title: Srimanthudu

text: "Srimanthudu" was released in 2500 screens worldwide. While the Central Board of Film Certification passed the film in India with a 'U/A' certificate without any cuts, the British Board of Film Classification rated it '12A' and suggested a compulsory removal of a four-second long visual of rooster fighting as per the Cinematograph Films (Animals) Act 1937. It was also released in Santiago, the capital of Chile, thus becoming the first Indian film to be screened in a Latin American country.


title: Srimanthudu

text: Classic Entertainments acquired the overseas distribution rights of the film in late February 2015, for an amount of 81 million, which was the highest price that any Telugu film had commanded in the overseas market until then. By the second week of June 2015, distribution rights for most of the regions were sold out while negotiations for a few were ongoing. Global Cinemas, Aditya films, and Vintage creations acquired the distribution rights of the Nizam, West and East Godavari regions for 14.5 crore, 3.25 crore, and 3.43 crore respectively.


title: Srimanthudu

text: At the same time, 14 Reels Entertainment and Devi films were in talks with the makers for the rights of Krishna and Ceded regions, respectively while 'S' Creations was expected to acquire the Guntur region rights for an amount of 44.25 crore. However, a press release on 19 June 2015 stated that Abhishek Pictures had acquired the theatrical distribution rights of the Nizam region. The film's global theatrical rights were sold for a total of 59.6 crore. The theatrical rights of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and the rest of India were sold for 21 crore, 6 crore, and 2 crore respectively. Eros International acquired the film's worldwide distribution rights on 5 August 2015.


title: Srimanthudu

text: The first look poster featured Mahesh riding a Cannondale Scalpel 29 Carbon 3 bike costing approximately 3.5 lakh. The first look teaser of 60 seconds was released on 31 May 2015. The second poster featuring Mahesh was released on 14 July 2015. Another poster featuring Mahesh was released on 24 July 2015. Close-Up entered into a co-branding partnership with this film in late July 2015. A cycling rally was held on 16 August 2015 at Gachibowli, Hyderabad, where Mahesh met 2,500 cyclists as a part of the film's promotion.


title: Srimanthudu

text: Close-Up announced a "Closeup Srimanthudu Meet Mahesh Babu Contest", where Mahesh's fans were asked to give a missed call to 1800-266-2444 to enter the contest which was open from 1 August 2015 to 4 September 2015. The makers announced the auction of the cycle used by Mahesh in the film, with interested people being directed to bid for the cycle at www.iamsrimanthudu.com by donating 999. Whilst the remaining donors received a special T-shirt, G. Nageswara Reddy from Karimnagar district was announced as the winner of the cycle by the film's unit in mid-November 2015.


title: Srimanthudu

text: The global television broadcast rights were sold to Zee Telugu in late May 2015 for a high but undisclosed price, estimated to be around 12 crore. "Srimanthudu" had its global television premiere on 8 November 2015 at 6:00 pm IST. It registered a TRP rating of 21.24, the third-highest rating ever for a Telugu film after "Magadheera" (2009) and "Baahubali: The Beginning" (which registered TRP ratings of 22.00 and 21.84, respectively).


title: Srimanthudu

text: "Srimanthudu" received positive reviews from critics. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of "The Hindu" called "Srimanthudu" a "star-driven film with a strong plot that's worth a watch". Dundoo further stated, "This isn't Ashutosh Gowariker "Swades", where Shah Rukh Khan finds his true calling in a much more realistic manner. The social consciousness comes coated with commercially viable ingredients and still, makes for an engaging watch". Sify called "Srimanthudu" a "right mix of Mahesh's emotional and class performance, Shruthi's charisma, fine storyline and all materials that are needed for a good entertainer". The reviewer appreciated Siva for not writing a separate comedy track to distract from the story. Karthik Pasupulate of "The Times of India" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, "You could say this movie is Mahesh Babu's "Swades" (the 2004 SRK film) albeit a little dumbed down. Or a "Mirchi" (the Prabhas film) rehashed. Yet there can be no denying that "Srimanthudu" achieves more than any big ticket Tollywood potboiler has in more in that last decade , for the simple reason that it is a drama made like one." Sethumadhavan N of the "Bangalore Mirror" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, "Make no mistake, "Srimanthudu" is certainly a big commercial entertainer and has most of the elements needed for the same. But to deliver a total commercial which doesn't have a great plot and yet remaining engaging all the way isn't easy at all. That is where the writing by Siva emerges triumphant." Suresh Kavirayani of "Deccan Chronicle" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, "Though there are a few hiccups, "Srimanthudu" is a good emotional drama with excellent performance by Mahesh Babu, supported by good content with neat dialogues". Hemanth Kumar C. R. of "Outlook India" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and stated, "In an industry where weaving a story to suit the image of an A-list star is common, Mahesh Babu's latest, "Srimanthudu", takes a different course. The film might lack a big-starrer firepower, but by letting go of such conventions, what we get in the end is a sensible film full of heart and humanity." IndiaGlitz rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and called "Srimanthudu" a "family entertainer with mass appeal, thanks to Mahesh's understated acting" and added, "Koratala Shiva doesn't really unleash a "Mirchi"-fied Mahesh Babu even in the second half. All throughout, the billionaire "Srimanthudu" maintains his composure even when he has to turn into a 'hanthakudu'. Things are so understated that the fight-to-finish itself looks half-done."


title: Srimanthudu

text: Karthik Keramalu of IBNLive rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and stated "All in all, "Srimanthudu" is a notch above the so-so model of commercial films. It'd have been neater had the gap between the intent and the content of the film narrowed down further". Behindwoods rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and stated, "Overall, "Srimanthudu" is a usual family entertainer presented in a style of its own. It is highly entertaining at points and keeps the attention of the audience intact with the show master, Mahesh Babu's magic." Kirubhakar Purushothaman of "India Today" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and wrote, "There are many cliches throughout the story, but still "Srimanthudu" manages to hold your attention. Though "Srimanthudu" has failed to serve anything new, he is rich and complete. When the film ends, everyone in the film is happy. As are Mahesh Babu's fans." Suhas Yellapuntala of "The New Indian Express" wrote, "The director showcases power, greed, corruption as well as regression, hope and agony, in equal measure. However, while Mahesh Babu effortlessly sails through the movie, "Srimanthudu" is clichéd, unimaginative and stretched beyond its potential". He added, ""Srimanthudu" would have made for much better viewing if it had been cut shorter by about half an hour. At the end of it, watching the film becomes an endurance rather than an experience".


title: Srimanthudu

text: "Selvandhan", the film’s Tamil dubbed version too received positive responses. "Indiaglitz" ,reviewing the Tamil version gave 3 out of 5 stating that "On the whole, "Selvandhan" is a commendable family entertainer with enough mass elements."Behindwoods" gave 2.75 out of 5 stars stating that the film is a fulfilling outing for all the fans of Mahesh Babu. Avinash Gopinath of "Filmbeat" gave 3 out of 5 stars stating that


title: Srimanthudu

text: "It is a Mahesh Babu show all the way and the actor has done complete justice to his role. Maybe it's the selection of scripts he needs to concentrate more on if he desires to take up more challenging roles. Shruti Haasan has managed to bag a role of substance and has delivered the goods and yet some refinement is needed when it comes to her acting skills. Supporting actors and actresses have done their part neatly and Jagapati Babu earns himself a special mention for his realistic portrayal of a rich father. Though the film is highly entertaining with good action sequences and dialogues, it doesn't have enough to keep the audience hooked throughout. Both first and second half lacks pace and songs by Devi Sri Prasad only acts as a speed breaker. He scores through his background music and makes up for his lacklustre songs. Real winner in Selvandhan is its cinematographer R. Madhi, for he has used specific colors to match the feel of each and every scene. His angles though are pretty straight forward. Editor Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao could've used his scissors more efficiently as 2 hours 45 minutes is a touch too long even for a Mahesh Babu starrer. Overall apart from its entertaining qualities, what really works in "Selvandhan" is its interesting script which might put this movie in the winners list."


title: Srimanthudu

text: Registering an occupancy of 200% across the globe on its first day, "Srimanthudu" collected approximately a distributor share of 200cr at the AP/Nizam box office and 50cr from Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, the rest of India and overseas markets, taking its first day global total share to 350cr. With this, it managed to break the records set by "Attarintiki Daredi" (2013) and "S/O Satyamurthy" (2015) and became the second-highest Telugu film opener of the year. Trade analyst Trinath told Indo-Asian News Service that the first day global gross stood at 310 million.


title: Srimanthudu

text: The film grossed 1000 million on its second day at the global box office, taking its two-day global total gross to 5000 million. With this, it became the second-fastest Telugu film of the year after "Baahubali: The Beginning" to do so. The film managed to collect a total net of {2000million and a distributor share of 1000million in two days at the global box office. The film grossed 250 million on its third day, taking its three-day global total gross to 750 million, thus breaking the records set by Telugu films other than "Baahubali: The Beginning". The film grossed a total of 1.0125 billion in its first week at the global box office.


title: Srimanthudu

text: The film grossed 220 million in its second weekend, taking its ten-day global total gross to 1.23 billion. The net and share figures for the ten days stood at 980 million and 826.3 million, respectively. The film grossed 150 million during the weekdays, taking its second week total to 370 million and two-week global total gross to 1.38 billion. The two-week global net and distributor share figures stood at 1.1 billion and 900 million, respectively. Witnessing a decline of 50% in its trade due to new releases, the film grossed 180 million in its third week, taking its three-week global total gross to 1.56 billion, thus becoming the fourth highest grossing south Indian film of all time. The two-week global net and distributor share figures stood at 1.25 billion and 960 million, respectively.


title: Srimanthudu

text: Witnessing a further drop of 50% in its trade, the film grossed 95 million in its fourth week, taking its 28-day global total gross to 1.655 billion. On 25 September 2015, it completed a 50-day run in 185 centres, which was considered a record. It also completed its 100-day run in 15 centres on 14 November 2015. "Srimanthudu" grossed more than 2 billion in its lifetime run at the global box office, and was declared the second-highest grossing Telugu film ever.


title: Srimanthudu

text: "Srimanthudu" collected approximately US$0.5 million from 117 locations on Thursday premiere shows held in the United States. The film collected US$1,753,698 (111.8 million) from about 150 screens at the United States box office in two days, which Taran Adarsh called an "impressive" start. By the end of its first weekend, "Srimanthudu" collected a total of US$2.1 million at the United States box office and became the second-highest grossing Telugu film of all time in the country. It also became the second Telugu film to cross the US$2 million mark, after "Baahubali: The Beginning".


