title: Prothrombin time

text: The INR is typically used to monitor patients on warfarin or related oral anticoagulant therapy. The normal range for a healthy person not using warfarin is 0.8–1.2, and for people on warfarin therapy an INR of 2.0–3.0 is usually targeted, although the target INR may be higher in particular situations, such as for those with a mechanical heart valve. If the INR is outside the target range, a high INR indicates a higher risk of bleeding, while a low INR suggests a higher risk of developing a clot. In patients on a vitamin K antagonist such as warfarin with supratherapeutic INR but INR less than 10 and no bleeding, it is enough to lower the dose or omit a dose, monitor the INR and resume the vitamin K antagonist at an adjusted lower dose when the target INR is reached. For people who need rapid reversal of the vitamin K antagonist – such as due to serious bleeding – or who need emergency surgery, the effects of warfarin can be reversed with vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), or fresh frozen plasma (FFP).


title: Prothrombin time

text: Lupus anticoagulant, a circulating inhibitor predisposing for thrombosis, may skew PT results, depending on the assay used. Variations between various thromboplastin preparations have in the past led to decreased accuracy of INR readings, and a 2005 study suggested that despite international calibration efforts (by INR) there were still statistically significant differences between various kits, casting doubt on the long-term tenability of PT/INR as a measure for anticoagulant therapy. Indeed, a new prothrombin time variant, the Fiix prothrombin time, intended solely for monitoring warfarin and other vitamin K antagonists has been invented and recently become available as a manufactured test. The Fiix prothrombin time is only affected by reductions in factor II and/or factor X and this stabilizes the anticoagulant effect and appears to improve clinical outcome according to an investigator initiated randomized blinded clinical trial, The Fiix-trial. In this trial thromboembolism was reduced by 50% during long-term treatment and despite that bleeding was not increased.


title: Prothrombin time

text: In addition to the laboratory method outlined above, near-patient testing (NPT) or home INR monitoring is becoming increasingly common in some countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, near-patient testing is used both by patients at home and by some anticoagulation clinics (often hospital-based) as a fast and convenient alternative to the lab method. After a period of doubt about the accuracy of NPT results, a new generation of machines and reagents seems to be gaining acceptance for its ability to deliver results close in accuracy to those of the lab.


title: Prothrombin time

text: In a typical NPT set up, a small table-top device is used. A drop of capillary blood is obtained with an automated finger-prick, which is almost painless. This drop is placed on a disposable test strip with which the machine has been prepared. The resulting INR comes up on the display a few seconds later. A similar form of testing is used by people with diabetes for monitoring blood sugar levels, which is easily taught and routinely practiced.


title: Prothrombin time

text: Local policy determines whether the patient or a coagulation specialist (pharmacist, nurse, general practitioner or hospital doctor) interprets the result and determines the dose of medication. In Germany and Austria, patients may adjust the medication dose themselves, while in the UK and the US this remains in the hands of a health care professional.


title: Prothrombin time

text: A significant advantage of home testing is the evidence that patient self-testing with medical support and patient self-management (where patients adjust their own anticoagulant dose) improves anticoagulant control. A meta analysis which reviewed 14 trials showed that home testing led to a reduced incidence of complications (bleeding and thrombosis) and improved the time in the therapeutic range, which is an indirect measure of anticoagulant control. In 2022, a smartphone system was introduced by researchers to perform PT/INR testing in an inexpensive and accessible manner. It uses the vibration motor and camera ubiquitous on smartphones to track micro-mechanical movements of a copper particle and compute PT/INR values.


title: Prothrombin time

text: Other advantages of the NPT approach are that it is fast and convenient, usually less painful, and offers, in home use, the ability for patients to measure their own INRs when required. Among its problems are that quite a steady hand is needed to deliver the blood to the exact spot, that some patients find the finger-pricking difficult, and that the cost of the test strips must also be taken into account. In the UK these are available on prescription so that elderly and unwaged people will not pay for them and others will pay only a standard prescription charge, which at the moment represents only about 20% of the retail price of the strips. In the US, NPT in the home is currently reimbursed by Medicare for patients with mechanical heart valves, while private insurers may cover for other indications. Medicare is now covering home testing for patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. Home testing requires a doctor's prescription and that the meter and supplies are obtained from a Medicare-approved Independent Diagnostic Testing Facility (IDTF).


title: Prothrombin time

text: There is some evidence to suggest that NPT may be less accurate for certain patients, for example those who have the lupus anticoagulant.


title: Prothrombin time

text: International guidelines were published in 2005 to govern home monitoring of oral anticoagulation by the International Self-Monitoring Association for Oral Anticoagulation. The international guidelines study stated, "The consensus agrees that patient self-testing and patient self-management are effective methods of monitoring oral anticoagulation therapy, providing outcomes at least as good as, and possibly better than, those achieved with an anticoagulation clinic. All patients must be appropriately selected and trained. Currently, available self-testing/self-management devices give INR results which are comparable with those obtained in laboratory testing."


title: Prothrombin time

text: Medicare coverage for home testing of INR has been expanded in order to allow more people access to home testing of INR in the US. The release on 19 March 2008 said, "[t]he Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) expanded Medicare coverage for home blood testing of prothrombin time (PT) International Normalized Ratio (INR) to include beneficiaries who are using the drug warfarin, an anticoagulant (blood thinner) medication, for chronic atrial fibrillation or venous thromboembolism." In addition, "those Medicare beneficiaries and their physicians managing conditions related to chronic atrial fibrillation or venous thromboembolism will benefit greatly through the use of the home test."


title: Prothrombin time

text: The prothrombin time was developed by Armand J. Quick and colleagues in 1935, and a second method was published by , also called the "p and p" or "prothrombin and proconvertin" method. It aided in the identification of the anticoagulants dicumarol and warfarin, and was used subsequently as a measure of activity for warfarin when used therapeutically.


