title: Urea cycle

text: Urea cycle disorders may also be diagnosed in adults, and symptoms may include delirium episodes, lethargy, and symptoms similar to that of a stroke. On top of these symptoms, if the urea cycle begins to malfunction in the liver, the patient may develop cirrhosis. This can also lead to sarcopenia (the loss of muscle mass). Mutations lead to deficiencies of the various enzymes and transporters involved in the urea cycle, and cause urea cycle disorders. If individuals with a defect in any of the six enzymes used in the cycle ingest amino acids beyond what is necessary for the minimum daily requirements, then the ammonia that is produced will not be able to be converted to urea. These individuals can experience hyperammonemia, or the build-up of a cycle intermediate.


title: Urea cycle

text: All urea cycle defects, except OTC deficiency, are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. OTC deficiency is inherited as an X-linked recessive disorder, although some females can show symptoms. Most urea cycle disorders are associated with hyperammonemia, however argininemia and some forms of argininosuccinic aciduria do not present with elevated ammonia.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm Jung-hwa (; born August 17, 1969) is a South Korean singer, actress and dancer. Uhm is considered to be one of the most influential women in the Korean entertainment industry, finding rare success in both music and film. Her legacy and career reinventions have given her the nickname of "Korean Madonna".


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm began her career in 1989 as a chorus member for the broadcasting company MBC. She starred in the 1993 romance drama film, "On a Windy Day, We Must Go to Apgujeong", and released her debut studio album, "Sorrowful Secret", that same year. Though both releases found limited audiences, the album's lead single, "Pupil", helped to establish a uniquely sensual image for Uhm.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: She pivoted to dance music with 1996's "Sad Expectation", and found breakthrough success with "Rose of Betrayal" (배반의 장미) from her third studio album, "After Love" (1997). Subsequent releases "Invitation" (1998) and "005.1999.06" (1999) were bolstered by a string of hit singles: "Poison", "Invitation", "I Don't Know" (몰라), and "Festival", which gained status as her signature songs and cemented her position as one of the preeminent pop icons of the late-1990s.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Starting in 2001, Uhm began to concentrate efforts on her acting career. Her performance in the 2002 erotic comedy "Marriage Is a Crazy Thing" won Best Actress at the 39th Baeksang Arts Awards, a category she received another nomination for in 2006 with "Princess Aurora" and won again in 2012 with "Dancing Queen".


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Her 2000s musical output saw declining commercial reception but greater appeal with critics. Uhm began experimenting with electronica on "Self Control" (2004), and funk on "Prestige" (2006), the latter of which won Best Dance and Electronic Album at the 4th Korean Music Awards. In 2008, she experienced a commercial resurgence with the single "D.I.S.C.O". Following a nearly decade-long hiatus from music, she released her tenth studio album "The Cloud Dream of the Nine" in 2017.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm was born in Jecheon, North Chungcheong, South Korea. She is the second child of Yoo Gyeong-sook and Uhm Jin-ok, a music teacher who died in a motorcycle accident when she was six. Her younger and only brother Uhm Tae-woong is an actor. Following her father's death, her family struggled financially.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm Jung-hwa officially debuted as a singer in 1993 with her first studio album "Sorrowful Secret". By the mid-90s she established herself as one of the top Korean female singers and entertainers, with a series of hit singles: "Sad Expectation" (), "A Love Only Heaven Permits" (), "Rose of Betrayal" (), and "Tell Me" ().


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm's fourth studio album, "Invitation", introduced a new mature side of the singer. The music video for its title track caused a lot of controversy due to its suggestive nature. "Invitation" quickly became one of the highest selling albums of the year and received positive reviews from critics and fans.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: She released two of her most recognizable singles of her career, "Poison" and "Invitation" (). She remained successful the following year, in 1999, with her fifth studio album "005.1999.06"


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: During the 2000s, Uhm began to focus more on her acting career and committed herself to taking a variety of acting roles. She also began to pursue and experiment with different musical genres, in particular electronica. In 2004, she released her double album "Self Control", which featured songs composed by Jung Jae-hyung, Fractal and Roller Coaster. Music critics praised Uhm for her ability to reinvent her image and sound.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: After a two-year break from the music scene, she released her ninth studio album "Prestige". Throughout the year she released two singles, "Come 2 Me" and "Song of the Wind" (), each enjoyed positive critical reception. In early 2007, she won a Korean Music Award for Best Electronic Dance Record.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: In the summer of 2008, she released her first EP titled "D.I.S.C.O" with help from her longtime friend Yang Hyun-suk of YG Entertainment. The lead single "D.I.S.C.O" featured T.O.P, a member from the popular boy band Big Bang. The EP was one of the best-selling albums by a female artist in 2008, and was further promoted by the digital single "D.I.S.C.O Part 2" which was a remix version of "D.I.S.C.O" and featured G-Dragon, the leader of Big Bang.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: After an eight-year-long hiatus Uhm announced that she would be releasing her first new album since D.I.S.C.O in 2008, the album title would be "The Cloud Dream of the Nine". She revealed that she would be releasing the album in two parts, the first part would be released on December 27, 2017, and the second part at a later date. Uhm performed the title tracks "Watch Me Move" and "Dreamer" on Gayo Daejeon along with "D.I.S.C.O", she would also perform the two tracks on "MCountdown" on the January 5. One year after the release of Part 1, Uhm revealed through her Instagram account that she was in the preparation stage of her comeback with part 2 of "The Cloud Dream of the Nine".


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: In the summer of 2020, Uhm joined with singers Lee Hyori, Jessi, and Hwasa to form the "supergroup" Refund Sisters. Their first single, "Don't Touch Me" debuted in October 2020, and reached #1 on the Gaon chart.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm has established herself as one of South Korea's top actresses. She is known for her roles in the films "Marriage Is a Crazy Thing", "Singles", "Princess Aurora", "Dancing Queen", "Seducing Mr. Perfect" and "Haeundae", which became one of the highest-grossing movies in Korea. She has won two Baeksang Arts Awards for Best Actress, in 2002 for "Marriage is a Crazy Thing" and again in 2012 for "Dancing Queen".


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: In 2022, Uhm is back on the small screen with the tvN drama "Our Blues", which is their comeback on the small screen in 5 years since 2017.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm launched her new clothing and lingerie line, "Corner Suite" and "ZHUM in New York", which made $10M USD within three months of its release. "Corner Suite" became an instant hit when the line debuted on online markets. The line immediately sold out. Future plans include putting her line of clothes on more home shopping channels, as the demand for it is great.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Uhm was diagnosed with thyroid cancer but fully recovered after surgery in May 2010. Uhm said she felt a little afraid leading up to the surgery, but rather than being discouraged by the pain she was experiencing, she made up her mind to dedicate herself to helping others by inspiring them. "I want to use my talent and influence in a meaningful way," she said.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: Artists who have cited Uhm as an influence or role model include BoA, Lee Hyori, Baek Ji-young, Sandara Park, Tiffany Young, Jung Eun-chae, Son Dam-bi, Kim Yoon-ji, Dal Shabet's Ah Young, Laboum's Solbin, and Apink's Park Cho-rong.


title: Uhm Jung-hwa

text: In 2021 she was selected as Jury member for Actor and Actress of the Year Award in 26th Busan International Film Festival to be held in October.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Bliss is a 2021 American drama film written and directed by Mike Cahill. It stars Owen Wilson and Salma Hayek. The film follows a middle-aged man (Wilson), recently divorced and estranged suffers a psychotic break when he is fired from an unhappy job. Befriended by a homeless woman (Hayek), he gradually falls deeper into what appears to be drug addiction. He struggles to discern reality from fantasy. The viewer is left to question whether he is actually caught up in a layer-upon-layer simulation or whether he is experiencing drug induced psychosis.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: The film initially aims to portray Wilson's character as an overworked divorced dreamer, lost and confused while keeping a strained relationship with his adult children. It then evolves into an emotionally frenetic psychological storyline where the viewer is drawn along with the characters and left to decide what is "real" and what may be a simulated reality. It was released on February 5, 2021, on Amazon Prime Video, and received mostly negative reviews from critics, who compared it unfavorably to The Matrix.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Greg Wittle spends his work hours daydreaming and drawing. After he is called to his boss's office, forgetting his wallet on his desk, Greg's wallet glitches out. Greg discovers his medication cannot be refilled without a doctor represcribing it. After he is fired, he accidentally kills his boss and conceals the body before leaving the office for the bar across the street.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: In the bar, he meets Isabel, who appears to know what he has done. She speaks about having created this world with unintended consequences. In exchange for doing her a favor, she telekinetically makes Greg's boss's death look like a suicide. After they leave the bar a walking woman appears from nowhere multiple times. After Isabel sells Greg's cell phone, she takes him to a tented area. There she offers him yellow crystals and teaches him how to manipulate the world telekinetically.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: After an altercation at a roller rink in which he and Isabel telekinetically trip a bully, he watches police arrest the bully, only to discover himself in the back of the squad car. Greg is released and his daughter Emily searches for him.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: While Isabel gets more crystals, Emily spots Greg on the street and attempts to rescue him. She gives him her phone number and asks him to call her. One day he wakes up in Isabel's tent and finds her absent but sees his drawings out and tacked up. Greg finds Emily's phone number and calls her, but gets the answering machine. When he returns, Isabel is there, upset that he called Emily, asserting she is not real. Isabel decides she needs to prove what reality is to him. She plans to eject them both out of this "false" world using blue crystals.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: After snorting the blue crystals, they wake up attached to a giant computer along with several others. He is told that he has been experiencing a simulation within a Brain Box created by Isabel to study alternate realities and their effects on the human brain.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Isabel reveals they are a couple in this world and takes Greg home, showing him his drawings were recreations of this setting. Greg does not remember this world, and Isabel says that after a long dark period of poverty, most problems on Earth were eliminated, allowing humanity to flourish. Greg still has vivid memories of the simulation, but Isabel warns him it pulls tricks on the user.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: A gala is thrown for the Brain Box. During the celebration, Greg wanders off and encounters a ghostly Emily, who implores him to come back to her. Isabel begins to see elements from the simulation leak into her view and hypothesizes they need to go back into the simulation and take more blue crystals in order to fully exit it.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Back within the simulation, Isabel gets more crystals, but commits a murder in the process. The police are on their tail. At her tent, Isabel finds that there are only enough crystals for one of them to leave. Greg suggests Isabel kill him since he believes real people cannot die in the simulation, but hearing Emily, who has tracked him down, Greg insists Isabel go back alone, which she accepts.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Isabel distracts the police long enough for Greg to escape to a rehab clinic, admitting that he believes that his daughter Emily is real. Sometime later, Greg reconnects with Emily.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: In addition, scientist Bill Nye (the Science Guy) appears as Chris, while Slavoj Žižek has a cameo as himself.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: In June 2019, it was announced Owen Wilson and Salma Hayek had joined the cast of the film, with Mike Cahill directing from a screenplay he wrote and Amazon Studios distributing the film. Cahill managed to cast the two lead actors before they had seen the script, based on a twenty minute pitch.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Principal photography began in Los Angeles in June 2019. Filming also took place in Split and on the island of Lopud, Croatia. The tune 'You and I', which is part of the soundtrack, was performed by Morcheeba lead singer Skye Edwards.