title: Srimanthudu

text: In its second weekend, "Srimanthudu" collected US$342,010 from 102 screens at the United States box office thus taking its ten-day total to US$2,654,658 (173.5 million). In ten days, the film collected US$8,036 (0.52 million) from two screens at the Canada box office and approximately 70 million at the United Arab Emirates box office. In its second weekend, "Srimanthudu" collected 4,764 from two screens in Malaysia, taking its ten-day total to 15,178 (0.24 million). With this, it became the second-highest grossing Telugu film in the international market by collecting a total of approximately US$3,735,139 (242.2 million).


title: Srimanthudu

text: In its third weekend, "Srimanthudu" stood at the second place in the Indian films at the United States box office. It collected US$94,498 (6.257 million) from 46 screens. The United States box office total stood at US$2,820,214 (188 million), which was considered quite a remarkable achievement for a South Indian film. After losing 49% of screens due to new releases, "Srimanthudu" collected US$27,647 from 24 screens in its fourth weekend. The United States box office total stood at US$2,869,560 (190.7 million). By then, the film's screening had ended in Canada, the United Arab Emirates, and other key international markets. "Srimanthudu" lost eighteen screens to "Bhale Bhale Magadivoy" and other new releases, thus witnessing a drop of 75% in its business. Collecting US$7,538 from six screens, the film's 31-day United States box office total stood at US$2,882,809 (192.6 million), with a per-screen average of US$1,256.


title: Srimanthudu

text: After the release of the movie, "Srimanthudu", police officers and district level officers adopted 523 and 606 panchayats, respectively, in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, which "Deccan Herald" called a feat that India's prime minister Narendra Modi Saansad Adarsh Gram scheme had failed to do. Actors, bureaucrats, and politicians also announced plans to develop the backward villages. Mahesh adopted his father Krishna native village Burripalem, a minor panchayat in Tenali, and announced a plan to address basic needs of the community such as potable drinking water and better roads and drainage systems. After discussing with Telangana's then Rural Development minister K. T. Rama Rao, Mahesh decided to adopt Siddhapuram, a village in Mahabubnagar district. After the film's release, many of Mahesh's fans began using eco-friendly modes of transportation.


title: Srimanthudu

text: According to Y. Sunita Chowdary of "The Hindu", "Srimanthudu" success "heralded the acceptance of new stories and a rejection of template comedies that have been recycled for over ten years". Similarly, writer Kona Venkat stated, "People are ready to encourage new subjects, as it was proved with "Srimanthudu". There are no comic scenes in the film and it runs purely on story and was successful". Celebrities such as Manchu Vishnu, Nithin, Harish Shankar, Gopimohan and others praised the film. Director S. S. Rajamouli opined that "Srimanthudu" success lies in the "clever mixture of village adoption with family sentiment", adding that Mahesh "looks cool, acts subtle, talks mellow" and the overall effect is "flabbergasting". Director Ram Gopal Varma said that "Srimanthudu" proved that impact "doesn't only come from 100 of crores and 100 days of shooting" and "a simple story and plain closeups of Mahesh can too". Kamal Haasan called "Srimanthudu" a "classic Telugu commercial masala" film and a "complete, satisfying entertainer".


title: Splatoon

text: The first game in the series, "Splatoon", was released for the Wii U in May 2015. A sequel, "Splatoon 2", was released for the Nintendo Switch in July 2017, followed by an expansion pack, "Octo Expansion", in June 2018. The series has received positive reviews for its style, gameplay mechanics and soundtrack, with the first two games in the series having been nominated and awarded several year-end accolades from various gaming publications. The series has sold over 18 million copies. A third game, "Splatoon 3", was released on 9 September 2022.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon" has spawned numerous collaborations with third-party companies and established its own esports tournament circuit in 2018. It has spawned a manga series as well as holographic music concerts in Japan.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon" was developed for the Wii U by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development. It originally consisted of a four-versus-four ink-based territory control game set in a featureless arena. The game was subsequently developed to incorporate squid-like creatures, now called Inklings, which could switch between humanoid and squid forms in order to be able to hold weapons as a humanoid, while being able to hide or swim through ink as a squid. In 2014, "Splatoon" was revealed during a Nintendo Direct video presentation at E3 2014, and a playable demo version was made available on the show floor. Subsequently, a time-limited multiplayer demo, the "Global Testfire", was made available on 8, 9 and 23 May 2015. The game was seen as a surprising reveal as Nintendo unveiled a new IP during the underperformance of the Wii U. The full game was released globally between 28 and 30 May 2015 and included a single-player story campaign mode as well as several online multiplayer modes.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon 2" was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Planning & Development for the Nintendo Switch and was announced in January 2017. It takes place approximately two years after the events of the final Splatfest in the first game, an in-game festival event where players voted for one of the two protagonists, the Squid Sisters, and fought it out by playing a series of turf war matches. It was later revealed that the results of the Splatfest directly influenced the story of "Splatoon 2".


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon 2" features a redesigned user interface due to the lack of the Wii U GamePad's touch screen, and includes new maps, weapons and abilities. A new player versus environment mode known as "Salmon Run" was introduced along with a new competitive multiplayer mode called "Clam Blitz" added in December 2017.


title: Splatoon

text: In March 2017, a ""Splatoon 2" Global Testfire" event was made available. A second demo which featured the in-game festival Splatfest was released on 15 July 2017. The full game was subsequently released on 21 July 2017. "SplatNet 2", a service contained within the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app was released which allows players to view their in-game statistics, earn digital wallpapers by completing challenges, and communicate with other players through voice chat.


title: Splatoon

text: During a Nintendo Direct in March 2018, Nintendo announced "", a paid downloadable content (DLC) expansion, which features a new single-player campaign and a new playable race of cephalopod known as Octolings. The DLC was made available globally on 13 June 2018. On 22 April 2022, the same day as the "Splatoon 3" release date trailer, the DLC was added as a benefit to members of the Switch Online Expansion Pass.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon 3" was announced in a Nintendo Direct on 17 February 2021. It was released on 9 September 2022, as confirmed by a trailer on 22 April 2022 and was being developed by Nintendo Entertainment Planning & Development. An early-access demo titled ""Splatoon 3": Splatfest World Premiere" was held on 27 August 2022 with a rock-paper-scissors theme. In addition, the Nintendo Switch Online app includes "SplatNet 3" with in-game stats, voice chat, and many more.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatfests" are special, monthly recurring in-game festival events that take place in the games, where players are asked a question and pick a team based on the answer that they chose. For example, players could be asked to pick between mayonnaise or ketchup, or if they prefer using a fork or a spoon. Similarly to the first game, "Splatoon 2" features Splatfest events that include crossovers with other brands, both from other Nintendo properties such as "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" and "Super Mario", and third-party franchises including Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, McDonald’s, Uniqlo, Nike, Sanrio, Meiji, Pocky, and NPB. For "Splatoon 3", there are three sides to choose from and just like in the first two games, crossover Splatfest events will be included with other Nintendo franchises such as "Pokémon" and third-party franchises.


title: Splatoon

text: Players then play a series of turf war matches and contribute scores to the side they picked. A scoring system decides the winning side based on the overall score of those who played. Although all Splatfests in "Splatoon 2" ended in July 2019, themes have been repeated since then, and a Splatfest with a unique theme, "Super Mushroom vs. Super Star", happened from 15 to 17 January 2021 in celebration of the Super Mario 35th Anniversary.


title: Splatoon

text: Due to the polarizing nature of the choices offered during Splatfests, the themes themselves tend to be the subject of media attention. The themes range from preference questionnaires (e.g. cats vs. dogs, arts vs. sciences), to paradoxes (e.g. chicken or the egg), or sometimes be part of a real-life corporate partnership or sponsorship with Nintendo (such as a "Transformers"-themed Splatfest with Hasbro, the "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and "SpongeBob SquarePants"-themed ones with Nickelodeon, or one with McDonald's).


title: Splatoon

text: In most Splatfests, the outcome tends to only affect the player's level of in-game reward at the end of the event and typically have no impact on the overall playability of the game. However, the exception to this is the last Splatfest of each game, which has marked the end of developer support for the game. It was revealed that the outcome of the last Splatfest in "Splatoon" affected the story mode of "Splatoon 2", in which the losing protagonist Callie became an antagonist. This was later confirmed by a developer after "Splatoon 3"'s theme and setting seemed to be based off of the winner of "Splatoon 2"'s final Splatfest, "Chaos vs. Order".


title: Splatoon

text: Between January 2016 and March 2017, two webcomic series based on "Splatoon" appeared in Enterbrain's "Weekly Famitsu" magazine: "Honobono Ika 4koma" illustrated by Kino Takahashi, and "Play Manga" by various doujin writers. The comics were published by Kadokawa Future Publishing on 15 June 2017.


title: Splatoon

text: A "Splatoon" manga series illustrated by Sankichi Hinodeya began serialization in Shogakukan's "CoroCoro Comic" magazine in February 2016, following a one-shot published in "CoroCoro" in May 2015. The licensing rights to publish the manga in North America was later acquired by Viz Media in 2017. In July 2017, a motion comic adaptation of the manga was announced and then released on "CoroCoro" YouTube channel the following month. As of February 2018, the manga has over 800,000 copies in print and the series is currently ongoing.


title: Splatoon

text: In April 2017, a manga series illustrated by titled "Splatoon: Squid Kids Comedy Show" was published in "Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic". It was also later acquired by Viz Media, who translated and published the series in North America.


title: Splatoon

text: In the universe of "Splatoon", the game's protagonists, the Squid Sisters, Off The Hook, and Deep Cut, are fictional popstars which create and perform the music as heard within the games. As a result, a series of real-life virtual concerts featuring holograms of the game's protagonists have been held at various locations.


title: Splatoon

text: In 2016, a concert tour known as "Squid Sisters Live" was held commemorating the sale of 1 million copies of "Splatoon". The concerts have taken place at Niconico Tokaigi, Chokaigi and Niconico Cho Party in Japan, and the Japan Expo in Paris. Similarly, concert tours featuring "Splatoon 2"s Off the Hook was held months after the game's release since 2018. Recordings from the concerts have been made into albums.


title: Splatoon

text: An official soundtrack, "Splatune", was released by Enterbrain in Japan on 21 October 2015. The soundtrack to the sequel, "Splatune 2", and another for the Octo Expansion, "Octotune", released on 29 November 2017 and 18 July 2018 respectively. Deep Cut, introduced in "Splatoon 3", performed live for the first time in Japan on 9 October 2022.


