Later Phoenician settlers established themselves nearby to found Acinipo (sometimes referred to as "Ronda la Vieja", Old Ronda). The current Ronda is of Roman origins, having been founded as a fortified post in the Second Punic War, by Scipio Africanus. Ronda received the title of city at the time of Julius Caesar.


title: Ronda

text: In the fifth century AD, Ronda was conquered by the Suebi, led by Rechila, being reconquered in the following century by the Eastern Roman Empire, under whose rule Acinipo was abandoned. Later, the Visigoth king Leovigild captured the city. Ronda was part of the Visigoth realm until 713, when it fell to the Umayyad troops, who named it Hisn Ar-Rundah ("Castle of Rundah") and made it the capital of the Takurunna province.


title: Ronda

text: It was the hometown of the polymath Abbas Ibn Firnas (810–887), an inventor, engineer, alleged aviator, chemist, physician, Muslim poet, and Andalusian musician.


title: Ronda

text: After the disintegration of the caliphate of Córdoba, Ronda became the capital of a small kingdom ruled by the Berber Banu Ifran, the taifa of Ronda. During this period, Ronda gained most of its Islamic architectural heritage. In 1065, Ronda was conquered by the taifa of Seville led by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid. Both the poet Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi (1204–1285) and the Sufi scholar Ibn Abbad al-Rundi (1333–1390) were born in Ronda.


title: Ronda

text: The Islamic domination of Ronda ended in 1485, when it was conquered by the Marquis of Cádiz after a brief siege. Subsequently, most of the city's old edifices were renewed or adapted to Christian roles, while numerous others were built in newly created quarters such as Mercadillo and San Francisco. The Plaza de Toros de Ronda was founded in the town in 1572.


title: Ronda

text: The Spanish Inquisition affected the Muslims living in Spain greatly. Shortly after 1492, when the last outpost of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, Granada, was conquered, the Spanish decreed that all Muslims must either vacate the peninsula without their belongings or convert. Many people overtly converted to keep their possessions while secretly practicing their religion. Muslims who converted were called Moriscos. They were required to wear upon their caps and turbans a blue crescent. Traveling without a permit meant a death sentence. This systematic suppression forced the Muslims to seek refuge in mountainous regions of southern Andalusia; Ronda was one such refuge.


title: Ronda

text: On May 25, 1566, Philip II decreed the use of the Arabic language (written or spoken) illegal, required that doors to homes remain open on Fridays to verify that no Muslim Friday prayers were conducted, and levied heavy taxes on Morisco trades. This led to several rebellions, one of them in Ronda under the leadership of Al-Fihrey. Al-Fihrey's soldiers defeated the Spanish army sent to suppress them under the leadership of Alfonso de Aguilar. The massacre of the Spaniards prompted Phillip II to order the expulsion of all Moriscos in Ronda.


title: Ronda

text: In the early 19th century, the Napoleonic invasion and the subsequent Peninsular War caused much suffering in Ronda, whose inhabitants were reduced from 15,600 to 5,000 in three years. Ronda's area became the base first of guerrilla warriors, then of numerous bandits, whose deeds inspired artists such as Washington Irving, Prosper Mérimée, and Gustave Doré. In the 19th century, the economy of Ronda was mainly based on agricultural activities. In 1918, the city was the seat of the Assembly of Ronda, in which the Andalusian flag, coat of arms, and anthem were designed.


title: Ronda

text: Ronda's Romero family—from Francisco, born in 1698, to his son Juan, to his famous grandson Pedro, who died in 1839—played a principal role in the development of modern Spanish bullfighting. In a family responsible for such innovations as the use of the cape, or "muleta", and a sword especially designed for the kill, Pedro in particular transformed bullfighting into "an art and a skill in its own right, and not simply ... a clownishly macho preamble to the bull's slaughter".


title: Ronda

text: Ronda was heavily affected by the Spanish Civil War, which led to emigration and depopulation. The scene in chapter 10 of Hemingway's "For Whom the Bell Tolls", describing the 1936 execution of Fascist sympathisers in a (fictional) village who are thrown off a cliff, is considered to be modeled on actual events of the time in Ronda.


title: Ronda

text: Ronda is situated in a mountainous area about above mean sea level. Also it occupies the depression of Ronda. The inner relief is gentle and includes areas of pastureland and vegetable and cereal growing areas.


