text: Modern conservatism in the United States traces its origins to the small government principles of the Republican Party in the 1920s, and it developed through opposition to the New Deal coalition and the civil rights movement in the mid-20th century. The rise of the Reagan coalition led to the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, establishing conservatism as a major ideology in the United States. This coalition advocated "laissez-faire" economics, social conservatism, and anti-communism, with support from libertarians, northern businessmen, southern segregationists, and the Christian right. In the early 21st century, right-wing populism and neo-nationalism gained considerable influence among the conservative movement. Right-wing populism became the predominant conservative faction in response to the increasing liberalization of society, beginning with the Tea Party movement of 2009 and continuing with the presidency of Donald Trump.


title: Political ideologies in the United States

text: There are several different schools of thought within American conservatism. Social conservatives and the Christian right advocate traditional values, decentralization, and religious law, fearing that the United States is undergoing moral decline. Fiscal conservatives (or classical liberals) advocate small government, tax cuts, and lower government spending. Americans that identify as conservative will typically support most or all of these ideas to some extent, arguing that small government and traditional values are closely linked. Other conservative ideologies typically support isolationism and limited involvement in foreign affairs. American right-wing populists advocate tax cuts, protectionism, and opposition to immigration, framing politics as a battle against "elites" from above and "subversives" from below.


text: Conservatism in the United States does not advocate a unified foreign policy ideology, though common tenets include support for American hegemony, promotion of free markets abroad, and combat readiness. Realism was prominent in conservative foreign policy during the mid-20th century, advocating cautious advances in influence through diplomacy to advance American interests. Support for realism fell among conservatives during the Reagan administration in favor of American exceptionalism and more aggressive anti-communism. Neoconservatives form an interventionist wing of the conservative movement, advocating peace through strength and the use of force to promote democracy and combat threats abroad.


text: As of 2021, over one-third of the American public self-identifies as conservative. The Republican Party represents conservatives in the United States, with 74% of Republicans identifying as conservative, compared to only 12% of Democrats. As of 2022, Republican leaning voters are more likely than Democrats to prioritize the issues of immigration, the budget deficit, and strengthening the military. A Pew Research study in 2015 found that the most reliable Republican demographics were Mormons and Evangelicals, particularly white Americans in each group.


text: Modern liberalism in the United States originates from the reforms advocated by the progressive movement of the early 20th century. Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented the New Deal in response to the Great Depression, and the New Deal programs defined social liberalism in the United States, establishing it as a major ideology. In the 1960s, it expanded to include support for the civil rights movement. Following the rise of the Reagan coalition in the 1980s and the shift toward conservatism in the United States, American liberals adopted Third Way liberalism. A movement of left-wing populism emerged within liberalism following the Great Recession and Occupy Wall Street.


text: Liberalism in the United States is founded on support for strong civil liberties, cultural liberalism, and cultural pluralism. Liberal social beliefs include support for more government intervention to fight poverty and other social issues through programs such as welfare and a social safety net, as well as opposition to government intervention in moral and social behavior. Liberal economic beliefs include support for a mixed economy that uses a capitalist system maintained with economic interventionism and regulation, as well as opposition to both "laissez-faire" capitalism and socialism as means to distribute economic resources. Keynesian economics commonly factor into liberal economic policy. Those that identify as liberal will typically support liberal economic policies as a means to support liberal social policies. Liberals within the modern progressive movement support greater redistribution of wealth, increases to the federal minimum wage, a mandatory single-payer healthcare system, and environmental justice.


text: Liberal internationalism is a key component of American foreign policy, supporting increased involvement in the affairs of other countries to promote liberalism and seek liberal peace. This ideology was first developed in the United States as Wilsonianism during World War I, replacing the expansionism of the Roosevelt Corollary. Liberal internationalism has been the dominant foreign policy ideology of the United States since the 1950s. Realism grew in popularity among liberals in the early-21st century in response to the interventionist neoconservatism of the Bush administration. Progressive Americans support pacifism and antihegemonism in foreign policy.


text: As of 2021, about one quarter of the American public self-identifies as liberal, making it the smallest of the mainstream ideological groups. The Democratic Party represents liberals in the United States, with 50% of Democrats identifying as liberal, compared to only 4% of Republicans. As of 2022, Democratic leaning voters are more likely than Republicans to prioritize the issues of the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, race, and poverty. A Pew Research study in 2015 found that the most reliable Democratic demographics were African Americans, atheists, and Asian Americans.


text: Moderates prioritize compromise and pragmatism, and moderate politics vary depending on the political circumstances of the era. During the American Revolution, moderates generally supported the ideas of the revolutionary Patriots, but they were concerned about the potential consequences of open revolution. During the Civil War, southern moderates opposed secession, while northern moderates advocated a more gradual response to slavery than the total abolitionism and enforcement of civil rights proposed by Radical Republicans. During Reconstruction, moderate Republicans sought to increase support for civil rights in the South instead of implementing them through force. In the 1950s, President Dwight D. Eisenhower operated under his policy of "Modern Republicanism" that promoted moderate politics in response to the New Deal coalition and the Conservative coalition.


text: Moderates identify as neither liberal nor conservative, holding a mix of beliefs that does not necessarily correspond to either group. They typically believe that issues are too complex for simple partisan solutions to work and that the two major political parties are too ideological. Some policy stances have strong support from moderates, including background checks on gun purchases and investing in renewable energy. Beyond a resistance to the terms liberal and conservative, there is little that unites moderates ideologically, and moderates can hold a variety of political positions. As of 2021, over one-third of the American public self-identifies as moderate. Self-identified moderates make up about one-third of the Democratic Party, about one-fifth of the Republican Party, and about half of independents.


text: Fascism never achieved success in American politics. There were, however, prominent American supporters of fascism in the 1930s, including Henry Ford and Charles Lindbergh. Charles Coughlin, at one point the second most popular radio host in the United States, openly advocated fascist ideals during his program. A minority of Americans at the time were also sympathetic to fascism because of its antisemitism, its anti-communism, and what was perceived as its economic success. Antisemitism in the United States was common at the time, and many antisemitic groups openly expressed these views.


text: The Friends of New Germany and its successor the German American Bund represented the largest Nazi organizations in the United States, which is estimated to have had 25,000 members. Present day Nazism is called Neo-Nazism. Many factors have been proposed that cause someone to radicalize and adopt Nazism, including a traumatic past, a search for meaning through extremism, and a propensity to violence or aggression. A 2017 poll found that 9% of Americans believe neo-Nazi beliefs are "acceptable". The Federal Bureau of Investigation recognized neo-Nazis as a major domestic terror threat in 2020. The words "fascist" and "Nazi" are sometimes used erroneously as epithets to describe political figures and ideologies, but these uses of the terms are generally disputed by academics that study the subject. The mid-2010s saw the rise in the alt-right movement, which was characterized by its sympathy to fascist ideologies and opposition to multiracial liberal democracy.


text: Developed in the mid-20th century as a revival of classical liberalism, libertarianism in the United States (domainantly right-libertarianism) is founded on the ideas of severely limited government, with supporters of libertarianism advocating fiscal conservatism and reduction of social programs, social liberalism, and isolationist foreign policy. Libertarians make up a notable minority group in American politics, with about 11% of Americans saying that the term describes them well as of 2014. Men were twice as likely to identify with the term as women, and Democrats were half as likely to identify with the term as Republicans or independents. As of 2013, 68% of libertarians were men, 94% of libertarians were white, and 62% of libertarians were under the age of 50. Religiously, 50% of libertarians were Protestant, 27% were religiously unaffiliated, and 11% were Catholic.


text: Libertarianism is promoted by the Libertarian Party, the largest minor party in the United States. Libertarians in the United States typically vote for the Republican Party, with only a small portion voting for the Democratic Party or the Libertarian Party. Some libertarians have begun voting for the Democratic Party since 2020 in response to the rise of right-wing populism in the Republican Party. Some major think tanks in the United States operate from a libertarian perspective, including the Cato Institute and the Reason Foundation.


text: Before the American Revolution, the Thirteen Colonies were ruled by the Crown of Great Britain. The Founding Fathers of the United States largely rejected monarchism in favor of republicanism, and the Revolutionary War was fought to free the colonies from monarchy. About one-fifth of Americans during the revolution were part of the loyalist faction that wished to remain a monarchy under the British crown, and after the United States became an independent country, thousands of loyalists emigrated to Britain or to other colonies. Following the revolution, some individuals supported the continuation of monarchism in the United States. Most notably, Alexander Hamilton proposed an elective monarchy as the American system of government, favoring a strong executive with lifetime rule. Other supporters of monarchism at the time include the military officers that advocated in the Newburgh letter that George Washington become a monarch and the alleged Prussian scheme that sought to put the United States under the rule of Prince Henry of Prussia.


text: No major monarchist movements have emerged since the 18th century. The Constantian Society advocated monarchy in the late 20th century, but it did not see mainstream success. Elements of monarchism still exist, however, in the function of the United States presidency. The office had many of its functions based on those of the British monarch, including its status as a unitary executive, its capacity over foreign affairs, and powers such as the presidential veto. Dark Enlightenment, a fringe neoreactionary movement that emerged in the late 2000s whose adherents include Curtis Yarvin, Peter Thiel, and Steve Bannon, largely rejects democracy and advocates for the implementation of either an absolute monarchy or a style of governance similar to a monarchy.