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 28% approval rating based on 103 reviews, with an average rating of 4.90/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "When it comes to building an entertaining sci-fi drama around some cool ideas, this "Bliss" is largely ignorant." Metacritic sampled 21 critics and calculated a weighted average score of 40 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Nick Allen of "RogerEbert.com" gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, and called it "schmaltzy and pointlessly confusing." Frank Scheck of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "As with both of his previous works, the filmmaker delivers an undeniably ambitious mind-bender that bites off more than it can narratively chew."


title: Bliss (2021 film)

text: Andrew Barker of "Variety" wrote: "Cahill gets so bogged down in hair-splitting rules and exposition that he loses track of the bigger themes."


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: Digital Combat Simulator, or DCS, is a combat flight simulation game developed primarily by Eagle Dynamics and The Fighter Collection.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: Several labels are used when referring to the "DCS" line of simulation products: "DCS World", "Modules", and "Campaigns". "DCS World" is a free-to-play game that includes two free aircraft and two free maps. Modules are downloadable content that expand the game with add-on aircraft, maps, and other content. Campaigns are scripted sets of missions. Modules and campaigns are produced by Eagle Dynamics as well as third-parties.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: "DCS World" is a study sim in which players learn how to operate aircraft using realistic procedures. Aircraft are meticulously modeled from real-world data, including authentic flight models and subsystems and detailed cockpits with interactive buttons and switches. Digital manuals document the history, systems, and operation of each aircraft in extensive detail. The game has extensive support for joysticks and HOTAS input devices ranging from gamepads to 1:1 replica cockpits.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: "DCS World" supports a wide variety of combat operations including combat air patrol, dogfighting, airstrikes, close air support, SEAD and airlifts. Dozens of military airplanes and helicopters are available, spanning eras from World War II through the Cold War into the early 21st century. Popular modules as of December 2022 include the AH-64D, F-16C, F/A-18C, F-14 and A-10C.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: A mission editor is included for users to create their own scenarios and campaigns with support for scripting in Lua. Users can host their own servers with user-made missions for PVE and PVP multiplayer. The community has developed tools to create missions using procedural generation and hosts servers that simulate dynamic battlefields.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: "DCS World" acts as a unified modular platform, in contrast to previous installments in the series which were standalone products. This allows users of different modules to switch between aircraft and play together within a single game client. The platform also allows third-party developers to publish modules through Eagle Dynamics' storefront. Community mods have also been produced.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: Some air forces have used DCS in lieu of a professional flight simulator because of its very high fidelity.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: The United States Air Force's 355th Training Squadron at Davis-Monthan AFB currently makes use of the A-10C II module as an instrument and weapons-system trainer. The use of virtual reality headsets is also preferred for a more immersive experience.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: The Armee de l'Air makes use of "DCS World" for both instrument and tactical training with the Mirage 2000C module, citing insufficient numbers of professional simulators.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: Ukrainian pilots have trained using the A-10C II module for "DCS World". The training program is a joint military-civilian effort "to prepare a cadre of Ukrainian A-10 pilots for the hoped-for day when the U.S. does supply Ukraine with the planes."


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: "DCS World" traces its lineage directly from the "Flanker" and "" series of combat flight simulator games. Three standalone titles were released under the "DCS" name from 2008 through 2011. The first was "DCS: Black Shark" as a simulation of the Kamov Ka-50. "DCS: A-10C Warthog," a standalone simulation of the A-10C, was released in February 2011. An upgrade for "Black Shark", "DCS: Black Shark 2", was released in November 2011 and allowed for network multiplayer with "Warthog".


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: The open beta of "DCS World" was launched in May 2012. "Warthog" and "Black Shark 2" were made available as modules. "Flaming Cliffs 3" was released later that year, which added aircraft from "Lock On" as modules of "DCS World". The first third-party module, the Bell UH-1H Huey, was also announced in 2012.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: "DCS World" "1.5" was released in October 2015 featuring a new DirectX 11 graphics engine and a unified executable.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: In November 2015, "DCS World" 2.0 was released as an open alpha while 1.5 continued to be supported as a stable release. 2.0 added support for more detailed terrain including the Nevada Test and Training Range map. "DCS World" 2.1 was released in 2017 and added support for deferred shading and physically based rendering, followed by "DCS World" 2.2 that same year. The next major release, "DCS World" 2.5, added an improved Caucasus map in 2018. 2.5 replaced 1.5 as the stable release version coinciding with a Steam release.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: "DCS World" 2.7 was released as an open beta in April 2021, with new weather and clouds as well as improved piston engine simulation. 2.7 became the stable release in June of that year. "DCS World" 2.8 was released as an open beta in October 2022, improving atmospheric effects and AI basic fighter maneuvers.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: Over the course of development, modules have introduced new features to the simulator including improved flight models and damage models, multi-crew aircraft with multiple players or AI acting as crew and enhanced FLIR simulation.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: PC Gamer reviewed the "DCS: A-10C Warthog" module with a rating of 92/100. IGN praised the care and attention to detail, though remarking a level of inaccessibility: "Yes, there is a 44-page 'Quickstart' guide and yes, there are tutorials – a bevy of lengthy, highly instructive tutorials, actually – but precious little of this is designed for the neophyte or even the marginally experienced jet jock."


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: SimHQ praised the Ka-50 module, noting the attention to technical details such as recoil of the helicopter's main gun affecting flight dynamics, along with smaller details such as the windscreen wiper having several modes. Also noted was the difficulty of flying the aircraft.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: PC Pilot reviewed the third-party F-14 Tomcat module with a score of 97/100. The review concluded that "["DCS: F-14 Tomcat"] is truly one of the greatest simulation modules ever created for a PC flight simulator." The complexity and depth of the multi-crew cockpit and systems was described as exceptional.


title: Digital Combat Simulator

text: HeliSimmer.com's article on the AH-64D module's early access version praised the 3D modeling and soundscape, while noting the incomplete systems and critiquing the flight model's accuracy compared to a real aircraft. Despite these shortcomings, it was said to be "the best representation of an AH-64D since Jane's Longbow 2."


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Carlos Salinas de Gortari (; born 3 April 1948) is a Mexican economist and politician who served as 60th president of Mexico from 1988 to 1994. Affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), earlier in his career he worked in the Secretariat of Programming and Budget, eventually becoming Secretary. He secured the party's nomination for the 1988 general election and was elected amid widespread accusations of electoral fraud.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: An economist, Salinas de Gortari was the first Mexican president since 1946 who was not a law graduate. His presidency was characterized by the entrenchment of the neoliberal, free trade economic policies initiated by his predecessor Miguel de la Madrid in observance of the Washington Consensus, mass privatizations of state-run companies, Mexico's entry into NAFTA, negotiations with the right-wing opposition party PAN to recognize their victories in state and local elections in exchange for supporting Salinas' policies, normalization of relations with the Catholic clergy, and the adoption of a new currency. From the beginning of his administration, Salinas de Gortari was criticized by the Mexican left, who considered him an illegitimate president whose neoliberal policies led to higher unemployment and were perceived as giving away the wealth of the nation to foreign ownership. At the same time, during his first five years in office, Salinas was praised by the right wing and the international community as a leading figure of globalization and credited him with modernizing the country. Salinas was also backed by the United States government in his bid for Director-General of the newly created World Trade Organization (WTO).