title: Ronda

text: The Guadalevín River runs through the city, dividing it in two and carving out the steep, 100-plus-meter-deep El Tajo canyon above which the city perches. The Spanish fir ("Abies pinsapo") is endemic to the mountains surrounding Ronda.


title: Ronda

text: American artists Ernest Hemingway and Orson Welles spent many summers in Ronda as part-time residents of Ronda's old-town quarter called La Ciudad. Both wrote about Ronda's beauty and famous bullfighting traditions. Their collective accounts have contributed to Ronda's popularity over time.


title: Ronda

text: In the first decades of the 20th century, the famous German poet Rainer Maria Rilke spent extended periods in Ronda, where he kept a permanent room at the Hotel Reina Victoria (built in 1906); his room remains to this day as he left it, a minimuseum of Rilkeana. According to the hotel's publicity, Rilke wrote (though probably not in Spanish) "He buscado por todas partes la ciudad soñada, y al fin la he encontrado en Ronda" and "No hay nada más inesperado en España que esta ciudad salvaje y montañera" ("I have sought everywhere the city of my dreams, and I have finally found it in Ronda" and "Nothing is more startling in Spain than this wild and mountainous city.")


title: Ronda

text: Hemingway's novel "For Whom the Bell Tolls" describes the execution of Nationalist sympathizers early in the Spanish Civil War. The Republicans murder the Nationalists by throwing them from cliffs in an Andalusian village, and Hemingway allegedly based the account on killings that took place in Ronda at the cliffs of "El Tajo".


title: Ronda

text: Orson Welles said he was inspired by his frequent trips to Spain and Ronda (e.g. his unfinished film about Don Quixote). After he died in 1985, his ashes were buried in a well on the rural property of his friend, retired bullfighter Antonio Ordoñez.


title: Ronda

text: English writer George Eliot's book "Daniel Deronda" ("Daniel of Ronda") tells the story of a Spanish Jew brought up as an Englishman. Some speculation existed that Eliot's ancestors had lived in Ronda prior to the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492.


title: Ronda

text: In the fashion world, Italian designer Giorgio Armani specially designed the bullfighting costume called ‘Goyesco’ for famed bullfighter Cayetano Rivera Ordóñez on the occasion of the Corrida Goyesca that took place on September 6, 2009, in Ronda. Cayetano's suit of lights was in the Goyaesque style, comprising a jacket, trousers, and cloak in techno-satin. The three pieces were embroidered with sequins, small glitter stones, and thread, all matching the colour of the background fabric.


title: Ronda

text: Ronda is accessible via highways (Autovía A-374) and by rail from Algeciras and from Córdoba. A direct train from Madrid to Ronda operates twice daily.