text: Many separatist movements have advocated secession from the United States, though none have achieved major support since the American Civil War. The most significant separatist movement was secessionism in the southern United States in the 1860s. Politicians from the southern states declared independence and established the Confederate States of America, an unrecognized government led by Jefferson Davis, resulting in the American Civil War. Following the Civil War, the states were reincorporated into the union, and the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession was unconstitutional in "Texas v. White".


text: The Republic of Texas was created when it seceded from Mexico before ultimately joining the United States. Since the admission of Texas as a state, various Texas secession movements have developed. A common misconception purports that Texas reserved the right to secede when it was admitted, but no such legal provision exists. Since at least the 1970s, various groups within the Pacific Northwest have advocated for the region to separate and form its own nation, largely based on the strong cultural, environmental, and demographic similarities the various states in the region shares. Notable examples include the Cascadia independence movement, which advocates for Oregon, Washington, and the Canadian province of British Columbia to separate based on their economic, environmental, and cultural ties, and the Northwest Territorial Imperative, in which white supremacists advocated creating an ethnostate in the region due to its largely white demographics and isolated geography. The status of Puerto Rico in the United States has long been debated, with independence being considered as an alternative to statehood. Other notable separatist groups in the United States include Ka Lahui Hawaii and the Alaskan Independence Party, both of which have had membership in the tens of thousands.


text: Other notable proposals for secession have been suggested in the past. The Kentucky Resolution by Thomas Jefferson threatened secession in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The Nullification crisis represented another threat of secession in 1832. In the 21st century, political polarization has resulted in higher support for a division of the United States. As of 2021, two-thirds of Republicans in Southern states support a renewed Confederacy. Some extremist groups support racial separatism, which advocates separatism on the basis of race or ethnicity instead of geography. White separatism and Black separatism advocate the creation of ethnostates along racial lines.


text: Socialists advocate the abolition of private property and social hierarchy in favor of collective ownership of the means of production. The Socialist Party of America was founded in 1901, and it saw moderate success as a third party, electing two members to Congress and running Eugene V. Debs as a notable third-party candidate in the 1912 and 1920 presidential elections. At the same time, anarchism gained a following in the United States and became the motivating ideology behind a wave of left-wing terrorism, including several bombings and the assassination of William McKinley. Following the Russian Revolution, socialism was negatively received by Americans, and strong social backlash to socialism resulted in the Red Scare.


text: Anti-socialism and anti-communism began to play a larger role in American politics during the Cold War. The New Left briefly existed as a socialist movement in the 1960s and 1970s.


text: In the 21st century, perceptions of socialism have improved in the United States, especially among young Americans. As of 2022, the Democratic Socialists of America is the largest socialist group in the United States, reporting over 92,000 members and having elected members to Congress under the Democratic Party. This group advocates democratic socialism, including the nationalization of major industries and the transfer of other industries from private ownership to workers' ownership. The words "socialist" and "communist" are sometimes used erroneously as epithets to describe political figures and ideologies. Many politicians, political groups, and policies in the United States have been referred to as socialist despite supporting welfare capitalism with government programs and regulations. When polled, a significant portion of Americans were unable to accurately identify what socialism was, believing it to refer to government spending, welfare programs, equal rights, or liberalism, and 23 percent had no opinion.


text: Men in the United States tend to be slightly more conservative than women. As of 2021, 41% of men identified as conservative, compared to 32% of women. Voter turnout tends to be slightly higher among women than among men. A gender gap has been found to exist in voting patterns, with women more likely to vote for the Democratic Party since the 1970s. Military intervention and the death penalty are significantly more popular among men than women, while gun control and social welfare programs are significantly more popular among women than men. Men that identify with hypermasculinity and women that identify with hyperfemininity have been found to lean more conservative than those that do not.


text: Race is correlated with partisanship in the United States. White Americans are more likely to support Republican candidates. The majority of African-Americans have been Democrats since 1936, and they continue to be seen as a reliable voting bloc for the Democratic Party, with as many as 82% of African-Americans identifying as Democrats in 2000. Black political candidates are generally perceived as more liberal than white candidates. Asian Americans do not have a shared national and political identity, and as such are not considered a distinct voting bloc, though they have increasingly supported the Democratic Party in the 21st century. Native Americans slightly favor the Democratic Party, though Native American tribes are often separated from American society and do not participate heavily in national politics.


text: Younger Americans tend to lean liberal, while older Americans tend to lean conservative. As of 2021, 23% of Americans aged 18 to 29 are conservative, compared to 45% of Americans aged 65 and up. Likewise, 34% of Americans aged 18 to 29 are liberal compared to 21% aged 65 and up. Americans' political ideologies generally do not change much as they grow older, but ideological shifts in one's life are more likely to move to the right than to the left. Younger voters and older voters typically consider the same factors when voting. After reaching their mid-60s, correct voting sharply declines among voters, with a majority of elderly voters in their 80s and 90s casting votes that contradict their stated beliefs. This is attributed to decreasing cognitive capabilities as well as an ability to access up-to-date information due to slower manual dexterity and difficulty using technology.


text: As of 2014, Christians make up 85% of conservatives and 52% of liberals, non-Christian faiths make up 3% of conservatives and 10% of liberals, and the religiously unaffiliated make up 11% of conservatives and 36% of liberals. A majority of Mormons and Evangelical Protestants and a plurality of Catholics in the United States identify as conservative, while a plurality of Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, and the irreligious identify as liberal. Identifying with a religious tradition has been found to reduce political participation, but participation in church activities has been found to increase political participation. Religious Americans that believe in a God who intervenes in human affairs are less likely to participate in politics. Political beliefs and religious beliefs in the United States are closely intertwined, with both affecting the other.


text: Highly educated Americans are more likely to be liberal. In 2015, 44% of Americans with college degrees identified as liberal, while 29% identified as conservative. Americans without college experience were about equally likely to identify as liberal or conservative, with roughly half identifying as having mixed political values. This divide primarily exists between educated and uneducated white voters, and it marks a reversal of previous trends where college-educated whites were more conservative. Several reasons for this phenomenon have been proposed, including college graduates spending more time in liberal cities, a prioritization of science over traditional authority, college students being exposed to new ideas, and conservative distrust of higher education. Income is not a major factor in political ideology. In 2021, each income group had a nearly identical distribution of ideologies, matching the general population.


text: While liberal and conservative are the primary ideological descriptors in the United States, they do not necessarily correlate to usage of the terms in other countries. In the United States, liberalism refers specifically to social liberalism and cultural liberalism, and it leans farther to the left than liberalism in other countries. Conservatism is derived from the traditions of a society, so American conservatism reflects the ideas of classical liberalism and Christian belief that were dominant in the early history of the United States. The American conception of freedom is distinct on the world stage, with freedom often recognized as limitations on state power rather than obligations of the state. The right to property is given high priority, and taxes are particularly unpopular. Activism and personal participation in politics are encouraged, and civic engagement is considered a trait of good citizenship. Membership in civic organizations and participation in protests are common forms of civic engagement. Equal opportunity is typically more popular than equality of outcome.


text: Historically, the ideology of the United States was based in constitutional republicanism. This came directly in opposition to the monarchism and aristocracy of European kingdoms and of Great Britain in particular. This political history of constitutional republicanism is closely related to that of South America. Both regions have a shared history of colonialism, revolutionary war, federalist republicanism, and presidential systems. Political traits that are sometimes considered distinct to the United States are also common in South America, including common ideological positions on religion, crime, economy, national identity, multiculturalism, and guns. Political ideology is one of the primary factors to which the Cold War is attributed, and it affects how the United States operates as a global superpower. American ideology is centered in liberal democracy and capitalism, and global politics in second half of the 20th century was defined by its opposition to the Marxism–Leninism of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. The United States has undertaken nation-building in several countries, directly influencing the political systems of the Philippines, Germany, Austria, Japan, Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.


text: American politics is dominated by individualist ideology instead of the collectivist ideology that influences politics in some European countries. American citizens expect less influence and intervention by the government and are less likely to accept government intervention compared to citizens of European countries. Ideologies that advocate collective rights are not well received by American voters if they come at the cost of individual rights. Americans and Western Europeans have a similar conception of democracy and governance, prioritizing a free judiciary and fair elections at about equal levels. Americans and Western Europeans are also similarly progressive on issues such as LGBT rights and gender equality. Americans, however, place higher priority on freedom of religion than Western European countries, and Americans are more likely to believe that individual success is within a person's control. Both social democracy and nativism have become more prominent in the 21st century United States, resembling their counterparts in many European countries. Democracy in both the United States and European countries are threatened by rising anti-establishmentism and the resulting extremism and polarization. The two-party system and Congressional gridlock make the United States more susceptible to polarization than countries with other systems, though this structure also prevents extremist parties from taking power.


title: Brugmansia

text: Brugmansia is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name of angel's trumpets, a name sometimes used for the closely related genus "Datura".


