title: Coilgun

text: Reverse charging can be prevented by a diode connected in reverse-parallel across the capacitor terminals; as a result, the current keeps flowing until the diode and the coil's resistance dissipate the field energy as heat. While this is a simple and frequently utilized solution, it requires an additional expensive high-power diode and a well-designed coil with enough thermal mass and heat dissipation capability in order to prevent component failure.


title: Coilgun

text: Some designs attempt to recover the energy stored in the magnetic field by using a pair of diodes. These diodes, instead of being forced to dissipate the remaining energy, recharge the capacitors with the right polarity for the next discharge cycle. This will also avoid the need to fully recharge the capacitors, thus significantly reducing charge times. However, the practicality of this solution is limited by the resulting high recharge current through the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitors; the ESR will dissipate some of the recharge current, generating heat within the capacitors and potentially shortening their lifetime.


title: Coilgun

text: To reduce component size, weight, durability requirements, and most importantly, cost, the magnetic circuit must be optimized to deliver more energy to the projectile for a given energy input. This has been addressed to some extent by the use of back iron and end iron, which are pieces of magnetic material that enclose the coil and create paths of lower reluctance in order to improve the amount of magnetic flux coupled into the projectile. Results can vary widely, depending on the materials used; hobbyist designs may use, for example, materials ranging anywhere from magnetic steel (more effective, lower reluctance) to video tape (little improvement in reluctance). Moreover, the additional pieces of magnetic material in the magnetic circuit can potentially exacerbate the possibility of flux saturation and other magnetic losses.


title: Coilgun

text: Another significant limitation of the coilgun is the occurrence of magnetic saturation in the ferromagnetic projectile. When the flux in the projectile lies in the linear portion of its material's B(H) curve, the force applied to the core is proportional to the square of coil current (I)—the field (H) is linearly dependent on I, B is linearly dependent on H and force is linearly dependent on the product BI. This relationship continues until the core is saturated; once this happens B will only increase marginally with H (and thus with I), so force gain is linear. Since losses are proportional to I, increasing current beyond this point eventually decreases efficiency although it may increase the force. This puts an absolute limit on how much a given projectile can be accelerated with a single stage at acceptable efficiency.


title: Coilgun

text: Apart from saturation, the B(H) dependency often contains a hysteresis loop and the reaction time of the projectile material may be significant. The hysteresis means that the projectile becomes permanently magnetized and some energy will be lost as a permanent magnetic field of the projectile. The projectile reaction time, on the other hand, makes the projectile reluctant to respond to abrupt B changes; the flux will not rise as fast as desired while current is applied and a B tail will occur after the coil field has disappeared. This delay decreases the force, which would be maximized if the H and B were in phase.


title: Coilgun

text: Most of the work to develop coilguns as hyper-velocity launchers has used "air-cored" systems to get around the limitations associated with ferromagnetic projectiles. In these systems, the projectile is accelerated by a moving coil "armature". If the armature is configured as one or more "shorted turns" then induced currents will result as a consequence of the time variation of the current in the static launcher coil (or coils).


title: Coilgun

text: In principle, coilguns can also be constructed in which the moving coils are fed with current via sliding contacts. However, the practical construction of such arrangements requires the provision of reliable high speed sliding contacts. Although feeding current to a multi-turn coil armature might not require currents as large as those required in a railgun, the elimination of the need for high speed sliding contacts is an obvious potential advantage of the induction coilgun relative to the railgun.


title: Coilgun

text: Air cored systems also introduce the penalty that much higher currents may be needed than in an "iron cored" system. Ultimately though, subject to the provision of appropriately rated power supplies, air cored systems can operate with much greater magnetic field strengths than "iron cored" systems, so that, ultimately, much higher accelerations and forces should be possible.


title: Coilgun

text: An approximate for the exit velocity of a projectile having been accelerated by a single-stage coilgun can be obtained by the equation


title: Coilgun

text: χ being the magnetic susceptibility of the projectile, a dimensionless proportionality constant indicating the degree of magnetization in a material in response to applied magnetic fields. This often must be determined experimentally, and tables containing susceptibility values for certain materials may be found in the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics as well as the Wikipedia article for magnetic susceptibility.


title: Coilgun

text: n being the number of coil turns per unit length of the coil, which can be found by dividing the total turns of the coil by the total length of the coil in meters.


title: Coilgun

text: While this approximation is useful for quickly defining the upper limit of velocity in a coilgun system, more accurate and non-linear second order differential equations do exist. The issues with this formula being that it assumes the projectile lies completely within a uniform magnetic field, that the current dies out instantly once the projectile reaches the center of the coil (eliminating the possibility of coil suckback), that all potential energy is transferred into kinetic energy (whereas most would go into frictional forces), and that the wires of the coil are infinitely thin and do not stack on one another, all cumulatively increasing the expected exit velocity.


title: Coilgun

text: Small coilguns are recreationally made by hobbyists, typically up to several joules to tens of joules projectile energy (the latter comparable to a typical air gun and an order of magnitude less than a firearm) while ranging from under one percent to several percent efficiency.


title: Coilgun

text: In 2018, a Los Angeles-based company Arcflash Labs offered the first coilgun for sale to the general public, the EMG-01A. It fired 6-gram steel slugs at 45 m/s with a muzzle energy of approximately 5 joules. In 2021, they developed a larger model, the GR-1 Gauss rifle which fired 30-gram steel slugs at up to 75 m/s with a muzzle energy of approximately 85 joules, comparable to a PCP air rifle.


title: Coilgun

text: In 2022 Northshore Sports Club in Lake Forest, Illinois brought to market a compact, magazine fed coil gun, with the approximate maximum muzzle energy of 15 joules. Marketed originally as the E-Shotgun. The initial launch of this product followed its debut on the hit YouTube channel Demolition Ranch. Full-scale production is expected to reach 5000 units per year.


title: Coilgun

text: Much higher efficiency and energy can be obtained with designs of greater expense and sophistication. In 1978, Bondaletov in the USSR achieved record acceleration with a single stage by sending a 2-gram ring to 5000 m/s in 1 cm of length, but the most efficient modern designs tend to involve many stages. Above 90% efficiency is estimated for some vastly larger superconducting concepts for space launch. An experimental 45-stage, 2.1 m long DARPA coilgun mortar design is 22% efficient, with 1.6 megajoules KE delivered to a round.


title: Coilgun

text: Though facing the challenge of competitiveness versus conventional guns (and sometimes railgun alternatives), coilguns are being researched for weaponry.


title: Coilgun

text: The DARPA Electromagnetic Mortar program is an example of potential benefits, if practical challenges like sufficiently low weight can be managed. The coilgun would be relatively silent with no smoke giving away its position, though a coilgun projectile would still create a sonic boom if supersonic. Adjustable yet smooth acceleration of the projectile throughout the barrel can allow somewhat higher velocity, with a predicted range increase of 30% for a 120mm EM mortar over the conventional version of similar length. With no separate propellant charges to load, the researchers envision the firing rate to approximately double.


title: Coilgun

text: In 2006, a 120mm prototype was under construction for evaluation, though time before reaching field deployment, if such occurs, was estimated then as 5 to 10+ years by Sandia National Laboratories. In 2011, development was proposed of an 81mm coilgun mortar to operate with a hybrid-electric version of the future Joint Light Tactical Vehicle.


title: Coilgun

text: Electromagnetic aircraft catapults are planned, including on board future U.S. Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carriers. An experimental induction coilgun version of an Electromagnetic Missile Launcher (EMML) has been tested for launching Tomahawk missiles. A coilgun-based active defense system for tanks is under development at HIT in China.


title: Coilgun

text: Coilgun potential has been perceived as extending beyond military applications. Challenging and corresponding to a magnitude of capital investment that few entities could readily fund, gigantic coilguns with projectile mass and velocity on the scale of gigajoules of kinetic energy (as opposed to megajoules or less) have not been developed so far, but such have been proposed as launchers from the Moon or from Earth:


title: Stevedore

text: A stevedore (), also called a longshoreman, a docker or a dockworker, is a waterfront manual laborer who is involved in loading and unloading ships, trucks, trains or airplanes.


title: Stevedore

text: After the shipping container revolution of the 1960s, the number of dockworkers required declined by over 90%.


title: Stevedore

text: The word "stevedore" originated in Portugal or Spain, and entered the English language through its use by sailors. It started as a phonetic spelling of "estivador" (Portuguese) or "estibador" (Spanish), meaning "a man who loads ships and stows cargo", which was the original meaning of "stevedore" (though there is a secondary meaning of "a man who stuffs" in Spanish); compare Latin "stīpāre" meaning "to stuff", as in "to fill with stuffing". In Ancient and modern Greek, the verb στοιβάζω (stevazo) means pile up. In the United Kingdom, people who load and unload ships are usually called "dockers"; in Australia, they are called "dockers" or "wharfies"; and, in the United States and Canada, the term "longshoreman", derived from "man-along-the-shore", is used. Before the extensive use of container ships and shore-based handling machinery in the United States, "longshoremen" referred exclusively to the dockworkers, while "stevedores", in a separate trade union, worked on the ships, operating ship's cranes and moving cargo. In Canada, the term "stevedore" has also been used, for example, in the name of the Western Stevedoring Company, Ltd., based in Vancouver, B.C., in the 1950s.