title: Ronda

text: The single-track railway between Ronda and Algeciras was built between 1890 and 1892 by the Algeciras Gibraltar Railway Company. It enabled the British military officers to escape the summer heat of Gibraltar. The railway was built by James Morrison, an engineer, in partnership with Alexander Henderson, 1st Baron Faringdon, a financier. The station at Ronda was opened in 1892.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: The Professor (alternatively titled Richard Says Goodbye) is a 2018 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Wayne Roberts. The film stars Johnny Depp, Rosemarie DeWitt, Danny Huston, Zoey Deutch, Ron Livingston, Odessa Young and Paloma Kwiatkowski.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: It had its world premiere at the Zurich Film Festival on October 5, 2018. It was released on May 17, 2019, by Saban Films.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: College English professor Richard Brown is in the office of his doctor and is told that he has advanced stage 4 cancer of his lungs, which has spread throughout his body and is terminal. His life expectancy is set by the doctor as being six months without treatment, which might be extended to 12–18 months cancer treatment. Richard is devastated by the news, and walks through town and into a pond fully clothed.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Upon arrival at home for dinner, Richard decides to tell his wife, Veronica and only daughter, Olivia, the bad news. but his daughter announces that she is a lesbian. Richard is relived as he thought it was something bad, but Veronica dismisses her daughter as going through a phase, which causes Olivia to storm out. Veronica confronts Richard with the fact that she is having an affair with the dean of the college where Richard works. He accuses her of having no taste. Richard does not break the news; when Veronica asks him what he was going to say, he says that he was concerned that he had overcooked the steaks.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Next day, Richard starts weeding out the students whom he feels are not truly dedicated to English and reading. He offers everyone a C if they walk out the class as being of no interest to them. He suggests they each read a book and then present a lesson on why the book is important. Anyone who doesn't want to do that should walk - and they'll still get a C. Richard is left with a small core group of students. He dismisses them saying he is going on a 72-hour bender, and if anyone knows where to get marijuana, send then to his office.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: At home Richard and his wife agree to live their lives as they please but discreetly to spare their daughter. Veronica asks to try his drugs thinking they are recreational prescription drugs rather than cancer medication. Olivia comes in with her girlfriend and is embarrassed to find both parents drunk or high.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Richard asks his friend, Peter Matthew, who happens to be his department's chairman, to arrange for an immediate sabbatical. Peter tells him that it is impossible on such short notice but Richard presses him. Finally, Richard tells him that he is dying of cancer. Peter says he will try his best to get him the time off work.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Richard vents his frustration to his students and encourages them not to fall into the traps that he has. The students are highly responsive, with one of the gay students later offering Richard some pot brownies and a sexual tryst in Richard's office.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Peter persuades Richard to go to a therapeutic group for people with terminal cancer but Richard walks out calling it a circle-jerk and wishing everyone well with their impending deaths. The two end up in a bar and one of his students arrives. She is the dean's niece. Peter goes home drunk but Richard stays with the young student and tells her he has cancer. She invites him to slow dance with her.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Richard's reliance on alcohol and recreational drugs becomes progressively worse. In one instance, he passes out and needs to be hospitalized because of his extreme intoxication. He is told to go to Henry's office, presumably for a verbal warning about his behaviour on campus, but he gets one over on Henry by saying he knows about his affair and that he has broken faculty rules by giving Veronica college funds for her sculptures. Soon afterwards, Richard is told he will get his sabbatical.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: At a final seminar, the dean's niece observes from her reading that love is a way to try and know another person. Richard likes this and I s his final words to his students, he stresses the importance of seizing one's own existence, acknowledging the fact that we are all going to die, and appreciating the (little) time we have left.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: At a faculty dinner, where Richard is seated at a table of unimportant staff, Richard eloquently berates the dean, tells his wife that for what it’s worth he loves her, and announces to the whole faculty and families that he is dying, which mildly surprises his wife and the other guests.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: At home Olivia comes in crying since her girlfriend has cheated on her. Richard comforts her and tells her that he is proud of her, then says he is dying. He decides to leave his home and family for his sabbatical. In the final scene, Richard comes across a fork in the road but decides to take neither and creates an alternative, driving on with his dog into the night.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: On May 8, 2017, it was announced that Johnny Depp would star in a comedy-drama film "Richard Says Goodbye" as a college professor in the titular role, to be written and directed by Wayne Roberts following his debut film "Katie Says Goodbye", which IM Global would be fully financing. Brian Kavanaugh Jones would produce the film through his Automatik Entertainment along with IM Global's Greg Shapiro. On July 20, 2017, Zoey Deutch was cast in the film to play one of the students of the professor. The rest of the main cast was announced on July 25, 2017, which included Danny Huston, Rosemarie DeWitt, Devon Terrell, and Odessa Young. It was reported that the film would be co-financed by IM Global and Cirrina Studios, with an additional financing by Leeding Media.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: It had its world premiere at the Zurich Film Festival on October 5, 2018. Prior to that, Saban Films and DirecTV Cinema acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on May 17, 2019.


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "A muddled story populated with thinly written characters and arranged around a misguided Johnny Depp performance, "The Professor" fails early and often." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 37 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: The Professor (2018 film)

text: Nick Allen of "RogerEbert.com" gave the film 2 out of 4, while John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" said that "more an intriguing literary conceit than a credible drama".


title: Tier list

text: A tier list is a concept in video game culture where playable characters or other in-game elements are subjectively ranked by their respective viability as part of a list. Characters listed high on a tier list of a specific game are considered to be powerful characters compared to lower-scoring characters, and are therefore more likely to be used in high-level competitive settings like tournaments. Tier lists are a popular method of classifying the cast of playable characters in fighting games such as the "Street Fighter" and "Super Smash Bros." series; multiplayer online battle arena titles such as "League of Legends" and "Dota" series; hero shooter titles such as "Overwatch" and "Apex Legends"; and action role-playing games with playable party members like "Genshin Impact".