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" species are amongst the most toxic of ornamental plants, containing tropane alkaloids of the type also responsible for the toxicity and deliriant effects of both jimsonweed and the infamous deadly nightshade. All seven species are known only in cultivation or as escapees from cultivation, and no wild plants have ever been confirmed. They are therefore listed as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN Red List, although they are popular ornamental plants and still exist wild outside their native range as introduced species. It is suspected that their extinction in the wild is due to the extinction of some animal which previously dispersed the seeds, with human cultivation having ensured the genus's continued survival.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched trunks. They can reach heights of . The leaves are alternately arranged along the stems, generally large, long and across, with an entire or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet" refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, long and across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may be single, double, or more.


title: Brugmansia

text: Linnaeus first classified these plants as part of "Datura" with his 1753 description of ""Datura arborea"". Then in 1805, C. H. Persoon transferred them into a separate genus, "Brugmansia", named for Dutch naturalist Sebald Justinus Brugmans. For another 168 years, various authors placed them back and forth between the genera of "Brugmansia" and "Datura", until in 1973, with his detailed comparison of morphological differences, T.E. Lockwood settled them as separate genera, where they have stayed unchallenged since.


title: Brugmansia

text: These species are then divided into two natural, genetically isolated groups. "Brugmansia" section "Brugmansia" (the warm-growing group) includes the species "aurea", "insignis", "sauveolens", and "versicolor". "Brugmansia" section "Sphaerocarpium" (the cold group) includes the species "arborea", "sanguinea", and "vulcanicola".


title: Brugmansia

text: First, "Brugmansia vulcanicola" was said to be a subspecies of "B. sanguinea", but this was refuted by Lockwood's former mentor, R. E. Schultes in 1977.


title: Brugmansia

text: Second, Lockwood proposed that the species "B. insignis" was instead a hybrid of the combination ("B. suaveolens" x "B. versicolor") x "B. suaveolens". This was later disproved by crossbreeding experiments done by the Preissels, published in 1997.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" are native to tropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Venezuela to northern Chile, and also in south-eastern Brazil. They are grown as ornamental container plants worldwide, and have become naturalized in isolated tropical areas around the globe, including within North America, Africa, Australia, and Asia.


title: Brugmansia

text: Most "Brugmansia" are fragrant in the evenings to attract pollinating moths. One species lacking scent, the red-flowered "Brugmansia sanguinea", is pollinated by long-billed hummingbirds.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" have two main stages to their life cycle. In the initial vegetative stage the young seedling grows straight up on usually a single stalk, until it reaches its first main fork at high. It will not flower until after it has reached this fork, and then only on new growth above the fork. Cuttings taken from the lower vegetative region must also grow to a similar height before flowering, but cuttings from the upper flowering region will often flower at a very low height.


title: Brugmansia

text: One interesting example of plant/animal interaction involves the butterfly "Placidula euryanassa", which uses "Brugmansia suaveolens" as one of its main larval foods. It has been shown that these can sequester the plant's tropane alkaloids and store them through the pupal stage on to the adult butterfly, where they are then used as a defense mechanism, making themselves less palatable to vertebrate predators.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" seed dispersal was probably formerly accomplished by mammalian megafauna, extinct since the Pleistocene. "Brugmansia" has long been extinct in the wild as their fruits now shrivel on the plants without progeny. They have been maintained in cultivation as a source of psychotropic drugs, following the loss of their evolutionary seed dispersal partner by humans .


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" contains deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids (atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine) which cause delirium and hallucinations. In modern medicine, these tropane alkaloids found in "Brugmansia" and other related members of Solanaceae have proven medical value for their spasmolytic, anti-asthmatic, anticholinergic, narcotic, and anesthetic properties, although many of these alkaloids, or their equivalents, are now artificially synthesized.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" species have also traditionally been used in many South American indigenous cultures in medical preparations and as an entheogen in religious and spiritual ceremonies. Medicinally, they have mostly been used externally as part of a poultice, tincture, ointment, or where the leaves are directly applied transdermally to the skin. Traditional external uses have included the treating of aches and pains, dermatitis, orchitis, arthritis, rheumatism, headaches, infections, and as an anti-inflammatory. They have been used internally much more rarely due to the inherent dangers of ingestion. Internal uses, in highly diluted preparations, and often as a portion of a larger mix, have included treatments for stomach and muscle ailments, as a decongestant, to induce vomiting, to expel worms and parasites, and as a sedative.


title: Brugmansia

text: Several South American cultures have used "Brugmansia" species as a treatment for unruly children, so that they might be admonished directly by their ancestors in the spirit world, and thereby become more compliant. Mixed with maize beer and tobacco leaves, it has been used to drug wives and slaves before they were buried alive with their dead lord.


title: Brugmansia

text: In the Northern Peruvian Andes, shamans (curanderos) traditionally used "Brugmansia" species for initiation, divination, and black magic rituals. In some Latin American countries such as Colombia and Peru, members of the genus "Brugmansia" are reportedly used by malevolent sorcerers or "bad shamans" in some ayahuasca brews in attempt to take advantage of tourists. The species that are typically used for these purposes include "Brugmansia suaveolens" and "Brugmansia arborea" among others.


title: Brugmansia

text: All parts of "Brugmansia" are potentially poisonous, with the seeds and leaves being especially dangerous.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" are rich in scopolamine (hyoscine), hyoscyamine, and several other tropane alkaloids which can lead to anticholinergic toxidrome and delirium.


title: Brugmansia

text: Effects of ingestion can include paralysis of smooth muscles, confusion, tachycardia, dry mouth, constipation, tremors, migraine headaches, poor coordination, delusions, visual and auditory hallucinations, mydriasis, rapid onset cycloplegia, and death.


title: Brugmansia

text: The hallucinogenic effects of "Brugmansia" were described in the journal "Pathology" as "terrifying rather than pleasurable". The author Christina Pratt, in "An Encyclopedia of Shamanism", says that ""Brugmansia" induces a powerful trance with violent and unpleasant effects, sickening after effects, and at times temporary insanity". These hallucinations are often characterized by complete loss of awareness that one is hallucinating, disconnection from reality (psychosis), and amnesia of the episode, such as one example reported in "European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience" of a young man who amputated his own penis and tongue after drinking only one cup of "Brugmansia sanguinea" tea.


title: Brugmansia

text: In 1994 in Florida, 112 people were admitted to hospitals after ingesting "Brugmansia", leading one municipality to prohibit the purchase, sale, or cultivation of "Brugmansia" plants. The concentrations of alkaloids in all parts of the plant differ markedly. They even vary with the seasons and the level of hydration, so it is nearly impossible to determine a safe level of alkaloid exposure.


title: Brugmansia

text: In 2022 "The BMJ" reported the following case: A woman in her 50s presented to the emergency department with blurred vision and pupil asymmetry for 3 hours. The right pupil was dilated, while the left was normal. A detailed history revealed that she had been pruning plants in her garden, when the blurred vision started. She did not complain of any other symptom. When all tests proved normal, she was finally asked to provide a photo of her garden. "Brugmansia suaveolens" (angel’s trumpet) was identified in the picture. On asking specific history, she reported rubbing her right eye after touching the plant’s leaves and flowers. It shows that "Brugmansia" is highly toxic. Even touching the leaves and flowers can transfer sufficient amounts of active principles to the hand.


title: Brugmansia

text: "Brugmansia" are easily grown in a moist, fertile, well-drained soil, in sun to part shade, in frost-free climates. They begin to flower in mid to late spring in warm climates and continue into the fall (autumn), often continuing as late as early winter in warm conditions. In cool winters, outdoor plants need protection from frost, but the roots are hardier, and may resprout in late spring. The species from the higher elevations, in "B". section "Sphaerocarpium", prefer moderate temperatures and cool nights, and may not flower if temperatures are very hot. Most "Brugmansia" may be propagated easily by rooting cuttings taken from the end of a branch during the summer.


title: Brugmansia

text: Several hybrids and numerous cultivars have been developed for use as ornamental plants. "B. "×" candida" is a hybrid between "B. aurea" and "B. versicolor"; "B. "×" flava" is a hybrid between "B. arborea" and "B. sanguinea"; and "B. "×" cubensis" is a hybrid between "B. suaveolens", "B. versicolor", and "B. aurea". There are cultivars producing double flowers, and some with variegated leaves. The cultivars "B." × "candida" 'Grand Marnier' and 'Knightii' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


title: Croquet

text: Croquet ( or ; ) is a sport that involves hitting wooden or plastic balls with a mallet through hoops (often called "wickets" in the United States) embedded in a grass playing court.


title: Croquet

text: There are several variations of croquet currently played, differing in the scoring systems, order of shots, and layout (particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts). Two forms of the game, association croquet (AC) and golf croquet (GC), have rules that are agreed upon internationally and are played in many countries around the world. The United States has its own set of rules for domestic games. Gateball, a sport that originated in Japan under the influence of croquet, is played mainly in East and Southeast Asia and the Americas, and can also be regarded as a croquet variant.