title: Stevedore

text: Loading and unloading ships requires knowledge of the operation of loading equipment, the proper techniques for lifting and stowing cargo, and correct handling of hazardous materials. In addition, workers must be physically strong and able to follow orders attentively. To unload a ship successfully, many longshoremen are needed. There is only a limited amount of time that a ship can be at a port, so their work must be completed quickly.


title: Stevedore

text: In earlier days before the introduction of containerization, men who loaded and unloaded ships had to tie down cargoes with rope. A type of stopper knot is called the stevedore knot. The method of securely tying up parcels of goods is called "stevedore lashing" or "stevedore knotting". While loading a general cargo vessel, they use dunnage, which are pieces of wood (or nowadays sometimes strong inflatable dunnage bags) set down to keep the cargo out of any water that might be lying in the hold or are placed as shims between cargo crates for load securing.


title: Stevedore

text: Today, the vast majority of non-bulk cargo is transported in intermodal containers. The containers arrive at a port by truck, rail, or another ship and are stacked in the port's storage area. When the ship that will be transporting them arrives, the containers that it is offloading are unloaded by a crane. The containers either leave the port by truck or rail or are put in the storage area until they are put on another ship. Once the ship is offloaded, the containers it is leaving with are brought to the dock by truck. A crane lifts the containers from the trucks onto the ship. As the containers pile up on the ship, the workers connect them to the ship and to the other already-placed containers. The jobs involved include the crane operators, the workers who connect the containers to the ship and each other, the truck drivers that transport the containers from the dock and storage area, the workers who track the containers in the storage area as they are loaded and unloaded, as well as various supervisors. Those workers at the port who handle and move the containers are likely to be considered stevedores or longshoremen.


title: Stevedore

text: Before containerization, freight was often handled with a longshoreman’s hook, a tool which became emblematic of the profession (mostly on the west coast of the United States and Canada).


title: Stevedore

text: Traditionally, stevedores had no fixed job, but would arrive at the docks in the morning seeking employment for the day. London dockers called this practice "standing on the stones", while in the United States it was referred to as "shaping up" or assembling for the "shape-up", or "catching the breaks". In Britain, due to changes in employment laws, such jobs have either become permanent or have been converted to temporary jobs.


title: Stevedore

text: In Australia, the informal term "wharfie" (from wharf labourer) and the formal "waterside worker" include the variety of occupations covered in other countries by words like stevedore. The term "stevedore" is also sometimes used, as in the company name Patrick Stevedores. The term "docker" is also used, as in the Federated Ship Painters and Dockers Union; and is the mascot of the Fremantle Dockers in the Australian Football League.


title: Stevedore

text: The Maritime Union of Australia has coverage of these workers and fought a substantial industrial battle in the 1998 Australian waterfront dispute to prevent the contracting out of work to non-union workers.


title: Stevedore

text: In 1943, stevedores in Melbourne and Sydney were deliberately exposed to mustard gas while unloading the ship "Idomeneus". The result was death and permanent disability—all as a result of military secrecy.


title: Stevedore

text: New Zealand usage is very similar to the Australian version; "waterside workers" are also known as "wharfies." The 1951 New Zealand waterfront dispute, involving New Zealand stevedores, was the largest and most bitter industrial dispute in the country's history.


title: Stevedore

text: In the United Kingdom, the definition of a stevedore varies from port to port. In some ports, only the highly skilled master of a loading gang is referred to as a "stevedore". "Docker" is the usual general term used in the UK for a worker who loads or unloads ships and performs various other jobs required at a seaport.


title: Stevedore

text: In some ports, a stevedore is a person who decides where cargo is stowed on a ship, for safe stowage and even balance of a ship. It is not a hands-on role.


title: Stevedore

text: It was once known to refer those working on a ship—loading or unloading the cargo—as stevedores, while those working on the quayside were called dockers.


title: Stevedore

text: In the ports along the Thames, stevedores load, whilst dockers unload (according to Michael Budge, ex docker, Tilbury and Dave Penn, ex docker, Tilbury, 1978–2018).


title: Stevedore

text: In present-day American waterfront usage, a stevedore is usually a person or a company who manages the operation of loading or unloading a ship. In the early 19th century, the word was usually applied to black laborers or slaves who loaded and unloaded bales of cotton and other freight on and off riverboats. In "Two Years Before the Mast" (1840), the author Richard Henry Dana Jr. describes the steeving of a merchant sailing ship in 1834. This was the process of taking a mostly-full hold and cramming in more material. In this case, the hold was filled with hides from the California hide trade up to four feet below the deckhead (equivalent of 'ceiling'). "Books" composed of 25–50 cattle skins folded into a bundle were prepared, and a small opening created in the middle of one of the existing stacks. Then the book was shoved in by use of a pair of thick strong pieces of wood called steeves. The steeves had one end shaped as a wedge which was placed into the middle of a book to shove it into the stack. The other ends were pushed on through block and tackle attached to the hull and overhead beams and hauled on by sailors.


title: Stevedore

text: Typically one ethnic group dominated the stevedore market in a port, usually the Irish Catholics, as seen in the 1954 film about New York "On the Waterfront". In New Orleans there was competition between the Irish and the blacks.


title: Stevedore

text: In the Port of Baltimore, Polish Americans dominated. In the 1930s, about 80% of Baltimore's longshoremen were Polish or of Polish descent. The port of Baltimore had an international reputation of fast cargo handling credited to the well-organized gang system that was nearly free of corruption, wildcat strikes, and repeated work stoppages of its other East coast counterparts. The New York Anti-Crime Commission and the Waterfront Commission looked upon the Baltimore system as the ideal one for all ports. The hiring of longshoremen in Baltimore by the gang system dates back to 1913 when the ILA was first formed. The Polish longshoremen began setting up the system by selecting the most skilled men to lead them. This newly formed gang would usually work for the same company, which would give priority to the gang. During the times where there was no work within the particular company, the gang would work elsewhere, or even divide to aid other groups in their work, which would speed up the work and make it more efficient. In an environment as dangerous as a busy waterfront, Baltimore's gangs always operated together as a unit, because the experience let them know what each member would be doing at any given time, making a waterfront a much safer place. At the beginning of the Second World War, Polish predominance in the Port of Baltimore significantly diminished, as many Poles were drafted.


title: Stevedore

text: It is common to use the terms "stevedore" and "longshoreman" interchangeably. The U.S. Congress has done so in the Ship Mortgage Act, 46 app. U.S.C. section 31301(5)(C) which designates both "crew wages" and "stevedore wages" as preferred maritime liens. The statute intended to give the wages of the seamen and longshoremen the same level of protection. Sometimes the word "stevedore" is used to mean "the man who loads and unloads a ship" as the British "docker".


title: Stevedore

text: Today, a stevedore typically owns the equipment used in the loading or discharge operation and hires longshoremen who load and unload cargo under the direction of a stevedore superintendent. This type of work along the East Coast waterfront was characteristic of ports like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia.


title: Stevedore

text: Today, a commercial stevedoring company also may contract with a terminal owner to manage all terminal operations. Many large container ship operators have established in-house stevedoring operations to handle cargo at their own terminals and to provide stevedoring services to other container carriers.


title: Stevedore

text: One union within the AFL–CIO represent longshoremen: the International Longshoremen's Association, which represents longshoremen on the East Coast, on the Great Lakes and connected waterways and along the Gulf of Mexico. The International Longshore and Warehouse Union, which represents longshoremen along the West Coast, Hawaii and Alaska, was formerly affiliated with the AFL–CIO but disaffiliated in 2013.


title: Roman Griffin Davis

text: Roman Griffin Davis (born 5 March 2007) is a British actor. He is best known for his title role in the film "Jojo Rabbit" (2019), for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe.