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: After years of economic recovery during his presidency, a series of mismanagement and corruption scandals during his last year in office crumbled his public image domestically and internationally. These events included the Zapatista uprising, the assassinations of Luis Donaldo Colosio (Salinas's hand-picked successor and PRI candidate for the 1994 presidential election) and José Francisco Ruiz Massieu (Salinas's brother-in-law and PRI Secretary-General). This surge of political violence led to economic uncertainty. Facing pressures to devalue the peso, Salinas stood firm, opting for a strategy he believed would help his candidacy to be the inaugural president of the WTO. As a consequence, less than a month after leaving office, Mexico entered into one of the worst economic crises of its history. Shortly after, his brother Raúl Salinas de Gortari was arrested for ordering the assassination of Ruiz Massieu and was subsequently indicted on charges of drug trafficking. Salinas then left the country, returning in 1999.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas is often referred to as the most unpopular former president of Mexico. A 2005 nationwide poll conducted by Parametría found that 73% of the respondents had a negative image of him, while only 9% stated that they had a positive image of the former president. He has been regarded as the most influential and controversial Mexican politician since the 1990s.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Carlos Salinas de Gortari was born on 3 April 1948, the second son and one of five children of economist and government official Raúl Salinas Lozano and Margarita De Gortari De Salinas. Salinas's father served as President Adolfo López Mateos's minister of industry and commerce, but was passed over as the PRI's presidential candidate in favor of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (1964–70). When Carlos Salinas was chosen the PRI's presidential candidate for the 1988 election, he told his father, "It took us more than 20 years, but we made it."


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: A tragedy occurred early in Carlos Salinas's life. On 18 December 1951, when he was three years old, he was playing with his older brother Raúl, then five, and an eight-year-old friend when they found a loaded rifle, and one of them shot and killed the Salinas family's twelve-year-old maid, Manuela. It was never determined which of the three boys pulled the trigger, and the incident was declared an accident; it was given newspaper coverage in "Excélsior" and "La Prensa" at the time. A judge blamed the Salinas parents for leaving a loaded weapon accessible to their small children. The Salinas family did not know the last name of their 12-year-old maid Manuela—only that she came from San Pedro Azcapotzaltongo—and it is unknown whether her family ever claimed her body. They were also exonerated with the assistance of Gilberto Bolaños Cacho, maternal uncle of legendary Mexican comedian Chespirito, who is also nephew to Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, who became president of Mexico in 1964. He has not commented publicly on this tragic early childhood incident.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas attended the National Autonomous University of Mexico as an undergraduate, studying economics. He was an undergraduate when the student movement in Mexico organized against the 1968 Summer Olympics, but there is no evidence of his participation. He was an active member of the PRI youth movement and a political club, the Revolutionary Policy and Professional Association, whose members continued to be his close friends when he was president. Salinas was a skilled dressage horseman, and was a member of the Mexico national team at the Pan-American Games in Cali, Colombia, in 1971.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas was one of the Mexicans of his generation who studied at elite foreign universities. He earned a master's degree in Public Administration from Harvard University in 1973 and went on to earn a PhD from Harvard Kennedy School in 1978. His doctoral dissertation was published as "Political Participation, Public Investment and Support for the System: A Comparative Study of Rural Communities in Mexico".


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas met his future first wife, Cecilia Yolanda Occelli González, in 1958 when he was just ten years old. They began dating in 1965 when he was 17-years old and she was 16-years old. However, the relationship ended in 1968 when Salinas moved to the United States to study economics.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In 1971, Salinas and Occelli reconnected in Williamsburg, Virginia, in the United States. They were engaged soon after and married on 15 April 1972, in a ceremony in Mexico City. They moved to Boston, where Salinas was completing his master's and doctorate at Harvard University. The couple discovered that Occelli was pregnant with their first child during Salinas' first semester at Harvard. Their oldest daughter, Cecilia, was born on 22 January 1974. Occelli and Salinas had two more children: Emiliano, who was born on 19 February 1976, and Juan Cristobal, who was born in 1979.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Cecilia Occelli González served as First Lady of Mexico from 1988 to 1994 during the Salinas presidency. Soon after leaving office, Salinas traveled to New York City to take a break from Mexican politics. He returned to Mexico from the United States in 1995, where he immediately asked his wife for a divorce. The couple divorced later in 1995.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas married his second wife, Ana Paula Gerard Rivero, shortly after his divorce from Occelli. It is believed that Salinas originally met Gerard in 1983 at the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, where he was teaching at the time, though that story remains unconfirmed. Gerard later worked as a technical secretary for the Economic Cabinet of the Salinas administration. The couple had three children. Gerard gave birth to their eldest daughter, Ana Emilia Margarita, in January 1996. Patricio Gerónimo Gerardo was born 1998, while their youngest son, Mateo, was born in 2006.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In early 2021, he obtained Spanish nationality through the procedure that grants it to descendants of Sephardic Jews.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas was tapped by President Miguel de la Madrid to serve as Minister of Planning and Budget in 1982, a position that De la Madrid himself had previously held. It was a key cabinet position since Mexico was in dire financial circumstances following the presidency of José López Portillo, who as a desperate measure had nationalized the banks in Mexico and expropriated dollar-denominated savings accounts. The country held no hard currency reserves, exhaustion of foreign credit, and soaring interest rates. the Ministries of Finance and Planning and Budget became the most powerful positions to deal with the economic crisis. In the cabinet, Salinas's main rival was Jesús Silva Herzog, Minister of Finance. In the internecine politics that would decide who would succeed De la Madrid as president, Salinas sought to destroy the reputation of Silva Herzog. Another key figure in the cabinet was Manuel Bartlett, Minister of the Interior, with whom Salinas forged a non-compete alliance. Salinas also forged other alliances within the circles of power and did not directly compete with De la Madrid for public attention. Silva Herzog made missteps in his ministry, which Salinas capitalized on, forcing his resignation.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: According to historian Enrique Krauze, "Not in their worst nightmares could the lords of the PRI have imagined what would happen to them on the sixth of July 1988. As they had done six years before, the electorate came out to vote, but not in support of the official candidate. They came to the voting booths to punish him." Salinas had become presidential candidate in a difficult time for the PRI which for the first time was faced by significant opposition from the left (National Democratic Front) and from the right (National Action Party, PAN). The candidate of the PAN was Manuel Clouthier.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of President Lázaro Cárdenas, registered as an opposing candidate from a left-wing coalition called "Frente Democrático Nacional". He rapidly became a popular figure, and became the first opposing candidate to fill the "Zócalo" with sympathizers and to seriously threaten the PRI, which had won all presidential elections since its inception in 1929. The Ministry of the Interior (Secretaría de Gobernación), through its Federal Electoral Commission, was the institution in charge of the electoral process, and installed a modern computing system to count the votes. On election day July 6, 1988, the system "crashed", and when it was finally restored, Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. Even though the elections are extremely controversial, and some maintain that Salinas won legally, the expression "se cayó el sistema" ("the system crashed") became a colloquial euphemism for electoral fraud. As one observer put it, "For the ordinary citizen, it was not the computer network but the Mexican political system that had crashed."


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The process involved two suspicious shutdowns of the computer system used to keep track of the number of votes. Suspicions later grew as Congress voted (with support from the Revolutionary Institutional and National Action parties) to destroy without opening the electoral documentation. Other people believed that Salinas, in fact, won the ballot, albeit probably not with an absolute majority as the official figures suggested, although that is not required under Mexican election law.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: During a television interview in September 2005, Miguel de la Madrid acknowledged that the PRI lost the 1988 elections. However, he immediately clarified his comment by saying that the PRI had "at least lost a significant number of voters". Asked for comment on De la Madrid's statements, Senator Manuel Bartlett, who was the president of the Federal Electoral Commission "(Comisión Federal Electoral)" during the De la Madrid administration, declared Salinas won the election albeit with the smallest margin of any PRI candidate before him. He attributed De la Madrid's remarks to his old age (71 years old ) and the remarks being taken out of context by journalist Carlos Loret de Mola. Ex-president Miguel de la Madrid admitted that the elections had been rigged.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas assumed the presidency on 1 December 1988 at the Legislative Palace of San Lázaro. There he took oath before the Congress of the Union. As the declared winner of a highly contested election, he had the task of restoring his own legitimacy and that of his party when he took office. The election had shown that much of the public desired reform, but Salinas appointed PRI hard-liners ("dinosaurs") to his cabinet, including Fernando Gutiérrez Barrios to the Ministry of the Interior; Manuel Bartlett to the Ministry of Education; and Carlos Hank González to Agriculture. The cabinet was cohesive in support of Salinas's neoliberal policies. Many ministers were technocrats with graduate academic degrees, a profile similar to Salinas's. Although there was opposition to many of Salinas's policies, it came from outside the cabinet. Over the course of his presidency, he moved or replaced a number of . A key replacement in January 1994 immediately after the Chiapas conflict was at the Ministry of the Interior ("Gobernación"), appointing Jorge Carpizo, who had been head of the government National Human Rights Commission and previously was rector of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. When the PRI candidate in the 1994 elections, Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated in March 1994, new restrictions barring cabinet ministers who had not resigned in the six months previous to the election date from being candidates for the presidency meant that Salinas had a small pool of eligible choices.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In his inaugural address in December 1988, he outlined an ambitious and important goal of "modernizing" Mexico." He contended that "The modernization of Mexico is essential if we are to meet the demands of the 85 million Mexicans of today... In brief, we need to modernize politics, the economy, and society. The modernization of Mexico is, moreover, an absolute imperative. This is the only way we will be able to affirm our sovereignty in a world undergoing profound transformation."