title: Tier list

text: Tier lists have been used to rank elements from other subjects aside from video games, such as films, sports teams, logos, animals, elements of tabletop games and private housing estates. Tier lists have been a popular phenomenon on the livestreaming platform Twitch since 2015–2016.


title: Tier list

text: When a competitive game gets an update, a question that arises is how the changes in the game will affect the tier list. Even when no balancing changes actually took place, the inclusion of new characters or new systems can affect tier lists. In fighting games, the strength of a character is always held relative to that of other characters, meaning that something that is strong in one fighting game does not necessarily have to be strong in another. The metagame may shift over time as dominant strategies get overturned using less popular characters.


title: Tier list

text: Tier rankings may be listed using letter gradings. The competitive community surrounding "Guilty Gear Xrd", for instance, ranks characters as 'S', 'S-', 'A+', and 'A', where 'S tiers' are particularly powerful and 'A tiers' less so. Major video game news websites such as "The Daily Dot", "Kotaku" and "PC Gamer" have published their own tier lists for popular games. 'S' tier may stand for "Special", "Super", or the Japanese word for , and originates from the widespread use in Japanese culture of an 'S' grade for advertising and academic grading.


title: Tier list

text: For a game like "Super Smash Bros. Melee", which was released in 2001 and has not been updated since, but is still popular in tournament settings, characters originally overpowered tend to remain that way, due to their inability to receive character balancing updates. However, characters initially believed to be poor can climb in later tier lists if new techniques are discovered that improve their viability. Different versions of the game may have different tier lists as well. The website "Smashboards" bases its yearly tier lists for the "Super Smash Bros." series on polling results.


title: Tier list

text: Writing for "Kotaku", Maddy Myers noted that characters that are considered low-tier have an advantage over higher-tiered characters, as players have less experience dealing with low-tier characters and often underestimate them. Myers stated that "the element of surprise can only get you so far, but it's still an undeniable asset. And one that the bottom third of every tier list enjoys." Already popular characters may also rise in tier lists because high-level players establish and iterate on their combos and techniques. Myers also noted that tier lists are less useful in team-based games, because character roles and team composition introduce a complex set of variables.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox (Acerodon jubatus), also known as the golden-capped fruit bat, is a species of megabat endemic to the Philippines. Since its description in 1831, three subspecies of the giant golden-crowned flying fox have been recognized, one of which is extinct. The extinct subspecies ("A. jubatus lucifer") was formerly recognized as a full species, the Panay golden-crowned flying fox. Formerly, this species was placed in the genus "Pteropus"; while it is no longer within the genus, it has many physical similarities to "Pteropus" megabats. It is one of the largest bat species in the world, weighing up to —only the Indian and great flying fox can weigh more. It has the longest documented forearm length of any bat species at .