title: Prothrombin time

text: The INR was invented in the early 1980s by Tom Kirkwood working at the UK National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (and subsequently at the UK National Institute for Medical Research) to provide a consistent way of expressing the prothrombin time ratio, which had previously suffered from a large degree of variation between centres using different reagents. The INR was coupled to Dr Kirkwood's simultaneous invention of the International Sensitivity Index (ISI), which provided the means to calibrate different batches of thromboplastins to an international standard. The INR became widely accepted worldwide, especially after endorsement by the World Health Organization.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Chennaiyin Football Club is an Indian professional football club based in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The club competes in the Indian Super League, the top flight of Indian football. The club was founded in August 2014 during the inaugural season of the Indian Super League. One of the most successful clubs in the history of the league, it has won the Indian Super League title on two occasions, in the 2015 and 2017–18 seasons respectively.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: The club is owned by Vita Dani, Bollywood actor Abhishek Bachchan and Indian cricketer MS Dhoni. The team's name "Chennaiyin FC" means "Chennai's football club" in Tamil where the 'yin' suffix is similar to a possessive 's' in English. The club's primary colour is blue ever since its inception and its logo is the "Dhrishti Bommai", a representation of chasing away negativity and preserving positivity in the Tamil culture.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: When the Indian Super League was founded in 2014, the city of Chennai was one of the nine proposed cities up for franchise bidding. However, on 11 April 2014 it was reported that Chennai's main bidder, a consortium led by Sunil Gavaskar would drop out due to commitments with the Board of Control for Cricket in India. In August 2014, with two months before the 2014 ISL season, the Bangalore owners Sun Group dropped out due to disputes with the organizers. Initially reports came out that the ISL organizers were looking for bidders for new owners for the Bangalore franchise before it was revealed that Ronnie Screwvala and actor Abhishek Bachchan would together bid for a Chennai team instead of a Bangalore franchise.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: On 14 August 2014, it was reported that ISL officials were inspecting the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Chennai for the proposed team. Finally, the team was bid for by actor Abhishek Bachchan and Vita Dani. On 12 September 2014, Italian World Cup winner Marco Materazzi was hired as player-manager. On 6 October 2014, former Indian cricket captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni became the joint co-owner of the club. The club officially launched their jersey on 9 October 2014 but had changed their home jersey's pattern in the 2018–19 Indian Super League season.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: On 15 October 2014, Chennaiyin won their first Indian Super League fixture with a 2–1 victory over FC Goa. The goals were scored by Balwant Singh, who became the first Indian player to score in the competition, and the former Brazil international Elano. On 28 November 2014, the club brought Alessandro Nesta, who won the World Cup for Italy out of retirement. The team finished its 14-game regular season in first place in the league. In the semi finals, the team lost the first leg 3–0 to Kerala Blasters FC. In the second leg, they overturned the deficit by leading 3–0 in regular time. However, a 117th-minute goal by Stephen Pearson sent Kerala through to the finals.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: For the second season of Indian Super League, they retained six players: Balwant Singh, Jayesh Rane, Dhanachandra Singh, Jeje Lalpekhlua, Harmanjot Khabra and Abhishek Das. They also signed Godwin Franco and Mehrajuddin Wadoo. On the last day of the transfer window, Chennaiyin FC announced that they had signed back Stiven Mendoza. The season started with the team losing the first two games. Though the team managed to score points by winning at Goa and Mumbai, they lost another three games on the trot. By the third week of November, Chennaiyin were placed last in the league table. However, the team won four consecutive games to qualify for the playoffs, finishing at 3rd place in the regular season. They won the second season of the ISL by beating FC Goa 3–2 in the finals.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: For the third season, of Indian Super League, they retained six players: Mehrajuddin Wadoo, Jayesh Rane, Dhanachandra Singh, Jeje Lalpekhlua, Harmanjot Khabra, Thoi Singh and Abhishek Das. Chennai signed John Arne Riise as the marquee player for the season. The season kicked off with a draw against Kolkata. Winning only three games through the season, the team finished in seventh place, just one point more than the last placed FC Goa. After a dismal season, it was announced on 6 March that Marco Materazzi and Chennaiyin parted ways on mutual consent.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: On 3 July 2017, the club announced the appointment of former Aston Villa Manager John Gregory as the head coach for the 2017–18 season. He took charge in September and the club traveled to Thailand for pre-season. Chennaiyin lost Gregory's first league game as head coach on 19 November against FC Goa. The team won its next three matches against Northeast United FC, FC Pune City and ATK. Mumbai City FC brought Chennaiyin FC's winning run to an end with a battling 1–0 win at home inside the Mumbai Football Arena. The blues then travelled to Sree Kanteerava Stadium, where they beat Bengaluru FC 2–1 in a tightly contested match. Chennaiyin FC were held to a 1–1 draw when they faced Kerala Blasters at home in their next game. In spite of the draw, The Blues went top of the table with 13 points after seven games. The team went on to win the finals against Bangalore on their home ground and became the champions for the second time. Chennaiyin FC finished as runner-ups in AIFF Super Cup 2019 where they lost to FC Goa 2–1. Following Indian Super League glory in 2017–18, Chennaiyin became the first Indian club, representing the ISL, to play in the AFC Cup, as they drew 0–0 with Colombo FC in Sri Lanka on 6 March 2019. A week later, they won the second leg 1–0 in Chennai to progress to the 2019 AFC Cup group stage. Chennayin FC is the first ISL club to reach in Group stage of AFC Cup 2019 i.e. in Group E. They played a tie of 0–0 to Minerva Punjab FC on 3 April 2019 and won 2–0 to Nepalese club Manang Marshyangdi Club on 17 April 2019 whereby Maílson Alves and Chris Herd were also accompanied by win against Abahani Limited Dhaka by 1–0 and goal scorer was Anirudh Thapa on 30 April 2019. On 19 June 2019 Chennaiyin FC faced a draw of 1–1 against Minerva Punjab F.C. where Mohammed Rafi secured a goal in the last minute of game. On John Gregory's 65th birthday the club announced that the coach's contract was renewed which will expire soon after the 2019–20 Indian Super League season. After losing the AFC Cup the club then made some shocking decisions by releasing their captain, Mailson Alves and Raphael Augusto as a preparation for the 2019–20 Indian Super League season. They also released some of the Indian players in their team which includes C.K. Vineeth, Mohammed Rafi, Halicharan Narzary, Isaac Vanmalsawma. They then signed Nerijus Valskis, Lucian Goian, Dragoș Firțulescu, André Schembri, Masih Saighani and Rafael Crivellaro to strengthen their squad. On 30 November 2019 John Gregory resigned from his post as head coach even though owner Mrs. Vita Dani tried in vain to get him to stay. Under his guidance Chennai won their second Indian Super League trophy.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Owen took the charge of the club on 4 December 2019. Under his guidance Chennaiyin faced 1–1 draw against Jamshedpur, won 3–1 against Kerala Blasters and lost a dramatic game 4–3 to Goa in the initial days of Coyle. They lost to Odisha on 6 January 2020 and won a game against Hyderabad by 3–1.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: The Coyle era catapulted Chennaiyin FC to 4th from Bottom of the table (9th), thus earning them qualification for the playoffs. He went on to guide Chennaiyin FC to the 2020 ISL final after beating FC Goa 6–5 on aggregate over the two legs of the semifinals.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Chennaiyin were beaten 3–1 by ATK with the game played behind closed doors, due to the rise of the COVID-19 pandemic in India. Nerijus Valskis, who scored in the final for Chennaiyin, topped golden boot tally consequently, he was awarded ISL golden boot.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Csaba László took the charge of the club on 30 August 2020. He had an average season with three wins and 11 draws. On April 10, 2021, he parted ways with the club.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Chennaiyin FC play their home matches at the Jawaharlal Nehru S following the 0–5 defeat against FC Goatadiufollowing the 0–5 defeat to FC Goa- the heaviest loss endured by the club in its history," the club said in a statement."Bandovic was in charge of the first team for 16 matches - winning five, drawing four and losing seven. The team's assistant coach Syed Sabir Pasha will take over in the interim.Over the years, we've lost and won. But as a club, losing like this is something we cannot stand by and watch. And for now, we have full confidence in Sabir to see the season through," co-owner Vita Dani stated."Bandovic was in charge of the first team for 16 matches - winning five, drawing four and losing seven. The team's assistant coach Syed Sabir Pasha will take over in the interim."Bandovic was in charge of the first team for 16 matches - winning five, drawing four and losing seven. The team's assistant coach Syed Sabir Pasha will take over in the interim.- the heaviest loss endured by the club in its history," the club said in a statement.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: "Bandovic was in charge of the first team for 16 matches - winning five, drawing four and losing seven. The team's assistant coach Syed Sabir Pasha will take over in the interim. m in Chennai nicknamed the "Marina Arena". The stadium is located at Sydenhams Road, Park Town behind the Chennai Central suburban Railway station and Ripon Building. The stadium is named after Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister and earlier hosted cricket Test Matches between 1956 and 1965.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Chennaiyin has a considerable fan base with an average attendance of over 20,000 over the first three seasons.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Chennaiyin FC is one of the very few clubs in India to have multiple active fan groups. The B Stand Blues (BSB) and the Supermachans are the two fan groups of Chennaiyin FC. Both the fan groups are very famous among the Indian football scenario and they are constantly active on and off the season. Their support to the team is so dedicated and they also carry out CSR activities.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: The most famous away trip is the 2017-18 ISL finals against Bengaluru FC, where there were hundreds of fans from both fan clubs despite the game happening in a different state. Both fan clubs ended up conquering the stands of Kanteerava when their club had conquered it on the field.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Opponents generally find the Chennaiyin crowd intimidating. Indian captain Sunil Chhetri himself has acknowledged this fact, as he's usually been on the receiving end when he travels to the Marina Arena in BFC colours.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: In addition to this, Chennaiyin also has a huge fan following all over the state of Tamil Nadu. Their social media following is among the top in Indian clubs.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: Since both Chennaiyin FC and Kerala Blasters FC are two dominant clubs from South India, the rivalry between these two clubs' fans is visible both on ground and on various social platforms. The matches between both the clubs create sparks among both the clubs and especially the fans. The meetings between the two teams are known as the Southern Derby.


title: Chennaiyin FC

text: The organizers of ISL introduced eISL, a FIFA video game tournament, for the ISL playing clubs, each represented by two players. Chennaiyin FC hosted a series of qualifying games for all the participants wanting to represent the club in eISL. On 20 November the club announced the signing of the two players. They won the inaugural eISL on 20 March 2022, following 2022 Indian Super League Final


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: FC Bayern Munich II (FC Bayern Munich Amateure until 2005) are the reserve team of German association football club FC Bayern Munich, they currently play in the Regionalliga Bayern. In 2010–11 they played in the 3. Liga, having qualified for its inaugural season in 2008, and have consistently played at the third level of German football (the highest permissible level for reserve teams) – they played in the Regionalliga Süd from its formation in 1994 to 2008, when it was usurped by the 3. Liga. They have generally achieved at least mid-table finishes at this level, and won the Regionalliga Süd title in 2004. In 2010–11 Bayern II finished last in the 3. Liga and was thus relegated to the Regionalliga. They afterwards regained promotion by winning the 2018–19 Regionalliga and won the 3. Liga in 2019–20. The following season, they were relegated from the 3. Liga after an 18th-place finish.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: The team is intended to be the final step between Bayern's youth setup and the first team, and is usually made up of promising youngsters between the age of 18 and 23, with a few veteran players drafted in to provide experience.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: Bayern II has made several appearances in the DFB-Pokal, even facing the senior Bayern side in a fourth round tie in 1977 losing 5–3.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: The team's first appearance in the top-league of Bavarian football, the southern group of the Amateurliga Bayern, came in 1956, when it won the tier-four 2nd Amateurliga Oberbayern A and advanced to the next level through the promotion round. After finishing its first season in this league in mid-table, it ended 1957–58 as runners-up, two points behind local rival FC Wacker München. It repeated this achievement in 1960–61, this time coming second to TSV 1860 Munich II. Both reserve sides then descended in the league table and, in 1963, when the German football league system was severely altered, they both missed the cut-off for the new single-tier Amateurliga Bayern. "Bayern Amateure" had to finish seventh to qualify but came only 14th and found itself grouped in the new tier-four Landesliga Bayern-Süd.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: It took the team four seasons in this league to work its way back up, improving year by year and, in 1966–67, it finished first and earned promotion back to the "Bayernliga". "Bayern" started well in the league, coming fourth in the first year, but then declined and was relegated again in 1971. It only took two seasons this time for the team to return to the third division and another league win in 1973 moved the team back up.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: For the next 21 seasons, the team was to be a member of the "Bayernliga" without interruption. However, in all the 21 seasons there, the team could never win the league either, being ineligible for promotion from there to professional football anyway.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: The team had few bad seasons in this time, coming relatively close to relegation only once, in 1982. It managed three runners-up finishes in the league, in 1983, 1984 and 1987 and generally existed as an upper-table side.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: In 1994, with the introduction of the new tier-three Regionalliga Süd, the team qualified comfortably. It was to be a long-term member of this league, too, belonging to it until 2008, when the 3. Liga was formed. After mostly finishing in mid-table in the league, "Bayern" earned its first league title in over 30 years when it won the Regionalliga in 2004. Being already a member of the highest league in which reserve teams are permitted, the side could not take up promotion to the 2nd Bundesliga and had to stay at this level. In 2005, all reserve sides of clubs in the first and second Bundesliga changed their name from "Amateure" to "II", meaning "FC Bayern Munich Amateure" became "FC Bayern Munich II".