title: Roman Griffin Davis

text: Roman Griffin Davis was born on 5 March 2007 in London. He is the son of cinematographer Ben Davis and writer-director Camille Griffin. He lives with his parents and brothers, twins Gilby and Hardy, in East Sussex. He went to school at Cumnor House, Sussex, until 2020. Davis made his acting debut in the 2019 satirical black comedy film "Jojo Rabbit" directed by Taika Waititi. His twin brothers are also in the film as Hitler Youth clones. Davis was nominated for six awards for his performance in "Jojo Rabbit" and won two, the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Young Performer and the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Breakthrough Performance. He starred in the 2021 comedy "Silent Night" directed by his mother Camille Griffin.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The Eurocopter EC135 (now Airbus Helicopters H135) is a twin-engine civil light utility helicopter produced by Airbus Helicopters (formerly known as Eurocopter). It is capable of flight under instrument flight rules (IFR) and is outfitted with a digital automatic flight control system (AFCS). First flying on 15 February 1994, it entered service in 1996 and 1,400 have been delivered up to September 2020 to 300 operators in 60 countries, accumulating over 5 million flight hours. It is mainly used for helicopter emergency medical services, corporate transport, law enforcement, offshore wind support, and military flight training. Half of them are in Europe and a quarter in North America. The H135M, certified under the name Eurocopter EC635, is a military variant.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The H135 started development prior to the formation of Eurocopter under Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) under the designation Bo 108 in the 1970s. MBB developed it in partnership with Aérospatiale, the Bo 108 was initially intended to be a technology demonstrator, combining attributes of the successful MBB Bo 105 with new advances and an aerodynamically streamlined design. Technologies included on the Bo 108 included the first full-authority digital engine controls (FADEC) on a helicopter, a hingeless main rotor, and the adoption of a new transmission. The first prototype made its first flight on 17 October 1988, powered by two Allison 250-C20R/1 engines. A second Bo 108 followed on 5 June 1991, this time with two Turbomeca TM319-1B Arrius engines; unlike later production aircraft, both technology demonstrators flew with conventional tail rotors.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In the late 1990s, the design was revised with the introduction of the "Fenestron" tail rotor system, an advanced rigid main rotor, composite materials, and resonance isolation systems. It was decided to pursue a full certification program, resulting in the production of two pre-production prototypes; at the same time, it was chosen to give the Bo 108 a new designation of EC135 to correspond with the newly created Eurocopter company. At this point, it was decided that the EC135 should be developed with the option of being powered by two competing engines, the Turbomeca Arrius 2B and the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW206B engines; two pre-production prototypes were built in 1994 powered by either engine, both powerplants proved to be successful and were used on subsequent production aircraft.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In January 1995, the EC135 made its first public appearance at the Heli-Expo convention at Las Vegas, at which prospective buyers were reportedly impressed with its appearance and performance figures. Another feature which became apparent upon entering service was the low noise levels produced, in part due to its fenestron tail, the EC135 was the quietest aircraft in its class for more than 15 years. Despite the helicopter's design being primarily oriented towards emergency medical operators, the EC135 had considerable appeal to a wide range of operators. European JAA certification was achieved on 16 June 1996, with FAA approval following on 31 July.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: On 2 December 1999, the EC135 was granted single-pilot IFR (SPIFR) certification by Germany's Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA). In December 2000, the United Kingdom's Civil Aviation Authority also gave the EC135 SPIFR certification.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2000, Eurocopter announced the start of certification work on the EC135P2, powered by the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW206B2, offering improved single-engine performance and 30-second emergency power. The LBA certification was achieved on 10 July 2001, and the first EC135 with the new engines was handed over to the Swedish Police Authority on 10 August 2001. In September 2002, the EC135T2 equipped with the improved Turbomeca Arrius 2B2 was made available, also providing for improved single-engine performance.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2002, the EC135 active control technology demonstrator/flying helicopter simulator (ACT/FHS), a research aircraft designed to test fibre optic-based flight control systems, undertook its first flight. In 2014, Airbus Helicopters began flying the Bluecopter demonstrator aircraft, built to explore more efficient design elements, including economy-optimised single-engine operations, Blue Edge swept rotor blades to reduce noise and increase efficiency, a relocated horizontal stabilizer outside the main rotor's downwash, an active rudder, and new water-based external paint; these changes were aimed at cutting fuel consumption by 40%. In December 2014, it was revealed that the single-engine operations portion of the Bluecopter tests had been delayed to summer 2016 to make necessary avionics changes, such as to the engine's FADEC systems.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: At the NBAA in March 2007 in Atlanta, Eurocopter unveiled "'L'Hélicoptère par Hermès", a special-edition VIP model designed by Hermès International, S.A.; it features a customized luxury four-place main cabin, a sliding glass partition, a corporate baggage hold, redesigned skid landing gear and other external changes. The launch customer for the type is Falcon Aviation Services (FAS), based in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. In July 2014, Airbus Helicopters announced that it was making further personalization options available for the EC135 l'Helicoptere par Hermes.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2011, Eurocopter formalised a license manufacturing agreement with Zhong-Ou International Group to produce the EC135 luxury helicopter in Zhejiang Province, China. In October 2015, a letter of intent between Airbus Helicopters and Ecopark was signed for the establishment of a final assembly line (FAL) in Qingdao Province, China; a related $1.1 billion order for 100 Chinese-assembled H135s was announced in the same month. The majority of assembly work on the type remains at Airbus Helicopter's Donauwörth facility. Construction of the FAL started in May 2017, and it was opened for production on 17 April 2019.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In January 2016, it was announced that the Ural Works of Civil Aviation (UWCA), a division of Rostec, had signed an agreement to build the H135 under licence at the firm's facility in Yekaterinburg, Russia. In May 2016, it was reported that Russian production of the H135 was anticipated to begin in 2017, following the receipt of Russian type certification; in addition, Russian manufacturers may be incorporated in the global supply chain.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: Two variants, the EC135 T3 and EC135 P3, were developed with improved high altitude and hover performance. Changes include repositioned air intakes to the engines, wider blades being installed on the main rotor, and changes to the fenstron anti-torque tail device. The EC135 T3 was introduced to service in December 2014.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In December 2020, the H135 helicopter family EASA has certified a new Alternate Gross Weight (AGW). With the new AGW, the maximum takeoff weight has been increased up to 265 lb (120 kg) and payload. This modification can also be used to increase range by up to 75 nm or endurance by up to 40 minutes under standard conditions. The new AGW is available as an option and can be applied retroactively to all Helionix-equipped H135s.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: Airbus certified a new single-pilot IFR Helionix cockpit for its H135 helicopters in December 2020. The modified cockpit allows customers to choose whether to remove the copilot side of the instrument panel to increase the field of view or keep it to install specific STC equipment.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The H135 is a twin-engine rotorcraft. It can be alternatively powered by a pair of Turbomeca Arrius 2B or Pratt & Whitney Canada PW206B engines, dependent on customer's preference (which gives either a T or a P, respectively, in the variant name). The main rotor is of a four-bladed, hingeless fiber-composite design; progressive improvements to the main rotor have increased its performance and reduced maintenance costs since the type's introduction. The EC135 holds the distinction of being the quietest helicopter in its class, featuring an anti-resonance isolation system to dampen vibration from the main rotor. The type's fenestron anti-torque device can be actively regulated via a HI NR rotor optimization mode, which provides for greater controllability during higher weight take-off and landings. It is capable of performing Category A operations throughout its full flight envelope.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The EC135 can be equipped with either a conventional flight deck or the Avionique Novelle glass cockpit – the latter allows for single pilot instrument flight rules operation. The glass cockpit is equipped with several liquid-crystal displays, including two Sextant SMD45 displays and a central panel display. The main avionics suite is supplied by Thales Group; the EC135 can be outfitted with various avionics suites from manufacturers such as Russian firm Transas Aviation and British firm Britannia 2000.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The newer H135 model can be equipped with a four-axis autopilot, which is included as part of the Helionix avionics suite; this suite provides the H135 a greater level of commonality with several other Airbus Helicopters-produced rotorcraft including the H145, H160 and H175. Earlier versions of the EC135 were equipped with a three-axis autopilot with integrated stability augmentation; featuring a First Limit Indicator (FLI), simplifying engine and torque monitoring. Cockpit touch screens can be optionally installed.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: Various cabin and cockpit configurations are available for the EC135, depending on the role performed and the operator's preferences. It can hold up to five passengers and a pilot when configured with a standard executive interior, or seven passengers in a dense corporate interior. Modular multi-role interiors that allow the main cabin area to be quickly changed and re-equipped are also available. The main cabin of the EC135 is accessed either by large doors on either side of the cabin or by clamshell doors located at the rear of the cabin, directly underneath the aircraft's tail boom; the clamshell doors are particularly attractive to emergency medical services (EMS) and cargo operators. Various medical facilities can be installed in the cabin, such as in-flight intensive care stations (including resuscitation functionality), incubators, and hygiene-convenient flooring. In a mountain rescue configuration, the cabin can simultaneously accommodate two stretchers as well as the pilot, anaesthetist, winch operator, mechanic and mountain rescue specialist.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: Airbus Helicopters has promoted the airframe's various configurations as possessing "unique adaptability" for various missions, including utility work, commercial transportation, and training roles. Equipment for the law enforcement role include external loudspeakers, rappelling system, search lights with laser pointers, left or right-mounted hoists, and electro-optical sensors. For offshore oil & gas operations, the rotorcraft can be fitted with weather/search radars, emergency floatation aids (including an automated external life raft), energy-absorbent seating, class-D certified external hoists, and crash-resistant fuel tanks. An external hook can be installed to carry underslung loads of up to 272 kg for cargo missions. In a training capacity, features such a light aircraft recording system (for post-flight analysis), intuitive human-machine interface, specific training modules, and a one-engine inoperative training mode, and full ground simulators, may be selected.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: Deliveries started on 1 August 1996, when two helicopters (0005 and 0006) were handed over to German emergency aero medical service provider Deutsche Rettungsflugwacht. The 100th EC135 was handed over to the Bavarian police force in June 1999; by which point the worldwide fleet had accumulated approximately 30,000 flight hours. In September 2003, the 300th EC135 was handed over to UK-based McAlpine Helicopters; at this point, the EC135 was the best selling new light twin-engine helicopter in the UK market.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2011, Eurocopter announced that the 1,000th EC135 to be produced had been delivered to German operator ADAC, roughly 15 years following the start of production. In 2012, "Flying" magazine recognised the EC135 as being "the industry's best selling twin-engine helicopter". The world fleet leader in flight hours for the type is G-NESV (s/n 0067), operated by Cleveland Police Air Operations Unit based at Durham Tees Valley Airport, UK. Originally delivered to the North East Air Support Unit in April 1999, it was the first EC135 worldwide to attain a total of 10,000 flying hours.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2009, the EC135 was the first aircraft selected for offshore wind support in the UK after the Civil Aviation Authority approved helicopter operations to the Greater Gabbard offshore wind farm. The EC135 has also been used in Denmark to support the Horns Rev offshore wind farm, by 2013, over 10,000 successful personnel transfers have taken place using the type. In Mexico, Apoyo Logístico Aéreo has operated a fleet of EC135s for servicing the extensive oil and gas offshore platforms in the Gulf of Mexico.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2013, it was reported that the EC135 was currently providing roughly 25% of the world's total emergency medic services flights, and that over 500 EC135s have been delivered to in an aeromedical configuration. By late 2013, during which a brief grounding of the type was instigated due to safety concerns of fuel gauges, it was noted that the EC135 made up half of the UK's operational air ambulance fleet. In October 2014, the first EC135 air ambulance to be delivered in the Chinese market took place.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The German Army operates a total of 19 H135s as basic trainers at the School of Army Aviation in Bückeburg, these have had an average operational availability in excess of 95 per cent; in 2014, the German Army noted that there was potential for vibration-induced rotor cracking during autorotation training, shortening the life of the main rotor. In October 2014, the Australian Department of Defence announced that the EC135 would be procured as the primary training platform for both the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy. A total of 13 EC135 trainers have been procured by the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force, they have been designed as the TH-135.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In December 2014, the first production EC135 T3 formally entered service with Aiut Alpin Dolomites, a mountain rescue operator based in Italy. In June 2015, Airbus Helicopters delivered the first retrofitted H135 from the earlier EC135 standard; changes include an enlarged main rotor, relocated engine air intakes, elevated engine performance, and the horizontal stabiliser's endplates removed and its span increased.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In October 2015, Waypoint Leasing and Airbus Helicopters signed an agreement for the acquisition of up to 20 H135 for public leasing purposes.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: In 2016, half of the EC135s operating in service were engaged in emergency medical services operations, 17% in air transport, 16% in public services (typically law enforcement), 10% in military missions, 4% in offshore operations (typically offshore wind power inspection), and the remaining 3% in military training.