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: It is primarily frugivorous, consuming several kinds of fig and some leaves. It forages at night and sleeps during the day in tree roosts. These roosts can consist of thousands of individuals, often including another species, the large flying fox. Not much is known about its reproduction; it gives birth annually from April through June, with females having one pup at a time. Predators of the giant golden-crowned flying fox include raptors such as eagles, the reticulated python, and humans.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Owing to deforestation and poaching for bushmeat, it is an endangered species. Though national and international law makes hunting and trade of this species illegal, these regulations are inadequately enforced, meaning that the species is frequently hunted nonetheless. Even in roosts that are more stringently protected from poaching, it is still affected by human disturbance via tourists who intentionally disturb them during the day.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz. Eschscholtz placed it in the genus "Pteropus" with a scientific name of "Pteropus jubatus". Its species name ""jubatus"" is from Latin, meaning "having a mane or crest, crested". The holotype had been collected on the Philippine island of Luzon during an expedition led by Otto von Kotzebue.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The genus "Acerodon" was described six years later in 1837, with "A. jubatus" as the type species for the new genus.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: "A. jubatus lucifer" had been described as "Pteropus lucifer" in 1896 by Daniel Giraud Elliot. "A. jubatus lucifer", commonly the Panay golden-crowned flying fox, is still sometimes considered an extinct species of megabat. A 1998 publication noted that there were no morphological differences that distinguish "A. jubatus lucifer" from "A. jubatus". This publication was used by "Mammal Species of the World" and the IUCN as justification as listing "A. jubatus lucifer" as a subspecies of "A. jubatus" rather than as a full species.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Overall, the giant golden-crowned flying fox is similar in appearance to many "Pteropus" species. It is different in its smaller canine teeth and its larger and more complex molars and premolars. Its upper incisors are slightly longer than "Pteropus" species, as well as sharper. Its four lower incisors have a greater disparity in length between the inner and outer pair than do "Pteropus". Its dental formula is for a total of 34 teeth.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox is one of the largest bat species in the world. It is among the heaviest of all bat species, with individuals weighing up to . The only bat species known to weigh more than the giant golden-crowned flying fox are the Indian flying fox ("Pteropus medius") and great flying fox ("Pteropus neohibernicus"), with a maximum weight of and respectively. It has the longest forearm length of any species, measuring up to . The great flying fox has a slightly shorter forearm length, and its wingspan is thus presumed to be lesser as well. The wingspan of the Indian flying fox is up to , while the giant golden-crowned flying fox has a wingspan of . This species is somewhat dimorphic, with males slightly larger than females in many cranial and external measurements.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox gets its common name from its fur coloration. It has golden coloration that begins between its eyes and terminates to a narrow "V" shape at the nape of its neck, though sometimes extending to the upper shoulders.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The sides of its face, brows, and throat are black, while the sides of its neck and upper back are maroon; this maroon fur transitions into brownish black, which then grades into reddish brown down the back. On its ventral (belly) side, its fur is generally black, though the front of the neck may have a maroon tinge and its belly may be interspersed with yellow hairs. Its hindlimbs are covered with brownish black fur, and its flight membranes are pale brown.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox is largely frugivorous, though it also consumes plant leaves (folivorous). One study found that it is particularly dependent on "Ficus" fruits (figs), with "Ficus" seeds found in 79% of all fecal pellets. Especially common "Ficus" seeds were from the "Urostigma" subgenus (which includes "Ficus" species commonly referred to as banyan), as well as "Ficus variegata".