title: Splatoon

text: Due to the availability of competitive game modes in "Splatoon", competitive esports tournaments with sponsored prizing have been held as early as 2016 in Japan.


title: Splatoon

text: With the release of "Splatoon 2", Nintendo established the "Splatoon 2 World Championships" and began hosting competitive tournaments in 2018. Teams of four compete in a series of online qualifiers or live tournaments to earn invitations to play at the World Championships, which are played at the Nintendo World Championships alongside other Nintendo games such as "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate". The event is typically held during Nintendo's E3 events and livestreamed.


title: Splatoon

text: Games in the "Splatoon" series have been generally well-received, and its unique gameplay has been credited as a successful reinvention of the third-person shooter genre. The first two games in the series have been nominated and won numerous awards from various gaming publications and organizations.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon" won Best Shooter and Best Multiplayer at The Game Awards 2015, and was nominated for awards in Game Innovation, Multiplayer and Original Property at the 12th British Academy Games Awards. It received the award for Best Family Game and Best Nintendo Game at the 33rd Golden Joystick Awards The Japan Game Awards labeled it as Game of the Year for 2015 as did the British Academy Children's Awards.


title: Splatoon

text: "Splatoon 2" was nominated for Best Family Game and Best Multiplayer at The Game Awards 2017, as well as an award in Multiplayer at the 14th British Academy Games Awards. It was nominated for Best Multiplayer Game and Nintendo Game of the Year at the 35th Golden Joystick Awards. The game received an Excellence Reward for Game Design at CEDEC 2018.


title: Splatoon

text: Characters from "Splatoon" such as the Inklings have appeared in other Nintendo games, such as "Super Mario Maker" on the Wii U and "Mario Kart 8 Deluxe" and "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" on the Nintendo Switch. "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" additionally features a playable stage, Moray Towers, 26 music tracks, and an Assist Trophy based on the Squid Sisters. A crossover event between "Splatoon 2" and "" occurred in September 2018. In July 2019, a "Splatoon 2" theme was made available in "Tetris 99" to commemorate "Splatoon 2"s "Final Fest" Splatfest on 18 July 2019.


title: Splatoon

text: The NES Zapper, which appears in all three games as a usable weapon, has become a popular collectible item following its inclusion.


title: Kaffir lime

text: Citrus hystrix, called the kaffir lime or makrut lime, (, ) is a citrus fruit native to tropical Southeast Asia.


title: Kaffir lime

text: Its fruit and leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisine, and its essential oil is used in perfumery. Its rind and crushed leaves emit an intense citrus fragrance.


title: Kaffir lime

text: "Kaffir" is thought to ultimately derive from the Arabic "kafir", meaning "infidel", though the mechanism by which it came to be applied to the lime is uncertain. Following the takeover of the Swahili coast, Muslims used the term to refer to the non-Muslim indigenous Africans, who were increasingly abducted for the Indian Ocean slave trade, which reached a height in the fifteenth and sixteenth century.


title: Kaffir lime

text: The most likely etymology is through the Kaffirs, an ethnic group in Sri Lanka partly descended from enslaved Bantu. The earliest known reference, under the alternative spelling "caffre" is in the 1888 book "The Cultivated Oranges, Lemons Etc. of India and Ceylon" by Emanuel Bonavia, who notes, "The plantation coolies also smear it over their feet and legs, to keep off land leeches; and therefore in Ceylon [Sri Lanka] it has also got the name of "Kudalu dchi", or Leech Lime. Europeans call it Caffre Lime." Similarly, H.F. MacMillan's 1910 book "A Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Planting" notes, "The 'Kaffir Lime' in Ceylon."


title: Kaffir lime

text: Another proposed etymology is directly by Indian Muslims of the imported fruit from the non-Muslim lands to the east to "convey otherness and exotic provenance." Claims that the name of the fruit derives directly from the South African ethnic slur "kaffir" "(see "Name" below)" are not well supported.


title: Kaffir lime

text: The micrantha, a similar citrus fruit native to the Philippines that is ancestral to several hybrid limes, such as the Key lime and Persian lime, may represent the same species as "C. hystrix", but the genomic characterization of the kaffir lime has not been performed in sufficient detail to allow a definitive conclusion.


title: Kaffir lime

text: In South Africa, the Arabic "kafir" was adopted by White colonialists as "kaffir," an ethnic slur for black African people. Consequently, some authors favour switching from "kaffir lime" to "makrut lime," a less well-known name, while in South Africa, it is usually referred to as "Thai lime."


title: Kaffir lime

text: "C. hystrix" is a thorny bush, tall, with aromatic and distinctively shaped "double" leaves. These hourglass-shaped leaves comprise the leaf blade plus a flattened, leaf-like stalk (or petiole). The fruit is rough and green and ripens to yellow; it is distinguished by its bumpy exterior and small size, approximately wide.


title: Kaffir lime

text: Pierre Sonnerat (1748–1814) collected specimens of it in 1771-72, and it appears in Lamarck's Encyclopédie Méthodique (1796).


title: Kaffir lime

text: Kaffir lime appears in texts under the name of kaffir lime in 1868, in Ceylon, where rubbing the juice onto legs and socks prevents leech bites. This could be a possible origin of the name leech lime.


title: Kaffir lime

text: "C. hystrix" leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisines such as Indonesian, Laotian, Cambodian, and Thai. The leaves are the most frequently used part of the plant, fresh, dried, or frozen. The leaves are widely used in Thai (for dishes such as tom yum) and Cambodian cuisine (for the base paste "krueng"). The leaves are used in Vietnamese cuisine to add fragrance to chicken dishes and to decrease the pungent odor when steaming snails. The leaves are used in Indonesian cuisine (especially Balinese cuisine and Javanese cuisine) for foods such as soto ayam and are used along with Indonesian bay leaf for chicken and fish. They are also found in Malaysian and Burmese cuisines.


title: Kaffir lime

text: The rind (peel) is commonly used in Lao and Thai curry paste, adding an aromatic, astringent flavor. The zest of the fruit, referred to as combava, is used in creole cuisine to impart flavor in infused rums and rougails in Mauritius, Réunion, and Madagascar. In Cambodia, the entire fruit is crystallized/candied for eating.


title: Kaffir lime

text: The juice and rinds of the peel are used in traditional medicine in some Asian countries; the fruit's juice is often used in shampoo and is believed to kill head lice.


title: Kaffir lime

text: The juice is used as a cleanser for clothing and hair in Thailand and occasionally in Cambodia. Lustral water mixed with slices of the fruit is used in religious ceremonies in Cambodia.


title: Kaffir lime

text: Kaffir lime oil is used as raw material in many fields, including pharmaceutical, agronomic, food, sanitary, cosmetic, and perfume industries. It is also used extensively in aromatherapy and as an essential ingredient in various cosmetic and beauty products.


title: Kaffir lime

text: "C. hystrix" is grown worldwide in suitable climates as a garden shrub for home fruit production. It is well suited to container gardens and for large garden pots on patios, terraces, and in conservatories.


title: Kaffir lime

text: The compound responsible for the characteristic aroma was identified as (–)-("S")-citronellal, which is contained in the leaf oil up to 80 percent; minor components include citronellol (10 percent), nerol and limonene.


title: Kaffir lime

text: From a stereochemical point of view, it is remarkable that kaffir lime leaves contain only the ("S") stereoisomer of citronellal, whereas its enantiomer, (+)-("R")-citronellal is found in both lemon balm and (to a lesser degree) lemon grass, (however, citronellal is only a trace component in the latter's essential oil).


title: Kaffir lime

text: Kaffir lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil; its main components are limonene and β-pinene.


title: Kaffir lime

text: "C. hystrix" contains significant quantities of furanocoumarins, in both the peel and the pulp. Furanocoumarins are known to cause phytophotodermatitis, a potentially severe skin inflammation. Cases of phytophotodermatitis induced by external use of "C. hystrix" have been reported.


title: Path of Exile

text: Path of Exile is a free-to-play action role-playing video game developed and published by Grinding Gear Games. Following an open beta phase, the game was released for Microsoft Windows in October 2013. A version for Xbox One was released in August 2017, and a PlayStation 4 version was released in March 2019.


title: Path of Exile

text: "Path of Exile" takes place in the dark fantasy world, where the government of the island nation of Oriath exiles people to the continent of Wraeclast, a ruined continent home to many ancient gods. Taking control of an exile, players can choose to play as one of seven character classes – Marauder, Duelist, Ranger, Shadow, Witch, Templar, and Scion. Players are then tasked with fighting their way back to Oriath, defeating ancient gods and great evils during their journey.


title: Path of Exile

text: The player controls a single character from an overhead perspective and explores large outdoor areas and caves or dungeons, battling monsters and fulfilling quests from non-player characters (NPCs) to gain experience points and equipment. The game borrows heavily from the "Diablo" series, particularly "Diablo II", which "Path of Exile" has been described as the spiritual successor of. All areas aside from the central encampments are procedurally generated for increased re-playability. While all players on a single server can freely mingle in encampments, gameplay outside of encampments is highly instanced, providing every player or party with an isolated map to freely explore.


title: Path of Exile

text: Players can choose from seven available classes to play as (Duelist, Marauder, Ranger, Scion, Shadow, Templar and Witch). Each of these classes are aligned with one or two of the three core attributes: Strength, Dexterity, or Intelligence. The exception is the Scion, formerly a locked prestige class released in 2013, which is aligned with all three attributes. The different classes are not restricted from investing into skills not aligned with their core attributes, but will have easier access to skills that are aligned with their core attributes. Items are randomly generated from a wide variety of basic types and endowed with special properties and gem sockets. They come in different rarities with increasingly powerful properties. This makes a large part of gameplay dedicated to finding well-balanced and synergistic equipment. Skill gems can be placed in gem sockets of armor, weapons and some types of rings, giving them an active skill. As the character advances and levels up, the equipped skill gems also gain experience, allowing the skills themselves to level up and increase in potency.