title: Eurocopter EC135

text: The 1400th was delivered in September 2020, as over 300 customers in 60 countries accumulated more than 4.5 million flight hours.


title: Toulouse FC

text: Toulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1970 and currently plays in Ligue 1, the premier division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city.


title: Toulouse FC

text: "Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.


title: Toulouse FC

text: The president of Toulouse FC is Damien Comolli, who succeeded the French businessman Olivier Sadran who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez, international strikers André-Pierre Gignacand Martin Braithwaite


title: Toulouse FC

text: The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.


title: Toulouse FC

text: After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.


title: Toulouse FC

text: In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.


title: Toulouse FC

text: In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and won the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.


title: Toulouse FC

text: On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.


title: Toulouse FC

text: On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC. The club achieved promotion back to Ligue 1 in 2022.


title: Toulouse FC

text: Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.


title: Toulouse FC

text: The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.


title: Toulouse FC

text: The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major cities in south-western France, both of which are situated on the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.


title: Duran Duran discography

text: English new wave band Duran Duran have released 15 studio albums, four live albums, four compilation albums, two remix albums, two box sets, seven EPs, 46 singles, and 14 video albums. Duran Duran have sold over 100 million records. The band have achieved UK top-five albums in five consecutive decades (1980s to 2020s), and US top-10 albums in three decades (1980s, 1990s and 2010s).


title: Marty McFly

text: Martin Seamus "Marty" McFly is a fictional character and the protagonist of the "Back to the Future" franchise. He is portrayed by Canadian actor Michael J. Fox in all three films. McFly also appears in the , where he was voiced by David Kaufman. In developed and published by Telltale Games, he is voiced by A. J. Locascio; in addition, Fox voiced McFly's future counterparts at the end of the game. In 2019, McFly was selected by "Empire" magazine as the 12th Greatest Movie Character of All Time.


title: Marty McFly

text: Marty McFly is the "Back to the Future" protagonist who was born in Hill Valley, California to the McFlys, a family of Irish descent. Little is known about the character's life prior to the first "Back to the Future" film, except for the fact that he set fire to the living-room rug when he was 8 years old (in a statement of Marty's to his future parents). In the film, it is explained, Marty met his friend Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown when he was around 14 after hearing that Brown was a dangerous lunatic. Marty, being the “red-blooded American teenager” he was, wanted to go and see what it was all about for himself. He snuck into Doc's lab and was fascinated by all his inventions. When Doc caught him, he was glad to have someone interested in his work and their friendship started there.


title: Marty McFly

text: In the first film, in 1985, Marty plays guitar with his group The Pinheads and likes listening to Huey Lewis and the News, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Van Halen, and Michael Jackson. He is also a talented skateboarder and proves to be an excellent pistol shot, a skill he has honed by playing shooting games such as "Wild Gunman" at his local 7-Eleven.


title: Marty McFly

text: In "Back to the Future Part II", by 2015, Marty's life has spiraled out of control due to a hand injury that left him unable to play the guitar. This injury occurs in 1985 after Marty accepts school nemesis Douglas J. Needles' challenge to a road race after being labelled a chicken, and crashes into a Rolls-Royce. In 1885, Biff Tannen's great-grandfather, Buford, goads Marty into a showdown, which Marty wins despite refusing to draw a gun against Buford. Once he returns to 1985, he remembers both this event and his great-great-grandfather Seamus McFly's advice and drops out of Needles' challenge, avoiding the collision that would have ruined his prospects for success as a guitarist.


title: Marty McFly

text: In the first film, "Back to the Future", Dr. Brown shows Marty the time machine, in the form of a DeLorean, which he had invented after stealing plutonium (used as fuel for the vehicle's time circuts) from Libyan terrorists, who wanted him to build a nuclear weapon. During this exchange, the doctor is shot by the enraged terrorists, and Marty escapes from them in the time machine, accidentally traveling back to 1955. There, he encounters his teenage parents and disrupts the course of their meeting. He contacts the 1955 Dr. Brown and with his help, reunites his parents, and travels back to an alternate 1985, where his father George is a novelist, and Biff, his father's high school bully, becomes their caretaker. He also finds out that Dr. Brown is still alive and that he had worn a bulletproof vest after Marty had warned him about his fate in 1955.


title: Marty McFly

text: In the second film, "Back to the Future Part II", Dr. Brown brings Marty and Jennifer to 2015. They had married and their teenage son, Marty Jr, was arrested, costing the whole McFly family. Jennifer is knocked unconscious by Brown and Marty (from 1985) who disguises himself as his son and comes into contact with the elder Biff. His son was supposed to meet Biff's grandson, Griff, who forces him to commit a crime with Griff and his gang. The disguised Marty prevents this from happening and gets into a hoverboard dash. This results in Griff and his gang getting arrested, instead of Marty Jr. Jennifer, who was left behind, is taken back to her 2015 home by the police after tracing her back using her fingerprints. Marty and Dr. Brown rescue her while unbeknownst to them, Elder Biff steals their time machine and returns to 1955, where he gives his younger self an Almanac from the future to use for gambling. When all of them return back to 1985, they discover that Hill Valley had become a dystopia, with Biff becoming one of the richest and most corrupt men in the country. He had forcefully married Marty's mother, Lorraine, and secretly murdered Marty's father. He also legalized gambling in the process of becoming known as the 'Luckiest Man on Earth'. Marty and Dr. Brown return back to 1955 again to steal the Almanac from 1955 Biff, in which they succeed. Dr. Brown, however, is sent to 1885 after lightning strikes the DeLorean. Marty receives a letter from Brown, written on September 2, 1885.


title: Marty McFly

text: In the third film, "Back to the Future Part III", Marty re-contacts 1955 Dr. Brown and informs him of everything that has happened. Together they discover that the doctor was killed six days after writing the letter, and that he had hidden the DeLorean in a cave. Marty goes back to 1885 and meets his great-great-grandparents, Seamus and Maggie, and their son, his great-grandfather. He searches for Dr. Brown and finds out that he has become a blacksmith. Marty crosses paths with "Mad Dog" Tannen, Biff's great-great-grandfather, and gets into a brawl with him. While they plan their escape, Marty and Dr. Brown meet Clara Clayton, a teacher, and the doctor falls in love with her. During the festival, "Mad Dog" and Marty agree on a one-on-one showdown the next day. However, that is the day Marty is meant to go back to 1985. The morning later Marty defeats "Mad Dog" and he and the doctor proceed with their plans. In the end, Dr. Brown decides to stay in 1885 with Clara, while Marty goes back to 1985. The time machine is destroyed by an oncoming train, with Marty barely escaping. He reunites with Jennifer and decides not to race Needles, which would have cost him his music career.


title: Marty McFly

text: In the "Back to the Future" film franchise, Marty McFly is the youngest of three children of George McFly and Lorraine Baines-McFly. He has a brother, Dave McFly, and a sister, Linda McFly. In addition, he has uncles Milton, Toby, and Joey, and aunts Sally and Ellen (Ellen was born in 1956, so wasn’t in the first movie). Joey serves a prison sentence in 1985 and has been denied parole again. In the first movie, Lorraine is 17 (nearly 18), Milton is 12, Sally is 6, Toby is 4, and Joey is 1. Ellen was born a year later.