title: Croquet

text: As well as club-level games, there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, US, New Zealand, Australia and Egypt; many other countries also play. Every four years, the top countries play in the World Team Championships in AC (the MacRobertson Shield) and GC (the Openshaw Shield). The current world rankings show England in top place for AC, followed by Australia in second place, New Zealand in third place, with the United States in fourth position; the same four countries appear in the top six of the GC country rankings, below Egypt in top position, and with Spain at number six.


title: Croquet

text: Croquet is popularly believed to be viciously competitive. This may derive from the fact that (unlike in golf) players will often attempt to move their opponents' balls to unfavourable positions. However, purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy; successful players (in all versions other than golf croquet) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves, rather than simply making the game as difficult as possible for their opponents. At championship-standard association croquet, players can often make all 26 points (13 for each ball) in two turns.


title: Croquet

text: Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics. Roque, an American variation on croquet, was an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics.


title: Croquet

text: Beginning in 1894 Spalding Athletic Library issued official rules (with illustrations) as adopted by the National American Croquet Association.


title: Croquet

text: Association croquet is the name of an advanced game of croquet, played at all levels up to international level. It involves four balls teamed in pairs, with both balls going through every hoop for one pair to win. The game's distinguishing feature is the "croquet" shot: when certain balls hit other balls, extra shots are allowed. The six hoops are arranged three at each end of the court, with a centre peg.


title: Croquet

text: One side takes the blue and black balls, the other takes red and yellow. At each turn, players can choose to play with either of their balls for that turn. At the start of a turn, the player plays a stroke. If the player either hits the ball through the correct hoop ("runs" the hoop), or hits another ball (a "roquet"), the turn continues.


title: Croquet

text: Following a roquet, the player picks up his or her own ball and puts it down next to the ball that it hit. The next shot is played with the two balls touching: this is the "croquet stroke" from which the game takes its name. By varying the speed and angle at which the mallet hits the striker's ball, a good player can control the final position of both balls: the horizontal angle determines how far the balls diverge in direction, while the vertical angle and the amount of follow-through determine the relative distance that the two balls travel.


title: Croquet

text: After the croquet stroke, the player plays a "continuation" stroke, during which the player may again attempt to make a roquet or run a hoop. Each of the other three balls may be roqueted once in a turn before a hoop is run, after which they become available to be roqueted again.


title: Croquet

text: The winner of the game is the team who completes the set circuit of six hoops (and then back again the other way), with both balls, and then strikes the centre peg (making a total of 13 points per ball = 26).


title: Croquet

text: Good players may make "s" or "s" of several hoops in a single turn. The best players may take a ball round a full circuit in one turn. "Advanced play" (a variant of association play for expert players) gives penalties to a player who runs certain hoops in a turn, to allow the opponent a chance of getting back into the game; feats of skill such as triple peels or better, in which the partner ball (or occasionally an opponent ball) is caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the striker's ball, help avoid these penalties.


title: Croquet

text: A handicap system ("bisques") provides less experienced players a chance of winning against more formidable opponents. Players of all ages and both sexes compete on level terms.


title: Croquet

text: The World Championships are organised by the World Croquet Federation (WCF) and usually take place every two or three years. The 2020 championships took place in Melbourne, Australia; the winner was Reg Bamford. The current Women's Association Croquet World Champion (2015) is Miranda Chapman of England.


title: Croquet

text: The Australian team won the last MacRobertson International Croquet Shield tournament, which is the major international test tour trophy in association croquet. It is contested every three to four years between Australia, England, the United States and New Zealand. Historically the British have been the dominant force, winning 14 out of the 22 times that the event has been held. In individual competition, the UK is often divided by subnational country (England, Scotland and Wales), while Northern Ireland joins with the Republic in an All Ireland association (as it does in several other sports).


title: Croquet

text: The world's top 10 association croquet players as of December 2020 were Robert Fletcher (Australia), Reg Bamford (South Africa), Robert Fulford (England), Paddy Chapman (New Zealand), Matthew Essick (USA), Jonathan Kirby (Scotland), Simon Hockey (Australia), Malcolm Fletcher (Australia), Edward Wilson (Australia), Stephen Mulliner (England).


title: Croquet

text: Unlike most sports, men and women compete and are ranked together. Three women have won the British Open Championship: Lily Gower in 1905, Dorothy Steel in 1925, 1933, 1935 and 1936, and Hope Rotherham in 1960. While male players are in the majority at club level in the UK, the opposite is the case in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Croquet

text: The governing body in England is The Croquet Association, which has been the driving force of the development of the game. The laws and rules are now maintained by the World Croquet Federation.


title: Croquet

text: In golf croquet, a hoop is won by the first ball to go through each hoop. Unlike association croquet, there are no additional turns for hitting other balls.


title: Croquet

text: Each player takes a stroke in turn, each trying to hit a ball through the same hoop. The sequence of play is blue, red, black, yellow. Blue and black balls play against red and yellow. When a hoop is won, the sequence of play continues as before. The winner of the game is the player/team who wins the most hoops.


title: Croquet

text: Golf croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game, owing largely to its simplicity and competitiveness. There is an especially large interest in competitive success by players in Egypt. Golf croquet is easier to learn and play, but requires strategic skills and accurate play. In comparison with association croquet, play is faster and balls are more likely to be lifted off the ground.


title: Croquet

text: In April 2013, Reg Bamford of South Africa beat Ahmed Nasr of Egypt in the final of the Golf Croquet World Championship in Cairo, becoming the first person to simultaneously hold the title in both association croquet and golf croquet. As of 2020, the Golf Croquet World Champion was Ben Rothman (USA) and the Women's Golf Croquet World Champion was Soha Mostafa (Egypt).


title: Croquet

text: In 2018, two international championships open to both sexes were won by women: in May, Rachel Gee of England beat Pierre Beaudry of Belgium to win the European Golf Croquet championship, and in October, Hanan Rashad of Egypt beat Yasser Fathy (also from Egypt) to win the World over-50s Golf Croquet championship.


title: Croquet

text: Garden croquet is widely played in the UK. The rules are easy to learn and the game can be played on lawns of almost any size, but usually around by . The rules are similar to those described above for Association Croquet with three major differences:


title: Croquet

text: This version of the game is easy for beginners to learn. The main Garden Croquet Club in the UK is the Bygrave Croquet Club which is a private club with five lawns. Other clubs also use garden croquet as an introduction to the game, notably the Hampstead Heath Croquet Club and the Watford Croquet Club.


title: Croquet

text: The American-rules version of croquet, another six-hoop game, is the dominant version of the game in the United States and is also widely played in Canada. It is governed by the United States Croquet Association. Its genesis is mostly in association croquet, but it differs in a number of important ways that reflect the home-grown traditions of American "backyard" croquet.


title: Croquet

text: Two of the most notable differences are that the balls are always played in the same sequence (blue, red, black, yellow) throughout the game, and that a ball's "deadness" on other balls is carried over from turn to turn until the ball has been "cleared" by scoring its next hoop. A Deadness Board is used to keep track of deadness on all four balls. Tactics are simplified on the one hand by the strict sequence of play, and complicated on the other hand by the continuation of deadness. A further difference is the more restrictive boundary-line rules of American croquet.


title: Croquet

text: In the American game, roqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop out of bounds causes the turn to end, and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only from the boundary rather than as in association croquet. "Attacking" balls on the boundary line to bring them into play is thus far more challenging.


title: Croquet

text: Nine-wicket croquet, sometimes called "backyard croquet", is played mainly in Canada and the United States, and is the game most recreational players in those countries call simply "croquet". In this version of croquet, there are nine wickets, two stakes, and up to six balls. The course is arranged in a double-diamond pattern, with one stake at each end of the course. Players start at one stake, navigate one side of the double diamond, hit the turning stake, then navigate the opposite side of the double diamond and hit the starting stake to end. If playing individually ("Cutthroat"), the first player to stake out is the winner. In partnership play, all members of a team must stake out, and a player might choose to avoid staking out (becoming a "Rover") in order to help a lagging teammate.


title: Croquet

text: The second bonus shot ("continuation shot") is an ordinary shot played from where the striker ball came to rest.


title: Croquet

text: An alternate endgame is "poison": in this variant, a player who has scored the last wicket but not hit the starting stake becomes a "poison ball", which may eliminate other balls from the game by roqueting them. A non-poison ball that roquets a poison ball has the normal options. A poison ball that hits a stake or passes through any wicket (possibly by the action of a non-poison player) is eliminated. The last person remaining is the winner.


title: Croquet

text: This version of the game was invented by John Riches of Adelaide, Australia, with help from Tom Armstrong, in the 1980s. The game can be played by up to six people and is very easy to learn. For this reason it is often used as a stepping stone to association croquet.


title: Croquet

text: Ricochet has similar rules to association and garden croquet, except that when a ball is roqueted, the striker's ball remains live and two free shots are earned. This enables strikers to play their ball near to another opponent's ball and ricochet that too thus earning two more free shots. Running a hoop earns one free shot.


title: Croquet

text: One-ball croquet has become popular in recent years as a way of bringing AC (association) and GC (golf) players together. The rules are essentially


title: Croquet

text: those of association croquet, except that each player or team has only one ball rather than two. This makes it very hard to create a break, which leads to more interactive play.


