title: Mural

text: In 1948, the Colombian government hosted the IX Pan-American Conference to establish the Marshall plan for the Americas. The director of the OEA and the Colombian government commissioned master Santiago Martinez Delgado, to paint a mural in the Colombian congress building to commemorate the event. Martinez decided to make it about the Cúcuta Congress, and painted Bolívar in front of Santander, making liberals upset; so, due to the murder of Jorge Elieser Gaitan the mobs of el bogotazo tried to burn the capitol, but the Colombian Army stopped them. Years later, in the 1980s, with liberals in charge of the Congress, they passed a resolution to turn the whole chamber in the Elliptic Room 90 degrees to put the main mural on the side and commissioned Alejandro Obregon to paint a non-partisan mural in the surrealist style.


title: Mural

text: Northern Ireland contains some of the most famous political murals in the world. Almost 2,000 murals have been documented in Northern Ireland since the 1970s. In recent times, many murals are non-sectarian, concerning political and social issues such as racism and environmentalism, and many are completely apolitical, depicting children at play and scenes from everyday life. (See Northern Irish murals.)


title: Mural

text: A not political, but social related mural covers a wall in an old building, once a prison, at the top of a cliff in Bardiyah, in Libya. It was painted and signed by the artist in April 1942, weeks before his death on the first day of the First Battle of El Alamein. Known as the Bardia Mural, it was created by English artist, private John Frederick Brill.


title: Mural

text: In 1961 East Germany began to erect a wall between East and West Berlin, which became famous as the Berlin Wall. While on the East Berlin side painting was not allowed, artists painted on the Western side of the Wall from the 80s until the fall of the Wall in 1989.


title: Mural

text: Many unknown and known artists such as Thierry Noir and Keith Haring painted on the Wall, the "World's longest canvas". The sometimes detailed artwork were often painted over within hours or days. On the Western side the Wall was not protected, so everybody could paint on the Wall. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the Eastern side of the Wall became also a popular "canvas" for many mural and graffiti artists.


title: Mural

text: It is also common for mural graffiti to be used as a memoir. In the 2001 book "Somebody Told Me", Rick Bragg writes about a series of communities, mainly located in New York, that have walls dedicated to the people who died. These memorials, both written word and mural style, provide the deceased to be present in the communities in which they lived. Bragg states that the "murals have woven themselves in the fabric of the neighborhoods, and the city". These memorials remind people of the deaths caused by inner city violence.


title: Mural

text: Many people like to express their individuality by commissioning an artist to paint a mural in their home. This is not an activity exclusively for owners of large houses. A mural artist is only limited by the fee and therefore the time spent on the painting; dictating the level of detail; a simple mural can be added to the smallest of walls.


title: Mural

text: Private commissions can be for dining rooms, bathrooms, living rooms or, as is often the case- children's bedrooms. A child's room can be transformed into the 'fantasy world' of a forest or racing track, encouraging imaginative play and an awareness of art.


title: Mural

text: The current trend for feature walls has increased commissions for muralists in the UK. A large hand-painted mural can be designed on a specific theme, incorporate personal images and elements and may be altered during the course of painting it. The personal interaction between client and muralist is often a unique experience for an individual not usually involved in the arts.


title: Mural

text: In the 1980s, illusionary wall painting experienced a renaissance in private homes. The reason for this revival in interior design could, in some cases be attributed to the reduction in living space for the individual. Faux architectural features, as well as natural scenery and views, can have the effect of 'opening out' the walls. Densely built-up areas of housing may also contribute to people's feelings of being cut off from nature in its free form. A mural commission of this sort may be an attempt by some people to re-establish a balance with nature.


title: Mural

text: Commissions of murals in schools, hospitals, and retirement homes can achieve a pleasing and welcoming atmosphere in these caring institutions. Murals in other public buildings, such as public houses are also common.