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: In 2008, the team earned promotion to the new 3. Liga, finishing eighth when a top-ten finish was needed. The club played at this level for three seasons before suffering relegation to the Regionalliga in 2010–11. It was the first time since 1973 that the team would not play in the third division and also meant the end of Hermann Gerland as the team's coach.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: After coming second in the inaugural Regionalliga Bayern season in 2012–13 the team won the league the following year. This entitled the club to enter the promotion round to the 3. Liga. After two games against Regionalliga West champions Fortuna Köln they lost due to the away goal rule making their opponents one of the three promoted teams to the third division.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: In 2019, Bayern Munich II earned promotion to the 3. Liga, after winning Regionalliga 2018–2019 and defeating Wolfsburg II in the two-game promotion-playoff (1–3 and 4–1). The following season, while placing 15th after the first half of the season, Bayern Munich II won the 3. Liga. However, since secondary teams aren't eligible for promotion to 2.Bundesliga, Bayern Munich II will remain in 3. Liga for the 2020–21 season. Bayern II failed to defend their 3. Liga title in the 2020-21 season, finishing 18th, and were relegated to the Regionalliga Bayern.


title: FC Bayern Munich II

text: "Bayern II" play at the Grünwalder Stadion, which was the first team's venue until the opening of the Olympiastadion in 1972. During the 2012–13 season "Bayern II" moved to Sportpark Heimstetten, the home stadium of SV Heimstetten, caused by renovation of the Grünwalder Stadion.


title: History of the world's tallest buildings

text: The tallest building in the world, as of 2022, is the Burj Khalifa. The title of "world's tallest building" has been borne by various buildings, such as the Lincoln Cathedral, the Empire State Building and the original World Trade Center.


text: Before the modern skyscraper era, between 1311 and 1884, the tallest buildings and structures were mostly Christian churches and cathedrals. Before the 13th century, the tallest buildings in the world cannot be conclusively determined. For instance, the Lighthouse of Alexandria (completed about 280 BC) has been estimated to have been tall, but its true height is not known. For thousands of years, the Great Pyramid in Egypt was the tallest "structure" in the world until Lincoln Cathedral of 1311, but the Great Pyramid is not considered a building since it is not habitable. Similarly, the Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure from 1889, when it was built, but not the tallest building.


text: The skyscraper was invented in Chicago in 1884 when the Home Insurance Building was constructed using a steel frame with curtain walls instead of load-bearing walls. For the next hundred years, the world's tallest building was always in the United States, with New York City accumulating 86 years, and Chicago 30 years. After just over a century (1885–1998), the distinction moved to the Eastern Hemisphere. Malaysia was the first country to break the United States' record of constructing the tallest buildings in the world when the Petronas Towers were completed in 1998. Taiwan's Taipei 101 was the next to hold the record; the building's status as the world's tallest lasted from 2004 to 2009, when it was transferred to the Burj Khalifa, the current record-holder of 828 meters tall, upon its completion in the United Arab Emirates.


text: The earliest structures now known to be the tallest in the world were the Egyptian pyramids: the Great Pyramid of Giza, at an original height of , was the tallest structure in the world for over 3,800 years, until the construction of Lincoln Cathedral in 1311. From then until the completion of the Washington Monument (capped in 1884) the world's tallest structures were churches or cathedrals. Later, the Eiffel Tower and, still later, some radio masts and television towers, were the world's tallest structures.


text: However, though all of these are "structures", some are not "buildings" in the sense of being regularly inhabited or occupied. It is in this sense of being regularly inhabited or occupied that the term "building" is generally applied when determining the world's tallest building. The non-profit international organization Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), which maintains a set of criteria for determining the height of tall buildings, defines a "building" as "(A) structure that is designed for residential, business or manufacturing purposes" and that "has floors".


text: Tall churches and cathedrals occupy a middle ground: their lower areas are regularly occupied, but much of their height is in bell towers and spires which are not. Whether a church or cathedral is a "building" or merely a "structure" for the purposes of determining the title of "world's tallest building" is a subjective matter of definition (this article treats churches and cathedrals as buildings).


text: The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat uses three different criteria for determining the height of a tall building, each of which may give a different result. "Height of the highest floor" is one criterion, and "height to the top of any part of the building" is another, but the default criterion used by the CTBUH is "height of the architectural top of the building", which includes spires but not antennae, masts or flag poles.


text: Early tall buildings were similar to the record-setting Egyptian pyramid structures. In 1400 BC the ziggurat of Dur-Kurigalzu was constructed in Iraq, and in 601 BC the Etemenanki ziggurat of Babylon () followed. The La Danta of El Mirador (Guatemala) and the Amaravati Stupa of Amaravathi (India) were constructed in around 300 BC.


text: The Lighthouse of Alexandria (Egypt) had a height of between and existed between the 3rd century BC and 14th century AD.


text: The Pantheon in Rome, finished in the early 2nd century CE, has an ancient Roman height record from floor to top of , which exactly corresponds to the diameter of its interior space and was only slightly surpassed by the Pont du Gard "structure". The Hagia Sophia, built in AD 537 in Constantinople, reaches a height of .


text: The ancient Kushan stupa of Kanishka (now in Pakistan, near Peshawar), completed around AD 200, had a height of between . The Chinese explorer Xuanzhang described it as the tallest building in the world in his book "Records of the western Region". The Sri Lankan Jetavanaramaya stupa, constructed in the 3rd century, measured from its construction until the 11th century. Its current height is .


text: Another short-lived structure was the 6th-century wooden Yongning Pagoda () with a height of about to in Luoyang, China.


text: Hwangnyongsa, or Hwangnyong Temple (also spelled Hwangryongsa), is a former Buddhist temple in the city of Gyeongju, South Korea. Completed in the 7th century, the enormous nine-storey structure was built entirely of interlocking timbers with no iron nails. It had a standing total height of , making it the tallest structure in East Asia and the tallest wooden structure in the world at the time of its construction. It was destroyed by invading Mongol forces in 1238.


text: In the 8th century, two seven-storied pagodas with a height of 100 m(330 ft) were constructed at Todaiｰji (東大寺) in Nara, Japan. They were one of the tallest wooden buildings in the world at the time. By the 14th century, both were burned down by fires caused by war or lightning strikes.


text: The Vimana of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, completed in 1010 is tall, slightly taller and older than Angkor Wat, Cambodia. The entire complex is built of granite.


text: The minaret of Koutoubia Mosque in Marrakesh, Morocco, includes a spire and orbs. It was completed under the reign of the Berber Almohad Caliph Yaqub al-Mansur around 1195.


text: The eastern spires of the Romanesque Speyer Cathedral, completed in 1106, reach a height of . The still-standing Torre Asinelli, completed some time before 1185, was originally tall, later raised to . Malmesbury Abbey was built in 1180 and reached a height of .


text: The world's tallest "structures" were churches or cathedrals from the 13th/14th century until 1884, and "buildings" until the beginning of the 20th century. The Old St Paul's Cathedral () in London and Lincoln Cathedral () both surpassed not only any older tallest building, but also the tallest structures until then, the Pyramids. They were constructed from the 12th century, reaching completion and their maximum height in the 1310s (1314 and 1311 respectively). Lincoln Cathedral's spire collapsed in 1549, and its previous height was not surpassed elsewhere for a long time. St. Mary's Church in Stralsund became the world's tallest building after the collapse of the Lincoln spire. The central tower of St. Pierre's Cathedral in Beauvais was tallest from 1569 until it collapsed in 1573, making St. Mary's the tallest once again. In 1647, the bell tower of St. Mary's burned down, making the shorter Strasbourg Cathedral the world's tallest building.


text: It was not until the completion of the Ulm Minster in 1890 that the world's tallest building was again also the tallest building ever constructed, surpassing the original configuration of Lincoln Cathedral.


text: The height of Lincoln Cathedral is disputed by some, but accepted by most sources. The completion date for the spire is given as 1311 rather than 1300 by some sources. Also the height of the spire of Old St Paul's Cathedral, destroyed by lightning in 1561, is disputed, for example by Christopher Wren (1632–1723), who suggested a height of .


text: In 1890 Ulm Minster became the tallest church ever built, but it was the last church to claim the position of tallest building, which eventually went to the Philadelphia City Hall in 1894, the first skyscraper taller than (or, depending on definition, the Mole Antonelliana in 1889).


text: Among all structures, in 1884 the Washington Monument had already overtaken the long-standing record held by churches. But five years later in 1889 it was significantly surpassed by the Eiffel Tower, which reached completely new heights at (its antennas were added after 1957), leaving heights of skyscrapers behind and opening up the supertall era, whose heights were only reached by the pinnacle of the Chrysler Building () in 1930 and fully overtaken by the Empire State Building in 1931.


text: Since the completion of the Washington Monument in 1884, the world's tallest "structure" has generally not also been the world's tallest building. The exception is 1930–1954, when the Eiffel Tower was surpassed by the Chrysler Building in 1930, and in 1931 the Chrysler Building by the Empire State Building, only to be surpassed in turn by a succession of broadcast masts, starting with the Griffin Television Tower in Oklahoma. The CN Tower in Toronto, Canada held the record for the world's tallest free-standing structure for 32 years, from 1975 until 2007, when it was surpassed by the Burj Khalifa, and was the world's tallest tower until 2009 when it was surpassed by the Canton Tower.


text: Since the completion of the Burj Khalifa in 2010 it is the tallest building, however, it is not the tallest structure. In 2009, Guinness World Records recognised the underwater Magnolia oil platform as the tallest structure, at a staggering 1,432m (4,698ft).


text: Since the completion of the first skyscraper taller than (depending on the definition of skyscraper, 1894 with the Philadelphia City Hall or 1908 with the Singer Building), skyscrapers have consistently been the tallest "buildings".


text: Before skyscrapers, tower blocks reached at various times and locations heights of (as in the city of Shibam) or even up to among the Towers of Bologna. Buildings that have been specifically called the first skyscrapers include:


text: After the construction of the first skyscraper taller than , depending on definition the Philadelphia City Hall in 1894 or the Singer Building in 1908, the incrementation in the height category of supertall skyscrapers began with the construction of the Chrysler Building, followed by the Empire State Building, in New York City. The Chrysler Building was the first building in the world to break the barrier, and the Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It stands at and has 102 floors. The next tallest skyscraper was the World Trade Center, which was completed in 1971. The north tower was and the south tall. It surpassed the height of the Empire State Building by . Two years later the Sears Tower was built in Chicago, standing at with 110 floors, surpassing the height of the World Trade Center by . The Petronas Towers rose 10 meters above the Sears Tower, standing at a height of and each having 88 floors.