title: Croquet

text: The oldest document to bear the word "croquet" with a description of the modern game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers' Company of London. This record is now in the Public Record Office. In 1868, the first croquet all-comers meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon, London.


title: Croquet

text: Regardless when and by what route it reached the British Isles and the British colonies in its recognizable form, croquet is, like golf, pall-mall, trucco, and kolven, among the later forms of ground billiards, which as a class have been popular in Western Europe back to at least the Late Middle Ages, with roots in classical antiquity, including sometimes the use of arches and pegs along with balls and mallets or other striking sticks (some more akin to modern field hockey sticks). By the 12th century, a team ball game called ' or ', akin to a chaotic version of hockey or football (depending on whether sticks were used), was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes; it was attested in Cornwall as early as 1283.


title: Croquet

text: In the book "Queen of Games: The History of Croquet", Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the modern game of croquet, which took England by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas.


title: Croquet

text: The first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to Britain from France during the 1660–1685 reign of Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland, and was played under the name of ' (among other spellings, today usually "pall-mall"), derived ultimately from Latin words for 'ball and mallet' (the latter also found in the name of the earlier French game, '). This was the explanation given in the ninth edition of "Encyclopædia Britannica", dated 1877.


title: Croquet

text: In his 1801 book "The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England", Joseph Strutt described the way pall-mall was played in England at the time:"Pale-maille is a game wherein a round box[wood] ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch of iron, which he that can do at the fewest blows, or at the number agreed upon, wins. It is to be observed, that there are two of these arches, that is one at either end of the alley. The game of mall was a fashionable amusement in the reign of Charles the Second, and the walk in Saint James's Park, now called the Mall, received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of playing at mall, where Charles himself and his courtiers frequently exercised themselves in the practice of this pastime."


title: Croquet

text: While the name "pall-mall" and various games bearing this name also appeared elsewhere (France and Italy), the description above suggests that the croquet-like games in particular were popular in England by the early 17th century. Some other early modern sources refer to pall-mall being played over a large distance (as in golf); however, an image in Strutt's 1801 book shows a croquet-like ground billiards game (balls on ground, hoop, bats, and peg) being played over a , garden-sized distance. The image's caption describes the game as "a curious ancient pastime", confirming that croquet games were not new in early-19th-century England.


title: Croquet

text: In Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary, his definition of "pall-mall" clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet: "A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring". However, there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke which is the distinguishing characteristic of the modern game.


title: Croquet

text: The second theory is that the rules of the modern game of croquet arrived from Ireland during the 1850s, perhaps after being brought there from Brittany, where a similar game was played on the beaches. Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. By no later than the early 15th century, the game " (itself ancestral to pall-mall and perhaps to indoor billiards) was popular in France, including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century and Louis XIV of the 17th.


title: Croquet

text: At least one version of it, " ('wheel') was a multi-ball lawn game. Records show a game called "crookey", similar to croquet, being played at Castlebellingham in County Louth, Ireland, in 1834, which was introduced to Galway in 1835 and played on the bishop's palace garden, and in the same year to the genteel Dublin suburb of Kingstown (today Dún Laoghaire) where it was first spelt as "croquet". There is, however, no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played, in particular, there is no reference to the distinctive croquet stroke, which is described above under "Variations: Association". The noted croquet historian Dr Prior, in his book of 1872, makes the categoric statement "One thing only is certain: it is from Ireland that croquet came to England and it was on the lawn of the late Lord Lonsdale that it was first played in this country." This was about 1851.


title: Croquet

text: John Jaques apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game played in Ireland, writing "I made the implements and published directions (such as they were) before Mr. Spratt [mentioned above] introduced the subject to me." Whatever the truth of the matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the rules in 1857, 1860, and 1864.


title: Croquet

text: Croquet became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s. It was enthusiastically adopted and promoted by the Earl of Essex who held lavish croquet parties at Cassiobury House, his stately home in Watford, Hertfordshire, and the Earl even launched his own "Cassiobury" brand croquet set. By 1867, Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his "Laws and Regulations" of the game. It quickly spread to other Anglophone countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes; this also ensured a certain amount of adverse comment.


title: Croquet

text: It is no coincidence that the game became popular at the same time as the cylinder lawn mower, since croquet can only be played well on a lawn that is flat and finely-cut.


title: Croquet

text: By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, lawn tennis, and many of the newly created croquet clubs, including the All England Club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts.


title: Croquet

text: There was a revival in the 1890s, but from then onwards, croquet was always a minority sport, with national individual participation amounting to a few thousand players. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but has not hosted any significant tournaments. The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham.


title: Croquet

text: The earliest known reference to croquet in Scotland is the booklet "The Game of Croquet, its Laws and Regulations" which was published in the mid-1860s for the proprietor of Eglinton Castle, the Earl of Eglinton. On the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of "croquet" in full swing.


title: Croquet

text: The croquet lawn existed on the northern terrace, between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water. The 13th Earl developed a variation on croquet named Captain Moreton's Eglinton Castle croquet, which had small bells on the eight hoops "to ring the changes", two pegs, a double hoop with a bell and two tunnels for the ball to pass through. In 1865 the 'Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet' was published by Edmund Routledge. Several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist, and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland.


title: Croquet

text: The way croquet is depicted in paintings and books says much about popular perceptions of the game, though little about the reality of modern play.


title: Croquet

text: About 200 croquet clubs across the United States are members of the United States Croquet Association.


title: Croquet

text: Many colleges have croquet clubs as well, such as The University of Virginia, The University of Chicago, Pennsylvania State University, Bates College, SUNY New Paltz, Harvard University, and Dartmouth College. Notably, St. John's College and the US Naval Academy engage in a yearly match in Annapolis, Maryland. Both schools also compete at the collegiate level and the rivalry continues to be an Annapolis tradition, attracting thousands of spectators each April.


title: Croquet

text: In England and Wales, there are around 170 clubs affiliated with the Croquet Association. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club at Wimbledon is famous for its lawn tennis tournament, but retains an active croquet section. There are also clubs in many universities and colleges, with an annual Varsity match being played between Oxford and Cambridge. With over 1800 participants, the 2011 Oxford University "Cuppers" (inter-college) tournament claimed to be not only the largest croquet tournament ever, but the largest sporting event in the university's history.


title: Croquet

text: There are 112 clubs in New Zealand, affiliated with 19 associations. These are governed by Croquet New Zealand.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Marvin Bernard (born March 31, 1978), better known by his stage name Tony Yayo, is an American rapper. He is best known as a member of G-Unit, a hip hop group he formed with his childhood friends 50 Cent and Lloyd Banks. Yayo released his debut and only studio album, "Thoughts of a Predicate Felon", in 2005, which debuted at number 2 on the "Billboard" 200. His stage name is derived from the 1983 film "Scarface", referencing the main character Tony Montana, and Yayo, the slang word for cocaine.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Yayo was born Marvin Bernard in Brooklyn, New York, New York City to Haitian parents, the youngest of three children. Bernard's parents divorced when he was 16. At age 15 he began selling drugs and dropped out of school in the tenth grade. As a child, he met his lifelong friends Lloyd Banks and 50 Cent, and the trio eventually formed a group, G-Unit, and began working on music together, releasing a number of mixtapes in the early 2000s, including 2002's 50 Cent is the Future, No Mercy, No Fear, and God's Plan.


title: Tony Yayo

text: While Yayo was incarcerated in 2003, G-Unit boss 50 Cent was granted his own record label, "G-Unit Records" by Interscope after the success of his debut studio album "Get Rich or Die Tryin'". 50 immediately signed G-Unit members Yayo and Lloyd Banks to the label, and eventually Young Buck was signed and added to the group as the official fourth member. G-Unit released their first official group album "Beg for Mercy" in November 2003, which went on to be certified 4× Platinum in the United States of America. The album was released whilst Yayo was in prison serving time on weapons charges, but Yayo was still featured on the album. The second G-Unit album was released in July 2008 and went on to sell 102,000 copies in the first week.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Though his appearances on numerous mixtapes during and upon his release from prison announced his return on a street level, it was not until the release of his debut single, "So Seductive" featuring 50 Cent, that Yayo received widespread recognition.


title: Tony Yayo

text: In August 2005, Tony Yayo released his debut studio album, "Thoughts of a Predicate Felon", debuting at No. 2 on the Billboard 200.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Tony Yayo has confirmed that work is in progress for his second studio album. No official name for the album has been decided yet. The first single from the album is "Pass the Patron", and it features 50 Cent. The album will be released with G-Unit Records / EMI who will both promote and distribute the album.