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The results support that the primary food group is composed of fig species, including "Ficus subcordata" and unidentified leaves. There is a lack of consensus on whether items found frequently in the fecal samples are actually prioritized or found as an alternative food for these bats.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Multiple types of figs can also contribute to different nutrients for the species. Frugivorous bats usually do not consume foods rich in protein. The overconsumption of fruits, paired with leaves may contribute to an adequate amount of protein in their diet. Figs are superior sources of calcium, which may also aid in their growth to adults.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Like nearly all megabats, giant golden-crowned flying foxes cannot echolocate, and thus rely on sight to navigate. This species likely commutes long distances between its roost and foraging grounds. Individuals who roosted on the island of Maripipi, for example, were documented traveling more than to access sites on another island, Biliran.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Giant golden-crowned flying foxes are nocturnal, sleeping for most of the day. They do engage in some social and maintenance behaviors during the day at times, with solitary behaviors such as self-grooming, excreting waste, and wing flapping more prevalent in the afternoon and social behaviors such as fighting and mating in the morning. It forms harmonious mixed species colonies with another megabat, the large flying fox ("Pteropus vampyrus"). When time to leave the roosts for nightly foraging, the two species will head in the same direction. In the 1920s, colonies of these two species would number as many as 120,000 individuals. As of 1992, the largest of these colonies was 5,000; many comprised only several hundred individuals.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The litter size is one individual, with females likely producing no more than one litter per year. It has also been speculated that females may only give birth every other year. Based on limited observation, it is thought that females may not reach sexual maturity until two years of age. On Negros Island, females gave birth in April or May; based on other observations, females likely give birth during this time across its range. On the island of Maripipi, young were born in late May and June.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox is impacted by ectoparasites (external parasites) including "Cyclopodia horsfieldi", which is a species of fly in the family Nycteribiidae ("bat flies"). It is preyed on by several raptors including the Philippine eagle, white-bellied sea eagle, and possibly the Brahminy kite. Non-avian predators include the reticulated python and humans.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Like many bat species, the giant golden-crowned flying fox has been investigated as a source of emerging infectious disease. One study tested for the presence Reston virus, a kind of "Ebolavirus" that affects some primates (though not humans), in a population of giant golden-crowned flying foxes at Subic Bay. Of fifty-six individuals tested for Reston virus, three were seropositive, meaning that they tested positive for antibodies against the virus.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox is endemic to the Philippines; it was the first endemic species of that country to be described, which it was in 1831. Surveys reported in 2005 and 2011 documented this species on the islands of Bohol, Boracay, Cebu, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros and Polillo. It was formerly found on the island of Panay, though this population has been extirpated.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: It is a forest specialist, occurring mostly at elevations from sea level to . It prefers areas uninhabited by humans. A 2005 study found none in inhabited areas. The same study also revealed that these bats use river corridors called riparian zones more than originally thought, because the fig trees located near rivers are the bats' main source of food. They like to be close to agricultural fields, but only in undisturbed forest areas.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: As of 2016, the giant golden-crowned flying fox is listed as an endangered species by the IUCN. It meets the criteria for this designation because its population likely declined by more than 50% from 1986–2016. One of the largest factors in its decline is hunting for bushmeat. Its large body size means that it is an easier target than many other bats. The practice of shooting the giant golden-crowned flying fox at its roosts results in excessive mortality, as dead individuals may not fall from the tree, and wounded individuals may glide some distance before falling. Therefore, a poacher may kill as many as thirty bats to recover ten.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: The giant golden-crowned flying fox is threatened by deforestation and has completely disappeared from many islands in the Philippines, such as Panay and most of Cebu. Since 1900 the total forest coverage of the Philippines has been reduced from 70% to 20%. Less than 10% of the original lowland forest cover now remains. Negros, an island part of its range, retains only 4% of its original forest coverage.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Internationally, the giant golden-crowned flying fox is protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In 1990, two of the three subspecies ("A. j. lucifer" and "A. j. mindanensis") were included on CITES Appendix II, meaning that trade of the taxa was strictly regulated.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: In 1995, the species was placed CITES Appendix I. Appendix I is stricter than Appendix II, meaning that commercial trade of the species is only legal in exceptional circumstances.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Nationally, the species is protected by the 2001 Philippine Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act, though this law is inadequately enforced.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: While the majority of its roosts are within protected areas, illegal hunting occurs at a wide scale even within such areas. Three are largely protected in practice. On the island of Boracay, local landowners protect the roost from hunting disturbance. The local governments of Subic Bay and Mambukal protect another two roosts. Even though hunting pressures are lessened at these three roosts, the giant golden-crowned flying fox contends with other sources of disturbance. Tourists and their guides deliberately disturb the bats by clapping their hands or rapping on tree trunks to make the bats fly. In addition to keeping the bats from sleeping, these behaviors result in the separation of offspring from their mothers.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: In 2013, Bat Conservation International (BCI) listed this species as one of the 35 species of its worldwide priority list of conservation.


title: Giant golden-crowned flying fox

text: Actions that BCI has taken to promote its conservation include partnering with local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to protect its roosts, as well as educate Filipinos about bats. Some captive breeding programs exist for the species, though it is uncertain if they are sufficient to make up for population declines seen in the wild.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit (2010 video game)

text: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit is a 2010 racing video game developed by Criterion Games and published by Electronic Arts for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, Microsoft Windows, iOS, Android, webOS, and Windows Phone. The Wii version was developed by Exient Entertainment. "Hot Pursuit" is the sixteenth "Need for Speed" title and was released in November 2010, with digital distribution versions released within December 2010. This version is a reboot of "" (1998). A remastered version, titled Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit Remastered, was released on November 6, 2020, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, and on November 13, 2020, for Nintendo Switch.


text: "Hot Pursuit"s gameplay is set in the fictional Seacrest County, which is based on the American states of California, Oregon and Washington, in which players can compete in several types of races. Players can compete online (except in the Wii version), which includes additional game modes such as Hot Pursuit, Interceptor and Race. The game features a new social interaction system called "Autolog", which is a network that connects friends for head-to-head races and compares player stats for competition. The game also features paid downloadable content in the form of new cars, new race and pursuit events, and new trophies and achievements.


text: "Hot Pursuit" was well received by critics at E3 2010 and was most notably awarded with "Best Racing Game" from the 2010 Game Critics Awards as well as several other media outlets. It won several Best Racing Game awards, including Best Driving Game at the Spike 2010 Video Game Awards. The game also won a BAFTA Award for its Autolog multiplayer component.