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: During his six-year term in office ("sexenio") major changes were made to the Constitution of 1917 that affected political reform; church-state relations, ending many aspects of anticlericalism restricting the Catholic Church and other religious organizations; agrarian reform, ending redistribution of land under Article 27; and policy changes on "indigenous peoples, human rights, economic activities of the state, [and] criminal due process."


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Immediately upon his inauguration, he arrested prominent union leaders, many of whom were his opponents in the PRI, among other measures to demonstrate his determination to set his own course. His government privatized state-run companies, including Teléfonos de México, sold to PRI-insider Carlos Slim, as well as re-privatizing banks that President José López Portillo had nationalized at the end of his term. The funds from these sales of state assets helped pay off Mexico's internal debt. However, there were also bailouts for banks and the Mexican toll roads that became scandals.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas continued with the neoliberal economic policy of his predecessor Miguel de la Madrid and converted Mexico into a regulatory state. During his presidential term, he aggressively privatized hundreds of state-run companies, including telecommunications, steel, and mining. The banking system (that had been nationalized by José López Portillo) was privatized.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: By the end of his term, inflation had been reduced to 7% in 1994, the lowest figure in 22 years. Shortly after leaving office, due to the so-called December Mistake, inflation rose again to 51%.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: During his term, the peso devalued from 2.65 MXP to 3.60 MXN per U.S. dollar by November 30, 1994, the last day of his term; thus the peso devalued far less than it had in the two previous terms. (The peso was later devalued from 4 per dollar to 7.2 in a single week due to the "December Mistake.")


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas established the National Solidarity Program (PRONASOL), a social welfare program, as a way to directly aid poor Mexicans, but also create a network of support for Salinas. It was his first official act as president. The program channeled public funds, which the administration said came largely from privatization of state-owned companies, into impoverished areas to improve roads, the electrical grid, schools, and clinics in order to raise levels of education and health and link remote areas, with lack of oversight in its spending. The program was similar to those in other countries to manage the disruption and political costs of macroeconomic adjustment. Salinas's Harvard doctoral dissertation had examined the relationship between social programs and political support for the government. Given the Salinas's questionable legitimacy as the winner of the 1988 election, PRONASOL was seen as a way for Salinas to deliver immediate benefits to the poor and avert their turning to other political parties or worse. It did not prioritize funding for Mexico's poorest states, but rather to states with middle-income populations where elections were most contested and where the PRI had lost. Politically, the program sought to undermine the appeal of leftists, especially Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. In Chiapas, PRONASOL channeled increased funds in 1993 and 1994, but it did not prevent the Zapatista uprising, which showed that the program had only a limited impact.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The Catholic Church and the Mexican government has had a historically fraught relationship, with restrictions on the church's role in national life. In the 1980s, the church saw electoral participation reform and fighting electoral fraud as an issue. Sometime during the presidential campaign, the PRI had indicated to the Church that a Salinas victory would be beneficial to the Church. It has been considered a quid pro quo agreement.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: A delegation of the leadership of the episcopal hierarchy attended the inauguration of Salinas on December 1, 1988. After the 1988 election the Mexican bishops did not make public statements about the election results. Behind the scenes the apostolic delegate to Mexico, the Vatican's representative, Mexican bishops, and government officials had a series of secret meetings that hammered out the outlines of a new Church-State relationship. In his inaugural address, Salinas de Gortari announced a program to "modernize" Mexico via structural transformation. "The modern state is a state which ... maintains transparency and updates its relation with political parties, entrepreneurial groups, and the church." His declaration was more an articulation of the direction of change, but not list of specifics.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The implementation of reforms entailed amending the 1917 constitution, but before that overcoming opposition on the Left but also in the Catholic Church itself. After considerable debate, the Mexican legislature voted for fundamental revisions in Church-State policy.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In the wake of the highly controversial 1988 election results, the government initiated a series of electoral reforms. A major change was the creation of the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) in October 1990, taking elections out of the hands of the Ministry of the Interior to create an independent entity.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The 1994 elections were the first to have international observers, and were considered, at that time, the fairest elections in the century, although not free of controversy. For the first time, the PRI lost its two-thirds majority in Congress, which is necessary to conduct constitutional reforms.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In 1990, the National Human Rights Commission ("Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos") was created. Initially a government agency, it became a separate entity,


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In 1992, Salinas and his Secretary of Education, Ernesto Zedillo introduced new compulsory history texts in Mexican schools, part of the Mexican Free-Textbook Program. Authored by and Héctor Aguilar Camín, the new textbooks set off a storm of controversy. Shifts in emphasis concerned the Porfiriato and the role of foreign investment, Emiliano Zapata, lauding him as a hero despite his having opposed every government in power; U.S.-Mexico relations, avoiding negative treatment of the history; and the Catholic Church in Mexico, treating it dispassionately. The government was compelled to withdraw them in January 1993. According to one assessment, "While the 1992 textbook controversy disclosed new support for the regime from the right, it also revealed an erosion of support and discipline within officialdom."