text: In 2004, the construction of Taipei 101 brought the height of skyscrapers to a new level, standing at with 101 floors. It is taller than the previous record-holders, the Petronas Towers. Burj Khalifa surpassed the height of Taipei 101 by in 2009, making it 60% taller. It has broken several skyscraper records, and it is almost twice as tall as the Empire State Building. Burj Khalifa, however has not broken the record of world's tallest structure. In 2009, Guinness World Records recognised the Magnolia oil platform as the tallest structure. It has a record-breaking height of 1,432 metres (4,698 feet). However the majority of the Burj Khalifa's height difference (29%) is gained from vanity height, the Burj Khalifa's highest occupiable floor is only above ground. This would still make it the tallest building in the world but only by 2 meters over the Shanghai Tower, a substantially smaller margin than before.


text: Since the early skyscraper boom that took place in North America, the significant number of skyscrapers in North America dominated the 100 tallest buildings in the world. In 1930, 99 of the 100 tallest buildings in the world were in North America. In the future, this percentage is expected to decline to only 22 percent. The predominance of skyscrapers in North America is decreasing because of skyscraper construction in other parts of the world, especially in Asia. In Asia, there has been an increase in the number of supertall skyscrapers beginning with the completion of the Bank of China Tower in Hong Kong in 1990. Currently, sixty of the world's 100 tallest buildings are in Asia (including the Middle East), while all six megatall skyscrapers reside in Asia. All proposed future megatall skyscrapers are also in Asia with the exception of the Lakhta Center 2 in St. Petersburg.


text: Since the skyscraper era began, the great majority of skyscrapers were used predominantly as office space. From 1930 to 2000, the percentage of office towers never fell below 86 percent, but in the future it is expected to be as low as 46 percent. By 2010, fewer than half of the 100 tallest buildings in the world were office towers, the majority being for residential and mixed use. Only four of the ten tallest buildings in the world, and twenty-eight of the top fifty, were used primarily as offices.


text: A mixed-use tall building is defined as having two or more functions that occupy a significant proportion of the tower's total space. Support areas such as car parks and mechanical plant space do not contribute towards mixed-use status.


text: Skyscrapers used primarily or exclusively as hotels or residential space are generally shorter than office and mixed-use buildings, with only a few supertall buildings of the residential or hotel types among the 100 tallest skyscrapers. The tallest completed residential buildings (minimum 85% residential) are Central Park Tower, 111 West 57th Street, and 432 Park Avenue, all on Billionaire's Row in New York City. The tallest completed hotels (primarily hotel space) are the Gevora Hotel, the JW Marriott Marquis Dubai twin towers, the Rose Tower, and the Burj Al Arab, all in Dubai.


text: The following list of tallest buildings is based on the default metric of CTBUH, that of measuring to the highest architectural element. Other criteria would generate a different list. Shanghai World Financial Center is not on the above list, but it surpassed Taipei 101 in 2008 to become the building with the highest occupied floor. Using the criterion of highest tip (including antennae), the World Trade Center in New York City was the world's tallest building from 1972 to 2000, until the Sears Tower in Chicago (which already had a higher occupied floor than the World Trade Center) had its antenna extended to give that building the world's tallest tip a title it held until the 2010 completion of Burj Khalifa. Petronas Towers and Taipei 101 were never the world's tallest buildings by the highest–tip criterion.


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: Kadaisi Vivasayi () is a 2022 Indian Tamil-language film written, edited, and directed by M. Manikandan. The film stars an eighty-five-year-old farmer named Nallandi, Vijay Sethupathi and Yogi Babu. It is produced by Eros International and released on 11 February 2022.


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: The movie portrays the life of an old farmer in a small village in Tamil Nadu over the period of a month. Mayandi is an 80+ year old farmer, living a frugal lifestyle. He talks very little and displays very little emotion. He is tasked with providing the symbolic first grain for the village temple's annual ceremony as there is no other farmer in the village. The rest have sold their lands to financiers for supposed developmental projects. Mayandi plants a new batch of paddy in his field, and one day, he finds a peacock and 2 peahens dead in his field. He considers them vehicles of his favorite God Murugan and buries them in his field. A fellow villager sees him bury the birds. Soon, Mayandi is arrested for the crime of killing a peacock (because it is India's national bird). It is then revealed that some years ago peafowl were killed in the village and the investigating police were heckled and there were no witnesses. The police wishing to avenge their humiliation find a witness and file a case against Mayandi, who is taken into judicial remand. He is then brought to court where he states to the magistrate (Raichal Rebecca) the facts and explains that the witness only saw Mayandi bury the birds, not the act of killing them. She reprimands the police for filing a false case and orders them to submit a changed report. However, since the FIR had been filed and filing a new report takes time, Mayandi is ordered to spend 15 days in jail. Mayandi mentions his newly-planted crop that needs regular watering and the magistrate orders the police constable to take care of that.


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: The police delay filing the changed report and neglect the care of the field while Mayandi's stay in prison gets extended. Mayandi's relatives in the village take pity on the police constable (who is watering the field) and agree to take up that task themselves. When pests attack the crop, Mayandi advises them on how to control them with a traditional spray, but this is laborious and Mayandi's relative buys a pesticide that is pushed by the village agro-chemical dealer. Mayandi makes an escape while waiting for his hearing and discovers the crop destroyed. The magistrate finds him in the field and tries to hasten a speedy release, while also ensuring support for a new crop to be planted and raised in time for the festival. The festival itself involves Ayyanar deities (including Karuppu Sami), propitiated by a coming together of all the caste groups in the society, including the village potter who has nearly lost his livelihood.


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: There are two side stories. One is that of a village simpleton Ramaiah, played by Vijay Sethupathi (the producer) who has gone insane following the death of his love. In several places, it is hinted that he is the sane one in a world gone mad. Another is that of Yogi Babu and his elephant, bought after selling off his land to a financial institution. There are also commentaries on hybrid seeds, industrial animal feed, and other high-input practices that are destroying sustenance farmers.


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: The announcement on the making of the film was made by director Manikandan in 2016, but the progress of the film was delayed due to unknown reasons. Reports revealed that the director had approached Rajinikanth to play the role of protagonist, but the offer was turned down by the veteran actor. In 2018, the director revealed that the film would feature Vijay Sethupathi in the lead role, making it the second collaboration between himself and the actor after "Aandavan Kattalai" in 2016.


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: The official confirmation regarding the filming of "Kadaisi Vivasayi" was announced in around April 2018, with the plot of the film based on the importance of agriculture portraying Vijay Sethupathi in a cameo in the role of a farmer. It was also revealed that Vijay Sethupathi had silently wrapped up his portions in the film in September 2018 while he was busy with other films such as "Junga" and "Maamanithan".


title: Kadaisi Vivasayi

text: The film originally had songs and background score by Ilaiyaraaja, but director Manikandan replaced Ilaiyaraaja with Santhosh Narayanan as he was not satisfied with the background score, prompting Ilaiyaraaja to lodge a complaint against the director at Music Composer’s Association.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: The Lightning Thief is a 2005 American fantasy-adventure novel based on Greek mythology, the first young adult novel written by Rick Riordan in the "Percy Jackson & the Olympians" series. It won the Adult Library Services Association Best Books for Young Adults, among other awards. The novel is followed by "The Sea of Monsters" and spawned two sequel series ("The Heroes of Olympus" and "The Trials of Apollo") and the extended universe of the "Camp Half-Blood Chronicles".


title: The Lightning Thief

text: A film adaptation of the book, titled "", was released in the United States on February 12, 2010. On May 14, 2020, Riordan announced that a live-action TV series for Disney+ would adapt the "Percy Jackson & the Olympians" series, with the first season covering "The Lightning Thief".