title: Path of Exile

text: Active skills can be modified by items known as Support Gems. Depending upon the number of linked sockets the player possesses, a primary attack or skill can be modified with increased attack speed, faster projectiles, multiple projectiles, chaining hits, life leech, auto-cast spells on critical strike, and more. Given limits on the number of sockets, players must prioritize gem usage. All classes share the same selection of 1,325 passive skills, from which the player can choose one each time their character levels up, and as an occasional quest reward. These passive skills improve the core attributes and grant further enhancements such as increased Mana, Health, damage, defenses, regeneration, speed, and more. Each one of the characters start on a different position on the passive skill tree. The passive skill tree is arranged in a complex network starting in separate trunks for each class (aligned with the permutations of the three core attributes). The player must therefore not only focus on maximizing all modifiers related to their primary offense and defense, but must also take care to select the most efficient path through the passive skill tree. As of the 3.0 "Fall of Oriath" Release, the maximum possible number of passive skill points was 123 (99 from leveling and 24 from quest rewards). Each class also has access to an Ascendancy class, which grants much stronger, specialized bonuses. Each class has three Ascendancy classes to choose from, except for the Scion, who only has one Ascendancy class that combines the elements of all other Ascendancy classes. Up to 8 Ascendancy skill points can be assigned out of 12 or 14.


title: Path of Exile

text: "Path of Exile" is unusual among action role-playing games in that there is no in-game currency. The game's economy is based on bartering "currency items." Unlike traditional game currencies, these items have their own inherent uses (such as upgrading an item's rarity level, rerolling affixes, or improving an item's quality) and thus provide their own money sinks to prevent inflation. Most of these items are used to modify and upgrade equipment, though some identify items, create portals to town or grant skill refund points.


title: Path of Exile

text: Other leagues are usually designed for specific events. They have their own set of rules, item accessibility and aftermath. These rules widely vary depending on the league. For example, timed "Descent" league features another map set, new monster sets and rewards, but characters in this league are no longer available for playing after the league ends. "Turbo solo immolation" leagues, as another example, are running on the same maps as standard modes, but with much harder monsters, no partying, replacing physical damage with fire damage and monsters exploding on death—and return the survivors to Hardcore league (while dead characters resurrect in Standard). Racing leagues last between 30 minutes and 1 week. The permanent leagues have counterpart ladder leagues with different rulesets that last three months.


title: Path of Exile

text: The game is set in a dark fantasy world. The player starts the game waking up on the shores of Wraeclast, a continent that once was the center of a mighty empire but is now a cursed land which serves as a penal colony for criminals and other unwanted individuals from the nearby Island of Oriath. Regardless of the reasons for their exile, players must now face the unforgiving wilderness and its dangerous inhabitants amidst the crumbling ruins and bloody secrets of the Eternal Empire and the Vaal civilization that came before, and band together with other exiles to survive.


title: Path of Exile

text: High Templar Dominus exiles the player character, referred to as "Exile," from Oriath for some crime depending on which class the player chose. Exiles are sent to Wraeclast, a penal colony, where they kill various monsters and people who have been tormenting other exiles in Wraeclast. It is discovered that Dominus has been secretly working with his assistant Piety studying thaumaturgy and are the cause of many of the troubles in Wraeclast. The Exile finds and kills both of them. In the process, the Exile encounters a 200-year-old woman called Dialla who explains how a thaumaturgical "Rapture Device" created by a man called Malachai is being used to awaken and release "The Beast". Exile travel to Highgate where they enter the Beast and kill Malachai.


title: Path of Exile

text: Now that Wraeclast is apparently saved, the Exile returns to Oriath. The successor to Dominus, High Templar Avarius, has been abusing his ordained power of divinity. The corrupt templar are exercising their power to wrest control of Oriath, enslaving a race of people known as Karui. The Exile takes advantage of the ongoing Karui slave rebellion and overthrows the templar order by killing Avarius and defeating the Templar god "Innocence". After defeating Innocence, his brother Sin returns and informs the Exile that by killing the Beast, the Exile has inadvertently caused the old gods of the world to reawaken. The formerly oppressed Karui, now empowered by their god Kitava, are running rampant in Oriath, destroying whatever they can find. Sin takes the Exile to fight Kitava, but the Exile fails. Sin explains that the essence of the Beast is needed to battle Kitava - and that the Beast was his creation. A plan is formulated to return to Wraeclast to extract the essence from the Beast's dead body and use it to stop Kitava from destroying Oriath.


title: Path of Exile

text: After travelling through Wraeclast once more and defeating the gods that have reawakened, the Exile returns to Oriath and finds that Innocence has returned. With Innocence reborn and amending for his past mistakes, Sin and Innocence take the Exile to Kitava's lair, and with their combined strength they destroy Kitava.


title: Path of Exile

text: "Path of Exile" began when a small group of action role-playing game enthusiasts became frustrated by the lack of new releases in the genre and decided to develop their own game. It was developed under the radar for three years before being publicly announced on 1 September 2010. In the time since then, Grinding Gear Games has published a number of development posts on their website ranging from screen shots of new classes, monsters, and skills to presentations of game play or technical aspects.


title: Path of Exile

text: The game's lead designer is Chris Wilson. He said the team drew inspiration from several earlier games, including action role-playing games such as the "Diablo" series (particularly "Diablo II"), "Titan Quest", and "Dungeon Siege", the collectible card game "", the massively multiplayer online role-playing game "Guild Wars", and the role-playing video game franchise "Final Fantasy" (particularly the Materia system of "Final Fantasy VII" and the Sphere Grid system of "Final Fantasy X").


title: Path of Exile

text: Alpha started around June 2010, and ended when 0.9.0 was released in August 2011. Following a period under closed beta which players could pay to join, the developers started an open beta (ver. 0.10.0) on 23 January 2013 which was free to play with purchasable microtransactions. The game was patched for release version 1.0.0 on 23 October 2013. On this date, it was also made available on Steam. The game continues to be updated with new content and fixes on roughly a monthly basis.


title: Path of Exile

text: The developers of "Path of Exile" stated that one of their core goals is to provide a genuinely free-to-play game financed only by "ethical micro-transactions". Players can create multiple accounts and even have more than one logged in at a time. "Path of Exile" mainly offers cosmetic item skins for players willing to spend money on the game, but it does also gate specific account features such as semi-automated public trading inventories or additional character slots behind a paywall. It is also possible for players to pay to create private, invite-only leagues, each secluded in its own economy. On 18 January 2017, Grinding Gear Games announced they would be expanding into the console market.


title: Path of Exile

text: During closed beta, by 21 January 2013, "Path of Exile" received US$2.2m in crowd-sourced contributions.


title: Path of Exile

text: During Exilecon in November 2019, Grinding Gear Games announced that a version of the game for mobile devices was also in development within their studio. One of the main topics discussed in the reveal video was the current trend in free-to-play mobile business models (such as "pay-to-win microtransactions, time gates, energy bars, random nag screens, notifications, video ads") and that POE Mobile would aim to avoid that approach, and retain the full gameplay of the desktop version. However, it was also stated that the mobile version was "experimental" and that continued development will be dependent upon the feedback from fans.


title: Path of Exile

text: The game started with DirectX graphic rendering which supports a wide array of video cards. During "Delirium" league, February 2020, Grinding Gear Games (GGG) released a beta support version of Vulkan graphic rendering with the goal of providing more consistent game play and to collect feedback from players to improve the new mode through bug reports. Vulkan support implementation provided a smoother experience, reducing the number of times the games frames-per-second would drop or bottom out during high intensity game play. Vulkan beta support continued into "Harvest" with updates at the start of the league but negatively affected performance. Another release late into the "Harvest" league with 300+ changes that affects both DirectX and Vulkan beta support are still waiting for feedback.


title: Path of Exile

text: In September 2020 through patch 3.11.2, Grinding Gear Games released a substantial code quality refactoring which required a full game download to deploy. The release includes: optimized future game patching for stand-alone and Steam game store versions, game file storage which improves HDD game load time, compressed and sharper texture quality, audio quality improvements, graphic engine improvements, a first-ever Apple macOS version release and Epic Game Store version release.


title: Path of Exile

text: "Path of Exile" received "generally favorable reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic. Critics praised the innovations to the action role-playing systems from its predecessors such as the "Diablo" series. "Destructoid"s Patrick Hancock praised the world design, remarking that it "has a grimy, grungy, uncomfortable feel to it that constantly makes the player feel slightly off just for inhabiting it".


title: Path of Exile

text: Kyle Hillard of "Game Informer" was critical on how the game "throws a lot at you with little direction", adding that "the experience is not friendly to newcomers". "Eurogamer" was not impressed by the graphics and presentation, saying that ""Path of Exile" doesn't have "Torchlight 2"s sense of style or "Diablo 3"s polish".


title: Path of Exile

text: "Path of Exile" was named 2013 PC Game of the Year by "GameSpot", and best PC role-playing game of 2013 by "IGN". By February 2014, the game had five million registered players. "IGN"'s Leif Johnson remarked how "Path of Exile" was "into far darker territory than I'd seen in other contemporary action-RPGs".


title: Path of Exile

text: In November 2019, Grinding Gear Games announced the sequel, "Path of Exile 2" during their Exilecon. Previously known as "Path of Exile 4.0.0" (working title), the sequel introduced a new 7 act storyline campaign with a major overhaul of the engine and gameplay. However, both "Path of Exile" and "Path of Exile 2" share the same game client and end-game system, leaving the player a choice to play the "Path of Exile" or the sequel campaigns before reaching the end-game. Players can also interact with each other regardless of their choice of campaign.


title: Path of Exile

text: A Beta version of "Path of Exile 2" was expected to release in "very late" 2020. However, it was delayed due to COVID-19 lockdown in New Zealand as well as China and the rest of the world where the outsourcing companies are located. It is now expected to release in 2024.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Nehemiah Persoff (August 2, 1919 – April 5, 2022) was an American character actor and painter. He appeared in more than 200 television series, films, and theatre productions and also performed as a voice artist in a career spanning 55 years, beginning after his service in the United States Army during World War II.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff got his first part as an extra in "The Naked City" (1948). He is best known for roles as Leo in "The Harder They Fall" (1956), as Little Bonaparte in "Some Like It Hot" (1959), as Rebbe Mendel in "Yentl" (1983), and as the voice of Papa Mousekewitz in the animated film "An American Tail" (1986) and its sequels. He also made appearances on episodes of "The Twilight Zone", "Gilligan's Island", "Hawaii Five-O", Adam-12 and "Law & Order".