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The centerpiece of Salinas's presidency was his successful negotiation with the U.S. and Canada to create the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect on 1 January 1994. The agreement was a reversal of Mexico's longstanding policies of economic nationalism and anti-Americanism and was intended to create a single market. Mexican proponents of NAFTA saw it in a way to secure markets for its exports and attract foreign investment, and create jobs, help the government to be able to service its foreign debt, and overall, promote economic recovery. In Mexico, the reversal was controversial, opposed by organized labor, many academics, and nongovernmental organizations.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: An issue of importance both domestic and foreign policy is drug trafficking. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Mexico was a transit country for cocaine produced in Colombia and destined for consumers in the United States. President De la Madrid considered drug trafficking a national security issue and devoted government funding to it. Salinas expanded this funding, but neither president stemmed the growth of trafficking and its impact on Mexico. Drug trafficking is highly lucrative for those involved with it, and Mexico's weak law enforcement and judicial system could not prevent the wide-scale involvement of Mexico's poorly-paid police from being corrupted. The Mexican military to a lesser extent was corrupted, along with politicians, and some journalists. Such corruption undermined the possibility of rule of law and it prevented Mexicans from having trust in the state. A rising level of violence by drug traffickers against the state, witnesses, journalists, and bystanders. The Mexican government did capture and jail some high-level drug mafia leaders, including Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo in 1989, whose arrest made visible the extent of law enforcement collusion.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas negotiated the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), with the United States and Canada. Salinas also renegotiated Mexico's foreign debt. In 1990, Salinas had traveled to Europe to attract non-North American capital investment, but dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Soviet bloc opened them to foreign investment; Mexico was less attractive to them and Salinas turned to North America. Critics say that NAFTA has had mixed results for Mexico: while there has been huge increase in commerce and foreign investment, this has not been at all the case for employment and salaries.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In 1992, Mexico hosted the Chapultepec Peace Accords, a venue where the parties in the civil war in El Salvador signed an accord ending the long conflict.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Mexico reestablished diplomatic relations with the Vatican. Moreover, Mexico became member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The First Ibero-American Summit was held and the Chapultepec Peace Accords, a peace agreement for El Salvador, were signed.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas in 1991 visited United States to help convince the Illinois Governor, James R. Thompson to pardon four Mexican citizens from a quadruple murder known as the Milwaukee Ave Massacre, that took place in 1981 in Chicago, Illinois. With the help of Carlos Salinas de Gortari the four men, Joaquin Varela, Rogelio Arroyo, Ignacio Varela, and Isauro Sanchez, had their sentences commuted, later pardoned by Governor Jim Edgar.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: As the 1994 presidential election approached, Salinas had the crucial decision to designate the candidate for the PRI; that person had always gone on to win the presidential election. "The shipwreck of the 1988 succession should have sufficed to teach Salinas to prevent another disaster from befalling the system he had inherited." At the time Salinas made the choice, popularity and credibility was high over the course of his presidency, but a series of events in the final year of his presidency changed that.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The "unveiling" of the PRI candidate for the presidency was on 28 November 1993, with Salinas choosing Luis Donaldo Colosio. Those considered for the position were Manuel Camacho and Colosio, with earlier contenders, such as Jesús Silva Herzog and Pedro Aspe being eliminated. Aspe, a graduate of MIT had a high international profile, but was considered unlikely to actually attract voters. The changed circumstances of the Mexican political system, as demonstrated by Salinas's own election to the presidency, meant that being designated the PRI did not guarantee election. Aspe was not a charismatic prospect as a candidate who could energize and charm voters. With the potential that Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas was likely to run again for the presidency, the PRI needed to field someone who could garner votes.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The uprising in Chiapas on 1 January 1994 coincided with the date that the NAFTA came into effect. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation ("Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional", EZLN) issued their first declaration from the state of Chiapas in southern Mexico. Salinas's immediate response was to find for a peaceful solution: offering pardon to deposed arms; ordering a cease fire; appointing a peace negotiator, and sending Mexican Congress a General Amnesty Law. Salinas's presidential successor took a harder line when he was inaugurated. But Salinas's more peaceful solution to the Zapatista uprising was legal and politically pragmatic, likely saving many lives in Mexico. The Zapatista rebellion spread regionally, but not nationwide, but the fact that it happened and that international attention was drawn to this poor region of Mexico just as NAFTA was implemented meant that Salinas's careful plans for a peaceful political transition with his legacy intact were obliterated. Salinas appointed Manuel Camacho, Minister of Foreign Affairs, as the government's peace mediator. For Salinas, this had political benefits, since Camacho, having been passed over as the PRI presidential candidate, could have bolted from the party. With this important appointment, he was in the public limelight again.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: A spectacular political event of 1994 was the assassination of Salinas's handpicked PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio in March 1994, upending the already complex electoral situation with elections scheduled for August 1994. The Zapatista uprising had ruined Salinas's plans for a peaceful transition of Mexico in the elections. There is evidence that Salinas and Colosio began to disagree, not unusual after the electoral transfer, but this occurred prior to it. His campaign languished with lack of funding, Colosio had problems getting media coverage, given the high-profile events in Chiapas. Salinas prevented Colosio from going to Chiapas, while the explanation that his presence there would complicate the situation. Increasingly there was the impression that Salinas would reverse his decision for Colosio, substituting someone else, perhaps Manuel Camacho. Camacho was a politically savvy former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Head of Government of Mexico City as well as Peace Commissioner in Chiapas. Salinas made a public statement on 17 January 1994, affirming his choice as candidate, but this was at the insistence of Colosio. Salinas extracted a pledge from Camacho that he had no designs on the presidency, which he renounced the day before Colosio's assassination in Tijuana 23 March 1994. After a few days of weighing his options, Salinas chose Colosio's campaign manager, Ernesto Zedillo, former Minister of Education, as the new PRI candidate for the presidency. Zedillo had been Secretary of Education, a relatively unimportant ministry; he had resigned to run the campaign of Colosio. Zedillo had never held elective office, sharing that trait with De la Madrid and Salinas, but Zedillo was not otherwise experienced politically. He was perceived as a weak candidate. There are speculation that Salinas wished to perpetuate his power as Plutarco Elías Calles had in the wake of the 1928 assassination of president-elect Alvaro Obregón, controlling successor presidents.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: After considering whether to postpone the general election scheduled for 21 August 1994, Salinas chose Zedillo to run as the PRI candidate for the presidency and the elections took place as scheduled. Voters came out in large numbers to choose between three main candidates, Zedillo for the PRI, Cárdenas for the Party of Democratic Revolution, and Diego Fernández de Cevallos for the PAN. Zedillo won a clear victory, in what were considered by foreign observers as free and fair. In results published by the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), Zedillo got 48.7%, Cevallos 25.9%, and Cárdenas 16.6%.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Following the election in September 1994, Secretary General of the PRI José Francisco Ruiz Massieu, Salinas' former brother-in-law, was assassinated in downtown Mexico City in broad daylight. The murder was not solved during Salinas's presidency, even when (Francisco's brother) was the attorney general and in charge of the investigation.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: The economic bubble gave Mexico a prosperity not seen in a generation. This period of rapid growth coupled with low inflation prompted some political thinkers and the media to state that Mexico was on the verge of becoming a "First World nation". In fact, it was the first of the "newly industrialized nations" to be admitted into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in May 1994. It was known that the peso was overvalued, but the extent of the Mexican economy's vulnerability was either not well known or downplayed by both the Salinas administration and the media. This vulnerability was further aggravated by several unexpected events and macroeconomic mistakes made in the last year of his administration.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Several economists and historians have analyzed some of the events and policy mistakes that precipitated the crisis of December 1994. In keeping with the PRI election-year practices, Salinas launched a spending spree to finance popular projects, which translated into a historically high deficit. This budget deficit was coupled with a current account deficit, fueled by excessive consumer spending as allowed by the overvalued peso. In order to finance this deficit, the Salinas administration issued "tesobonos", an attractive debt instrument that insured payment in dollars instead of pesos.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Increasing current account deficit fostered by government spending, caused alarm among Mexican and foreign T-bill ("tesobono") investors, who sold them rapidly, thereby depleting the already-low central bank reserves (which eventually hit a record low of $9 billion). The economically orthodox thing to do, in order to maintain the fixed exchange rate (at 3.3 pesos per dollar, within a variation band), would have been to sharply increase interest rates by allowing the monetary base to shrink, as dollars were being withdrawn from the reserves. Given the fact that it was an election year, whose outcome might have changed as a result of a pre-election-day economic downturn, the Bank of Mexico decided to buy Mexican Treasury Securities in order to maintain the monetary base, and thus prevent the interest rates from rising. This, in turn, caused an even more dramatic decline in the dollar reserves. These decisions aggravated the already delicate situation, to a point at which a crisis became inevitable and devaluation was only one of many necessary adjustments.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Soon after taking office, Zedillo announced that his government would let the fixed exchange rate band increase 15 percent (up to 4 pesos per US$), by stopping the unorthodox measures employed by the previous administration to keep it at the previous fixed level (e.g., by selling dollars, assuming debt, and so on). This measure, however, was not enough, and the government was unable to hold this line, and decided to let the exchange rate float. While experts agree that devaluation was necessary, some critics of Zedillo's 22-day-old administration argue that, although economically coherent, the way the crisis was handled was a political mistake. By having announced its plans for devaluation, they argue that many foreigners withdrew their investments, thus aggravating the effects. Whether the effects were aggravated further or not, the result was that the peso crashed under a floating regime from four pesos to the dollar (with the previous increase of 15%) to 7.2 to the dollar in the space of a week.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Mexican businesses with debts to be paid in dollars, or that relied on supplies bought from the United States, suffered an immediate hit, with mass industrial lay-offs and several suicides. To make matters worse, the devaluation announcement was made mid-week, on a Wednesday, and for the remainder of the week foreign investors fled the Mexican market without any government action to prevent or discourage the flight until the following Monday, when it was too late.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas faced widespread criticism in Mexico. He was widely blamed for the collapse of the economy and his privatization of several government-run businesses such as Telmex. With respect to the collapse of the economy, he rapidly responded by blaming Zedillo's "inept" handling of the situation, coining the term "December mistake" to refer to the crisis and Zedillo's mistakes. He then argued that he had talked to Zedillo of a possibility of "sharing the burden" of the devaluation by allowing the peso to devaluate a certain percent before his term was over, and the rest of the necessary devaluation would have been done during Zedillo's administration.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Initially the Zedillo administration followed Salinas's policies regarding the negotiations with the Zapatistas, pledging to reach a peaceful resolution to the Chiapas crisis. Zedillo then reversed course and on February 9, 1995, identifying Subcomandante Marcos to be Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente, and pursued military intervention. He abandoned that unsuccessful strategy and peace talks were subsequently re-established. Zedillo's zigzag policies in Chiapas were consistent with some others of his administration.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Ernesto Zedillo had been an accidental presidential candidate who had no political experience or independent base of power. There was a perception that Salinas wanted to follow the precedent of Plutarco Elías Calles who wielded tremendous power over three successor presidents following the 1928 assassination of president-elect Alvaro Obregón. However, this changed when by order of president Zedillo Salinas's older brother Raúl Salinas was arrested on 28 February 1995 under charges of orchestrating the assassination of Ruiz Massieu; the arrest dramatically shifted the political situation. Since 1940 when president Lázaro Cárdenas left the presidency and turned power over to his successor, Mexican former presidents had not directly intervened in politics. After the arrest of his brother, Salinas went on television, expressing his outrage at Zedillo. In the broadcast he placed the blame for the December peso crisis on Zedillo, resulting in the loss of Mexican jobs, bankruptcies, and the tarnishing of Mexico's image.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas abandoned his campaign—which had been backed by the United States—to become the Director-General of the World Trade Organization and left Mexico City, going to Monterrey where he staged a publicized hunger strike in the home of a PRI supporter. Arturo Warman, Minister of Agrarian Reform, was sent to Monterrey to persuade Salinas to return to Mexico City. Salinas demanded that the government issue a statement clearing him of responsibility for the Colosio case and the December 20 devaluation. Salinas returned to Mexico City and he and Zedillo met. Zedillo's government issued a statement absolving Salinas of the Colosio murder and tempered his criticism of Salinas in the peso crisis. Salinas left Mexico for self-imposed exile and settled in Ireland for a period.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas's reputation was to be further clouded by a series of controversies involving close family members. His brother Raúl had been arrested in February 1995. In November 1995, Raúl's wife, , and his brother-in-law, Antonio Castañón, were arrested in Geneva, Switzerland, after attempting to withdraw US$84 million from an account owned by Raúl Salinas under an alias. Their capture led to the unveiling of a vast fortune spread around the world and amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars, even though Raúl Salinas had never officially received an annual income of more than $190,000. A report by the U.S. General Accounting Office indicated that Raúl Salinas had transferred over $90 million out of Mexico into private bank accounts in London and Switzerland through a complex set of transactions between 1992 and 1994. In 2008, the government of Switzerland turned over $74 million, out of the $110 million in frozen bank accounts held by Raúl Salinas, to the government of Mexico. The Swiss Justice Ministry indicated that the Mexican government had demonstrated that $66 million of the funds had been misappropriated, and the funds, with interest, were returned to Mexico. The Salinas family would not receive back any of the frozen funds.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In 1997, while Salinas was in exile and his brother Raúl in jail, their father, Raúl Salinas Lozano was accused in a U.S court of being connected to drug dealing by a convicted Mexican trafficker, Magdalena Ruiz Pelayo; the senior Salinas denied the charges.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas divorced his first wife, Cecilia Occelli González, in 1995 soon after leaving office. That same year he married his second wife, Ana Paula Gerard.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In January 1999, after a four-year trial, Salinas' older brother Raúl was convicted of ordering the murder of the PRI official (and Salinas' brother-in-law) José Francisco Ruiz Massieu and sentenced to 50 years in prison. In July 1999, an appeals court cut the sentence to years. In June 2005, the conviction was overturned, and Raúl Salinas was freed.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: On December 6, 2004, Salinas's youngest brother, Enrique, was found dead in Huixquilucan, Estado de México, inside his car with a plastic bag strapped around his head. The case remains unsolved.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In the last years of Zedillo's term, Carlos Salinas returned to Mexico to announce the publication of his book, "Mexico: The Policy and the Politics of Modernization". Written during his stay in Ireland and full of quotations from press articles and political memoirs, it defended his achievements and blamed Zedillo for the crisis that followed his administration.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: As of May 2010, Salinas was still living in Dublin, Ireland. Salinas also attended his son's civil wedding in Mexico City and promised to attend the subsequent religious wedding in late September.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas returned to Mexico in the late 1990s and has continued to influence Mexican politics since then. In April 2018, he celebrated his 70th birthday with a party attended by a number of political elites. On 5 December 2018, he attended George H. W. Bush's funeral.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas de Gortari remains a highly controversial figure in Mexican history. In a 2005 national survey conducted by Parametría, 73% of the respondents had a negative image of Salinas de Gortari, 9% had a positive opinion, and 18% had no opinion about him.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In another national survey conducted in 2012 by BGC-Excelsior about former Presidents, Salinas de Gortari by far received the worst rating: 20% of the respondents considered that his administration was "very good" or "good", 13% of the responded considered that it was an "average" administration, and 66% of the respondents considering that it was a "bad" or "very bad" administration.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: In the Netflix series "" (2018), "the President-elect" a character based on Salinas is portrayed by actor Adolfo Madera. Season 2 episode 6 depicts two young boys playing war and shooting a maid and episodes 7 and 8 depict the 1988 Mexican Presidential election.