title: The Lightning Thief

text: Percy Jackson is a dyslexic twelve-year-old with ADHD. While on a school trip to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, one of the chaperones, Mrs. Dodds, turns into a Fury and attacks him. Percy's favorite teacher, Mr. Brunner, lends Percy a magical sword-pen to defeat her. Percy and his mother Sally go to Long Island. Percy's friend Grover reveals himself as a satyr and warns of danger. At a summer camp, Sally is attacked by a minotaur and disappears in a flash of light. Percy kills the beast with one of its own horns. He learns that the camp is called Camp Half-Blood, and that he is a demigod: the son of a human and a Greek god. He settles into camp life and meets several other demigods, including Luke and Annabeth. After a hellhound attacks him, he is saved by Chiron and then claimed by his father, the god Poseidon. Chiron explains to Percy how the three eldest male gods—Poseidon, Zeus, and Hades—swore an oath not to have children; Percy represents a violation of the oath. He is the second violation of the oath, as the first was Thalia, daughter of Zeus. She was killed by monsters sent by Hades. This, coupled with the fact that Zeus's master lightning bolt has recently been stolen, has bred much suspicion between the gods.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: Percy must locate Zeus's lightning bolt. Annabeth and Grover accompany him to the realm of Hades—the most likely culprit. Percy brings Chiron's magic sword Anaklusmos and Luke's flying sneakers. The trio travels to Los Angeles to visit Hades. Along the way, they are attacked by the Furies, Medusa, Echidna, and the Chimera. They perform a favor for the god Ares, who gives them a backpack full of supplies and safe transportation to Nevada. Percy learns more about his companions, his powers, and the world of the Greek gods. In Hades's realm, Grover is nearly dragged into Tartarus by Luke's flying shoes. The battered group finally meets Hades, who reveals that his Helm of Darkness has also been mysteriously stolen, and accuses Percy of stealing it. Hades threatens to kill his hostage Sally and reanimate the dead unless his helm is returned. When Percy finds the missing master bolt inside Ares's backpack, the group realizes they've all been manipulated by Ares. Narrowly escaping the Underworld, Percy challenges Ares to a duel on the beach. After a long and tough fight, Percy wins, and he gives the Helm of Darkness to the Furies. Hades realizes that Percy is not the thief of the helm nor the master bolt, and returns Sally home.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: Percy takes the master bolt back to Zeus on Mount Olympus. Percy returns to Camp Half-Blood as a hero and enjoys the rest of his summer. On the last day of camp, however, he goes into the woods with Luke, who reveals himself to be the real thief of Hades's Helm and Zeus's bolt, following the orders of Kronos. Kronos had manipulated the power-hungry Ares into taking part in the scheme. Luke explains his beliefs that the gods are too irresponsible and are poor leaders who need to be overthrown. He offers Percy the chance to join him, and when Percy refuses, Luke tries to kill him with a scorpion. Percy is poisoned and faints. Awakening, he is given the choice of whether to return home for the school year or stay at camp year-round. He decides to spend the school year with his mother, even though it will be more dangerous for him with Luke and Kronos on the loose. Grover and Annabeth also leave the camp for the year but promise to keep in touch with Percy.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: Development for "The Lightning Thief" began when author Rick Riordan made up stories for his son Haley, who had been diagnosed with ADHD and dyslexia. His son had been studying Greek mythology in second grade and asked that his father come up with bedtime stories based on Greek myths. Riordan had been a Greek mythology teacher in middle school for many years and was able to remember enough stories to please his son. Soon Riordan ran out of myths and his son requested that Riordan make new ones using the characters from Greek myths with a new twist. Riordan created the fictional character Percy Jackson and his travels across the United States to recover Zeus' lightning bolt. In his new story, Riordan made ADHD and dyslexia part of a demigod's powers - respectively, heightened battle reflexes and a brain wired to read ancient Greek rather than English. After Riordan finished telling the story his son asked that his dad write a book based on Percy's adventures, and he did.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: While he gave his manuscript to his agent and editor to review, Riordan took his book to a group of middle schoolers to critique. With their help, he came up with the name of the book and invented Percy's magic sword. Riordan first sent out the manuscript for "The Lightning Thief" under a pseudonym, as he did not want to rely on anyone in the publishing industry, who would have known him through his previous work. After many rejections, an agent picked up the manuscript as she liked its premise. In 2004 the book was sold to Miramax Books for enough money that Riordan could quit his job to focus on writing. The book has since been released in multiple versions (including hardcover, paperback, and audio editions) and has been translated and published all over the world.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: "The Lightning Thief" received mostly positive reviews. The book has a rating of 4.25 out of 5 on Goodreads with over 1,900,000 reviews. Common Sense Media said, "There are two levels of fun in "The Lightning Thief". One is the fast-paced quest of a young hero and his friends to save the world..." and added, "Another level of fun here – laughing at the wicked ways the author has updated the gods and monsters for the 21st century". However, it did criticize some aspects of the book, describing the prose as "choppy and attitude-filled" and complaining that "[t]he characters aren't emotionally involving". Its overall rating was 4 stars out of 5. Numerous other reviews were more positive. "The New York Times" praised "The Lightning Thief" as "perfectly paced, with electrifying moments chasing each other like heartbeats". "School Library Journal" said in its starred review that the book was "[a]n adventure-quest with a hip edge" and that "[r]eaders will be eager to follow the young protagonist's next move". "Kirkus Reviews" reviews said, "The sardonic tone of the narrator's voice lends a refreshing air of realism to this riotously paced quest tale of heroism that questions the realities of our world, family, friendship and loyalty." Eoin Colfer, author of Artemis Fowl called it "A fantastic blend of myth and modern". Finally, "Publishers Weekly" also praised the book, regarding it as "swift and humorous" and added that the book would "leave many readers eager for the next installment."


title: The Lightning Thief

text: On April 8, 2007, "The Lightning Thief" was ranked ninth on "The New York Times Best Seller list" for children's books. "The Lightning Thief" was the winner of the "School Library Journal" Best Book of 2005 as well as one of the books in the "Chicago Public Library" Best of the Best Books List, 2005. It was also in the VOYA Top Shelf Fiction List and was the winner of the Red House Children's Book Award Winner (UK), 2006; Askews Torchlight Award (UK), 2006; and the Mark Twain Award (Missouri Association of School Librarians), 2008. It was an "American Library Association" Notable Book, 2006 and a "New York Times" Notable Book (2005). It received the Young Reader's Choice Award in 2008 and the Rebecca Caudill Young Reader's Book Award in 2009. "Scholastic Parent & Child" magazine also included the novel within its 100 "Greatest Books for Kids." When asked about the various awards, Rick Riordan said: "The ultimate compliment for a children's writer is when the kids like it."


title: The Lightning Thief

text: In June 2004, 20th Century Fox acquired the feature film rights to the book. In April 2007, director Chris Columbus was hired to helm the project. The film, titled "Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief", was released in the United States on February 12, 2010, and stars Logan Lerman as Percy Jackson, Alexandra Daddario as Annabeth Chase, Brandon T. Jackson as Grover Underwood, Jake Abel as Luke Castellan, and Pierce Brosnan as Chiron. The film received mixed reviews from critics upon release and grossed $226 million at the worldwide box office. Riordan criticized the movie for significantly altering the book's story, attempting to appeal to an older audience at the expense of the book's younger target demographic, making changes that would create problems for possible sequel films, and generally being poorly written. A sequel, "", was released in 2013.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: On June 28, 2005, a 10-hour and 25 minute audio book version, read by actor Jesse Bernstein, was published worldwide by Listening Library.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: "Kirkus Reviews" magazine said, "the narrator's voice lends a refreshing air of realism to this riotously paced quest tale of heroism that questions the realities of our world, family, friendship and loyalty". "AudioFile Magazine" praised the audiobook, "adults and children alike will be spellbound as they listen to this deeply imaginative tale unfold." "School Library Journal" both praised and criticized the audio book saying "Although some of Jesse Bernstein's accents fail (the monster from Georgia, for instance, has no Southern trace in her voice), he does a fine job of keeping the main character's tones and accents distinguishable".


title: The Lightning Thief

text: "The Lightning Thief" was published as a graphic novel on October 12, 2010. It consists of 128 pages with cover art by Attila Futaki and Jose Villarrubia.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: A one-hour musical aimed at young audiences was planned to hit the road on a nationwide tour in September 2014 following a stint in New York City in 2014. A two-hour version of the musical previewed Off-Broadway on March 23, 2017, at the Lucille Lortel Theatre. It officially opened on April 4, 2017, and ran until May 6 of the same year. On June 20, a cast recording was released on the Broadway Records label. In August 2017, it was announced that the two-hour long production would be going on a national tour beginning in the fall of 2018. In 2019 it was announced that the production would make its Broadway debut at the Longacre Theatre, running from September 2019 until January 2020.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: On May 14, 2020, Riordan announced that there would be a live-action "Percy Jackson & the Olympians" series made for Disney+. Unlike the earlier film adaptation, the series would follow the storyline of the books, and Riordan and his wife Becky would be involved in "every aspect of the show". The first season of the show would adapt the story of "The Lightning Thief". On July 13, 2021, Riordan announced Jon Steinberg and Dan Shotz as the show's showrunners, and on January 25, 2022, the show was officially green-lit by Disney+. On April 11, 2022, Walker Scobell was announced to be playing Percy Jackson. In May 2022, Leah Sava Jeffries and Aryan Simhadri joined the cast, respectively playing Annabeth Chase and Grover Underwood. In June 2022, the casting of several secondary characters was announced.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: "The Lightning Thief" is followed by "The Sea of Monsters", in which Percy and Annabeth rescue Grover, who has been imprisoned by Polyphemus the Cyclops, and recover the Golden Fleece to save the camp. They are accompanied in this mission by Percy's Cyclops half brother, Tyson, and by Clarisse La Rue.


title: The Lightning Thief

text: Like "The Lightning Thief", it won several prizes and received generally positive reviews as well. It sold over 100,000 copies in paperback. It was followed by "The Titan's Curse, The Battle of the Labyrinth," and "The Last Olympian" as well as an entire new sequel-series, "The Heroes of Olympus", and later, "The Trials of Apollo".


title: The Lightning Thief

text: "The Lightning Thief" was published in Bulgarian, Romanian, Chinese, Italian, Turkish, Danish, Croatian, Czech, Finnish, French, Dutch, German, Hebrew, Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, Polish, Indonesian, Serbian, Norwegian, Swedish, Spanish, and Catalan. The French, German, and Spanish editions were published in 2006. The other translations of the book were published in 2008. The Icelandic publisher "Odinseye" released another edition in 2012. The novel is also on sale in Taiwan, published by (遠流出版公司).


title: Penis removal

text: In ancient civilizations, the removal of the human penis was sometimes used to demonstrate superiority or dominance over an enemy. Armies were sometimes known to sever the penises of their enemies to count the dead, as well as for trophies. The practice of castration (removal of the testicles) sometimes involved the removal of all or part of the penis, generally with a tube inserted to keep the urethra open for urination. Castration has been used to create a class of servants or slaves called eunuchs in many different places and eras.


title: Penis removal

text: In Russia, men of a devout group of Spiritual Christians known as the Skoptsy were castrated, either undergoing "greater castration", which entailed removal of the penis, or "lesser castration", in which the penis remained in place, while Skoptsy women underwent mastectomy. These procedures were performed in an effort to eliminate lust and to restore the Christian to a pristine state that existed prior to original sin.


title: Penis removal

text: In the modern era, removing the human penis for any such activity is very rare (with some exceptions listed below), and references to removal of the penis are almost always symbolic. Castration is less rare, and is performed as a last resort in the treatment of androgen-sensitive prostate cancer.


title: Penis removal

text: Some men have penile amputations, known as penectomies, for medical reasons. Cancer, for example, sometimes necessitates removal of all or part of the penis. In some instances, botched childhood circumcisions have also resulted in full or partial penectomies. A man who has his penis removed may have one or more problems with his personality, urination, sex life, and vulnerable testicles; he may also experience a phantom penis (see phantom limb).


title: Penis removal

text: Genital surgical procedures for trans women (transgender or transsexual women) undergoing sex reassignment surgery do not usually involve the complete removal of the penis; part or all of the glans is usually kept and reshaped as a clitoris, and the skin of the penile shaft may also be inverted to form the vagina. When procedures such as this are not possible, other procedures such as colovaginoplasty are used which do involve the removal of the penis.


title: Penis removal

text: Issues related to the removal of the penis appear in psychology, for example in the condition known as castration anxiety.