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff was born in Jerusalem, Mandatory Palestine, on August 2, 1919, to Puah (née Holman, 1887–1963) and Shmuel Persoff (1885–1961). His father, who was a silversmith, jeweler and art teacher, decided that there were better prospects in the United States and initially emigrated on his own. It was another six years before he was financially secure and was able in 1929 to bring over his wife, three sons, Boaz, Avraham, and Nehemiah, and two daughters, Tamar and Geula (Julia). At first the family lived in an apartment in the Williamsburg area of Brooklyn, before eventually moving to the Bronx. His parents later returned to Israel.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff attended the Hebrew Technical Institute, graduating in 1937. With the electrician training that he had received at the Institute, after his military service he gained a job as a subway signal maintenance worker.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff was drafted by the U.S. Army in early 1942 and served during World War II until 1945. He was assigned to an acting company to entertain troops around the world.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff began to pursue his acting career in New York theatre. In 1947, he was accepted into the Actors Studio, and was one of the 26 members of the beginners' class taught by Elia Kazan, along with Martin Balsam, Julie Harris, Kim Hunter, Cloris Leachman and James Whitmore. He began his acting career in 1948.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Among his early film roles was as the taxi driver during Brando's "I coulda been a contender" scene in "On the Waterfront" (1954), Leo the accountant in "The Harder They Fall" (1956) with Humphrey Bogart and Rod Steiger, and the gangster boss Little Bonaparte (a parody of Rico/Little Caesar) in Billy Wilder's film "Some Like It Hot" (1959), and he appeared again with Steiger in "Al Capone" (also 1959). He also appeared in supporting roles in films such as "The Comancheros" (1961) and "The Greatest Story Ever Told" (1965).


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff alongside Dean Stockwell and Andrew Bloch appeared as Darius the Great's wicked Babylonian administrators in the 1978 "Greatest Heroes of the Bible" episode "Daniel in the Lions' Den".


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: In the film "Yentl" (1983), Persoff portrayed the father of Barbra Streisand's character. He appeared in the comedy film "Twins" (1988) and in the "American Tail" animated-film series as Papa Mousekewitz. His last movie was "4 Faces" (1999), the last film to be directed by Ted Post.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: His acting career included many appearances in television series, including six episodes of "The Untouchables", three episodes of which he appeared as Jake "Greasy Thumb" Guzik (regarded by many as his signature role), and "Gilligan's Island" as the title character in the episode "The Little Dictator" (the favorite episode of the show's creator Sherwood Schwartz). Persoff appeared on the "" episode "The Most Toys" and was the oldest living male actor to appear in a "Star Trek" production at the time of his death.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: In 1951, Persoff married Thia Persov, who had served as a nurse with the Palmach, the elite fighting force of the Haganah during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. She died of cancer in 2021. The couple had four children, Jeffrey, Dan, Perry and Dahlia. Before his death, he lived in Cambria, California.


title: Nehemiah Persoff

text: Persoff died on April 5, 2022, at the age of 102 of heart failure at a rehabilitation facility in San Luis Obispo, California.


title: Javelin (surface-to-air missile)

text: Javelin is a British man-portable surface-to-air missile, formerly used by the British Army and Canadian Army. It can be fired from the shoulder, or from a dedicated launcher named the Lightweight Multiple Launcher (LML), that carries three rounds, and can be vehicle mounted.


title: Javelin (surface-to-air missile)

text: The missile is an updated version of the earlier Blowpipe of the 1970s. Blowpipe used a manual guidance system which proved hard to use effectively in combat during the Falklands War where only two destroyed aircraft could be definitively attributed to the system. Javelin replaced the manual guidance system with a semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) system that only required the operator to keep their gunsight pointed at the target. A tracking system in the launcher's optics compared the location of the missile to the line-of-sight and sent it commands over a radio link to guide it. This version entered service in 1984, and was later known as Javelin GL.


title: Javelin (surface-to-air missile)

text: Further upgrades to the missile added a fully automatic guidance system to produce the Javelin S-15. This was sold commercially, and is better known, as the Starburst surface-to-air missile. These began to replace the GL in British Army service in 1993, although the GL remained in use as a training system. Both were replaced by Starstreak starting around 1997.


title: Javelin (surface-to-air missile)

text: Javelin GL was hastily purchased by the Canadian Forces to replace the Blowpipes that failed last-minute tests during preparations for the deployment to the Persian Gulf for the First Gulf War (1990–1991). It was later replaced by the Javelin S15 until retired without replacement in 2005.


title: Javelin (surface-to-air missile)

text: The missile was developed as a replacement for the Blowpipe MANPADS, which was used in the Falklands War by both sides, and proved largely ineffective. Only two hits were recorded out of more than 100 launches: a British Harrier GR3 ("XZ972") attacked by Argentine Army special forces (Commandos Company), and an Argentine Aermacchi MB-339 (0766 (4-A-114)) during the Battle of Goose Green.


title: Javelin (surface-to-air missile)

text: Similar in overall appearance to the manual command to line of sight (MCLOS), radio frequency guided Blowpipe, Javelin is slightly smaller, uses semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) radio frequency guidance and is fitted with an improved warhead. The operator is equipped with a 6× magnification sight and a long range television (TV) camera to locate targets. Although the Javelin's accuracy is somewhat susceptible to smoke, fog, or clouds, it cannot be decoyed away from a target with flares because it does not use an infrared or ultraviolet (UV) spectrum seeker. It is potentially susceptible to infrared jammers such as AN/ALQ-144.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The history of Vietnam can be traced back to around 20,000 years ago, as the first modern humans arrived and settled on this land, known as the Hoabinhians, which can be traced to modern-day Negritos. Archaeological findings from 1965, which are still under research, show the remains of two hominins closely related to the "Sinanthropus", dating as far back as the Middle Pleistocene era, roughly half a million years ago.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Pre-historic Vietnam was home to some of the world's earliest civilizations and societies—making them one of the world's first people who had practiced agriculture. The Red River valley formed a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the north and west by mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the Red River Delta. The need to have a single authority to prevent floods of the Red River, to cooperate in constructing hydraulic systems, trade exchange, and to repel invaders, led to the creation of the first legendary Vietnamese states approximately 2879 BC. While in the later times, ongoing research from archaeologists have suggested that the Vietnamese Đông Sơn culture were traceable back to Northern Vietnam, Guangxi and Laos around 700 BC.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Vietnam's long coastal and narrowed lands, rugged mountainous terrains, with two major deltas, were soon home to several different ancient cultures and civilizations. In the north, the Dongsonian culture and its indigenous chiefdoms of Van Lang and Au Lac flourished by 500 BC. In Central Vietnam, the Sa Huynh culture of Austronesian Chamic peoples also thrived. Both were swept away by the Han dynasty expansion from the north: The Han conquest of Nanyue brought parts of Vietnam under Chinese rule in 111 BC. In 40 AD, the Trưng Sisters led the first uprising of indigenous tribes and peoples against Chinese domination. The rebellion was however defeated, but as the Han dynasty began to weaken by the late 2nd century and China started to descend into a state of turmoil, the indigenous peoples of Vietnam rose again and some became free. In 192 AD, the Cham of Central Vietnam revolted against the Chinese and subsequently formed the independent kingdom of Champa, while the Red River Delta saw a loosening of Chinese control. At that time, with the introduction of Buddhism and Hinduism by the second century AD, Vietnam was the first place in Southeast Asia which shared influences of both Chinese and Indian cultures, and the rise of the first Indianized kingdoms Champa and Funan.


title: History of Vietnam

text: During these 1,000 years there were many uprisings against Chinese domination, and at certain periods Vietnam was independently governed under the Trưng Sisters, Early Lý, Khúc and Dương Đình Nghệ—although their triumphs and reigns were temporary. When Ngô Quyền (King of Vietnam, 938–944) restored sovereign power in the country with the victory at the battle of Bach Dang River, the next millennium was advanced by the accomplishments of successive local dynasties: Ngô, Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần, Hồ, Later Trần, Later Lê, Mạc, Revival Lê (Trịnh and Nguyễn), Tây Sơn and Nguyễn. At various points during the imperial dynasties, Vietnam was ravaged and divided by civil wars and witnessed interventions by the Song, Yuan, Cham, Ming, Siamese, Qing, French, and Imperial Japan.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Ming Empire conquered the Red River valley for a while before native Vietnamese regained control and the French Empire reduced Vietnam to a French dependency for nearly a century, followed by an occupation by the Japanese Empire. During the French period, widespread malnutrition and brutality from the 1880s until Japan invaded in 1940 created deep resentment that fueled resistance to post-World War II military-political efforts by France and the US. Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchy after World War II, and the country was proclaimed a republic.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Vietnam is a multi-ethnic country on Mainland Southeast Asia and has great ethnolinguistic diversity. Vietnam's demography consists 54 different ethnicities belong to five major ethnolinguistic families: Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Kra-Dai, Sino-Tibetan. Among 54 groups, the majority ethnic group is the Austroasiatic-speaking Kinh alone comprising 85.32% of total population. The rest is made up of 53 other ethnic groups. Vietnam's ethnic mosaic is contributed by the peopling process in which the various people came and settled on territory, that constitutes the modern state of Vietnam in many stages, often separated by thousands of years, totally lasted for tens of thousand years. It is evident that entire Vietnam’s history is embroidered polyethnic.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Holocene Vietnam began during the Late Pleistocene period. Early anatomically modern human settlement in Mainland Southeast Asia dated back to 65 kya (65,000 years ago) to 10,5 kya. They were probably the foremost hunter-gatherers whom called the Hoabinhians, a large group that gradually settled across Southeast Asia, probably akin to modern-day Munda people (Mundari-speaking people) and Malaysian Austroasiatics.