text: "Hot Pursuit" goes back to the "Need for Speed" series' roots and takes on the gameplay style of earlier "" and "" titles in the "Need for Speed" franchise with exotic cars and high-speed police chases. "Hot Pursuit" lets players be either a racer or a police driver, and features a full career mode for both roles. The relationship between the cops and racers is described as "a dog chasing down a rabbit"; the police being more powerful while the racers are faster. Each side has several power-ups including calling for roadblocks and radar jamming. According to Criterion the single-player section is somewhere between 12 and 15 hours long, but with much replay value.


text: The game takes place in a fictional location known as Seacrest County based on Southern California, Arizona, and Colorado. It's an open world and features over of open road, four times larger than that of "Burnout Paradise", Criterion's previous title. "Hot Pursuit" features a new social interaction system called "Autolog" which is described as "Facebook for the game". The game features both single-player and multiplayer game modes with up to eight players; as an option to live multiplayer racing, players can post records and achievements on the Autolog feed for friends to see, which they then can try to beat. Autolog also contains an experience system called "Bounty". As of July 2012, the Web Dashboard for Autolog was shut down for all games, except "".


text: The driving mode of the game is described as "fun, accessible, okay", however not as arcade-styled as "Burnout Paradise", but far from a simulator. All vehicles in "Hot Pursuit" are licensed real-world cars and SUVs, described as "all the cars you dreamed of driving, in the way you dreamed of driving them".


text: Most vehicles are available in both racer and police variants, but a few cars are exclusive to each side. Also exclusively featured in the "Hot Pursuit" is the Porsche 918 Spyder concept. Ferrari automobiles however, last seen in a "" DLC-pack but notably absent from all other "Need for Speed" games since "", are also absent from "Hot Pursuit". There is no car customization or tuning, other than color changing, "just because the game really focuses on the "Hot Pursuit" element." Unlike previous "Need for Speed" games which use unbranded, fictional models, real cars like the Audi A4, Chevrolet Cobalt, Porsche Cayenne, Nissan Frontier, and Ram 1500 are used as traffic cars.


text: The Wii version of "Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit" has very little in common with its Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Windows counterparts. This version was designed by a different company (Exient Entertainment), and was a completely different game in nearly every virtual aspect: graphics, soundtrack, racing modes, gameplay, and customization. Some reviewers cited that the Wii version showed stark similarities to a previous "Need for Speed" installment, "". This version takes place in four real-life cities across the world, as opposed to the fictional Seacrest County in the other versions. The four cities, each set in a different time of day — Chongqing, China, set in the morning, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, set in the afternoon, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, set in the early evening, and Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, which is set in the late evening.


text: In Career mode, there are 4 super-tournaments (each city) and a Grand Prix Tournament. Each super-tournament consists of four smaller tournaments, which consist of Hot Pursuit (circuit with cops), Eliminator (knockout), Time Marker (solo timed circuit) and Rush Hour (100 to 1) races. Each super tournament concludes with a Boss Race, which is a free roam race (with GPS) to capture more of the checkpoint flags than the Boss (2 out of 3, etc.). Besides Career, the game offers Quick Race mode, which allows up to four players on split screens, each with their own map, and the four race types from Career plus a fifth, "Interceptor" (be a cop & bust a speeder).


text: The cars, purchased with Bounty, improve in speed, acceleration, and strength (D, C, B, A, and S Class cars, plus police vehicles in the Quick Race's "Interceptor" race). Racers do not have names, just the Career/Profile names. During the race, players can accumulate and use regular nitro and super nitro (more powerful but shorter), similar to "". Power-ups/"Supes" are acquired while driving: Boost (extra nitro), Drain (others' nitro), Cruise Control (brief auto-steering), Deflect The Heat (send police after opponents), Jammer (invisibility to police), Tank (resistance to crash damage), Soundwave (circular explosion), and Repair (immediate car restoration). Repair is the most important, as players' car must be in a good condition to accumulate Nitro and be immune from being busted by the cops.


text: A complex yet extensive range of visual customization options is available, including body kits, wheels, and a full range of colors & vinyls, including freehand drawing ability. The most obvious difference is that the graphics and racing physics in this version are completely different from the other versions, giving it a retro look and feel reminiscent of much older pre-GameCube or "Mario Kart" type games.