title: Penis removal

text: Some men have undergone penectomies as a voluntary body modification, thus including it as part of a body dysmorphic disorder.


title: Penis removal

text: Professional opinion is divided regarding the desire for penile amputation as a pathology, much as all other forms of treatment by amputation for body dysmorphic disorder. Voluntary subincision, removal of the glans penis, and bifurcation of the penis are related topics.


title: Penis removal

text: In ancient China, for crimes including adultery, "licentious" and "promiscuous" activity, males had their penises removed in addition to being castrated. This was one of the Five Punishments that could be legally inflicted on criminals in China. The exact crime was called "gong", and referred to "immoral" sex between males and females. The punishment stated, "If a male and female engage in intercourse without morality, their punishments shall be castration and sequestration [respectively]." They were designed to permanently disfigure for life. "Castration", in China, meant the severing of the penis in addition to the testicles, after which male offenders were sentenced to work in the palace as eunuchs. The punishment was called "gōngxíng" (宫刑), which meant "palace punishment", since castrated men would be enslaved to work in the harem of the palace. It was also called ""fǔxíng""(腐刑). Husbands who committed adultery were punished with castration as required under this law.


title: Penis removal

text: The removal of the penis was used as a punishment for men in the Heian period in Japan, where it replaced execution. It was called "rasetsu" 羅切 (らせつ), and was separate from castration which was called "kyūkei" 宮刑 (きゅうけい). "Rasetsu" was done voluntarily by some Japanese Buddhist priests to ensure celibacy. Rasetsu was also known in Edo period Japan.


title: Penis removal

text: The word "rasetsu" was made out of the components "ra" from ""mara"" which meant penis, and ""setsu"", which meant cutting.


title: Penis removal

text: "Kyūkei" in Japanese law referred to the punishment of castration, which was used for male offenders, and confinement for females.


title: Penis removal

text: The Arab slave trade provided many eunuchs who were more highly prized, and priced. African boys were generally subject to penis removal, as well as castration.


title: Penis removal

text: A study of penis reattachment in China found that in a group of 50 men, all but one reacquired functionality, even though some involved full reconstructive surgery using tissue and bone. Reportedly, some of these men later fathered children.


title: Penis removal

text: If reattachment is not an option (such as the penis not being reattached long after 24 hours), doctors can reconstruct a penis from muscle and skin grafted from another part of the body like the forearm. However, a penile implant is needed for an erection to be possible, as the reconstructed penis would look strange and would either not be able to ejaculate, or ejaculate with less force. Patients are often dissatisfied with the reconstructed penis. Since 2015, Zephyr Surgical Implants produces malleable and inflatable penile implants particularly designed for phalloplasty surgeries. Standing during urination is an advantage offered by a reconstructed penis. If penis reconstruction is not done, the patient will have to squat in order to urinate since doctors reroute the entrance of the urethra to below the scrotum.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark is a series of three collections of short horror stories for children, written by Alvin Schwartz and originally illustrated by Stephen Gammell. In 2011, HarperCollins published editions featuring new art by Brett Helquist, stirring some controversy among fans. Subsequent printings have restored the original Gammell art. The titles of the books are "Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark" (1981), "More Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark" (1984), and "Scary Stories 3: More Tales to Chill Your Bones" (1991).


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: The three books each feature numerous short stories in the horror genre. Author Schwartz drew heavily from folklore and urban legends as the topic of his stories, researching extensively and spending more than a year on writing each book. Acknowledged influences include William Shakespeare, T. S. Eliot, Mark Twain, Joel Chandler Harris, Bennett Cerf and Jan Harold Brunvand. The first volume was published in 1981, and the books have subsequently been collected in both a box set and a single volume.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: There is also an audiobook version of each book, read by George S. Irving. The audiobooks are presented in unabridged format with the exception of a handful of missing stories from the first book.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: As of 2017, the books had collectively sold more than seven million copies, and appeared on numerous children's best-seller lists. They have collectively been hailed as a "cultural touchstone for a generation," with the original charcoal and ink artwork by Gammell often singled out for praise.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: A film adaptation of the same name was released on August 9, 2019 to generally favorable reviews from critics.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: To celebrate the books' 30th anniversary in 2011, HarperCollins re-released the books with new illustrations from Brett Helquist. The new illustrations were generally regarded as kid-friendly and not as disturbing as their previous illustrations, resulting in widespread criticism from fans of the original. In 2017, the books were re-issued with the original artwork.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: This series is listed by the American Library Association as being the most challenged series of books from the 1990s, and seventh most challenged from the 2000s. It again made the list in 2012. Complaints have typically centered on its violence, disturbing subject matter, and potential unsuitability for younger readers, as well as religious concerns. Critics have called the stories, many of which feature macabre topics such as murder, disfigurement and cannibalism, "sick...repulsive," and "really disgusting...not appropriate for children." The nightmarish artwork by Stephen Gammell has also been a subject of criticism. Among the groups who have attempted to have the book removed from school libraries are local parent groups and Concerned Women for America; defenders have included the American Library Association and The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: Defenders of the books have claimed that they are aimed at "middle-school kids, who are perfectly able to cope with this kind of thing," and that the stories "help children deal with reality by putting faces on what they're afraid of."


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: In 2019, a documentary about the book series titled "Scary Stories" was released. It explores the process of the books' creation (including the artwork and the folkloric inspiration of the stories), their legacy, and the controversy surrounding attempts to ban them. It featured interviews of family members of the deceased Alvin Schwartz, as well as R.L. Stine and several other authors of 1980s and 1990s children's horror. It debuted at the Panic Fest in Kansas City.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: The Horror Writers Association announced on February 9, 2018, that it would compile a new tribute anthology titled "Don't Turn Out The Lights", to be edited by Jonathan Maberry, and featuring submissions from HWA members. It was released on September 1, 2020.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: In 2013, CBS Films acquired the rights to the "Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark" books from 1212 Entertainment who initially optioned the material, with the intent of producing the material as a potential feature film. It was announced in 2014 that writer John August was set to pen the film.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: On January 14, 2016, it was reported that Guillermo del Toro would develop the project for CBS Films, and would also potentially direct. On February 24, 2016, CBS Films hired screenwriting brothers duo Dan and Kevin Hageman to polish the draft written by August, and the script was ultimately credited to the Hagemans, with Del Toro, Marcus Dunstan and Patrick Melton receiving a "story by" credit.


title: Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark

text: Del Toro produced the film along with Sean Daniel, Jason Brown, and Elizabeth Grave, with Roberto Grande and Joshua Long executive producing. In August 2018, Michael Garza, Austin Abrams, Gabriel Rush, Austin Zajur and Natalie Ganzhorn were cast, with André Øvredal directing.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Andrew Ross Sorkin (born February 19, 1977) is an American journalist and author. He is a financial columnist for "The New York Times" and a co-anchor of CNBC's "Squawk Box." He is also the founder and editor of DealBook, a financial news service published by "The New York Times". He wrote the bestselling book "Too Big to Fail" and co-produced a movie adaptation of the book for HBO Films. He is also a co-creator of the Showtime series "Billions".


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin was born in New York, the son of Joan Ross Sorkin, a playwright, and Laurence T. Sorkin, a partner at the law firm Cahill Gordon & Reindel. Sorkin graduated from Scarsdale High School in 1995 and earned a Bachelor of Science in communications from Cornell University in 1999 where he was a member of Sigma Pi fraternity. He is not related to writer Aaron Sorkin nor defense lawyer Ira Lee Sorkin. His family heritage and religion are Jewish.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin first joined "The New York Times" as a student intern during his senior year in high school. He also worked for the paper while he was in college, publishing 71 articles before he graduated. He began by writing media and technology articles while assisting the advertising columnist, Stuart Elliott. Sorkin spent the summer of 1996 working for "Businessweek", before returning to "The New York Times". He moved to London for part of 1998. While there, he wrote about European business and technology for "The New York Times" and then returned to Cornell to complete his studies. At Cornell, he was vice president of the Sigma Pi fraternity.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin joined "The New York Times" full-time in 1999 as the newspaper's European mergers and acquisitions reporter, and was based in London. In 2000, Sorkin became the paper's chief mergers and acquisitions reporter, based in New York, a position he still holds. In 2001, Sorkin founded "DealBook," an online daily financial report published by the "Times". As Editor-at-Large of "DealBook," Sorkin writes a weekly column of the same name. Sorkin is also an assistant editor of business and finance news for the paper.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin has broken news of major mergers and acquisitions, including Chase's acquisition of J.P. Morgan and Hewlett-Packard's acquisition of Compaq. He also led "The New York Times"' coverage of the largest takeover in history, Vodafone's $183 billion hostile bid for Mannesmann. Additionally, he broke the news of IBM's sale of its PC business to Lenovo, Boston Scientific's $25 billion acquisition of Guidant and Symantec's $13 billion deal for Veritas Software, and reported on News Corp.'s acquisition of Dow Jones and "The Wall Street Journal".


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin has reported on the Wall Street financial crisis, including the collapse of Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers, and the government bailout of other major investment banks and AIG. He has also written about the troubled American auto industry.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: In 2007, Sorkin was one of the first journalists to identify and criticize a tax loophole for private equity firms and hedge funds. He first wrote about the topic in a column in March 2007, calling the tax treatment a "charade", and later wrote about it on the front page of "The New York Times". He has written at least a half dozen articles critiquing the tax practice by private equity firms and advocated for the government to end the loophole.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: In 2014, Sorkin wrote a series of columns criticizing American corporations for trying to lower their US tax bill by merging with smaller foreign companies in a transaction known as an "inversion". He also criticized the Wall Street banks that advised US companies to pursue such deals, describing the banks as "corporate co-conspirators". Sorkin called on the government to end the practice. On September 22, 2014, the Obama Administration changed the tax laws to make it more difficult for US companies to merge to avoid taxes.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: On the PRISM surveillance program and Edward Snowden situation, Sorkin said, "I would arrest him and now I'd almost arrest Glenn Greenwald, the journalist who seems to be out there, he wants to help him get to Ecuador." The next day, Sorkin apologized for the comment; Greenwald accepted, tweeting "Thank you: accepted & appreciated".