title: History of Vietnam

text: While the true original inhabitants of Vietnam were the Hoabinhians, they had of course been replaced and absorbed by the East Eurasian-looking populace and the expansion of preliminary Austroasiatic and Austronesian languages, although linguistic is not totally interrelated with genetic. And later on that trend is continued with the expansion of Tibeto-Burman and Kra-Dai speaking population, and the latest Hmong-Mien speaking communities. The results are all of modern ethnic groups of Vietnam possess various ratios of genetic admixture between the Eastern Eurasian and Hoabinhian groups.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Cham people, who for over one thousand years settled in, controlled and civilized present-day central and southern coastal Vietnam from around the 2nd century AD are of Austronesian origin. The southernmost sector of modern Vietnam, the Mekong Delta and its surroundings was until the 18th century an integral part, yet of shifting significance of the Austroasiatic Proto-Khmer – and Khmer principalities, like Funan, Chenla, the Khmer Empire and the Khmer kingdom.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Situated on the southeast edge of monsoon Asia, much of ancient Vietnam enjoyed a combination of high rainfall, humidity, heat, favorable winds, and fertile soil. These natural sources combined to generate an unusually prolific growth of rice and other plants and wildlife. This region's agricultural villages held well over 90 percent of the population. The high volume of rainy season water required villagers to concentrate their labor in managing floods, transplanting rice, and harvesting. These activities produced a cohesive village life with a religion in which one of the core values was the desire to live in harmony with nature and with other people. The way of life, centered in harmony, featured many enjoyable aspects that the people held beloved. Example included people not needing many material things, enjoyment of music and poetry, and living in harmony with nature.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Fishing and hunting supplemented the main rice crop. Arrowheads and spears were dipped in poison to kill larger animals such as elephants. Betel nuts were widely chewed and the lower classes rarely wore clothing more substantial than a loincloth. Every spring, a fertility festival was held which featured huge parties and sexual abandon.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Since around 2000 BC, stone hand tools and weapons improved extraordinarily in both quantity and variety. After this, Vietnam later became part of the Maritime Jade Road, which existed for 3,000 years between 2000 BC to 1000 AD. Pottery reached a higher level of technique and decoration style. The early farming multilinguistic societies in Vietnam were mainly wet rice Oryza cultivators, which became the main staple of their diet. During the later stage of the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, the first appearance of bronze tools took place despite these tools still being rare. By about 1000 BC, bronze replaced stone for about 40 percent of edged tools and weapons, rising to about 60 percent. Here, there were not only bronze weapons, axes, and personal ornaments, but also sickles and other agriculture tools. Toward the closure of the Bronze Age, bronze accounts for more than 90 percent of tools and weapons, and there are exceptionally extravagant graves – the burial places of powerful chieftains – containing some hundreds of ritual and personal bronze artifacts such as musical instruments, bucket-shaped ladles, and ornament daggers. After 1000 BC, the ancient peoples of Vietnam became skilled agriculturalists as they grew rice and kept buffaloes and pigs. They were also skilled fishermen and bold sailors, whose long dug-out canoes traversed the eastern sea.


title: History of Vietnam

text: According to a legend which first appeared in the 14th century book Lĩnh nam chích quái, the tribal chief Lộc Tục (c. 2919 – 2794 BC) proclaimed himself as Kinh Dương Vương and founded the state of Xích Quỷ in 2879 BC, that marks the beginning of the Hồng Bàng dynastic period. However, modern Vietnamese historians assume, that statehood was only developed in the Red River Delta by the second half of 1st millennium BC. Kinh Dương Vương was succeeded by Sùng Lãm (c. 2825 BC – ?). The next royal dynasty produced 18 monarchs, known as the Hùng Kings, who renamed their country Văn Lang. The administrative system includes offices like military chief ("lạc tướng"), paladin ("lạc hầu") and mandarin ("bố chính").


title: History of Vietnam

text: Great numbers of metal weapons and tools excavated at various Phung Nguyen culture sites in northern Indochina are associated with the beginning of the Copper Age in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, the beginning of the Bronze Age has been verified for around 500 B.C. at Đông Sơn. Vietnamese historians usually attribute the Đông Sơn culture with the kingdoms of Văn Lang, Âu Lạc, and the Hồng Bàng dynasty. The local Lạc Việt community had developed a highly sophisticated industry of quality bronze production, processing and the manufacturing of tools, weapons and exquisite Bronze drums. Certainly of symbolic value they were intended to be used for religious or ceremonial purposes. The craftsmen of these objects required refined skills in melting techniques, in the Lost-wax casting technique and acquired master skills of composition and execution for the elaborate engravings.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Legend of Thánh Gióng tells of a youth, who leads the Văn Lang kingdom to victory against the Ân invaders from the north, saves the country and goes straight to heaven. He wears iron armor, rides an armored horse and wields an iron sword. The image implies a society of a certain sophistication in metallurgy as well as An Dương Vương's "Legend of the Magic Crossbow", a weapon, that can fire thousands of bolts simultaneously, seems to hint at the extensive use of archery in warfare. The about 1,000 traditional craft villages of the Hồng River Delta near and around Hanoi represented throughout more than 2,000 years of Vietnamese history the national industrial and economic backbone. Countless, mostly small family run manufacturers have over the centuries preserved their ethnic ideas by producing highly sophisticated goods, built temples and dedicated ceremonies and festivals in an unbroken culture of veneration for these legendary popular spirits.


title: History of Vietnam

text: By the 3rd century BC, another Viet group, the Âu Việt, emigrated from present-day southern China to the Hồng River delta and mixed with the indigenous Văn Lang population. In 257 BC, a new kingdom, Âu Lạc, emerged as the union of the Âu Việt and the Lạc Việt, with Thục Phán proclaiming himself "An Dương Vương" ("King An Dương"). Some modern Vietnamese believe that Thục Phán came upon the Âu Việt territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi province, with its capital in what is today Cao Bằng Province).


title: History of Vietnam

text: After assembling an army, he defeated and overthrew the eighteenth dynasty of the Hùng kings, around 258 BC. He then renamed his newly acquired state from Văn Lang to Âu Lạc and established the new capital at Phong Khê in the present-day Phú Thọ town in northern Vietnam, where he tried to build the Cổ Loa Citadel (Cổ Loa Thành), the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of that new capital. However, records showed that espionage resulted in the downfall of An Dương Vương. At his capital, Cổ Loa, he built many concentric walls around the city for defensive purposes. These walls, together with skilled Âu Lạc archers, kept the capital safe from invaders.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 207 BC, the former Qin general Zhao Tuo (Trieu Da in Vietnamese) established an independent kingdom in the present-day Guangdong/Guangxi area of China's southern coast. He proclaimed his new kingdom as Nam Việt ("pinyin:" Nanyue), to be ruled by the Zhao dynasty. Zhao Tuo later appointed himself a commandant of central Guangdong, closing the borders and conquering neighboring districts and titled himself "King of Nanyue". In 179 BC, he defeated King An Dương Vương and annexed Âu Lạc.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The period has been given some controversial conclusions by Vietnamese historians, as some consider Zhao's rule as the starting point of the Chinese domination, since Zhao Tuo was a former Qin general; whereas others consider it still an era of Vietnamese independence as the Zhao family in Nanyue were assimilated into local culture. They ruled independently of what then constituted the Han Empire. At one point, Zhao Tuo even declared himself Emperor, equal to the Han Emperor in the north.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 111 BC, the Han dynasty invaded Nanyue and established new territories, dividing Vietnam into Giao Chỉ ("pinyin": Jiaozhi), now the Red River delta; Cửu Chân from modern-day Thanh Hóa to Hà Tĩnh; and Nhật Nam ("pinyin": Rinan), from modern-day Quảng Bình to Huế. While governors and top officials were Chinese, the original Vietnamese nobles (Lạc Hầu, Lạc Tướng) from the Hồng Bàng period still managed in some of the highlands. During this period, Buddhism was introduced into Vietnam from India via the Maritime Silk Road, while Taoism and Confucianism spread to Vietnam through the Chinese rules.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In February 40 AD, the Trưng Sisters led a successful revolt against Han Governor Su Ding ("Vietnamese:" Tô Định) and recaptured 65 states (including modern Guangxi).Trưng Trắc, angered by the killing of her husband by Su Dung, led the revolt together with her sister, Trưng Nhị. Trưng Trắc later became the Queen (Trưng Nữ Vương). In 43 AD, Emperor Guangwu of Han sent his famous general Ma Yuan ("Vietnamese:" Mã Viện) with a large army to quell the revolt. After a long, difficult campaign, Ma Yuan suppressed the uprising and the Trung Sisters committed suicide to avoid capture. To this day, the Trưng Sisters are revered in Vietnam as the national symbol of Vietnamese women.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Learning a lesson from the Trưng revolt, the Han and other successful Chinese dynasties took measures to eliminate the power of the Vietnamese nobles. The Vietnamese elites were educated in Chinese culture and politics. A Giao Chỉ prefect, Shi Xie, ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord for forty years and was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese monarchs. Shi Xie pledged loyalty to Eastern Wu of the Three Kingdoms era of China. The Eastern Wu was a formative period in Vietnamese history. According to Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese." Nearly 200 years passed before the Vietnamese attempted another revolt. In 248 a Yue woman, Triệu Thị Trinh with her brother Triệu Quốc Đạt, popularly known as Lady Triệu (Bà Triệu), led a revolt against the Wu dynasty. Once again, the uprising failed. Eastern Wu sent Lu Yin and 8,000 elite soldiers to suppress the rebels. He managed to pacify the rebels with a combination of threats and persuasion. According to the "Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư" (Complete Annals of Đại Việt), Lady Triệu had long hair that reached her shoulders and rode into battle on an elephant. After several months of warfare she was defeated and committed suicide.