title: Tony Yayo

text: On March 2, 2011, Yayo released the second single of off his upcoming album called, "Haters". The song features Shawty Lo, 50 Cent, & Roscoe Dash. The single was released onto Thisis50.com after being premiered on Hot 97 by Funkmaster Flex. The single rapidly started to gain success on the urban radio charts and soon debuted on the Billboard Hip-Hop/R&B chart.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Tony Yayo was signed to Interscope Records in 2003, where he released his debut album "Thoughts of a Predicate Felon". He was later dropped from the label in 2009. Lloyd Banks announced a deal was signed with 50 Cent's label, G-Unit Records on Friday, August 13, 2010, on MTV News, in which EMI Label Services would distribute and promote releases on the G-Unit roster in North America including Yayo's untitled second album.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Along with 50 Cent, Yayo was arrested on December 31, 2002, for weapons possession. He had a Glock 20 handgun and a Colt AR-15 in the trunk of his car. When police discovered that Yayo had an outstanding warrant for a previous gun charge, Yayo was sentenced for bail jumping and spent a year in prison. Yayo served time in the Lakeview Shock Incarceration Correctional Facility and was paroled on January 8, 2004. The next day, he was arrested for possessing a forged passport and served time in federal prison until February 24, 2004. When Yayo was incarcerated, G-Unit and Eminem began a campaign called "Free Yayo". Yayo has said he was unaware of all the attention the campaign was getting until he saw Eminem wearing a "Free Yayo" T-shirt on stage at the 2003 Grammy Awards. The first song Yayo appeared on after being released from prison was "Ain't No Click'" from Lloyd Banks' debut album "The Hunger For More" in June 2004.


title: Tony Yayo

text: On March 24, 2007, Tony Yayo was arrested for allegedly assaulting the 14-year-old son of Jimmy "Henchmen" Rosemond. Yayo and 50 Cent were accused of approaching the child, with members of their entourage, and pushing him against a nearby wall. Yayo reportedly slapped the boy several times and said "Fuck Czar Entertainment". Yayo pleaded "not guilty" and 50 Cent has since proven his innocence with video footage showing him at his Connecticut mansion at the time of the alleged incident.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Tony Yayo made his first court appearance on the morning of April 25, 2007, in New York. The case was adjourned to July 24. Tony Yayo's lawyer has expressed his belief that Yayo is innocent and commented on the situation in an interview with MTV:


title: Tony Yayo

text: On April 18, 2007, the house of Tony Yayo's mother was "sprayed with bullets". The attack is believed to be in connection with Tony Yayo's house arrest. Yayo references the attack on the G-Unit song "Straight Out of Southside", off "T.O.S.", the group's second album.


title: Tony Yayo

text: On July 24, 2007, Tony Yayo attended a court hearing regarding his alleged assault. The prosecution offered him a nine-month prison sentence if he pleaded guilty which he rejected.


title: Tony Yayo

text: Prosecutors dropped the charges in February 2008. The mother of Rosemond's son sued 50 Cent and Yayo two months later.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: Isn't It Romantic is a 2019 American meta romantic comedy film directed by Todd Strauss-Schulson and written by Erin Cardillo, Dana Fox, and Katie Silberman. The film stars Rebel Wilson as a woman who finds herself in a world where everything around her plays out like a clichéd PG-13 romantic comedy. Liam Hemsworth, Adam DeVine, and Priyanka Chopra appear in supporting roles.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: The film was theatrically released in the United States on February 13, 2019, by Warner Bros. Pictures, and in international territories by Netflix on February 28, 2019. It grossed over $48 million on a $31 million budget and received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: Architect Natalie develops a strong hatred for romantic comedies at an early age, which is exacerbated by her low self-esteem and difficulty in finding love. Her assistant Whitney, a fan of romantic comedies, believes their co-worker Josh is in love with Natalie, but Natalie dismisses the notion because Josh appears to spend all his time staring at a billboard model across the street. One day, Natalie is knocked unconscious during an attempted mugging and finds herself trapped in the stereotypical romantic comedies that she despises. Whitney becomes her enemy and her neighbor Donny becomes a flamboyant homosexual friend offering advice, while Blake, a billionaire client of her company, develops a romantic interest in her. Additionally, Josh enters into a relationship with the billboard model, who identifies herself as a "yoga ambassador" named Isabella.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: Desperate to return to her reality, Natalie deduces that in the tradition of romantic comedies, she can only leave by finding true love. When her relationship with Blake turns sour, Natalie recognizes that she has feelings for Josh, who has become engaged to Isabella. Natalie attempts to stop their wedding, but soon realizes that instead of loving another person, she needs to learn to love herself. Following this revelation, Natalie gets into a car accident and loses consciousness.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: Natalie wakes up in the real world, but with new self-confidence, which she uses to successfully propose an idea to Blake. After reuniting with Josh, she learns that he has not been staring at the model, but at Natalie's reflection, the two begin a relationship. As Natalie prepares to head home, Whitney tells her that despite her dislike for romantic comedies, everything she just experienced has been comparable to one. Realizing that she has been in a romantic comedy the entire time, Natalie and the rest of the characters proceed to engage in a rendition of "Express Yourself".


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: On May 23, 2016, it was reported that Rebel Wilson would star as Natalie in an untitled romantic comedy film by New Line Cinema, from an original script by Erin Cardillo and rewrite by Dana Fox and Katie Silberman, while producers would be Todd Garner, Grant Scharbo, and Gina Matthews. On March 22, 2017, Todd Strauss-Schulson was hired to direct the film, titled "Isn't It Romantic." On May 10, Adam DeVine, who had previously co-starred with Wilson in the first two "Pitch Perfect" movies, and Liam Hemsworth were cast in the film to play love interests in Natalie's life. Priyanka Chopra was also cast in the film in May. On June 14, 2017, Betty Gilpin was added, playing Natalie's assistant Whitney, one of her best friends.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: Principal photography on the film began on July 10, 2017, in New York City. The final dance scene to Madonna's "Express Yourself" took place at 101 Park Avenue.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: "Isn't It Romantic" was theatrically released in the United States on February 13, 2019, by Warner Bros. Pictures. The film was released internationally on February 28, 2019, by Netflix.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Isn't It Romantic" was released alongside "Happy Death Day 2U", and was projected to gross around $22 million from 3,300 theaters in its six-day opening weekend. After not holding Tuesday night previews, the film made $1.8 million on its first day, Wednesday, and $4.4 million on Valentine's Day, for a two-day total of $6.2 million. It went on to debut to $14.2 million over the weekend (a five-day gross of $20.4 million), finishing third at the box office. The film dropped 47% in its second weekend, making $7.5 million and finishing fifth.


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads: "It follows as many genre conventions as it mocks, but "Isn't It Romantic" is a feel-good rom-com with some satirical bite – and a star well-suited for both." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an average 3.5 out of 5 stars and a 50% "definite recommend."


title: Isn't It Romantic (2019 film)

text: Australian publication QNews reviewed the film positively, with Peter Gray saying it was "one of the better example[s] of the genre, and it helps that its cast are all wholly capable of both playing to and against the stereotypes."


title: Government in exile

text: A government in exile (abbreviated as GiE) is a political group that claims to be a country or semi-sovereign state's legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country and regain formal power. A government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that a rump state controls at least part of its former territory. For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, but Belgium and its allies held on to a small slice in the country's west. A government in exile, in contrast, has lost all its territory. However, in practice the difference might be minor; in the above example, the Belgian government at Sainte-Adresse was located in French territory and acted as a government in exile for most practical purposes.


title: Government in exile

text: The governments in exile tend to occur during wartime occupation or in the aftermath of a civil war, revolution, or military coup. For example, during German expansion and advance in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face destruction at the hands of Nazi Germany. On the other hand, the Provisional Government of Free India proclaimed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose sought to use support from the invading Japanese to gain control of the country from what it viewed as British occupiers, and in the final year of WWII, after Nazi Germany was driven out of France, it maintained the remnants of the Nazi-sympathizing Vichy government as a French government in exile at the Sigmaringen enclave.


title: Government in exile

text: A government in exile may also form from widespread belief in the illegitimacy of a ruling government. Due to the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, for instance, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces was formed by groups whose members sought to end the rule of the ruling Ba'ath Party.


title: Government in exile

text: The governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of support it receives, either from foreign governments or from the population of its own country. Some exiled governments come to develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture.


title: Government in exile

text: The phenomenon of a government in exile predates the formal utilization of the term. In periods of monarchical government, exiled monarchs or dynasties sometimes set up exile courts, as the House of Stuart did when driven from their throne by Oliver Cromwell and again at the Glorious Revolution (see ). The House of Bourbon would be another example because it continued to be recognized by other countries at the time as the legitimate government of France after it was overthrown by the populace during the French Revolution. This continued to last through the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Wars from 1803–04 to 1815. With the spread of constitutional monarchy, monarchical governments which were exiled started to include a prime minister, such as the Dutch government during World War II headed by Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy.


title: Government in exile

text: International law recognizes that governments in exile may undertake many types of actions in the conduct of their daily affairs. These actions include:


title: Government in exile

text: In cases where a host country holds a large expatriate population from a government in exile's home country, or an ethnic population from that country, the government in exile might come to exercise some administrative functions within such a population. For example, the WWII Provisional Government of Free India had such authority among the ethnically Indian population of British Malaya, with the consent of the then Japanese military authorities.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments once controlled all or most of their claimed territory, but continue to control a smaller part of it while also continuing to claim legitimate authority of the entire territory they once fully controlled.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments in exile were founded by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments in exile were founded by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled but whose state no longer exists.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been founded by deposed governments or rulers, who do not claim independence as a separate state.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments have been founded in exile by political organisations and opposition parties, aspire to become actual governing authorities or claim to be legal successors to previously deposed governments, and have been founded as alternatives to incumbent governments.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments have been founded in exile by political organisations, opposition parties, and separatist movements, and desire to become the governing authorities of their territories as independent states, or claim to be the successor to previously deposed governments, and have been founded as alternatives to incumbent governments.