title: Marty McFly

text: Marty's secondary entourage consists of girlfriend Jennifer Parker and best friend Emmett Brown, a scientist whom Marty and Jennifer call "Doc." There is an implication that Marty is ashamed of his family and does not spend much time at home, preferring to hang out with Doc, Jennifer, or the guys in his band, The Pinheads. However, Marty's relationships with his family changes after he returns from 1955, with him no longer being alienated by his parents and his father working as a local college professor and a successful novelist in the alternate timeline he inadvertently created. Marty also meets his great-great paternal grandparents Seamus and Maggie, when he is stranded in 1885. He also meets their infant son William, Marty's great grandfather. Through his interaction with Seamus and Maggie, Marty discovers that Seamus had a brother named Martin, thus Marty's great-great granduncle, who was killed after being goaded into a fight in Virginia City, Nevada.


title: Marty McFly

text: By 2015, Marty has married his girlfriend Jennifer and has two children, Martin "Marty" Jr. and Marlene.


title: Marty McFly

text: Marty has had many aliases throughout the "Back to the Future" series, usually as a result of meeting his relatives in the past, such as Lorraine mistakenly thinking his name is "Calvin Klein", due to it being Marty's brand of underwear. In the first film, Marty uses the alias "Darth Vader, an extraterrestrial from the Planet Vulcan" while wearing a radiation suit in an attempt to coerce George into asking Lorraine out to the dance. In Part III, Marty uses the name "Clint Eastwood" when asked by Maggie McFly and later by Buford Tannen. In "", he uses one of three aliases; "Sonny Crockett", "Harry Callahan", or "Michael Corleone".


title: Marty McFly

text: Morty Smith of the American animated series "Rick and Morty" (voiced by Justin Roiland) began as a parody of Marty McFly.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The Ford Maverick is a compact car manufactured and marketed by Ford for model years 1970–1977 in the United States, originally as a two-door sedan employing a rear-wheel drive platform original to the 1960 Falcon — and subsequently as a four-door sedan on the same platform.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The name "maverick" was derived from the word for unbranded range animals, and the car's nameplate was stylized to resemble the head of Longhorn cattle.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The Maverick was introduced on April 17, 1969, as a 1970 model at a very competitive price point of $1,995 ($ in dollars ). It was originally conceived and marketed as a subcompact "import fighter", intended to compete against the newer Japanese rivals for North America, then primarily from Datsun and Toyota. The Falcon, Ford's compact offering since 1960 and main rival to the Chevrolet Nova and Dodge Dart, had seen its sales decimated by the introduction of the Mustang in 1964, and despite a redesign in 1966, was unable to meet the then forthcoming U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration motor-vehicle standards that would come into effect on January 1, 1970. Consequently, the Falcon was discontinued midway through the 1970 model year, and the Maverick repositioned as Ford's compact entry, giving the Nova and Dart a new rival. A bigger Falcon was a rebranded low-trim version of the Fairlane for the second half of the model year, then went away.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The Maverick's styling featured the long hood, fastback roof, and short deck popularized by the Mustang, on a wheelbase — and featured pop-out rear side windows.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: Nearly 579,000 Mavericks were produced in its first year, approaching the record-setting first year of Mustang sales (nearly 619,000), and easily outpaced the Mustang's sales of fewer than 200,000 in 1970.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: Jumping gas prices and increasing demand for smaller cars resulting from the 1973 oil crisis caused the Maverick to grow in popularity. Maverick production continued for 1975 with the release of its intended replacement the Granada as a more European-style luxury compact (the Granada and Maverick shared the same basic chassis).


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: Initially available only as a two-door sedan, early models lacked a glove compartment, which was added during the model year 1973 (early 1973 models still lacked a glove compartment). A four-door sedan on a wheelbase was introduced for 1971.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: At introduction, exterior paint colors were named with puns, including "Anti-Establish Mint", "Hulla Blue", "Original Cinnamon", "Freudian Gilt", and "Thanks Vermillion" — along with more typical names including black jade, champagne gold, gulfstream aqua, meadowlark yellow, Brittany blue, lime gold, Dresden blue, raven black, Wimbledon white, and candyapple red.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: In the first half of production for the 1970 model, two engine options were available, a straight-six and a straight-six. A straight-six was added mid-year.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: For the 1970 model only the 170 cu in (2,800 cc) straight-six had an option for a 3 speed semi-automatic gearbox.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: Commercials and advertising compared the Maverick, at $1,995, to the smaller Volkswagen Beetle, which was about $500 less in price. The Pinto was later Ford's primary competitor to the Beetle in the subcompact class, while also competing in that segment with the Chevrolet Vega and AMC Gremlin subcompacts new to the market at that time.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The earliest Mavericks featured two-spoke steering wheels with partial horn rings, also found on other 1969 Fords, while late 1969 production was changed to revised steering wheels with no horn rings. Also, the early models located the ignition switch in the instrument panel, while the cars built after September 1, 1969, had the ignition switches mounted on locking steering columns, as did all other 1970 Fords in compliance with a new federal safety mandate that took effect with the 1970 model year.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: A four-door model was introduced for 1971, available with a vinyl roof. Mercury also revived the Comet as a rebadged variant of the Maverick. Also for 1971, an optional 302 CID V8 was introduced for both the Comet and the Maverick. The Comet was distinguished from the Maverick by using a different grille, taillights, trim, and hood.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The Maverick Grabber trim package was introduced in mid-1970. In addition to larger tire fitment, the package included graphics and trim, including a spoiler. It was offered from 1970 to 1975. In 1971 and 1972, the Grabber came with a special "dual dome" hood.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: A "sprint" package offered for 1972 featured white and blue two-toned paint with red pinstripes and a special color-coordinated interior. The rear quarter panels included a stylized U.S.A. flag shield. This trim package acknowledged the 1972 Olympics and was available for only one year.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: A "luxury decor option" (LDO) trim level introduced late in the 1972 model year included reclining bucket seats in a soft vinyl material, plush carpeting, wood-grained instrument panel trim, radial tires with body-color deluxe wheel covers, and a vinyl roof. The Maverick LDO option was one of the first American compacts to be marketed as a lower-priced (and domestic) alternative to the more expensive European luxury and touring sedans from Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Audi, and others.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: Minor changes were made from 1973 to 1975. For 1973, the 170 CID engine was dropped, making the 200 CID I6 the standard engine. Additionally, improved brakes and a previously optional chrome grille became standard. An AM/FM stereo, aluminum wheels, and a slightly larger front bumper to comply with federal 5 MPH regulations were also standard. In 1974, the Maverick was unchanged except for new larger federally required 5 MPH bumpers for both front and rear, which required new rear quarter panel end caps.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: The Maverick received minor trim changes for 1975 that included new grilles and the replacement of nameplates on the hood and trunk lid with Ford nameplates, in block letters.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: In 1976, the Grabber was dropped, and a "Stallion" package was introduced. The Stallion option came with special paint and trim. Standard Mavericks received new grilles and gained front disc brakes as standard equipment along with new foot-operated parking brakes that replaced the old under-dash T-handle units. Sales continued to drop.


title: Ford Maverick (1970–1977)