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: In October 2001, while a journalist at "The New York Times", Sorkin started "DealBook", a newsletter about deal-making and Wall Street. "DealBook" was one of the first financial news aggregation services on the Internet. In March 2006, Sorkin introduced a companion website published on "The New York Times", with updated news and original analysis throughout the day. In 2007, "DealBook" won a Webby Award for Best Business Blog and it won a SABEW award for overall excellence. In 2008, the site won an EPpy Award for Best Business Blog.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: In July 2011, Sorkin became a co-anchor on CNBC's "Squawk Box" in addition to his duties at "The New York Times". Sorkin has appeared on NBC's "Today" show, "Charlie Rose" and "The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer" on PBS, MSNBC's "Hardball" and "Morning Joe", ABC's "Good Morning America", "The Chris Matthews Show", HBO's "Real Time with Bill Maher", the BBC World Service, Comedy Central's "The Daily Show" and "The Colbert Report", and was a frequent guest host of CNBC's "Squawk Box" before joining the ensemble. Sorkin also hosted a weekly seven-part, half-hour PBS talk-show series called "It's the Economy, NY", which focused on how the evolving economic crisis was affecting New Yorkers.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Along with Brian Koppelman and David Levien, Sorkin is a co-creator of the Showtime series "Billions", an American television drama series starring Paul Giamatti and Damian Lewis. The series is loosely based on crusading federal prosecutor of financial crimes, Preet Bharara, the former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York. The show premiered in January 2016.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin's book on the Wall Street banking crisis, "Too Big to Fail: The Inside Story of How Wall Street and Washington Fought to Save the Financial System—and Themselves", was published by Viking on October 20, 2009. It won the 2010 Gerald Loeb Award for best business book of the year, was on the shortlist for the 2010 Samuel Johnson Prize, shortlisted for the 2010 "Financial Times" and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award, and was on "The New York Times" Best Seller list (non-fiction hardcover and paperback) for six months.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: The book was adapted as a movie by HBO Films and premiered on HBO on May 23, 2011. The film was directed by Curtis Hanson and the screenplay was written by Peter Gould. The cast included William Hurt as Hank Paulson, the Treasury Secretary; Paul Giamatti as Ben Bernanke, the chairman of the Federal Reserve; Billy Crudup as Timothy Geithner, the then-president of the New York Federal Reserve Bank; James Woods as Richard Fuld, the CEO of Lehman Brothers; Edward Asner as Warren Buffett, the CEO of Berkshire Hathaway; Cynthia Nixon as Michele Davis, assistant secretary for public affairs at Treasury; Bill Pullman as Jamie Dimon, CEO of JPMorgan Chase; as well as Topher Grace as Jim Wilkinson, Chief of Staff to the Treasury Secretary. Sorkin was a co-producer of the film and had a cameo appearance as a reporter.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin shared the Gerald Loeb Award in 2005 for Deadline Writing and earned another for Business Book in 2010 for his book "Too Big to Fail." He also won a Society of American Business Editors and Writers Award for breaking news in 2005 and again in 2006. In 2007, the World Economic Forum named him a Young Global Leader. Also in 2007, SiliconAlleyInsider.com named Sorkin one of New York's "most influential scribes." In 2008, "Vanity Fair" magazine named Sorkin as one of 40 new members of the "Next Establishment," and he appeared on the UJA Federation's 2013 list of 40 under 40 top "movers and shakers" in the Jewish community. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: In the penultimate episode of "Breaking Bad", called "Granite State," Sorkin is briefly referenced. He is said to have written an op-ed in "The New York Times" accusing fictional entrepreneurs Gretchen and Elliott Schwartz of making donations to drug rehabilitation centers in the hopes of cleansing their company's image after the Walter White scandal. Sorkin later wrote the entire fictional article.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin married Pilar Jenny Queen on June 9, 2007. They have three children, the youngest born on January 4, 2017.


title: Andrew Ross Sorkin

text: Sorkin has a coloboma in his left eye that sometimes makes it appear as if he has two different colored eyes.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin (from Latin 'wool', and 'oil'), also called wool yolk, wool wax, or wool grease, is a wax secreted by the sebaceous glands of wool-bearing animals. Lanolin used by humans comes from domestic sheep breeds that are raised specifically for their wool. Historically, many pharmacopoeias have referred to lanolin as wool fat ("adeps lanae"); however, as lanolin lacks glycerides (glycerol esters), it is not a true fat. Lanolin primarily consists of sterol esters instead. Lanolin's waterproofing property aids sheep in shedding water from their coats. Certain breeds of sheep produce large amounts of lanolin.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin's role in nature is to protect wool and skin from climate and the environment; it also plays a role in skin (integumental) hygiene. Lanolin and its derivatives are used in the protection, treatment, and beautification of human skin.


title: Lanolin

text: A typical high-purity grade of lanolin is composed predominantly of long chain waxy esters (approximately 97% by weight) with the remainder being lanolin alcohols, lanolin acids and lanolin hydrocarbons.


title: Lanolin

text: An estimated 8,000 to 20,000 different types of lanolin esters are present in lanolin, resulting from combinations between the 200 or so different lanolin acids and the 100 or so different lanolin alcohols identified so far.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin’s complex composition of long-chain esters, hydroxyesters, diesters, lanolin alcohols, and lanolin acids means in addition to it being a valuable product in its own right, it is also the starting point for the production of a whole spectrum of lanolin derivatives, which possess wide-ranging chemical and physical properties. The main derivatisation routes include hydrolysis, fractional solvent crystallisation, esterification, hydrogenation, alkoxylation and quaternisation. Lanolin derivatives obtained from these processes are used widely in both high-value cosmetics and skin treatment products.


title: Lanolin

text: Hydrolysis of lanolin yields lanolin alcohols and lanolin acids. Lanolin alcohols are a rich source of cholesterol (an important skin lipid) and are powerful water-in-oil emulsifiers; they have been used extensively in skincare products for over 100 years. Notably, approximately 40% of the acids derived from lanolin are alpha-hydroxy acids (AHAs). The use of AHAs in skin care products has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Details of the AHAs isolated from lanolin can be seen in the table below.


title: Lanolin

text: In addition to general purity requirements, lanolin must meet official requirements for the permissible levels of pesticide residues. The Fifth Supplement of the United States Pharmacopoeia XXII published in 1992 was the first to specify limits for 34 named pesticides. A total limit of 40 ppm (i.e. 40 mg/kg) total pesticides was stipulated for lanolin of general use, with no individual limit greater than 10 ppm.


title: Lanolin

text: A second monograph also introduced into the US Pharmacopoeia XXII in 1992 was entitled 'Modified Lanolin'. Lanolin conforming to this monograph is intended for use in more exacting applications, for example on open wounds. In this monograph, the limit of total pesticides was reduced to 3 ppm total pesticides, with no individual limit greater than 1 ppm.


title: Lanolin

text: In 2000, the European Pharmacopoeia introduced pesticide residue limits into its lanolin monograph. This requirement, which is generally regarded as the new quality standard, extends the list of pesticides to 40 and imposes even lower concentration limits.


title: Lanolin

text: Some very high-purity grades of lanolin surpass monograph requirements. New products obtained using complex purification techniques produce lanolin esters in their natural state, removing oxidative and environmental impurities resulting in white, odourless, hypoallergenic lanolin. These ultra-high-purity grades of lanolin are ideally suited to the treatment of dermatological disorders such as eczema and on open wounds.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin attracted attention owing to a misunderstanding concerning its sensitising potential. A study carried out at New York University Hospital in the early 1950s had shown about 1% of patients with dermatological disorders were allergic to the lanolin being used at that time. By one estimate, this simple misunderstanding of failing to differentiate between the general healthy population and patients with dermatological disorders exaggerates the sensitising potential of lanolin by 5,000–6,000 times.


title: Lanolin

text: The European Cosmetics Directive, introduced in July 1976, contained a stipulation that cosmetics which contained lanolin should be labelled to that effect. This ruling was challenged immediately, and in the early 1980s, it was overturned and removed from the directive. Despite only being in force for a short period of time, this ruling did harm both to the lanolin industry and to the reputation of lanolin in general. The Cosmetics Directive ruling only applied to the presence of lanolin in cosmetic products; it did not apply to the many hundreds of its different uses in dermatological products designed for the treatment of compromised skin conditions.


title: Lanolin

text: Modern analytical methods have revealed lanolin possesses a number of important chemical and physical similarities to human stratum corneum lipids; the lipids which help regulate the rate of water loss across the epidermis and govern the hydration state of the skin.


title: Lanolin

text: Cryogenic scanning electron microscopy has shown that lanolin, like human stratum corneum lipids, consists of a mass of liquid crystalline material. Cross-polarised light microscopy has shown the multilamellar vesicles formed by lanolin are identical to those formed by human stratum corneum lipids. The incorporation of bound water into the stratum corneum involves the formation of multilamellar vesicles.


title: Lanolin

text: Skin bioengineering studies have shown the durational effect of the emollient (skin smoothing) action produced by lanolin is very significant and lasts for many hours. Lanolin applied to the skin at 2 mg/cm has been shown to reduce roughness by about 35% after one hour and 50% after two hours, with the overall effect lasting for considerably more than eight hours. Lanolin is also known to form semiocclusive (breathable) films on the skin. When applied daily at around 4 mg/cm for five consecutive days, the positive moisturising effects of lanolin were detectable until 72 hours after final application. Lanolin may achieve some of its moisturising effects by forming a secondary moisture reservoir within the skin.