title: Government in exile

text: These governments in exile are governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories. They claim legitimate authority over a territory they once controlled, or claim legitimacy of a post-decolonization authority. The claim may stem from an exiled group's election as a legitimate government.


title: Government in exile

text: The United Nations recognizes the right of self-determination for the population of these territories, including the possibility of establishing independent sovereign states.


title: Government in exile

text: From the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988 in exile in Algiers by the Palestine Liberation Organization, it has effectively functioned as the government in exile of the Palestinian State. In 1994, however the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority interim territorial administration as result of the Oslo Accords signed by the PLO, Israel, the United States, and Russia. Between 1994 and 2013, the PNA functioned as an autonomy, thus while the government was seated in the West Bank it was not sovereign. In 2013, Palestine was upgraded to a non-member state status in the UN. All of the above founded an ambiguous situation, in which there are two distinct entities: The Palestinian Authority, exercising a severely limited amount of control on the ground and the State of Palestine, recognized by the United Nations and by numerous countries as a sovereign and independent state, but not able to exercise such sovereignty on the ground. Both are headed by the same person—, President Mahmoud Abbas—but are judicially distinct.


title: Government in exile

text: Many countries established a government in exile after loss of sovereignty in connection with World War II.


title: Government in exile

text: Other exiled leaders in Britain in this time included King Zog of Albania and Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.


title: Government in exile

text: Occupied Denmark did not establish a government in exile, although there was an Association of Free Danes established in London. The government remained in Denmark and functioned with relative independence until August 1943 when it was dissolved, placing Denmark under full German occupation. Meanwhile, Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands were occupied by the Allies and effectively separated from the Danish crown. (See British occupation of the Faroe Islands, Iceland during World War II, and History of Greenland during World War II.)


title: Government in exile

text: The Philippine Commonwealth (invaded 9 December 1941) established a government in exile, initially located in Australia and later in the United States. Earlier, in 1897, the Hong Kong Junta was established as a government in exile by the Philippine revolutionary Republic of Biak-na-Bato.


title: Government in exile

text: While formed long before World War II, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea continued in exile in China until the end of the war.


title: Government in exile

text: At the fall of Java, and the surrender by the Dutch on behalf of Allied forces on 8 March 1942, many Dutch-Indies officials (including Dr van Mook and Dr Charles van der Plas) managed to flee to Australia in March 1942, and on 23 December 1943, the Royal Government (Dutch) decreed an official Netherlands East Indies Government-in-exile, with Dr van Mook as Acting Governor General, on Australian soil until Dutch rule was restored in the Indies.


title: Government in exile

text: In the later stages of World War II, with the German Army increasingly pushed back and expelled from various countries, Axis-aligned groups from some countries set up "governments-in-exile" under the auspices of the Axis powers, in the remaining Axis territory - even though internationally recognized governments were in place in their home countries. The main purpose of these was to recruit and organize military units composed of their nationals in the host country.


title: Government in exile

text: Following the Ba'athist Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait, during the Persian Gulf War, on 2 August 1990, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and senior members of his government fled to Saudi Arabia, where they set up a government-in-exile in Ta'if. The Kuwaiti government in exile was far more affluent than most other such governments, having full disposal of the very considerable Kuwaiti assets in western banks—of which it made use to conduct a massive propaganda campaign denouncing the Ba'athist Iraqi occupation and mobilizing public opinion in the Western world in favor of war with Ba'athist Iraq. In March 1991, following the defeat of Ba'athist Iraq at the hands of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War, the Sheikh and his government were able to return to Kuwait.


title: Government in exile

text: Following the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and the displacement of many Greek Cypriots from North Cyprus, displaced inhabitants of several towns set up what are in effect municipal councils in exile, headed by mayors in exile. The idea is the same as with a national government in exile – to assert a continuation of legitimate rule, even though having no control of the ground, and working towards restoration of such control. Meetings of the exiled Municipal Council of Lapithos took place in the homes of its members until the Exile Municipality was offered temporary offices at 37 Ammochostou Street, Nicosia. The current Exile Mayor of the town is Athos Eleftheriou. The same premises are shared with the Exile Municipal Council of Kythrea.


title: Government in exile

text: Also in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, the administration of the part retained by the Republic of Cyprus considers itself as a "District administration in exile", since the district's capital Famagusta had been under Turkish control since 1974.


title: Government in exile

text: Works of alternate history as well as science fictional depictions of the future sometimes include fictional governments in exile.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: Hummingbird (released as Redemption in the United States) is a 2013 British action crime film written and directed by Steven Knight, in his feature film directorial debut. It stars Jason Statham as an alcoholic veteran haunted by his war crimes; he befriends a Catholic nun, becomes involved in organised crime, and takes revenge on a man who beats and kills prostitutes.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: Joseph Smith, a fugitive ex-Special Forces soldier and a homeless drunk in London, is attacked by a group of thugs one night, and he breaks into an apartment to escape them. Learning that the owner, a successful photographer named Damon, is away for the next 8 months until October, Joseph starts squatting there and assumes a new identity, calling himself Joey Jones and using Damon's resources while looking for his homeless friend Isabel who has been coerced into becoming a prostitute by the same gang that attacked him. Joseph is friends with Sister Cristina, a Polish nun who runs the local soup kitchen, who gives him information about Isabel's whereabouts. To deflect the suspicion of Damon's neighbors, he tells them that he is Damon's boyfriend and starts working at a Chinese restaurant. One night at work, Joseph fights off some rowdy diners outside the restaurant, impressing senior manager Mr. Choy. Choy, who is connected to a Chinese organised crime syndicate, hires Joseph as a driver and enforcer. Joseph uses the money he receives to buy food for the homeless at the soup kitchen and gifts for Cristina. He also encounters Dawn, his ex-lover and mother of his young daughter. As Joseph appears well-dressed, she attacks him for not helping out when she and their daughter were struggling financially, but calms down when Joseph gives her a large amount of money as an apology.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: Joseph eventually learns from Cristina that Isabel was murdered; enraged, he confronts the same thugs who attacked him earlier, and acquires a rough description of the killer. In order to pass the information on to Cristina, Joseph invites her to an art gallery where she gets drunk, opens up to him and reveals she used the money given by him to buy tickets for a ballet set to happen on the same date as Damon's scheduled return. While driving her home, Joseph learns that she was sexually abused by her gymnastics instructor as a child, and that she eventually murdered him, but due to her age at the time, she was sentenced to a convent instead of a prison. Feeling distracted due to her relationship with Joseph, she asks for a transfer to Africa. Meanwhile, Mr. Choy's boss, Madame Choy, helps Joseph track down the killer in exchange for driving a truck containing people being smuggled into the UK. Joseph finds out about the killer named Max Forrester, a man who assaults prostitutes, through an invitation to a rooftop cocktail party.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: Cristina tells Joseph that she will soon leave for Africa, and the two consummate their relationship as Damon returns. After escaping, Joseph delivers a bag full of money to Dawn along with his photos, and goes to the rooftop cocktail party where he kills Max by throwing him off the building. Joseph runs away and is found asleep near a curb by Cristina. Upon waking, Joseph reveals that he is on the run from a court martial for random revenge killings he carried out in Afghanistan for the deaths of his men, who were slaughtered in front of him. He often has random hallucinations of the men he killed and of "hummingbirds", the aerial drones in Afghanistan. The next day, Cristina receives a note from Joseph, revealing he has paid his debts to everyone including Damon, has informed the police about Mr. Choy's human trafficking operation, and would now disappear into the streets once again. As a drunk Joseph walks into the streets, he is pursued by the police with the help of drones similar to the "hummingbird".