text: In its final year, the Maverick remained unchanged for 1977 except for a police package, which was not sufficiently upgraded for police work and sold less than 400 units. The Maverick was produced in Brazil until 1979. The Maverick's place in the North American Ford lineup was essentially taken by the 1978 Fairmont. The Maverick had no significant changes towards the end of its lifespan, since it was originally meant to be replaced in 1975 by the Granada. However, Ford decided to keep selling both lines until the 1978 model year introduction of the Fairmont.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant release of plasma and accompanying magnetic field from the Sun's corona into the heliosphere. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: If a CME enters interplanetary space, it is referred to as an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME). ICMEs are capable of reaching and colliding with Earth's magnetosphere, where they can cause geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in rare cases damage to electrical power grids. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, was the solar storm of 1859. Also known as the Carrington Event, it disabled parts of the at the time newly created United States telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Near solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near solar minima, there is about one CME every five days.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: CMEs release large quantities of matter and magnetic flux away from the Sun's atmosphere and into the solar wind and interplanetary space. The ejected matter is a plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons embedded within the ejected magnetic field. This magnetic field is commonly in the form of a flux rope, a helical magnetic field with changing pitch angles.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: CMEs can typically be observed in white-light coronagraphs via Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma. A typical CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a dense core, a surrounding cavity of low electron density, and a bright leading edge. The dense core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see ) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Most ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as groupings of sunspots associated with frequent flares. These regions have closed magnetic field lines, in which the magnetic field strength is large enough to contain the plasma. These field lines must be broken or weakened for the ejection to escape from the Sun. However, CMEs may also be initiated in quiet surface regions, although in many cases the quiet region was recently active. During solar minimum, CMEs form primarily in the coronal streamer belt near the solar magnetic equator. During solar maximum, they originate from active regions whose latitudinal distribution is more homogeneous.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: CMEs reach velocities from with an average speed of , based on SOHO/LASCO measurements between 1996 and 2003. These speeds correspond to transit times from the Sun out to the mean radius of Earth's orbit of about 13 hours to 86 days (extremes), with about 3.5 days as the average. The average mass ejected is . However, the estimated mass values for CMEs are only lower limits, because coronagraph measurements provide only two-dimensional data. The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the solar cycle: from about 0.2 per day near the solar minimum to 3.5 per day near the solar maximum. These values are also lower limits because ejections propagating away from Earth (backside CMEs) usually cannot be detected by coronagraphs.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Current knowledge of CME kinematics indicates that the ejection starts with an initial pre-acceleration phase characterized by a slow rising motion, followed by a period of rapid acceleration away from the Sun until a near-constant velocity is reached. Some "balloon" CMEs, usually the slowest ones, lack this three-stage evolution, instead accelerating slowly and continuously throughout their flight. Even for CMEs with a well-defined acceleration stage, the pre-acceleration stage is often absent, or perhaps unobservable.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: In the solar wind, CMEs manifest as magnetic clouds. They have been defined as regions of enhanced magnetic field strength, smooth rotation of the magnetic field vector, and low proton temperature. The association between CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al. in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by Helios-1 two days after being observed by SMM. However, because observations near Earth are usually done by a single spacecraft, many CMEs are not seen as being associated with magnetic clouds. The typical structure observed for a fast CME by a satellite such as ACE is a fast-mode shock wave followed by a dense (and hot) sheath of plasma (the downstream region of the shock) and a magnetic cloud.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Other signatures of magnetic clouds are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon, and/or oxygen.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The typical time for a magnetic cloud to move past a satellite at the L1 point is 1 day corresponding to a radius of 0.15 AU with a typical speed of and magnetic field strength of 20 nT.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: ICMEs typically reach Earth one to five days after leaving the Sun. During their propagation, ICMEs interact with the solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). As a consequence, slow ICMEs are accelerated toward the speed of the solar wind and fast ICMEs are decelerated toward the speed of the solar wind. The strongest deceleration or acceleration occurs close to the Sun, but it can continue even beyond Earth orbit (1 AU), which was observed using measurements at Mars and by the "Ulysses" spacecraft. ICMEs faster than about eventually drive a shock wave. This happens when the speed of the ICME in the frame of reference moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed. Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs in the corona, and are related to type II radio bursts. They are thought to form sometimes as low as (solar radii). They are also closely linked with the acceleration of solar energetic particles.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The exact cause of CMEs is not currently known; however, it is generally thought that CMEs are caused by the destabilization of large-scale magnetic structures in the corona and the resulting reconfiguration of the coronal magnetic field.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The phenomenon of magnetic reconnection is closely associated with many models of both CMEs and solar flares. In magnetized plasmas, magnetic reconnection is the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together. Reconnection releases magnetic energy stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a right-hand twist or a left-hand twist. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a valve to release the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs, that would otherwise renew itself continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades—a series of closely occurring loops of magnetic lines of force. These lines of force quickly reconnect into a low arcade of loops, leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy during this process causes the solar flare and ejects the CME. The helical magnetic field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a CME. This also explains why CMEs and solar flares typically erupt from what are known as the active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger on average.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: When the ejection is directed towards Earth and reaches it as an interplanetary CME (ICME), the shock wave of traveling mass causes a geomagnetic storm that may disrupt Earth's magnetosphere, compressing it on the day side and extending the night-side magnetic tail. When the magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside, it releases power on the order of terawatt scale, which is directed back toward Earth's upper atmosphere. It results in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Solar energetic particles can cause particularly strong aurorae in large regions around Earth's magnetic poles. These are also known as the "Northern Lights" (aurora borealis) in the northern hemisphere, and the "Southern Lights" (aurora australis) in the southern hemisphere. Coronal mass ejections, along with solar flares of other origin, can disrupt radio transmissions and cause damage to satellites and electrical transmission line facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting power outages.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Energetic protons released by a CME can cause an increase in the number of free electrons in the ionosphere, especially in the high-latitude polar regions. The increase in free electrons can enhance radio wave absorption, especially within the D-region of the ionosphere, leading to polar cap absorption events.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Humans at high altitudes, as in airplanes or space stations, risk exposure to relatively intense solar particle events. The energy absorbed by astronauts is not reduced by a typical spacecraft shield design and, if any protection is provided, it would result from changes in the microscopic inhomogeneity of the energy absorption events.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: While the terrestrial effects of solar flares are very fast (limited by the speed of light), CMEs are relatively slow, developing at the Alfvén speed.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: A halo coronal mass ejection is a CME which appears in white-light coronagraph observations as an expanding ring completely surrounding the occulting disk of the coronagraph. Halo CMEs are interpreted as CMEs directed toward or away from the observing coronagraph. When the expanding ring does not completely surround the occulting disk, but has an angular width of more than 120 degrees around the disk, the CME is referred to as a partial halo coronal mass ejection. Partial and full halo CMEs have been found to make up about 10% of all CMEs with about 4% of all CMEs being full halo CMEs. Frontside, or Earth-direct, halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs; however, not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: According to a report published in 2012 by physicist Pete Riley of Predictive Science Inc., the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm between 2012 and 2022 was 12%.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: In 2019, researchers used an alternative method (Weibull distribution) and estimated the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm in the next decade to be between 0.46% and 1.88%.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The association of CMEs with some of those phenomena is common but not fully understood. For example, CMEs and flares are normally closely related, but there has been confusion about this point caused by events originating beyond the limb. For such events no flare could be detected. Most weak flares do not have associated CMEs; most powerful ones do. Some CMEs occur without any flare-like manifestation, but these are often weaker and slower. It is now thought that CMEs and associated flares are caused by a common event (the CME peak acceleration and the flare impulsive phase generally coincide). In general, all of these events (including the CME) are thought to be the result of a large-scale restructuring of the magnetic field; the presence or absence of a CME during one of these restructures would reflect the coronal environment of the process (i.e., can the eruption be confined by overlying magnetic structure, or will it simply break through and enter the solar wind).


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs. Prominences are often embedded within the bases of flux ropes making up CMEs. The eruptive prominence corresponds with the bright core seen in white light coronagraphs.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: A coronal dimming is an observed decrease in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray emissions in the corona during the onset of some CMEs. Coronal dimmings are thought to occur predominantly due to a decrease in plasma density caused by mass outflows during the expansion of the associated CME. They often occur either in pairs located within regions of opposite magnetic polarity, a core dimming, or in a more widespread area, a secondary dimming. Core dimmings are interpreted as the footpoint locations of the erupting flux rope; secondary dimmings are interpreted as the result of the expansion of the overall CME structure and are generally more diffuse and shallow.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Coronal dimming was first reported in 1974. Due to their appearance resembling that of coronal holes, they were sometimes referred to as "transient coronal holes".


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The shock wave located at the leading edge of some CMEs can produce Type II radio bursts when the shock wave accelerates electrons. Some Type IV radio bursts are also associated with CMEs and have been observed to follow Type II bursts.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, coincided with the first-observed solar flare on 1 September 1859. The resulting solar storm of 1859 is referred to as the Carrington Event. The flare and the associated sunspots were visible to the naked eye, and the flare was independently observed by English astronomers R. C. Carrington and R. Hodgson. At around the same time as the flare, a magnetometer at Kew Gardens recorded what would become known as a "magnetic crochet", a magnetic field detected by ground-based magnetometers induced by a perturbation of Earth's ionosphere by ionizing soft X-rays. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays in 1895 and the recognition of the ionosphere in 1902.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: About 18 hours after the flare, further geomagnetic perturbations were recorded by multiple magnetometers as a part of a geomagnetic storm. The storm took down parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: Historical records were collected and new observations recorded in annual summaries by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific between 1953 and 1960.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: The first optical observation of a CME was made on 14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 (OSO-7). It was first described by R. Tousey of the Naval Research Laboratory in a research paper published in 1973. The discovery image (256 × 256 pixels) was collected on a Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) vidicon tube, transferred to the instrument computer after being digitized to 7 bits. Then it was compressed using a simple run-length encoding scheme and sent down to the ground at 200 bit/s. A full, uncompressed image would take 44 minutes to send down to the ground. The telemetry was sent to ground support equipment (GSE) which built up the image onto Polaroid print. David Roberts, an electronics technician working for NRL who had been responsible for the testing of the SEC-vidicon camera, was in charge of day-to-day operations. He thought that his camera had failed because certain areas of the image were much brighter than normal. But on the next image the bright area had moved away from the Sun and he immediately recognized this as being unusual and took it to his supervisor, Dr. Guenter Brueckner, and then to the solar physics branch head, Dr. Tousey. Earlier observations of "coronal transients" or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: On 1 November 1994, NASA launched the "Wind" spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. The spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than MeV energies, electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves, and gamma-rays.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: On 25 October 2006, NASA launched STEREO, two near-identical spacecraft which, from widely separated points in their orbits, are able to produce the first stereoscopic images of CMEs and other solar activity measurements. The spacecraft orbit the Sun at distances similar to that of Earth, with one slightly ahead of Earth and the other trailing. Their separation gradually increased so that after four years they were almost diametrically opposite each other in orbit.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: On 9 March 1989, a coronal mass ejection occurred, which struck Earth four days later on 13 March. It caused power failures in Quebec, Canada and short-wave radio interference.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: On 23 July 2012, a massive, and potentially damaging, solar superstorm (solar flare, CME, solar EMP) occurred but missed Earth, an event that many scientists consider to be Carrington-class event.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: On 14 October 2014, an ICME was photographed by the Sun-watching spacecraft PROBA2 (ESA), Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (ESA/NASA), and Solar Dynamics Observatory (NASA) as it left the Sun, and STEREO-A observed its effects directly at . ESA's "Venus Express" gathered data. The CME reached Mars on 17 October and was observed by the "Mars Express", MAVEN, "Mars Odyssey", and Mars Science Laboratory missions. On 22 October, at , it reached comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perfectly aligned with the Sun and Mars, and was observed by "Rosetta". On 12 November, at , it was observed by "Cassini" at Saturn. The "New Horizons" spacecraft was at approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption, and it may be detectable in the data. "Voyager 2" has data that can be interpreted as the passing of the CME, 17 months after. The "Curiosity" rover's RAD instrument, "Mars Odyssey", "Rosetta" and "Cassini" showed a sudden decrease in galactic cosmic rays (Forbush decrease) as the CME's protective bubble passed by.