title: Mural

text: Recently, graffiti and street art have played a key role in contemporary wall painting. Such graffiti/street artists as Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey, Above, Mint&Serf, Futura 2000, Os Gemeos, and Faile among others have successfully transcended their street art aesthetic beyond the walls of urban landscape and onto walls of private and corporate clients. As graffiti/street art became more mainstream in the late 1990s, youth-oriented brands such as Nike and Red Bull, with Wieden Kennedy, have turned to graffiti/street artists to decorate walls of their respective offices. This trend continued through 2000's with graffiti/street art gaining more recognition from art institutions worldwide.


title: Mural

text: Many homeowners choose to display the traditional art and culture of their society or events from their history in their homes. Ethnic murals have become an important form of interior decoration. Warli painting murals are becoming a preferred mode of wall decor in India. Warli painting is an ancient Indian art form in which the tribal people used to depict different phases of their life on the walls of their mud houses.


title: Mural

text: Tile murals are murals made out of stone, ceramic, porcelain, glass and or metal tiles that are installed within, or added onto the surface of an existing wall. They are also inlaid into floors. Mural tiles are painted, glazed, sublimation printed (as described below) or more traditionally cut out of stone, ceramic, mosaic glass(opaque) and stained glass. Some artists use pottery and plates broken into pieces. Unlike the traditional painted murals described above, tile murals are always made by fitting pieces of the selected materials together to create the design or image.


title: Mural

text: Mosaic murals are made by combining small 1/4" to 2" size pieces of colorful stone, ceramic, or glass tiles which are then laid out to create a picture. Modern day technology has allowed commercial mosaic mural makers to use computer programs to separate photographs into colors that are automatically cut and glued onto sheets of mesh creating precise murals fast and in large quantities.


title: Mural

text: The azulejo (, ) refers to a typical form of Portuguese or Spanish painted, tin-glazed, ceramic tilework. They have become a typical aspect of Portuguese culture, manifesting without interruption during five centuries, the consecutive trends in art.


title: Mural

text: Azulejos can be found inside and outside churches, palaces, ordinary houses and even railway stations or subway stations.


title: Mural

text: They were not only used as an ornamental art form, but also had a specific functional capacity like temperature control in homes. Many "azulejos" chronicle major historical and cultural aspects of Portuguese history.


title: Mural

text: Custom-printed tile murals can be produced using digital images for kitchen splashbacks, wall displays, and flooring. Digital photos and artwork can be resized and printed to accommodate the desired size for the area to be decorated. Custom tile printing uses a variety of techniques including dye sublimation and ceramic-type laser toners. The latter technique can yield fade-resistant custom tiles which are suitable for long term exterior exposure.


title: Revolutions per minute

text: Revolutions per minute (abbreviated rpm, RPM, rev/min, r/min, or with the notation min) is a unit of rotational speed or rotational frequency for rotating machines.


title: Revolutions per minute

text: ISO 80000-3:2019 defines a unit of rotation as the dimensionless unit equal to 1, which it refers to as a revolution, but does not define the revolution as a unit. It defines a unit of rotational frequency equal to s. The superseded standard ISO 80000-3:2006 did however state with reference to the unit name 'one', symbol '1', that "The special name revolution, symbol r, for this unit is widely used in specifications on rotating machines."


title: Revolutions per minute

text: The International System of Units (SI) does not recognize rpm as a unit, and defines the unit of frequency, Hz, as equal to s.


title: Revolutions per minute

text: A corresponding but distinct quantity for describing rotation is angular velocity, for which the SI unit is the radian per second.