title: History of Vietnam

text: At the same time, in present-day Central Vietnam, there was a successful revolt of Cham nations in 192. Chinese dynasties called it Lin-Yi (Lin village; Vietnamese: "Lâm Ấp"). It later became a powerful kingdom, Champa, stretching from Quảng Bình to Phan Thiết (Bình Thuận). The Cham developed the first native writing system in Southeast Asia, oldest surviving literature of any Southeast Asian language, leading Buddhist, Hindu, and cultural expertise in the region.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In early first century AD, on the lower Mekong, the first Indianized kingdom of Southeast Asia which the Chinese called them "Funan" emerged and became the great economic power in the region, its prime city Óc Eo attracted merchants and craftmen from China, India, and even Rome. The first ruler of Funan, Queen Liǔyè, got married with Kaundinya, a man from the west with a magic bow. Kaundinya then became the ruler of Funan. Funan is said to be the first Khmer state, or Austronesian, or multiethnic. According to Chinese annals, the last king of Funan, Rudravarman (r. 514–545) sent many embassies to China. Also according to Chinese annals, Funan might have been conquered by another kingdom called Zhenla around 627 AD, ending the kingdom of Funan.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In the period between the beginning of the Chinese Age of Fragmentation and the end of the Tang dynasty, several revolts against Chinese rule took place, such as those of Lý Bôn and his general and heir Triệu Quang Phục. All of them ultimately failed, yet most notable were those led by Lý Bôn and Triệu Quang Phục, who ruled the briefly independent Van Xuan kingdom for almost half a century, from 544 to 602, before Sui China reconquered the kingdom.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Cham Lâm Ấp kingdom, with capital located in Simhapura, became prosper through benefiting the ancient maritime trade routes from the Middle East to China. The wealthy of Lâm Ấp attracted attention from the Chinese Empire. In 605, emperor Yang Guang of the Sui Empire ordered general Liu Fang, who had just reconquered and pacificed northern Vietnam, to invade Lâm Ấp. The kingdom was quickly overwhelmed by the invaders who pillaged and looted Cham sanctuaries. Despite that, king Sambhuvarman of Lâm Ấp (r. 572–629) quickly reasserted his independence, beginning the unified period of Champa in 629.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Champa entered its golden age. From the 7th to the 10th centuries, the Cham controlled the trade in spices and silk between China, India, the Indonesian islands, and the Abbasid empire in Baghdad. They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 875, a new Mahayana Buddhist monarch named Indravarman II (r. 854–893) founded a new dynasty with Buddhism as state religion. Indravarman II built a new capital city in Indrapura (modern-day Quảng Nam) and a large Buddhist temple in Dong Duong. The dynasty of Indravarman II continued to rule until late 10th century, when a Vietnamese invasion in 982 murdered the ruling king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 972–982). A Vietnamese usurper named Lưu Kế Tông took advance of unsettling situation and seized Indrapura in 983, declared himself the king of Champa in 986, disrupted the Cham kingdom. In Vijaya (present-day Binh Dinh) from the south, a new Hindu dynasty was founded in 989 and relocated Cham capital to Vijaya in 1000.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Champa and the emerging Khmer Empire had waged war on each other for three centuries, from the 10th to 13th century. The Khmer first invaded Champa in Kauthara (Khanh Hoa) in 950. In 1080, they attacked Vijaya and central Champa. The Cham under Harivarman IV launched counteroffensive against the Cambodian and plundered temples across east of the Mekong river. Tensions escalated during the next century. Suryavarman II of Khmer Empire invaded Champa in 1145 and 1149 after Cham ruler Indravarman refused to join with the Khmer campaign against the Vietnamese. It was believed that Suryavarman II died during the war against Champa in 1150. In 1177 Cham king Jaya Indravarman IV led a surprised attacked on Khmer capital Yasodharapura (Angkor) and defeated them at the Battle of Tonlé Sap.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The new Cambodian ruler, Jayavarman VII, arose to power, repelled the Cham and began his conquest of Champa in 1190. He finally defeated the Cham in 1203 and put Champa under Khmer governance for 17 years. In 1220, as the Khmer voluntary withdraw from Champa, a Cham prince named Angsaraja proclaimed Jaya Paramesvaravarman II of Champa and restored Cham independence.


title: History of Vietnam

text: During the Tang dynasty, Vietnam was called Annam until 866 AD. With its capital around modern Bắc Ninh, Annam became a flourishing trading outpost, receiving goods from the southern seas. The "Book of the Later Han" recorded that in 166 the first envoy from the Roman Empire to China arrived by this route, and merchants were soon to follow. The 3rd-century "Tales of Wei" ("Weilüe") mentioned a "water route" (the Red River) from Annam into what is now southern Yunnan. From there, goods were taken over land to the rest of China via the regions of modern Kunming and Chengdu. The capital of Annam, Tống Bình or Songping (today Hanoi) was a major urbanized settlement in the southwest region of Tang Empire. From 858 to 864, disturbances in Annan gave Nanzhao opportunity to intervene the region, provoked local tribes to revolt against the Chinese. The Yunnanese and their local allies launched the Siege of Songping in early 863, defeated the Chinese, and captured the capital in three years. In 866, Chinese jiedushi Gao Pian recaptured the city and drove out the Nanzhao army. He renamed the city to Daluocheng (大羅城, Đại La thành).


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 866, Annan was renamed Tĩnh Hải quân. Early in the 10th century, as China became politically fragmented, successive lords from the Khúc clan, followed by Dương Đình Nghệ, ruled Tĩnh Hải quân autonomously under the Tang title of Jiedushi ("Vietnamese": Tiết Độ Sứ), (governor), but stopped short of proclaiming themselves kings.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Since 905, Tĩnh Hải circuit had been ruled by local Vietnamese governors like an autonomous state. Tĩnh Hải circuit had to paid tributes for Later Liang dynasty to exchange political protection. In 923, the nearby Southern Han invaded Jinghai but was repelled by Vietnamese leader Dương Đình Nghệ. In 938, the Chinese state Southern Han once again sent a fleet to subdue the Vietnamese. General Ngô Quyền (r. 939–944), Dương Đình Nghệ's son-in-law, defeated the Southern Han fleet at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (938). He then proclaimed himself King Ngô, established a monarchy government in Cổ Loa and effectively began the age of independence for Vietnam.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The basic nature of Vietnamese society changed little during the nearly 1,000 years between independence from China in the 10th century and the French conquest in the 19th century. Viet Nam, named Đại Việt (Great Viet) was a stable nation, but village autonomy was a key feature. Villages had a unified culture centered around harmony related to the religion of the spirits of nature and the peaceful nature of Buddhism. While the sovereign was the ultimate source of political authority, a saying was, "The Sovereign's Laws end at the village gate". The sovereign was the final dispenser of justice, law, and supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, as well as overseer of religious rituals. Administration was carried out by mandarins who were trained exactly like their Chinese counterparts (i.e. by rigorous study of Confucian texts). Overall, Vietnam remained very efficiently and stably governed except in times of war and dynastic breakdown. Its administrative system was probably far more advanced than that of any other Southeast Asian states and was more highly centralized and stably governed among Asian states. No serious challenge to the sovereign's authority ever arose, as titles of nobility were bestowed purely as honors and were not hereditary. Periodic land reforms broke up large estates and ensured that powerful landowners could not emerge. No religious/priestly class ever arose outside of the mandarins either. This stagnant absolutism ensured a stable, well-ordered society, but also resistance to social, cultural, or technological innovations. Reformers looked only to the past for inspiration.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Literacy remained the province of the upper classes. Originally, only Chữ Hán was used to write, but by the 11th century, a set of derivative characters known as Chữ Nôm emerged that allowed native Vietnamese words to be written. However, it remained limited to poetry, literature, and practical texts like medicine while all state and official documents were written in Classical Chinese. Aside from some mining and fishing, agriculture was the primary activity of most Vietnamese, and economic development and trade were not promoted or encouraged by the state.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Ngô Quyền in 939 declared himself king, but died after only 5 years. His untimely death after a short reign resulted in a power struggle for the throne, resulting in the country's first major civil war, the upheaval of the Twelve Warlords (Loạn Thập Nhị Sứ Quân). The war lasted from 944 to 968, until the clan led by Đinh Bộ Lĩnh defeated the other warlords, unifying the country. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh founded the Đinh dynasty and proclaimed himself Đinh Tiên Hoàng (Đinh the Majestic Emperor) and renamed the country from Tĩnh Hải quân to Đại Cồ Việt (literally "Great Viet"), with its capital in the city of Hoa Lư (modern-day Ninh Bình Province). The new emperor introduced strict penal codes to prevent chaos from happening again. He then tried to form alliances by granting the title of Queen to five women from the five most influential families. Đại La became the capital.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng and his crown prince Đinh Liễn were assassinated by Đỗ Thích, a government official, leaving his lone surviving son, the 6-year-old Đinh Toàn, to assume the throne. Taking advantage of the situation, the Song dynasty invaded Đại Cồ Việt. Facing such a grave threat to national independence, the commander of the armed forces, (Thập Đạo Tướng Quân) Lê Hoàn took the throne, replaced the house of Đinh and established the Early Lê dynasty. A capable military tactician, Lê Hoan realized the risks of engaging the mighty Song troops head on; thus, he tricked the invading army into Chi Lăng Pass, then ambushed and killed their commander, quickly ending the threat to his young nation in 981. The Song dynasty withdrew their troops and Lê Hoàn was referred to in his realm as Emperor Đại Hành (Đại Hành Hoàng Đế). Emperor Lê Đại Hành was also the first Vietnamese monarch who began the southward expansion process against the kingdom of Champa.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Emperor Lê Đại Hành's death in 1005 resulted in infighting for the throne amongst his sons. The eventual winner, Lê Long Đĩnh, became the most notorious tyrant in Vietnamese history. He devised sadistic punishments of prisoners for his own entertainment and indulged in deviant sexual activities. Toward the end of his short lifehe died at the age of 24 – Lê Long Đĩnh had become so ill, that he had to lie down when meeting with his officials in court.


title: History of Vietnam

text: When the king Lê Long Đĩnh died in 1009, a palace guard commander named Lý Công Uẩn was nominated by the court to take over the throne, and founded the Lý dynasty. This event is regarded as the beginning of another golden era in Vietnamese history, with the following dynasties inheriting the Lý dynasty's prosperity and doing much to maintain and expand it. The way Lý Công Uẩn ascended to the throne was rather uncommon in Vietnamese history. As a high-ranking military commander residing in the capital, he had all opportunities to seize power during the tumultuous years after Emperor Lê Hoàn's death, yet preferring not to do so out of his sense of duty. He was in a way being "elected" by the court after some debate before a consensus was reached.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Lý monarchs are credited for laying down a concrete foundation for the nation of Vietnam. In 1010, Lý Công Uẩn issued the Edict on the Transfer of the Capital, moving the capital Đại Cồ Việt from Hoa Lư, a natural fortification surrounded by mountains and rivers, to the new capital in present-day Hanoi, Đại La, which was later renamed Thăng Long (Ascending Dragon) by Lý Công Uẩn, after allegedly seeing a dragon flying upwards when he arrived at the capital. Moving the capital, Lý Công Uẩn thus departed from the militarily defensive mentality of his predecessors and envisioned a strong economy as the key to national survival. The third emperor of the dynasty, Lý Thánh Tông renamed the country "Đại Việt" (大越, Great Viet). Successive Lý emperors continued to accomplish far-reaching feats: building a dike system to protect rice farms; founding the Quốc Tử Giám the first noble university; and establishing court examination system to select capable commoners for government positions once every three years; organizing a new system of taxation; establishing humane treatment of prisoners. Women were holding important roles in Lý society as the court ladies were in charge of tax collection. Neighboring Dali kingdom's Vajrayana Buddhism traditions also had influences on Vietnamese beliefs at the time. Lý kings adopted both Buddhism and Taoism as state religions.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Vietnamese during Lý dynasty had one major war with Song China, and a few invasive campaigns against neighboring Champa in the south. The most notable conflict took place on Chinese territory Guangxi in Late 1075. Upon learning that a Song invasion was imminent, the Vietnamese army under the command of Lý Thường Kiệt, and Tông Đản used amphibious operations to preemptively destroy three Song military installations at Yongzhou, Qinzhou, and Lianzhou in present-day Guangdong and Guangxi, and killed 100,000 Chinese. The Song dynasty took revenge and invaded Đại Việt in 1076, but the Song troops were held back at the Battle of Như Nguyệt River commonly known as the Cầu river, now in Bắc Ninh province about 40 km from the current capital, Hanoi. Neither side was able to force a victory, so the Vietnamese court proposed a truce, which the Song emperor accepted. Champa and the powerful Khmer Empire took advantage of Đại Việt's distraction with the Song to pillage Đại Việt's southern provinces. Together they invaded Đại Việt in 1128 and 1132. Further invasions followed in the subsequent decades.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Toward the declining Lý monarch's power in late 12th century, the Trần clan from Nam Định eventually rise to power. In 1224, powerful court minister Trần Thủ Độ forced the emperor Lý Huệ Tông to become a Buddhist monk and Lý Chiêu Hoàng, Huệ Tông's 8-year-old young daughter, to become ruler of the country. Trần Thủ Độ then arranged the marriage of Chiêu Hoàng to his nephew Trần Cảnh and eventually had the throne transferred to Trần Cảnh, thus begun the Trần dynasty.