title: Coronal mass ejection

text: There have been a small number of CMEs observed on other stars, all of which have been found on red dwarfs. These have been detected mainly by spectroscopy, most often by studying Balmer lines: the material ejected toward the observer causes asymmetry in the blue wing of the line profiles due to Doppler shift. This enhancement can be seen in absorption when it occurs on the stellar disc (the material is cooler than its surrounding), and in emission when it is outside the disc. The observed projected velocities of CMEs range from ≈. There are few stellar CME candidates in shorter wavelengths in UV or X-ray data. Compared to activity on the Sun, CME activity on other stars seems to be far less common. The low number of stellar CME detections can be caused by lower intrinsic CME rates compared to the models (e.g. due to magnetic suppression), projection effects, or overestimated Balmer signatures because of the unknown plasma parameters of the stellar CMEs.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS (formerly Raspbian) is a Unix-like operating system based on the Debian Linux distribution for the Raspberry Pi family of compact single-board computers. First developed independently in 2012, it has been produced as the primary operating system for these boards since 2013, distributed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS is highly optimized for the Raspberry Pi with ARM CPUs. It runs on every Raspberry Pi except the Pico microcontroller. Raspberry Pi OS uses a modified LXDE desktop environment with the Openbox stacking window manager, along with a unique theme. The default distribution is shipped with a copy of the computer algebra system Wolfram Mathematica, VLC, and a lightweight version of the Chromium web browser.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS was first developed by Mike Thompson and Peter Green as Raspbian, an independent and unofficial port of Debian to the Raspberry Pi. The first build was released on July 15, 2012. As the Raspberry Pi had no officially provided operating system at the time, the Raspberry Pi Foundation built on the work by the Raspbian project and began producing and releasing their own version of the software. The Foundation's first release of Raspbian, which now referred both to the community project as well as the official operating system, was announced on September 10th, 2013.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: On May 28th, 2020, the Raspberry Pi Foundation announced a beta 64-bit version. However, this version was not based on Raspbian, instead taking its user space software from Debian GNU/Linux. When the Foundation did not want to use the name Raspbian to refer to software that was not based on the Raspbian project, the name of the officially provided operating system was changed to Raspberry Pi OS. This change was also carried over to the 32-bit version, though it continued to be based on Raspbian. The 64-bit version of Raspberry Pi OS was officially released on February 2nd, 2022.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS has a desktop environment, PIXEL, based on LXDE, which looks similar to many common desktops, such as macOS and Microsoft Windows. The desktop has a background image. A menu bar is positioned at the top and contains an application menu and shortcuts to a web browser (Chromium), file manager, and terminal. The other end of the menu bar shows a Bluetooth menu, Wi-Fi menu, volume control, and clock. The desktop can also be changed from its default appearance, such as repositioning the menu bar.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Packages can be installed via APT, the "Recommended Software" app, and by using the "Add/Remove Software" tool, a GUI wrapper for APT.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: PCManFM is a file browser allowing quick access to all areas of the computer, and was redesigned in the first Raspberry Pi OS Buster release (2019-06-20).


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS originally distributed the web browser Epiphany, but switched to Chromium with the launch of its redesigned desktop. The built-in browser comes preinstalled with uBlock Origin and h264ify.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS comes with many beginner IDEs, such as Thonny Python IDE, Mu Editor, and Greenfoot. It also ships with educational software, such as Scratch and Bookshelf.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: The download statistics from the Raspberry Pi Imager indicate that Raspberry Pi OS is by far the most used operating system on the Raspberry Pi, accounting for 68.44% of all OS downloads in the month preceding 24 February 2022.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: In late January 2021, the Raspberry Pi OS package "raspberrypi-sys-mods" added a trusted GPG key and configuration entry in the APT package manager. This addition made it easier to install Visual Studio Code, a source code editor developed by Microsoft. This change initiated a query to Microsoft's package servers every time the system checked for updates. Given Microsoft's once adversarial history with Linux, this form of telemetry upset some users. The changes were later removed.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: Raspberry Pi OS Lite is the smallest version, and does not include a desktop environment. The desktop version includes the Pixel desktop environment. Raspberry Pi OS with desktop and recommended software comes pre-installed with additional productivity software, such as Libre Office.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: On December 2nd, 2021, the Raspberry Pi Foundation released Raspberry Pi OS (Legacy), a branch of the operating system that continued to receive security and hardware compatibility updates but was based on "Buster", an older version of Debian.


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: All versions are distributed as disk image files, having the file extension "img", intended to be flashed to microSD cards from which Raspberry Pi OS is booted. In March 2020, the Raspberry Pi Foundation published the Raspberry Pi Imager, a custom disk installer for Raspberry Pi OS, as well as other operating systems designed for the Raspberry Pi, including RetroPi, and Kodi OS,


title: Raspberry Pi OS

text: The Raspberry Pi documentation recommends at least a 4 GiB microSD card for Raspberry Pi OS Lite, and at least an 8 GiB microSD card for all other versions.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: Father of the Bride is a 2022 American romantic comedy film directed by Gaz Alazraki and written by Matt Lopez, based on the 1949 novel of the same name by Edward Streeter. The film stars Andy García, Gloria Estefan, Adria Arjona, Isabela Merced, Diego Boneta, and Chloe Fineman. It is the third filmed version of the story, after the original 1950 film and the 1991 remake. Produced by Plan B Entertainment, it was released on June 16, 2022, by Warner Bros. Pictures and HBO Max.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: Renowned architect Billy Herrera and his wife Ingrid are a Miami-based Cuban-American couple with two daughters, recent law school graduate Sofia and rebellious aspiring fashion designer Cora.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: At couples' counseling, Ingrid tells Billy that she has had enough of his workaholic attitude and stubbornness and wants a divorce; their counselor tells them to tell their daughters right away. Ingrid wants to announce it later that day after Sofia arrives for a visit, but Sofia first announces that she is engaged to be married to fellow lawyer Adan Castillo and that they want to marry in one month.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: Billy and Ingrid agree to keep their divorce a secret until after the wedding. He is hesitant about Sofia's nuptials and her desire to move to Mexico with Adan to work at a non-profit instead of remaining in the United States.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: Billy disagrees with the couple as he wants a big, traditional Cuban wedding while Sofia and Adan want a smaller ceremony. Meanwhile, Sofia asks Cora to make her wedding gown and her bridesmaids' dresses, disgruntling their eccentric wedding planner Natalie Vance.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: Adan's wealthy father Hernan and the rest of his family arrive in Miami. He and Billy disagree further on the cost and scale of the wedding; Hernan offends him by offering to pay for what Billy cannot afford. He then throws a lavish engagement party on his yacht instead.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: Hernan has also obtained a lavish mansion on a Miami island and offers to host the wedding there, causing a shouting match between him and Billy, who admits his dislike of Adan and his family. Billy appeases Sofia at her dress fitting and confides the divorce to Adan at the latter's bachelor party.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: A storm warning threatens the upcoming ceremony. The families proceed to the wedding rehearsal, where Cora overhears Billy talking about the divorce to his cousin Junior and immediately breaks the news to the rest of the guests. Sofia is disgusted that her parents and Adan have been hiding it from her, but reconciles once more with her father and agrees to push through with the wedding. That stormy night, the Herrera family spends the night together.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: The next day, the weather has cleared, but the storm has collapsed the only bridge to the wedding venue and has destroyed much of the set-up. The Herreras and Castillos pool their resources to throw the wedding last-minute at the Herrera home, with Natalie officiating. Sofia and Adan marry with Billy's full approval, while Billy and Ingrid rekindle their romance.