title: Revolutions per minute

text: Although they have the same dimensions (s), hertz (Hz) and radian per second (rad/s) are two different units and are used to measure two different but proportional ISQ quantities: frequency and angular frequency (angular speed, magnitude of angular velocity) respectively. The conversions between a frequency and an angular velocity are:


title: Revolutions per minute

text: Thus a disc rotating at 60 rpm is said to be have an angular speed of 2"π" rad/s and a rotation frequency of 1 Hz.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: Girls Frontline () is a mobile strategy role-playing game for Android and iOS developed by China-based studio MICA Team, where players control echelons of android characters, known in-universe as T-Dolls, each carrying a distinctive real-world firearm. The game was released in Mainland China on 20 May 2016, in Hong Kong and Taiwan on 18 January 2017, and in South Korea on 30 June 2017. The global English version was released on 8 May 2018, while the Japanese version was released on 1 August 2018 under the title due to the "Girls Frontline" trademark in Japan already being held by another registrant.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: "Girls' Frontline" is a prequel of another game developed by MICA Team, "Codename: Bakery Girl", released in 2013. Two television anime series based on "Girls Frontline" have been produced, and an official manga is serialised monthly. A new anime television series by Asahi Production aired from January to March 2022.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: The gameplay involves the acquisition of T-Dolls through gacha game mechanics, where the amount of resources spent on construction can affect the T-Doll acquired. T-Dolls can then be assembled into squads known as echelons and sent into battle to complete combat missions, simulations, or logistics support tasks. The T-Dolls are female moe androids each inspired by one real-world small arm. They are categorised into different classes such as handguns, submachine guns, assault rifles, rifles, machine guns and shotguns.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: Missions consist of a turn-based strategic battlefield where the player directs echelons across a map consisting of linked nodes with the goal of fulfilling pre-determined mission requirements, such as capturing an enemy command node or rescuing hostage units. Players are able to deploy and move echelons during their turn by expending action points, which depend on the number of heliports controlled and the number of echelons deployed. The enemy units move during enemy turns based on preset instructions. If a player's echelon meets an enemy unit on the same node, a combat sequence is initiated. Combat is largely automated, but players can activate offensive and defensive skills specific to each T-Doll in real-time as well as move individual T-Dolls across a formation consisting of a 3×3 square grid. The position of T-Dolls within the echelon's starting formation provide stat enhancements to other T-Dolls, and the individual stats and abilities of the T-Dolls altogether determine the outcome of the battle against the enemy team. Some missions, known as night-time battles, will handicap the player with a limit to the number of turns possible as well as include a fog of war mechanic restricting visibility over the strategic map. A score based ranking map is unlocked at the end of every major in-game event, where players can compete for rewards based on their highest score relative to other players during the event.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: T-Dolls can also be acquired through random drops after battles in addition to the construction component of the game. T-Doll stats can be complemented by equipment, which are also obtained via a gacha-based construction system or from drops in night battles. Tactical fairies are non-combatant support units that can be added to echelons to provide status buffs to T-Dolls and either have in-battle abilities or skills that can affect the map; in-universe, they are described as AI-equipped tactical drones. In later stages of the game, the player will unlock Heavy Ordnance Corps (HOC) units, which are dedicated fire support units such as mortar teams and anti-tank weapons that can provide supporting fire to echelons in combat. The end-game content also introduces the Protocol Assimilation system, where enemy Sangvis Ferri units can be captured and then sent into battle.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: Outside of combat, the player is required to manage their supply of in-game resources, level up facilities within the base to gain economic bonuses or access to different features, and improve the combat stats and abilities of T-Dolls through skill training and other character-raising mechanics. Cosmetic items such as T-Doll costumes and furniture used to decorate the dormitories of T-Dolls are obtained through another separate token-based gacha system. Decorating dormitories also increases a T-Dolls' affection stats through collecting hearts daily. Additionally, some cosmetic items for the commander avatar can also be bought using gems that can be purchased through real-world microtransactions or procured via daily login. When a T-Doll's affection stat reaches 100, the player is able to give them an OATH ring, which may be purchased through gems in the shop. Their affection cap will increase to 150 and they will receive a slight stat boost.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: The game is set in a war-torn future where tactical dolls, more commonly known as T-Dolls, are almost exclusively used for combat in place of humans, some having been repurposed from their previous life as civilian androids. The majority of the world is uninhabitable due to contamination from the Collapse Fluid, and much of humankind is dead. In 2062, the artificial intelligence of Sangvis Ferri (SF) spontaneously rebels against humanity, with their T-Dolls and robots killing their human masters and taking over nearby areas. In response, the private military company (PMC) Griffin & Kryuger (G&K) is hired to contain and eliminate Sangvis Ferri forces; the player assumes the role of a recently promoted G&K Commander. The base storyline focuses on the adventures of this commander and the Anti-Rain (AR) Team consisting of M4A1, ST AR-15, M4 SOPMOD II, M16A1, and RO635. Other important characters include the commander's logistics officer, Kalina, AK-12, AN-94, AK-15, RPK-16 and Angelia of Squad DEFY and Squad 404, made up of UMP45, UMP9, 416, and Gr G11.