title: History of Vietnam

text: Trần Thủ Độ viciously purged members of the Lý nobility; some Lý princes escaped to Korea, including Lý Long Tường. After the purge, the Trần emperors ruled the country in similar manner to the Lý kings. Noted Trần monarch accomplishments include the creation of a system of population records based at the village level, the compilation of a formal 30-volume history of Đại Việt (Đại Việt Sử Ký) by Lê Văn Hưu, and the rising in status of the Nôm script, a system of writing for Vietnamese language. The Trần dynasty also adopted a unique way to train new emperors: when a crown prince reached the age of 18, his predecessor would abdicate and turn the throne over to him, yet holding the title of Retired Emperor (Thái Thượng Hoàng), acting as a mentor to the new Emperor.


title: History of Vietnam

text: During the Trần dynasty, the armies of the Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan invaded Đại Việt in 1258, 1285, and 1287–88. Đại Việt repelled all attacks of the Yuan Mongols during the reign of Kublai Khan. Three Mongol armies said to have numbered from 300,000 to 500,000 men were defeated. The key to Annam's successes was to avoid the Mongols' strength in open field battles and city sieges—the Trần court abandoned the capital and the cities. The Mongols were then countered decisively at their weak points, which were battles in swampy areas such as Chương Dương, Hàm Tử, Vạn Kiếp and on rivers such as Vân Đồn and Bạch Đằng. The Mongols also suffered from tropical diseases and loss of supplies to Trần army's raids. The Yuan-Trần war reached its climax when the retreating Yuan fleet was decimated at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). The military architect behind Annam's victories was Commander Trần Quốc Tuấn, more popularly known as Trần Hưng Đạo. In order to avoid further disastrous campaigns, the Tran and Champa acknowledged Mongol supremacy.


title: History of Vietnam

text: It was also during this period that the Vietnamese waged war against the southern kingdom of Champa, continuing the Vietnamese long history of southern expansion (known as Nam tiến) that had begun shortly after gaining independence in the 10th century. Often, they encountered strong resistance from the Chams. After the successful alliance with Champa during the Mongol invasion, king Trần Nhân Tông of Đại Việt gained two Champa provinces, located around present-day Huế, through the peaceful means of the political marriage of Princess Huyền Trân to Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III. Not long after the nuptials, the king died, and the princess returned to her northern home in order to avoid a Cham custom that would have required her to join her husband in death. Champa was made a tributary state of Vietnam in 1312, but ten years later they regained independence and eventually waged a 30-years long war against the Vietnamese, in order to regain these lands and encouraged by the decline of Đại Việt in the course of the 14th century. Cham troops led by king Chế Bồng Nga (Cham: Po Binasuor or Che Bonguar, r. 1360–1390) killed king Trần Duệ Tông through a battle in Vijaya (1377). Multiple Cham northward invasions from 1371 to 1390 put Vietnamese capital Thăng Long and Vietnamese economy in destruction. However, in 1390 the Cham naval offensive against Hanoi was halted by the Vietnamese general Trần Khát Chân, whose soldiers made use of cannons.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The wars with Champa and the Mongols left Đại Việt exhausted and bankrupt. The Trần family was in turn overthrown by one of its own court officials, Hồ Quý Ly. Hồ Quý Ly forced the last Trần emperor to abdicate and assumed the throne in 1400. He changed the country name to Đại Ngu and moved the capital to Tây Đô, Western Capital, now Thanh Hóa. Thăng Long was renamed Đông Đô, Eastern Capital. Although widely blamed for causing national disunity and losing the country later to the Ming Empire, Hồ Quý Ly's reign actually introduced a lot of progressive, ambitious reforms, including the addition of mathematics to the national examinations, the open critique of Confucian philosophy, the use of paper currency in place of coins, investment in building large warships and cannons, and land reform. He ceded the throne to his son, Hồ Hán Thương, in 1401 and assumed the title Thái Thượng Hoàng, in similar manner to the Trần kings.


title: History of Vietnam

text: After having been restored from Khmer domination in 1220, Champa continued to face another counter-power from the north. After their invasion of 982, the Vietnamese had been pushing war against Champa in 1020, 1044, and 1069, plundered Cham capital. In 1252 king Tran Thai Tong of the new dynasty of Dai Viet led an incursion into Cham territories, captured many Cham concubines and women. This might be the reason for the death of Jaya Paramesvaravarman II as he died in the same year. His younger brother, Prince Harideva of Sakanvijaya, was crowned as Jaya Indravarman VI (r. 1252–1257). The new king was however assassinated by his nephew in 1257, who became Indravarman V (r. 1257–1288).


title: History of Vietnam

text: The new Mongol Yuan threat soon dragged two hostile kingdoms Champa and Dai Viet close together. The Yuan emperor Kublai demanded Cham submission in 1278 and 1280, both refused. In early 1283 Kublai sent a sea expedition led by Sogetu to invade Champa. The Cham retreated to the mountains, successfully waged a guerrilla resistance that bogged down the Mongols. Sogetu was driven to the north, and later killed by joint Cham–Vietnamese forces in June 1285. Although having repulsed the Mongol yokes, the Cham king sent an ambassador to the great Khan in October 1285. His successor, Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307), married with a Vietnamese Queen (daughter of the ruling Vietnamese king) in 1306, and Dai Viet acquired two northern provinces.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 1307 the new Cham king Simhavarman IV (r. 1307–1312), set out to retake the two provinces to protest against the Vietnamese agreement but was defeated and taken as a prisoner. Champa thus became a Vietnamese vassal state. The Cham revolted in 1318. In 1326 they managed to defeat the Vietnamese and reasserted independence. Royal upheaval within the Cham court resumed until 1360, when a strong Cham king was enthroned, known as Po Binasuor (r. 1360–90). During his thirty-year reign, Champa gained its momentum peak. Po Binasuor annihilated the Vietnamese invaders in 1377, ransacked Hanoi in 1371, 1378, 1379, and 1383, nearly had united all Vietnam for the first time by the 1380s. During a naval battle in early 1390, the Cham conqueror however was killed by Vietnamese firearm units, thus ending the short-lived rising period of the Cham kingdom. During the next decades, Champa returned to its status quo of peace. After much warfare and dismal conflicts, king Indravarman VI (r. 1400–41) reestablished relations with the second kingdom of Dai Viet's ruler Le Loi in 1428.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Islamization of Champa began in the 8th century to 11th century, being faster proselytized during the 14th and 15th centuries. Ibn Battuta during his visit to Champa in 1340, described a princess who met him, spoke in Turkish, was literate in Arabic, and wrote out the bismillah in the presence of the visitor. Islam further got more popular in Cham society after the fall of Champa in 1471. After the death of Indravarman VI, succession disputes escalated into civil war between Cham princes, weakening the kingdom. The Vietnamese took advantage, raided Vijaya in 1446. In 1471 Dai Viet king Le Thanh Tong conquered Champa, killed 60,000 people, and took away 30,000 prisoners included the Cham king and the royal family. Champa was reduced to the rump state of Panduranga, which persisted to exist until being fully absorbed in 1832 by the Vietnamese Empire.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 1407, under the pretext of helping to restore the Trần monarchs, Chinese Ming troops invaded Đại Ngu and captured Hồ Quý Ly and Hồ Hán Thương. The Hồ family came to an end after only 7 years in power. The Ming occupying force annexed Đại Ngu into the Ming Empire after claiming that there was no heir to the Trần throne. Vietnam, weakened by dynastic feuds and the wars with Champa, quickly succumbed. The Ming conquest was harsh. Vietnam was annexed directly as a province of China, the old policy of cultural assimilation again imposed forcibly, and the country was ruthlessly exploited. However, by this time, Vietnamese nationalism had reached a point where attempts to sinicize them could only strengthen further resistance. Almost immediately, Trần loyalists started a resistance war. The resistance, under the leadership of Trần Quý Khoáng at first gained some advances, yet as Trần Quý Khoáng executed two top commanders out of suspicion, a rift widened within his ranks and resulted in his defeat in 1413.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 1418, Lê Lợi was the son of a wealthy aristocrat in Thanh Hóa, led the Lam Sơn uprising against the Ming from his base of Lam Sơn (Thanh Hóa province). Overcoming many early setbacks and with strategic advice from Nguyễn Trãi, Lê Lợi's movement finally gathered momentum. In September 1426, the Lam Sơn rebellion marched northward, ultimately defeated the Ming army in the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động in south of Hanoi by using cannons. Then Lê Lợi's forces launched a siege at Đông Quan (now Hanoi), the capital of the Ming occupation. The Xuande Emperor of Ming China responded by sent two reinforcement forces of 122,000 men, but Lê Lợi staged an ambush and killed the Ming commander Liu Shan in Chi Lăng. Ming troops at Đông Quan surrendered. The Lam Sơn rebels defeated 200,000 Ming soldiers.


title: History of Vietnam

text: In 1428, Lê Lợi reestablished the independent of Vietnam under his Lê dynasty. Lê Lợi renamed the country back to Đại Việt and moved the capital back to Thăng Long, renamed it Đông Kinh.


title: History of Vietnam

text: The Lê kings carried out land reforms to revitalize the economy after the war. Unlike the Lý and Trần kings, who were more influenced by Buddhism, the Lê kings leaned toward Confucianism. A comprehensive set of laws, the Hồng Đức code was introduced in 1483 with some strong Confucian elements, yet also included some progressive rules, such as the rights of women. Art and architecture during the Lê dynasty also became more influenced by Chinese styles than during previous Lý and Trần dynasties. The Lê dynasty commissioned the drawing of national maps and had Ngô Sĩ Liên continue the task of writing Đại Việt's history up to the time of Lê Lợi.