title: Carlos Salinas de Gortari

text: Salinas was prominently featured in two Netflix series released in 2019, pertaining to the Colosio assassination: as an interviewee in the documentary series "1994", and portrayed by Ari Brickman in the drama series "".


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: Brooke D'Orsay (born February 17, 1982) is a Canadian actress, best known for voicing the character of Caitlin Cooke on the Teletoon animated series "6teen" (2004–2010) and Brooke Mayo in the 2005 movie "King's Ransom".


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: For American audiences, she is best known as Paige Collins-Lawson on "Royal Pains" and as Kate in "Two and a Half Men". She played


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: Deb on the Lifetime original series "Drop Dead Diva" and was in the Nickelodeon original movie "The Boy Who Cried Werewolf" as Paulina Von Eckberg. Since 2017, D'Orsay has become known for her performances in Hallmark Channel's Countdown to Christmas made-for-TV films. She also acted in a 2012 movie "How to Fall in Love" as Anni, a broke waitress/event planner who helps a high school friend as a 'dating coach' and falls in love in the process.


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: Brooke D'Orsay was born on February 17, 1982 in Toronto, Ontario. The D'Orsay family name is of Huguenot French origin.


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: Her first major acting role was in 2001, in the movie "Why Can't I Be a Movie Star?" as Jennifer Kruz. D'Orsay followed with several roles in television: Ellen in "Doc", Justine in "Soul Food" and Felicity Fury in four episodes of "Ace Lightning".


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: D'Orsay voiced Caitlin Cooke on the Teletoon animated series "6teen". She appeared on "The Big Bang Theory" as Christy in the episode "The Dumpling Paradox" and "How I Met Your Mother" as Margaret in the episode "The Stinsons". D'Orsay was the "Nestea Girl" in a long-running commercial for Nestea's "Nestea Plunge" campaign. She had a main role on "Gary Unmarried" as Sasha, the head boss of the sports radio network in which the series takes place.


title: Brooke D'Orsay

text: D'Orsay played Deb Dobkins, the dead model, in the Lifetime series "Drop Dead Diva" and was a cast member on the USA Network series "Royal Pains" as Paige Collins, wife of HankMed CFO Evan R. Lawson. She also starred in the Nickelodeon original movie "The Boy Who Cried Werewolf" (2010) as Paulina Von Eckberg and played Kate, Walden Schmidt's girlfriend, in a recurring role on "Two and a Half Men" in 2012–2014.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: Bethlem Royal Hospital, also known as St Mary Bethlehem, Bethlehem Hospital and Bedlam, is a psychiatric hospital in London. Its famous history has inspired several horror books, films and TV series, most notably "Bedlam", a 1946 film with Boris Karloff.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The hospital is closely associated with King's College London and, in partnership with the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, is a major centre for psychiatric research. It is part of the King's Health Partners academic health science centre and the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: Founded in 1247, the hospital was originally near Bishopsgate just outside the walls of the City of London. It moved a short distance to Moorfields in 1676, and then to St George's Fields in Southwark in 1815, before moving to its current location in Monks Orchard in 1930.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The word "bedlam", meaning uproar and confusion, is derived from the hospital's nickname. Although the hospital became a modern psychiatric facility, historically it was representative of the worst excesses of asylums in the era of lunacy reform.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The hospital was founded in 1247 as the Priory of the New Order of our Lady of Bethlehem in the city of London during the reign of Henry III.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: It was established by the Bishop-elect of Bethlehem, the Italian Goffredo de Prefetti, following a donation of personal property by the London alderman and former sheriff, Simon FitzMary. The original location was in the parish of St Botolph, Bishopsgate's ward, just beyond London's wall and where the south-east corner of Liverpool Street Station now stands. Bethlem was not initially intended as a hospital, in the clinical sense, much less as a specialist institution for the insane, but as a centre for the collection of alms to support the Crusader Church and to link England to the Holy Land.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: De Prefetti's need to generate income for the Crusader Church and restore the financial fortunes of his see had been occasioned by two misfortunes: his bishopric had suffered significant losses following the destructive conquest of Bethlehem by the Khwarazmian Turks in 1244, and his immediate predecessor had further impoverished his cathedral chapter through the alienation of a considerable amount of its property. The priory, obedient to the Church of Bethlehem, would also house the poor and, if they visited, provide hospitality to the bishop, canons and brothers of Bethlehem. Thus, Bethlem became a "hospital", in medieval usage, "an institution supported by charity or taxes for the care of the needy". The subordination of the priory's religious order to the bishops of Bethlehem was further underlined in the foundational charter, which stipulated that the prior, canons and inmates were to wear a star upon their cloaks and capes to symbolise their obedience to the church of Bethlehem.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, with its activities underwritten by episcopal and papal indulgences, the hospital's role as a centre for alms collection persisted, but its linkage to the Order of Bethlehem increasingly unravelled, putting its purpose and patronage in doubt. In 1346, the master of Bethlem, a position at that time granted to the most senior of London's Bethlemite brethren, applied to the city authorities seeking protection; thereafter metropolitan office-holders claimed power to oversee the appointment of masters and demanded in return an annual payment of 40 shillings. It is doubtful whether the city really provided substantial protection and much less that the mastership fell within their patronage but, dating from the 1346 petition, it played a role in the management of Bethlem's finances. By this time, the Bethlehemite bishops had relocated to Clamecy, France, under the surety of the Avignon papacy. This was significant as, throughout the reign of Edward III (1327–77), the English monarchy had extended its patronage over ecclesiastical positions through the seizure of priories under the control of non-English religious houses. As a dependent house of the Order of Saint Bethlehem in Clamecy, Bethlem was vulnerable to seizure by the crown and this occurred in the 1370s when Edward III took control. The purpose of this appropriation was, in the context of the Hundred Years' War between France and England, to prevent funds raised by the hospital from enriching the French monarchy via the papal court. After this event the masters of the hospital, semi-autonomous figures in charge of its day-to-day management, were normally crown appointees and it became an increasingly secularised institution. The memory of its foundation became muddied and muddled; in 1381, the royal candidate for the post of master claimed that from its beginnings it had been superintended by an order of knights and he confused its founder, Goffredo de Prefetti, with the Frankish crusader, Godfrey de Bouillon. The removal of the last symbolic link to the Bethlehemites was confirmed in 1403 when it was reported that master and inmates no longer wore the star of Bethlehem.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: In 1546, the Lord Mayor of London, Sir John Gresham, petitioned the crown to grant Bethlem to the city. This petition was partially successful and Henry VIII reluctantly ceded to the City of London "the custody, order and governance" of the hospital and of its "occupants and revenues". This charter came into effect in 1547. The crown retained possession of the hospital while its administration fell to the city authorities. Following a brief interval when it was placed under the management of the governors of Christ's Hospital, from 1557 it was administered by the governors of Bridewell, a prototype house of correction at Blackfriars. Having been thus one of the few metropolitan hospitals to have survived the dissolution of the monasteries physically intact, this joint administration continued, not without interference by both the crown and city, until incorporation into the National Health Service in 1948.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: It is unknown when Bethlem, or Bedlam, began to specialise in the care and control of the insane, but it has been frequently asserted that Bethlem was first used for the insane from 1377. This date is derived from the unsubstantiated conjecture of the Reverend Edward Geoffrey O'Donoghue, chaplain to the hospital, who published a monograph on its history in 1914. While it is possible that Bethlem was receiving the insane during the late fourteenth century, the first definitive record of their presence in the hospital is in the details of a visitation of the Charity Commissioners in 1403. This recorded that amongst other patients there were six male inmates who were ""mente capti"", a Latin term indicating insanity. The report of the visitation also noted the presence of four pairs of manacles, 11 chains, six locks and two pairs of stocks but it is not clear if any or all of these items were for the restraint of the inmates. While mechanical restraint and solitary confinement are likely to have been used for those regarded as dangerous, little else is known of the actual treatment of the insane for much of the medieval period. The presence of a small number of insane patients in 1403 marks Bethlem's gradual transition from a diminutive general hospital into a specialist institution for the confinement of the insane. This process was largely completed by 1460.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: From the fourteenth century, Bethlem had been referred to colloquially as "Bedleheem", "Bedleem" or "Bedlam". Initially "Bedlam" was an informal name but from approximately the Jacobean era the word entered everyday speech to signify a state of madness, chaos, and the irrational nature of the world. This development was partly due to Bedlam's staging in several plays of the Jacobean and Caroline periods, including "The Honest Whore, Part I" (1604); "Northward Ho" (1607); "The Duchess of Malfi" (1612); "The Pilgrim" (); and "The Changeling" (1622). This dramatic interest in Bedlam is also evident in references to it in early seventeenth-century plays such as "Epicœne, or The Silent Woman" (1609), "" (1614), and "A New Way to Pay Old Debts" (). The appropriation of Bedlam as a theatrical locale for the depiction of madness probably owes no little debt to the establishment in 1576 in nearby Moorfields of The Curtain and The Theatre, two of the main London playhouses; it may also have been coincident with that other theatricalisation of madness as charitable object, the commencement of public visiting at Bethlem.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The position of master was a sinecure largely regarded by its occupants as means of profiting at the expense of the poor in their charge. The appointment of the masters, later known as keepers, had lain within the patronage of the crown until 1547. Thereafter the city, through the Court of Aldermen, took control and, as with the King's appointees, the office was used to reward loyal servants and friends. Compared to the masters placed by the monarch, those who gained the position through the city were of much more modest status. In 1561, the Lord Mayor succeeded in having his former porter, Richard Munnes, a draper by trade, appointed to the position. The sole qualification of his successor in 1565, a man by the name of Edward Rest, appears to have been his occupation as a grocer. Rest died in 1571, at which point the keepership passed on to John Mell in 1576, known for his abuse of "the governors, those who gave money to the poor, and the poor themselves." The Bridewell Governors largely interpreted the role of keeper as that of a house manager and this is clearly reflected in the occupations of most appointees as they tended to be inn-keepers, victualers or brewers and the like. When patients were sent to Bethlem by the Governors of the Bridewell the keeper was paid from hospital funds. For the remainder, keepers were paid either by the families and friends of inmates or by the parish authorities. It is possible that keepers negotiated their fees for these latter categories of patients.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: John Mell's death in 1579 left the keepership open for the long-term keeper Roland Sleford, a London cloth-maker, who left his post in 1598, apparently of his own volition, after a 19-year tenure. Two months later, the Bridewell Governors, who had until then shown little interest in the management of Bethlem beyond the appointment of keepers, conducted an inspection of the hospital and a census of its inhabitants for the first time in over 40 years. Their purpose was "to view and p[er]use the defaultes and want of rep[ar]ac[i]ons". They found that during the period of Sleford's keepership the hospital buildings had fallen into a deplorable condition with the roof caving in and the kitchen sink blocked, and reported that "...it is not fitt for anye man to dwell in wch was left by the Keeper for that it is so loathsomly filthely kept not fit for any man to come into the house".