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: The game has had several collaboration events with other game companies. On 4 September 2018, the PlayStation 4 rhythm game "DJMax Respect" introduced three songs from "Girls Frontline" as DLC, while time-limited "DJMax Respect" mission events were added to the global release of "Girls Frontline" in May 2020.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: A collaboration event for "Honkai Gakuen" took place in November 2017 for the Chinese release of "Girls Frontline", and featured characters from that game as guest T-Dolls. On November 20, 2018, "Girls Frontline" featured a crossover event with Arc System Works where Noel Vermillion and Elphelt Valentine from "BlazBlue" and "Guilty Gear" respectively would appear in the game as recruitable allies. In 2019, the game featured a collaboration event with "VA-11 Hall-A", which included the addition of mission events and "VA-11 HALL-A" characters as obtainable T-Dolls. In 2020, a collaboration event with the "Gunslinger Girl" franchise took place where 5 of the cyborgs were obtainable T-Dolls with added mission events and puzzles themed after the franchise.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: In January 2020, "Girls Frontline" collaborated with Ubisoft's "Tom Clancy's The Division" where the T-Dolls of Griffin PMC join an online tournament of the Division game. The event also introduced two new characters to recruit; Agent 416 and Agent Vector, who are alternative universe versions of the characters HK416 and Vector that joined the Division.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: During a livestream, "Girls Frontline" announced a collaboration event with the anime "Dropkick on My Devil!" where the main character Jashin-chan and four of her friends are available to recruit in the game which began on November 16, 2021.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: MICA Team originally started as a dōjin circle consisting of three people, however during the development of "Girls Frontline", gradually expanded into a company of 117 employees. The game began as an inspiration work based on "Kantai Collection", however with the premise of anthropomorphized warships replaced with that of firearms, based on the team's anticipations that similar moe anthropomorphism games would become popular in China.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: A chibi-style television anime series featuring 12 short episodes titled aired on Tokyo MX and BS11 from October 5 to December 21, 2019. A second series of animated shorts titled streamed on Bilibili and aired on Tokyo MX and BS11 from December 28, 2019, to March 14, 2020. The Bilibili releases of both series are voiced in Mandarin Chinese, while the Japanese broadcast versions are voiced in Japanese.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: On January 22, 2021, an anime television series adaptation produced by Warner Bros. Japan and animated by Asahi Production was announced. The series is directed by Shigeru Ueda, with Hideyuki Kurata handling series composition, Masaki Yamada designing characters, and Takashi Watanabe composing the music. It aired from January 8 to March 26, 2022, on Tokyo MX, BS11, and AT-X. The opening theme song is "BAD CANDY" by yukaDD, while the ending theme song is "HORIZON" by Team Shachi. Funimation licensed the series outside of Asia. Muse Communication licensed the series in South and Southeast Asia. The English dub streamed on Funimation's website on February 4, 2022.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: Beginning in July 2019, an official manga series titled and illustrated by Miharu has been published online monthly in Chinese by Bilibili, and serialized in Japanese within the "Monthly Comic Rex". There are also four official manga anthology volumes published by Dengeki Bunko titled consisting of one-shots by various manga artists, and another manga anthology by Ichijinsha with four volumes titled with its own separate collection of one-shot manga releases.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: The theme song of the game, "Frontline!", is performed in Korean with vocals by Guriri and composition by ; the full track is included within the soundtrack CD bundled alongside the official artbook titled "The Art Of Girls Frontline Vol.1". A second theme performed in English titled "What Am I Fighting For" features vocals by Akino and is included within a 31-track original game soundtrack released on July 24, 2019. The game's soundtrack also features guest tracks composed by Basiscape. English and Japanese versions of "Frontline!" were later included in the second original soundtrack released on June 17, 2020; the limited edition release of this soundtrack also included a Blu-Ray for the "Girls Frontline Orchestra: Dolls with Lycoris radiata" () concert events which took place in Shanghai and Tokyo.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: "Girls Frontline" was the 3rd top-grossing game by revenue on Google Play and the 5th top-grossing game on the Apple App Store for the South Korean region in 2017. The perception that the game doesn't force players to use pay-to-win microtransactions compared to other mobile games, along with its encouragement of player interaction during automatic battles, are often-cited reasons for the game's popularity in South Korea, where it is the first Chinese-developed game to be able to compete with domestically created rivals.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: The tactical role-playing game "Reverse Collapse: Code Name Bakery" () developed by MICA Team and published by X.D. Network has been announced for Nintendo Switch, Microsoft Windows, and smartphone platforms. Set 30 years after in the same universe as "Girls Frontline", it is a remake of the original dōjin game "Code Name: Bakery Girl" featuring new art, character voices, story, and game mechanics.