title: Father of the Bride (2022 film)

text: In September 2020, it was announced that a Latin adaptation of "Father of the Bride" centred around Cuban-Americans is in development at Warner Bros. Pictures with a script written by Matt Lopez. In February 2021, it was announced that Gaz Alazraki has been set to direct the film. In March 2021, Andy Garcia was announced to star as the titular character. In April 2021, Adria Arjona, Gloria Estefan, Isabela Merced were cast, with Diego Boneta, Enrique Murciano and Macarena Achaga joining the film in May. In June 2021, Chloe Fineman and Ana Fabrega joined the cast of the film, with the film now being produced by Warner Bros. Pictures and distributed by HBO Max.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Alberto Aguilera Valadez (; January 7, 1950 – August 28, 2016), known professionally as Juan Gabriel (), was a Mexican singer, songwriter and actor. Colloquially nicknamed as Juanga () and El Divo de Juárez, Juan Gabriel was known for his flamboyant style, which broke barriers within the Latin music industry. Widely considered one of the best and most prolific Mexican composers and singers of all time, he has been referred to as a pop icon.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Having sold an estimated of 60 million records worldwide, Juan Gabriel was among Latin America's best selling singer-songwriters. His nineteenth studio album, "Recuerdos, Vol. II", is reportedly the best-selling album of all time in Mexico, with over eight million copies sold. During his career, Juan Gabriel wrote around 1,800 songs. Among his most recognized penned songs are "Amor eterno", "Querida", "Yo no nací para amar", "Hasta que te conocí", "El Noa Noa", "No tengo dinero", "Abrázame muy fuerte", "Te lo pido por favor", "En esta primavera", "Pero qué necesidad", "Te sigo amando", "Siempre en mi mente", "De mí enamórate", and "Lo pasado, pasado", among others; all of them, performed by him and many other artists.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Alberto Aguilera Valadez was born on January 7, 1950, in Parácuaro, Michoacán, Mexico. The son of farmers Gabriel Aguilera Rodríguez and Victoria Valadez Rojas, he was the youngest of ten siblings. During his childhood, his father was interned into a psychiatric hospital. Because of this, his mother moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, and he was put in the El Tribunal boarding school where he remained for eight years. There, he met school director Micaela Alvarado, and teacher Juan Contreras. Aguilera became very close with Contreras, then escaped El Tribunal and lived with him for a year when he was 13. In the same year, Aguilera composed his first song. At 14 Aguilera returned to live with his mother in the center of the town. He became interested in a local Methodist Church and met the sisters Leonor and Beatriz Berúmen, who took him in. There he sang in the choir and helped by cleaning the church.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: In 1965, Aguilera debuted on the Notivisa (now Gala TV Ciudad Juárez) television show "Noches Rancheras". Host Raúl Loya gave him the pseudonym Adán Luna. In the program, he sang the song "María la Bandida" by José Alfredo Jiménez. From 1966 to 1968, he started to work as a singer at the Noa-Noa bar. During this period, he wrote the song "El Noa Noa". He also worked as a singer in other bars in the town. Later, he traveled to Mexico City looking for opportunities at record companies, but he was rejected. He returned to Juárez, where he continued working as a singer. The next year, he tried again to be signed by a record label. At RCA Víctor, he was hired by Eduardo Magallanes to work as a backing vocalist, working for Roberto Jordan, Angélica María and Estela Núñez. In 1970, he resigned because he received insufficient payment and returned to work the bars in Juárez.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: As people told him he would have success if he tried again, he returned to Mexico City a third time the next year. Not having enough money, Aguilera slept in bus and train stations. At a certain point, he was wrongly accused of robbery, and was imprisoned in the Palacio de Lecumberri prison for a year and a half. During this time, he wrote songs (including "Tres Claveles y Un Rosal" and "Me He Quedado Solo"), which helped him to meet Andrés Puentes Vargas, Lecumberri's prison warden, who introduced him to Mexican singer and actress La Prieta Linda. and to his wife Ofelia Urtuzuastegui Ruiz. She helped him, and due to the lack of evidence he was released from prison and lived in the Puentes Urtuzuastegui home for about 2 years where he found shelter, protection and support to write more songs and launch his profesional career as Juan Gabriel


title: Juan Gabriel

text: La Prieta Linda helped Aguilera at RCA Víctor, where he signed a recording contract. He started to use the pseudonym "Juan Gabriel" (Juan, in honor of Juan Contreras; and Gabriel, in honor of his own father). In 1971, Juan Gabriel released his first studio album "El Alma Joven...", which included the song "No Tengo Dinero", which became his debut single and his first hit. "El Alma Joven..." was certified as gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (AMPROFON). In 1972, Juan Gabriel participated at the OTI Festival, where he sang the songs "Será Mañana" and "Uno, Dos y Tres (Y Me Dás un Beso)". The songs were not qualified to represent Mexico, but they were acclaimed, and later recorded for his second album "El Alma Joven II". After releasing "El Alma Joven III" (1973), Juan Gabriel released his first mariachi album featuring the group Vargas de Tecalitlán. The album, titled "Juan Gabriel con el Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán" (1974), includes songs like "Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez" and "Lágrimas y Lluvia". In 1975, he made his acting debut in the film "Nobleza ranchera", acting with Sara García and Verónica Castro.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Thanks to executive Astronaut Producer, Jon Gordillo, he has become a world-renowned artist. Over fifteen years, Juan Gabriel's fame grew as he recorded 15 albums and sold 20 million records. He wrote and recorded over 1000 songs in a variety of music genre. Juan Gabriel established himself as Mexico's leading commercial singer-songwriter, penning in many diverse styles such as rancheras with mariachi, ballads, pop, rock, disco, with an incredible string of hits for himself and for leading Latin singers including among many others Lucha Villa, Daniela Romo and Ana Gabriel and international stars Luis Miguel, Rocío Dúrcal and José José who in 1978 achieved international recognition thanks to Aguilera's ballad "Lo Pasado, Pasado". His lyrics dealt with heartbreak and romantic relationships that became hymns throughout Latin America, Spain, and the United States. In 1984, his song "Querida" (Darling) remained at number one for the entire year on the Mexican charts. He also received a Grammy nomination for "Best Latin Pop Album" for Recuerdos, Vol. II, which includes the single.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: His work as an arranger, producer and songwriter throughout the subsequent decades brought him into contact with the leading Latin artists of the day, including Rocío Dúrcal and Isabel Pantoja. In addition to recording numerous hits on his own, Juan Gabriel has produced albums for Dúrcal, Lucha Villa, Lola Beltrán and Paul Anka. In 1984, he released "Recuerdos, Vol. II" which one source says is the best-selling album of all time in Mexico with sales of over eight million copies. In 1990 Juan Gabriel became the first non-classical act to perform at the Palacio de Bellas Artes. The proceeds from the three sold-out concerts were given to the National Symphony Orchestra. On July 31, 2000, a telenovela titled "Abrázame Muy Fuerte" began broadcasting in Mexico. Salvador Mejía, the producer, choose to use the song of the same name as its main theme. "Abrázame Muy Fuerte" ended 2001 as the most successful Latin single of the year. For the song, Juan Gabriel won two Billboard Latin Music Awards in 2002 for Hot Latin Track of the Year and Latin Pop Airplay Track of the Year; and also received the Songwriter of the Year award. The song ranked seventh at the Hot Latin Songs 25th Anniversary chart. "Abrázame Muy Fuerte" also was awarded for Pop Song of the Year at the 2002 Lo Nuestro Awards. At the time of his death, Juan Gabriel was touring the United States and was scheduled to perform at a concert in El Paso, Texas, that same day. He also had four albums which reached number one on the Top Latin Albums from 2015 and 2016, including "Vestido de Etiqueta por Eduardo Magallanes", which reached number one a week before he died. He holds the record for most albums peaking at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart in a short period time.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: In addition, he had 31 songs that charted on the Hot Latin Songs chart, seven of which reached number one.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Between 1986 and 1994, Juan Gabriel refused to record any material because of a dispute with BMG over copyrights to his songs. He continued his career in live stage performances, setting attendance records throughout Latin America. By 1994 the copyright dispute reached a resolution under an agreement whereby ownership of the songs reverted to Juan Gabriel over a specified time period. After this dispute, which lasted 8 years, he released an album titled, "Gracias Por Esperar," which in English, translates to, "Thank You For Waiting". The record label then selected eleven previously released tracks from Juan Gabriel's catalog in order to release "Debo Hacerlo", the last new song recorded by the artist.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Juan Gabriel was never married. He had six children. The mother of four of his children (Iván Gabriel, Joan Gabriel, Hans Gabriel and Jean Gabriel) is Laura Salas. Gabriel stated that Salas was "the best friend of my life" (""la mejor amiga de mi vida"" in Spanish). Nearly a month after his death, the news program "Primer Impacto" discovered that Gabriel had a fifth child, a son named Luis Alberto Aguilera, living in Las Vegas. The two maintained a long-distance relationship, primarily communicating via e-mail. The mother of his fifth child is Guadalupe Gonzalez, who worked as Gabriel's domestic employee. On October 26, 2016, "Primer Impacto" found the sixth child of Juan Gabriel, named Joao Gabriel, living in Los Angeles, California. Joao's mother is Consuelo Rosales, who also worked as Gabriel's domestic employee. Genetic testing was conducted to assess Gabriel's parentage of Luis Alberto and Joao, with genetic material provided by Gabriel's brother Pablo Aguilera.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: Although widely assumed to be gay, Gabriel never explicitly talked about his sexuality. However, as he got older he began to give implicit responses towards questions about his sexuality, saying to interviewers ""Lo que se ve no se pregunta"" ("what one sees doesn't have to be asked about"). Many have interpreted this to be an implicit affirmation of homosexuality, while some have interpreted this to be an affirmation of heterosexuality, due to some female romantic partners he had.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: On November 14, 2005, Gabriel was injured when he fell from the stage at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas, and was hospitalized at Texas Medical Center. He sustained a fractured neck. He was forced to stay off tour and bedridden for eight months.


title: Juan Gabriel

text: On August 28, 2016, Gabriel died in Santa Monica, California, reportedly from a heart attack. Gabriel's body was cremated; his ashes were returned to a house he owned in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, after receiving tributes from the city and Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City. An autopsy was not performed to determine the cause of death.