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The committee of inspection found 21 inmates with only two having been admitted during the previous 12 months. Of the remainder, six at least had been resident for a minimum of eight years and one inmate had been there for around 25 years. Three were from outside London, six were charitable cases paid for out of the hospital's resources, one was supported by a parochial authority, and the rest were provided for by family, friends, benefactors or, in one instance, out of their own funds. The reason for the Governors' new-found interest in Bethlem is unknown but it may have been connected to the increased scrutiny the hospital was coming under with the passing of poor law legislation in 1598 and to the decision by the Governors to increase hospital revenues by opening it up to general visitors as a spectacle. After this inspection, the Governors initiated some repairs and visited the hospital at more frequent intervals. During one such visit in 1607 they ordered the purchase of clothing and eating vessels for the inmates, presumably indicating the lack of such basic items.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: At the bidding of James VI and I, Helkiah Crooke (1576–1648) was appointed keeper-physician in 1619. As a Cambridge graduate, the author of an enormously successful English language book of anatomy entitled "Microcosmographia: a Description of the Body of Man" (1615) and a member of the medical department of the royal household, he was clearly of higher social status than his city-appointed predecessors (his father was a noted preacher, and his elder brother Thomas was created a baronet). Crooke had successfully ousted the previous keeper, the layman Thomas Jenner, after a campaign in which he had castigated his rival for being "unskilful in the practice of medicine". While this may appear to provide evidence of the early recognition by the Governors that the inmates of Bethlem required medical care, the formal conditions of Crooke's appointment did not detail any required medical duties. Indeed, the Board of Governors continued to refer to the inmates as "the poore" or "prisoners" and their first designation as patients appears to have been by the Privy Council in 1630.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: From 1619, Crooke unsuccessfully campaigned through petition to the king for Bethlem to become an independent institution from the Bridewell, a move that while likely meant to serve both monarchial and personal interest would bring him into conflict with the Bridewell Governors. Following a pattern of management laid down by early office-holders, his tenure as keeper was distinguished by his irregular attendance at the hospital and the avid appropriation of its funds as his own. Such were the depredations of his regime that an inspection by the Governors in 1631 reported that the patients were "likely to starve". Charges against his conduct were brought before the Governors in 1632. Crooke's royal favour having dissolved with the death of James I, Charles I instigated an investigation against him in the same year. This established his absenteeism and embezzlement of hospital resources and charged him with failing to pursue "any endeavour for the curing of the distracted persons". It also revealed that charitable goods and hospital-purchased foodstuffs intended for patients had been typically misappropriated by the hospital steward, either for his own use or to be sold to the inmates. If patients lacked resources to trade with the steward they often went hungry. These findings resulted in the dismissal in disgrace of Crooke, the last of the old-style keepers, along with his steward on 24 May 1633.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: In 1632 it was recorded that the old house of Bethlem had "below stairs a parlour, a kitchen, two larders, a long entry throughout the house, and 21 rooms wherein the poor distracted people lie, and above the stairs eight rooms more for servants and the poor to lie in". It is likely that this arrangement was not significantly different in the sixteenth century. Although inmates, if deemed dangerous or disturbing, were chained or locked up, Bethlem was an otherwise open building with its inhabitants at liberty to roam around its confines and possibly the local neighbourhood. The neighbouring inhabitants would have been quite familiar with the condition of the hospital as in the 1560s, and probably for some considerable time before that, those who lacked a lavatory in their own homes had to walk through "the west end of the long house of Bethlem" to access the rear of the hospital and reach the "common Jacques". Typically the hospital appears to have been a receptacle for the very disturbed and troublesome and this fact lends some credence to accounts such as that provided by Donald Lupton in the 1630s who described the "cryings, screechings, roarings, brawlings, shaking of chaines, swearings, frettings, chaffings" that he observed.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: Bethlem had been built over a sewer that served both the hospital and its precinct. This common drain regularly blocked, resulting in overflows of waste at the entrance of the hospital. The 1598 visitation by the Governors had observed that the hospital was "filthely kept", but the Governors rarely made any reference to the need for staff to clean the hospital. The level of hygiene reflected the inadequate water supply, which, until its replacement in 1657, consisted of a single wooden cistern in the back yard from which water had to be laboriously transported by bucket. In the same yard since at least the early seventeenth century there was a "washhouse" to clean patients' clothes and bedclothes and in 1669 a drying room for clothes was added. Patients, if capable, were permitted to use the "house of easement", of which there were two at most, but more frequently "piss-pots" were used in their cells. Unsurprisingly, inmates left to brood in their cells with their own excreta were, on occasion, liable to throw such "filth & Excrem[en]t" into the hospital yard or onto staff and visitors. Lack of facilities combined with patient incontinence and prevalent conceptions of the mad as animalistic and dirty, fit to be kept on a bed of straw, appear to have promoted an acceptance of hospital squalor. However, this was an age with very different standards of public and personal hygiene when people typically were quite willing to urinate or defecate in the street or even in their own fireplaces.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: For much of the seventeenth century the dietary provision for patients appears to have been inadequate. This was especially so during Crooke's regime, when inspection found several patients suffering from starvation. Corrupt staff practices were evidently a significant factor in patient malnourishment and similar abuses were noted in the 1650s and 1670s. The Governors failed to manage the supply of victuals, relying on "gifts in kind" for basic provisions, and the resources available to the steward to purchase foodstuffs was dependent upon the goodwill of the keeper. Patients were fed twice a day on a "lowering diet" (an intentionally reduced and plain diet) consisting of bread, meat, oatmeal, butter, cheese and generous amounts of beer. It is likely that daily meals alternated between meat and dairy products, almost entirely lacking in fruit or vegetables. That the portions appear to have been inadequate also likely reflected contemporary humoral theory that justified rationing the diet of the mad, the avoidance of rich foods, and a therapeutics of depletion and purgation to restore the body to balance and restrain the spirits.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The year 1634 is typically interpreted as denoting the divide between the mediaeval and early modern administration of Bethlem. It marked the end of the day-to-day management by an old-style keeper-physician and its replacement by a three-tiered medical regime composed of a non-resident physician, a visiting surgeon and an apothecary, a model adopted from the royal hospitals. The medical staff were elected by the Court of Governors and, in a bid to prevent profiteering at the expense of patients that had reached its apogee in Crooke's era, they were all eventually salaried with limited responsibility for the financial affairs of the hospital. Personal connections, interests and occasionally royal favour were pivotal factors in the appointment of physicians, but by the measure of the times appointees were well qualified as almost all were Oxford or Cambridge graduates and a significant number were candidates for or fellows of the Royal College of Physicians. Although the posts were strongly contested, nepotistic appointment practices played a significant role. The election of James Monro as physician in 1728 marked the beginning of a 125-year Monro family dynasty extending through four generations of fathers and sons. Family influence was also significant in the appointment of surgeons but absent in that of apothecaries.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The office of physician was largely an honorary and charitable one with only a nominal salary. As with most hospital posts, attendance was required only intermittently and the greater portion of the income was derived from private practice. Bethlem physicians, maximising their association with the hospital, typically earned their coin in the lucrative "trade in lunacy" with many acting as visiting physicians to, presiding over, or even, as with the Monros and their predecessor Thomas Allen, establishing their own mad-houses. Initially both surgeons and apothecaries were also without salary and their hospital income was solely dependent upon their presentation of bills for attendance to the Court of Governors. This system was frequently abused and the bills presented were often deemed exorbitant by the Board of Governors. The problem of financial exploitation was partly rectified in 1676, when surgeons received a salary, and from the mid-eighteenth century elected apothecaries were likewise salaried and normally resident within the hospital. Dating from this latter change, the vast majority of medical responsibilities within the institution were undertaken by the sole resident medical officer, the apothecary, owing to the relatively irregular attendance of the physician and surgeon.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The medical regime, being married to a depletive or antiphlogistic physic until the early nineteenth century, had a reputation for conservatism that was neither unearned nor, given the questionable benefit of some therapeutic innovations, necessarily ill-conceived in every instance. Bathing was introduced in the 1680s at a time when hydrotherapy was enjoying a recrudescence in popularity. "Cold bathing", opined John Monro, Bethlem physician for 40 years from 1751, "has in general an excellent effect"; and remained much in vogue as a treatment throughout the eighteenth century. By the early nineteenth century, bathing was routine for all patients of sufficient hardiness from summer "to the setting-in of the cold weather". Spring signalled recourse to the traditional armamentarium; from then until the end of summer Bethlem's "Mad "Physick"" reigned supreme as all patients, barring those deemed incurable, could expect to be bled and blistered and then dosed with emetics and purgatives. Indiscriminately applied, these curative measures were administered with the most cursory physical examination, if any, and with sufficient excess to risk not only health but also life. Such was the violence of the standard medical course, "involving voiding of the bowels, vomiting, scarification, sores and bruises," that patients were regularly discharged or refused admission if they were deemed unfit to survive the physical onslaught.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The reigning medical ethos was the subject of public debate in the mid-eighteenth century when the Paper War of 1752–1753 erupted between John Monro and his rival William Battie, physician to the reformist St Luke's Asylum of London, founded in 1751. The Bethlem Governors, who had presided over the only public asylum in Britain until the early eighteenth century, looked upon St Luke's as an upstart institution and Battie, formerly a Governor at Bethlem, as traitorous. In 1758 Battie published his "Treatise on Madness" which castigated Bethlem as archaic and outmoded, uncaring of its patients and founded upon a despairing medical system whose therapeutic transactions were both injudicious and unnecessarily violent. In contrast, Battie presented St Luke's as a progressive and innovative hospital, oriented towards the possibility of cure and scientific in approach. Monro responded promptly, publishing "Remarks on Dr. Battie's Treatise on Madness" in the same year.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: Although Bethlem had been enlarged by 1667 to accommodate 59 patients, the Court of Governors of Bethlem and Bridewell observed at the start of 1674 that "the Hospitall House of Bethlem is very olde, weake & ruinous and to[o] small and streight for keepeing the greater numb[e]r of lunaticks therein att p[re]sent". With the increasing demand for admission and the inadequate and dilapidated state of the building it was decided to rebuild the hospital in Moorfields, just north of the city proper and one of the largest open spaces in London. The architect chosen for the new hospital, which was built rapidly and at great expense between 1675 and 1676, was the natural philosopher and City Surveyor Robert Hooke. He constructed an edifice that was monumental in scale at over wide and some deep. The surrounding walls were some long and deep while the south face at the rear was effectively screened by a 714-foot (218 m) stretch of London's ancient wall projecting westward from nearby Moorgate. At the rear and containing the courtyards where patients exercised and took the air, the walls rose to high. The front walls were only high but this was deemed sufficient as it was determined that "Lunatikes... are not to [be] permitted to walk in the yard to be situate[d] betweene the said intended new Building and the Wall aforesaid." It was also hoped that by keeping these walls relatively low the splendour of the new building would not be overly obscured. This concern to maximise the building's visibility led to the addition of six gated openings wide which punctuated the front wall at regular intervals, enabling views of the facade. Functioning as both advertisement and warning of what lay within, the stone pillars enclosing the entrance gates were capped by the figures of "Melancholy" and "Raving Madness" carved in Portland stone by the Danish-born sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: At the instigation of the Bridewell Governors and to make a grander architectural statement of "charitable munificence", the hospital was designed as a single- rather than double-pile building, accommodating initially 120 patients. Having cells and chambers on only one side of the building facilitated the dimensions of the great galleries, essentially long and capacious corridors, high and wide, which ran the length of both floors to a total span of . Such was their scale that Roger L'Estrange remarked in a 1676 text eulogising the new Bethlem that their ""Vast" Length ... wearies the travelling eyes' of "Strangers"". The galleries were constructed more for public display than for the care of patients as, at least initially, inmates were prohibited from them lest "such persons that come to see the said Lunatickes may goe in Danger of their Lives".