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: "Hummingbird" was almost entirely filmed at night. Filming sites included popular streets for homeless people, some of whom were involved in the shoot. Statham stated that before filming started some research was undertaken into the mental health issues of his character, including ex-servicemen asked about their experiences.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: The Dartford Crossing is featured in "Hummingbird" twice – when Joey drives a van across the bridge and when a lorry approaches the toll. The area around the Covent Garden Market was featured in several scenes. Among the buildings used was St Paul's and Royal Opera House.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: The sound track features "Malka Moma", a Bulgarian folk style song, with lyrics and music by Neli Andreeva and Georgi Genov. The song is performed by the Bulgarian National Folk Ensemble "Philip Koutev". Neli Andreeva, choirmaster with the ensemble, is the soloist.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: "Hummingbird" was released in the United Kingdom, the United States (as "Redemption"), France (as "Crazy Joe") and in Germany (as "Redemption - Stunde der Vergeltung") on 28 June 2013.


title: Hummingbird (film)

text: Based on 51 reviews, Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 49% with an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "While it certainly has more on its mind than the average Jason Statham action thriller, "Redemption" doesn't quite capitalize on its premise – or on its star's strong, committed performance." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Microsoft Office 2019 (Second perpetual release of Office 16) is a version of Microsoft Office for both Windows and Mac. It replaces Office 2016 and was replaced by Office 2021 on October 5, 2021. It was unveiled on April 27, 2018 for Windows 10 and June 12, 2018 for macOS, and launched on September 24, 2018. Some features that had previously been restricted to Office 365 subscribers are available in this release. Office 2019 remain same major version 16 as predecessor Office 2016, therefore it is second perpetual release of Office 16. Microsoft plans to end mainstream support for Office 2019 on October 10, 2023. Unlike other versions of Microsoft Office, Office 2019 will only get two years of extended support, which means that support for Office 2019 will end on the same day as support for Office 2016, and Windows 10 will on October 14, 2025.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: On April 27, 2018, Microsoft released Office 2019 Commercial Preview for Windows 10. On June 12, 2018, Microsoft released a preview for macOS.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Office 2019 includes many of the features previously published via Office 365, along with improved inking features, LaTeX support in Word, new animation features in PowerPoint including the morph and zoom features, and new formulas and charts in Excel for data analysis.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: OneNote is absent from the suite as the Universal Windows Platform (UWP) version of OneNote bundled with Windows 10 replaces it. OneNote 2016 can be installed as an optional feature on the Office Installer.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: For Mac users, Focus Mode will be brought to Word, 2D maps will be brought to Excel and new Morph transitions, SVG support and 4K video exports will be coming to PowerPoint, among other features.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Despite being released in the same month, the new Office user interface in Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook is only available to Office 365 subscribers, not perpetual Office 2019 licenses.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Same as its predecessor Microsoft Office 2016, Microsoft Office 2019 has the same perpetual SKU editions aimed towards different markets. Like its predecessor, Microsoft Office 2019 contains Word, Excel, PowerPoint and OneNote and is licensed for use on one computer.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Unlike its predecessor, both Windows version retail & volume versions use the Click-to-Run (C2R) for installation. Also unlike its predecessor, all Windows version Office 2019 require only Windows 10 and Windows Server 2019.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: "Like its predecessor, three traditional editions of Office 2019 were released for Mac (macOS Sierra or later):"


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Office 2019 requires Windows 10, Windows Server 2019 or macOS Mojave and later. macOS installations can be acquired from the Microsoft website or the Mac App Store.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: For Office 2013 and 2016, various editions containing the client apps were available in both Click-To-Run (inspired by Microsoft App-V) and traditional Windows Installer setup formats. However, Office 2019 client apps only have a Click-to-Run installer and only the server apps have the traditional MSI installer. The Click-To-Run version has a smaller footprint; in case of Microsoft Office 2019 Pro Plus, the product requires 10 GB less than the MSI version of Office 2016 Pro Plus.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: Volume licensing versions of Office 2019 cannot be downloaded from Microsoft Volume Licensing Service Center and must be deployed using configuration.xml and running Office Deployment Tool (ODT) from command-line.


title: Microsoft Office 2019

text: All releases are available for download in the Update history for Office for Mac (and Update history for Office 2016 for Mac)


title: Rome Flynn

text: Rome Trumain Flynn (born November 25, 1991) is an American actor, model and musician. He is best known for his portrayal of Zende Forrester Dominguez on the CBS daytime drama "The Bold and the Beautiful" for which he won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series in 2018. His other notable roles include his portrayal of law student Gabriel Maddox in the ABC drama "How to Get Away with Murder".


title: Rome Flynn

text: Flynn managed to get himself on the radar of casting directors by building up his social media following. In the spring of 2014, Flynn was cast in the television movie "", the sequel to the 2002 film "Drumline". Flynn was on set filming when his daughter was born.


title: Rome Flynn

text: In May 2015, Flynn joined the cast of "The Bold and the Beautiful" in the role of Zende. In November 2016, Flynn announced that he had been cast in the film adaptation of Gretchen McNeil's novel "TEN" opposite China Anne McClain.


title: Rome Flynn

text: In 2017, Flynn guest starred in episodes of the CBS crime dramas "" and "MacGyver". Flynn later joined the cast of OWN's "The Haves and the Have Nots". On August 17, 2017, Flynn announced on social media that he had chosen to leave "The Bold and the Beautiful" after two years with the series.


title: Rome Flynn

text: In 2018, after appearing in the fourth season finale of "How to Get Away with Murder" as Gabriel Maddox, Flynn was upped to a series regular for the fourth season.


title: Rome Flynn

text: On February 23, 2021, it was announced that Flynn had been cast as Tevin Wakefield in the second season of the Netflix series "Raising Dion", executive produced by Michael B. Jordan. Later that day, it was also announced that Flynn had booked a recurring role of in the fourth and final season of Justin Simien's "Dear White People", also distributed by Netflix. Flynn joined the cast of Gloria Calderón Kellett "With Love", produced by Amazon Studios.


title: Rome Flynn

text: Flynn has a daughter Kimiko (born December 12, 2014). In 2015, Kimiko appeared with Flynn in a Christmas themed photo shoot for "CBS Soaps In Depth".


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: The myth of the clean "Wehrmacht" is the negationist notion that the regular German armed forces (the "Wehrmacht") were not involved in the Holocaust or other war crimes during World War II. The myth, heavily promoted by German authors and military personnel after World War II, completely denies the culpability of the German military command in the planning and perpetration of war crimes. Even where the perpetration of war crimes and the waging of an extermination campaign, particularly in the Soviet Unionwhere the Nazis viewed the population as "sub-humans" ruled by "Jewish Bolshevik" conspiratorshas been acknowledged, they are ascribed to the "Party soldiers corps", the "Schutzstaffel" (SS), but not the regular German military.


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: The myth began at the Nuremberg trials held between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946. Franz Halder and other "Wehrmacht" leaders signed the Generals' memorandum entitled "The German Army from 1920 to 1945", which laid out its key elements. The memorandum was an attempt to exculpate the "Wehrmacht" from war crimes.


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: In the postwar period, The Western Allied forces became increasingly concerned with the growing Cold War and wanted West Germany to begin rearming to counter the perceived Soviet threat. In 1950, West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer and former officers met secretly at Himmerod Abbey to discuss West Germany's rearmament and agreed upon the Himmerod memorandum. This memorandum laid out the conditions under which West Germany would rearm: their war criminals must be released, the "defamation" of the German soldier must cease and foreign public opinion of the "Wehrmacht" must be transformed. Such was their mounting concern, Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had previously described the "Wehrmacht" as Nazis, changed his mind to facilitate rearmament. The British became reluctant to pursue further trials and released already convicted criminals early.


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: As Adenauer courted the votes of veterans and enacted amnesty laws, Halder began working for the US Army Historical Division. His role was to assemble and supervise former "Wehrmacht" officers to create a multi-volume operational account of the Eastern Front. He oversaw the writings of 700 former German officers and disseminated the myth through his network. "Wehrmacht" officers and generals produced exculpatory memoirs that distorted the historical record. These writings proved enormously popular, especially the memoirs of Heinz Guderian and Erich von Manstein, and further disseminated the myth among the general public.


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: The year 1995 proved to be a turning point in German public consciousness. The Hamburg Institute for Social Research's "Wehrmacht" exhibition, which showed 1,380 graphic pictures of "ordinary" "Wehrmacht" troops complicit in war crimes, sparked a long-running public debate and reappraisal of the myth. Hannes Heer wrote that the war crimes had been covered up by scholars and former soldiers. The German historian Wolfram Wette called the clean "Wehrmacht" thesis a "collective perjury". The wartime generation maintained the myth with vigour and determination. They suppressed information and manipulated government policy. After their passing, there was insufficient motive to maintain the deceit in which the "Wehrmacht" denied having been a full partner in the Nazis' industrialised genocide.


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: In 2020, on the 76th anniversary of the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, German Defence Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer said: "The simple Wehrmacht soldier may have fought bravely, but if his bravery served an ideology of conquest, occupation and annihilation, then it was for nothing".


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: The "Wehrmacht" was the combined armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Army ("Heer"), Navy ("Kriegsmarine") and the Air Force ("Luftwaffe"). It was created on 16 March 1935 with the passing of Adolf Hitler's Defence Law that introduced conscription into the armed forces. The "Wehrmacht" included volunteers and conscripts, in total about 18 million men. Approximately half of all German male citizens performed military service.


title: Myth of the clean Wehrmacht

text: The term "clean "Wehrmacht"" means German soldiers, sailors and airmen had "clean hands". In other words, they did not have blood on their hands from murdered prisoners of war, Jews or civilians. The myth asserts that Hitler and the Nazi Party alone designed the war of annihilation and that war crimes were only committed by the SS. In reality, the leaders of the "Wehrmacht" were willing participants in Hitler's war of annihilation waged against perceived enemies of the state. "Wehrmacht" troops were complicit in or perpetrated numerous war crimes, routinely assisting SS units with tacit approval from officers. In the aftermath of the war, the West German government deliberately sought to suppress information of such crimes to absolve former war criminals from responsibility, accelerating the reintegration of these individuals into German society.