title: Girls' Frontline

text: A sequel titled "Girls Frontline II: Exile" () was announced in May 2020 for release on smartphone platforms, alongside two spin-off games titled "Girls Frontline: Glitch" () and "Project Neural Cloud" (). "Exile" will still follow the core design of strategic combat, however will introduce 3D modelling for the characters.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo (Osphranter rufus) is the largest of all kangaroos, the largest terrestrial mammal native to Australia, and the largest extant marsupial. It is found across mainland Australia, except for the more fertile areas, such as southern Western Australia, the eastern and southeastern coasts, and the rainforests along the northern coast.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The initial description of the species by A.G. Desmarest was published in 1822. The type location was given as an unknown location west of the Blue Mountains.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The author assigned the new species to the genus "Kangurus". In 1842, Gould reassigned the species to the genus "Osphranter",


title: Red kangaroo

text: a taxon later submerged as a subgenus of "Macropus". A taxonomic restructure in 2015 in "Taxonomy of Australian Mammals" by Jackson and Groves


title: Red kangaroo

text: promoted "Osphranter" back to genus level, redefining the red kangaroo, among others, as species within the genus "Osphranter". This was further supported by genetic analysis in 2019.


title: Red kangaroo

text: This species is a very large kangaroo with long, pointed ears and a square shaped muzzle [snout/nose]. They are sexually dimorphic as the males have short, red-brown fur, fading to pale buff below and on the limbs. Females are smaller than males and are blue-grey with a brown tinge, pale grey below, although arid zone females are coloured more like males. It has two forelimbs with small claws, two muscular hind-limbs, which are used for jumping, and a strong tail which is often used to create a tripod when standing upright.


title: Red kangaroo

text: Males grow up to a head-and-body length of with a tail that adds a further to the total length and are referred to by Australians as "Big Reds". Females are considerably smaller, with a head-and-body length of and tail length of . Females can weigh from , while males typically weigh about twice as much at . The average red kangaroo stands approximately tall to the top of the head in upright posture. Large mature males can stand more than tall, with the largest confirmed one having been around tall and weighed .