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: The architectural design of the new Bethlem was primarily intended to project an image of the hospital and its governors consonant with contemporary notions of charity and benevolence. In an era prior to the state funding of hospitals and with patient fees covering only a portion of costs, such self-advertisement was necessary to win the donations, subscriptions and patronage essential for the institution's survival. This was particularly the case in raising funds to pay for major projects of expansion such as the rebuilding project at Moorfields or the addition of the Incurables Division in 1725–39 with accommodation for more than 100 patients. These highly visible acts of civic commitment could also serve to advance the claims to social status or political advantage of its Governors and supporters. However, while consideration of patients' needs may have been distinctly secondary, they were not absent. For instance, both the placement of the hospital in the open space of Moorfields and the form of the building with its large cells and well-lit galleries had been chosen to provide "health and Aire" in accordance with the miasmatic theory of disease causation.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: It was London's first major charitable building since the Savoy Hospital (1505–17) and one of only a handful of public buildings then constructed in the aftermath of the Great Fire of London (1666). It would be regarded, during this period at least, as one of the "Prime Ornaments of the City ... and a noble Monument to Charity". Not least due to the increase in visitor numbers that the new building allowed, the hospital's fame and latterly infamy grew and this magnificently expanded Bethlem shaped English and international depictions of madness and its treatment.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: Visits by friends and relatives were allowed and it was expected that the family and friends of poor inmates would bring food and other essentials for their survival. Bethlem was and is best known for the fact that it also allowed public and casual visitors with no connection to the inmates. This display of madness as public show has often been considered the most scandalous feature of the historical Bedlam.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: On the basis of circumstantial evidence, it is speculated that the Bridewell Governors may have decided as early as 1598 to allow public visitors as means of raising hospital income. The only other reference to visiting in the sixteenth-century is provided in a comment in Thomas More's 1522 treatise "The Four Last Things", where he observed that "thou shalt in Bedleem see one laugh at the knocking of his head against a post". As More occupied a variety of official positions that might have occasioned his calling to the hospital and as he lived nearby, his visit provides no compelling evidence that public visitation was widespread during the sixteenth century. The first apparently definitive documentation of public visiting derives from a 1610 record which details Lord Percy's payment of 10 shillings for the privilege of rambling through the hospital to view its deranged denizens. It was also at this time, and perhaps not coincidentally, that Bedlam was first used as a stage setting with the publication of "The Honest Whore, Part I", in 1604.


title: Bethlem Royal Hospital

text: Evidence that the number of visitors rose following the move to Moorfields is provided in the observation by the Bridewell Governors in 1681 of "the greate quantity of persons that come daily to see the said Lunatickes". Eight years later the English merchant and author, Thomas Tryon, remarked disapprovingly of the "Swarms of People" that descended upon Bethlem during public holidays. In the mid-eighteenth-century a journalist of a topical periodical noted that at one time during Easter Week "one hundred people at least" were to be found visiting Bethlem's inmates. Evidently Bethlem was a popular attraction, yet there is no credible basis to calculate the annual number of visitors. The claim, still sometimes made, that Bethlem received 96,000 visitors annually is speculative in the extreme. Nevertheless, it has been established that the pattern of visiting was highly seasonal and concentrated around holiday periods. As Sunday visiting was severely curtailed in 1650 and banned seven years later, the peak periods became Christmas, Easter and Whitsun.