title: Lanolin

text: The barrier repair properties of lanolin have been reported to be superior to those produced by both petrolatum and glycerol. In a small clinical study conducted on volunteer subjects with terribly dry (xerotic) hands, lanolin was shown to be superior to petrolatum in reducing the signs and symptoms of dryness and scaling, cracks and abrasions, and pain and itch. In another study, a high purity grade of lanolin was found to be significantly superior to petrolatum in assisting the healing of superficial wounds.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin and its many derivatives are used extensively in both the personal care (e.g., high value cosmetics, facial cosmetics, lip products) and health care sectors such as topical liniments. Lanolin is also found in lubricants, rust-preventive coatings, shoe polish, and other commercial products.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin is a relatively common allergen and is often misunderstood as a wool allergy. However, allergy to a lanolin-containing product is difficult to pinpoint and often other products containing lanolin may be fine for use. Patch testing can be done if a lanolin allergy is suspected.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin is used commercially in many industrial products ranging from rustproof coatings to lubricants. Some sailors use lanolin to create slippery surfaces on their propellers and stern gear to which barnacles cannot adhere. Commercial products (e.g. Lanocote) containing up to 85% lanolin are used to prevent corrosion in marine fasteners, especially when two different metals are in contact with each other and saltwater. The water-repellent properties make it valuable in many applications as a lubricant grease where corrosion would otherwise be a problem.


title: Lanolin

text: 7-Dehydrocholesterol from lanolin is used as a raw material for producing vitamin D by irradiation with ultraviolet light.


title: Lanolin

text: Baseball players often use it to soften and break in their baseball gloves (shaving cream with lanolin is popularly used for this).


title: Lanolin

text: Anhydrous liquid lanolin, combined with parabens, has been used in trials as artificial tears to treat dry eye.<br>


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin can also be restored to woollen garments to make them water and dirt repellent, such as for cloth diaper covers.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin is sometimes used by people on continuous positive airway pressure therapy to reduce irritation with masks, particular nasal pillow masks that can often create sore spots in the nostrils.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin is used as a primary lubricating component in aerosol-based brass lubricants in the ammunition reloading process. Mixed warm 1:12 with highly concentrated ethanol (usually 99%), the ethanol acts as a carrier which evaporates quickly after application, leaving a fine film of lanolin behind to prevent brass seizing in resizing dies.


title: Lanolin

text: Lanolin, when mixed with ingredients such as neatsfoot oil, beeswax and glycerol, is used in various leather treatments, for example in some saddle soaps and in leather care products.


title: Lanolin

text: Crude lanolin constitutes about 5–25% of the weight of freshly shorn wool. The wool from one Merino sheep will produce about 250–300 ml of recoverable wool grease. Lanolin is extracted by washing the wool in hot water with a special wool scouring detergent to remove dirt, wool grease (crude lanolin), suint (sweat salts), and anything else stuck to the wool. The wool grease is continuously removed during this washing process by centrifuge separators, which concentrate it into a waxlike substance melting at approximately .


title: Syncopation

text: In music, syncopation is a variety of rhythms played together to make a piece of music, making part or all of a tune or piece of music off-beat. More simply, syncopation is "a disturbance or interruption of the regular flow of rhythm": a "placement of rhythmic stresses or accents where they wouldn't normally occur". It is the correlation of at least two sets of time intervals.


title: Syncopation

text: Syncopation is used in many musical styles, especially dance music. According to music producer Rick Snoman, "All dance music makes use of syncopation, and it's often a vital element that helps tie the whole track together".


title: Syncopation

text: Syncopation can also occur when a strong harmony is simultaneous with a weak beat, for instance, when a 7th-chord is played on the second beat of measure or a dominant chord is played at the fourth beat of a measure. The latter occurs frequently in tonal cadences for 18th- and early-19th-century music and is the usual conclusion of any section.


title: Syncopation

text: A hemiola (the equivalent Latin term is sesquialtera) can also be considered as one straight measure in three with one long chord and one short chord and a syncope in the measure thereafter, with one short chord and one long chord. Usually, the last chord in a hemiola is a (bi-)dominant, and as such a strong harmony on a weak beat, hence a syncope.


title: Syncopation

text: Technically, "syncopation occurs when a temporary displacement of the regular metrical accent occurs, causing the emphasis to shift from a strong accent to a weak accent". "Syncopation is", however, "very simply, a deliberate disruption of the two- or three-beat stress pattern, most often by stressing an off-beat, or a note that is not on the beat."


title: Syncopation

text: For the following example, there are two points of syncopation where the third beats are sustained from the second beats. In the same way, the first beat of the second bar is sustained from the fourth beat of the first bar.


title: Syncopation

text: Though syncopation may be very complex, dense or complex-looking rhythms often contain no syncopation. The following rhythm, though dense, stresses the regular downbeats, 1 and 4 (in ):


title: Syncopation

text: However, whether it is a placed rest or an accented note, any point in a piece of music that changes the listener's sense of the downbeat is a point of syncopation because it shifts where the strong and weak accents are built.


title: Syncopation

text: The stress can shift by less than a whole beat, so it occurs on an offbeat, as in the following example, where the stress in the first bar is shifted back by an eighth note (or quaver):


title: Syncopation

text: Playing a note ever so slightly before, or after, a beat is another form of syncopation because this produces an unexpected accent:


title: Syncopation

text: It can be helpful to think of a rhythm in eighth notes and count it as "1-and-2-and-3-and-4-and". In general, emphasizing the "and" would be considered the off-beat.


title: Syncopation

text: Anticipated bass is a bass tone that comes syncopated shortly before the downbeat, which is used in Son montuno Cuban dance music. Timing can vary, but it usually occurs on the 2+ and the 4 of the time, thus anticipating the third and first beats. This pattern is known commonly as the Afro-Cuban bass tumbao.


title: Syncopation

text: Richard Middleton suggests adding the concept of transformation to Narmour's prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions in order to explain or generate syncopations. "The syncopated pattern is heard 'with reference to', 'in light of', as a remapping of, its partner." He gives examples of various types of syncopation: Latin, backbeat, and before-the-beat. First however, one may listen to the audio example of stress on the "strong" beats, where expected:


title: Syncopation

text: In the example below, for the first two measures an unsyncopated rhythm is shown in the first measure. The third measure has a syncopated rhythm in which the first and fourth beat are provided as expected, but the accent occurs unexpectedly in between the second and third beats, creating a familiar "Latin rhythm" known as tresillo.


title: Syncopation

text: The accent may be shifted from the first to the second beat in duple meter (and the third to fourth in quadruple), creating the backbeat rhythm:


title: Syncopation

text: The phrasing of "Satisfaction" is a good example of syncopation. It is derived here from its theoretic unsyncopated form, a repeated trochee (¯ ˘ ¯ ˘). A backbeat transformation is applied to "I" and "can't", and then a before-the-beat transformation is applied to "can't" and "no".


title: Syncopation

text: This demonstrates how each syncopated pattern may be heard as a remapping, "with reference to" or "in light of", an unsyncopated pattern.


title: Syncopation

text: Syncopation has been an important element of European musical composition since at least the Middle Ages. Many Italian and French compositions of the music of the 14th-century Trecento use syncopation, as in of the following madrigal by Giovanni da Firenze. (See also hocket.)


title: Syncopation

text: The refrain "Deo Gratias" from the 15th-century anonymous English "Agincourt Carol" is also characterised by lively syncopation:


title: Syncopation

text: According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", "[t]he 15th-century carol repertory is one of the most substantial monuments of English medieval music... The early carols are rhythmically straightforward, in modern 6/8 time; later the basic rhythm is in 3/4, with many cross-rhythms... as in the famous Agincourt carol 'Deo gratias Anglia'. As in other music of the period, the emphasis is not on harmony, but on melody and rhythm."


title: Syncopation

text: Composers of the musical High Renaissance Venetian School, such as Giovanni Gabrieli (1557–1612), exploited syncopation for both their secular madrigals and instrumental pieces and also in their choral sacred works, such as the motet "Domine, Dominus noster":


title: Syncopation

text: Denis Arnold says: "the syncopations of this passage are of a kind which is almost a Gabrieli fingerprint, and they are typical of a general liveliness of rhythm common to Venetian music". The composer Igor Stravinsky, no stranger to syncopation himself, spoke of "those marvellous rhythmic inventions" that feature in Gabrieli's music.


title: Syncopation

text: J. S. Bach and George Handel used syncopated rhythms as an inherent part of their compositions. One of the best-known examples of syncopation in music from the Baroque era was the "Hornpipe" from Handel's "Water Music" (1733).


title: Syncopation

text: Christopher Hogwood (2005, p. 37) describes the Hornpipe as “possibly the most memorable movement in the collection, combining instrumental brilliance and rhythmic vitality… Woven amongst the running quavers are the insistent off-beat syncopations that symbolise confidence for Handel.” Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 4 features striking deviations from the established rhythmic norm in its first and third movements. According to Malcolm Boyd, each ritornello section of the first movement, "is clinched with an "Epilog" of syncopated antiphony":


title: Syncopation

text: Boyd also hears the coda to the third movement as "remarkable... for the way the rhythm of the initial phrase of the fugue subject is expressed... with the accent thrown on to the second of the two minims (now staccato)":


title: Syncopation

text: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert used syncopation to create variety especially in their symphonies. The beginning movement of Beethoven's "Eroica" Symphony No. 3 exemplifies powerfully the uses of syncopation in a piece in triple time. After producing a pattern of three beats to a bar at the outset, Beethoven disrupts it through syncopation in a number of ways:


title: Syncopation

text: (1) By displacing the rhythmic emphasis to a weak part of the beat, as in the first violin part in bars 7–9:


title: Syncopation

text: Richard Taruskin describes here how "the first violins, entering immediately after the C sharp, are made palpably to totter for two bars".


title: Syncopation

text: This "long sequence of syncopated sforzandi" recurs later during the development section of this movement, in a passage that Antony Hopkins describes as "a rhythmic pattern that rides roughshod over the properties of a normal three-in-a bar".


title: Syncopation

text: (3) By inserting silences (rests) at points where a listener might expect strong beats, in the words of George Grove, "nine bars of discords given fortissimo on the weak beats of the bar":


title: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

text: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar CIE (; 26 September 1820 – 29 July 1891), born Ishwar Chandra Bandyopadhyay, was an Indian educator and social reformer of the nineteenth century. His efforts to simplify and modernise Bengali prose were significant. He also rationalised and simplified the Bengali alphabet and type, which had remained unchanged since Charles Wilkins and Panchanan Karmakar had cut the first (wooden) Bengali type in 1780.