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo maintains its internal temperature at a point of homeostasis about using a variety of physical, physiological, and behavioural adaptations. These include having an insulating layer of fur, being less active and staying in the shade when temperatures are high, panting, sweating, and licking its forelimbs.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo's range of vision is approximately 300° (324° with about 25° overlap), due to the position of its eyes.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo's legs work much like a rubber band, with the Achilles tendon stretching as the animal comes down, then releasing its energy to propel the animal up and forward, enabling the characteristic bouncing locomotion. They can reach speeds of around 60 km/h (37 mph). The males can cover 8–9 m (26.2–29.5 ft) in one leap while reaching heights of 1.8–3 m (5.9–9.8 ft), though the average is 1.2–1.9 m (3.9–6.2 ft).


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo ranges throughout western and central Australia. Its range encompasses scrubland, grassland, and desert habitats. It typically inhabits open habitats with some trees for shade. Red kangaroos are capable of conserving enough water and selecting enough fresh vegetation to survive in an arid environment. The kangaroo's kidneys efficiently concentrate urine, particularly during summer. Red kangaroo primarily eat green vegetation, particularly fresh grasses and forbs, and can get enough even when most plants look brown and dry. One study of kangaroos in Central Australia found that green grass makes up 75–95% of the diet, with "Eragrostis setifolia" dominating at 54%. This grass continues to be green into the dry season. Kangaroos also primarily consumed this species, along with "Enneapogon avanaceus", in western New South Wales where they comprised much as 21–69% of its diet according to a study. During dry times, kangaroos search for green plants by staying on open grassland and near watercourses. While grasses and forbs are preferred, red kangaroos will also eat certain species of chenopods, like "Bassia diacantha" and "Maireana pyramidata", and will even browse shrubs when its favoured foods are scarce. However, some perennial chenopods, such as round-leaf chenopod "Kochia" are avoided even when abundant.


title: Red kangaroo

text: At times, red kangaroos congregate in large numbers; in areas with much forage, these groups can number as much as 1,500 individuals. Red kangaroos are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal, resting in the shade during the day. However, they sometimes move about during the day. Red kangaroos rely on small saltbushes or mulga bushes for shelter in extreme heat rather than rocky outcrops or caves. Grazing takes up most of their daily activities. Like most kangaroo species, they are mostly sedentary, staying within a relatively well-defined home range. However, great environmental changes can cause them to travel great distances. Kangaroos in New South Wales have weekly home ranges of 258–560 ha, with the larger areas belonging to adult males. When forage is poor and rainfall patchy, kangaroos will travel 25–30 km to more favourable feeding grounds. Another study of kangaroos in central Australia found that most of them stay close to remaining vegetation but disperse to find fresh plants after it rains. The red kangaroo is too big to be subject to significant non-human predation. They can use their robust legs and clawed feet to defend themselves from attackers with kicks and blows. However, dingoes and eagles can kill and eat joeys. Joeys are thus protected in their mother's pouch. The red kangaroo does have some major predators, like crocodiles. Extinct predators include the marsupial lion, the thylacine, "Megalania", the locally extinct komodo dragon and the wonambi. Kangaroos are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if threatened by a predator. If pursued into the water, a kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it.


title: Red kangaroo

text: Red kangaroos live in groups of 2–4 members. The most common groups are females and their young. Larger groups can be found in densely populated areas and females are usually with a male. Membership of these groups is very flexible, and males (boomers) are not territorial, fighting only over females (flyers) that come into heat. Males develop proportionately much larger shoulders and arms than females. Most agonistic interactions occur between young males, which engage in ritualised fighting known as "boxing". They usually stand up on their hind limbs and attempt to push their opponent off balance by jabbing him or locking forearms. If the fight escalates, they will begin to kick each other. Using their tail to support their weight, they deliver kicks with their powerful hind legs. Compared to other kangaroo species, fights between red kangaroo males tend to involve more wrestling. Fights establish dominance relationships among males, and determine who gets access to estrous females. Dominant males make agonistic behaviours and more sexual behaviours until they are overthrown. Displaced males live alone and avoid close contact with others.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo breeds all year round. The females have the unusual ability to delay the birth of their baby until their previous joey has left the pouch. This is known as embryonic diapause. Copulation may last 25 minutes. The red kangaroo has the typical reproductive system of a kangaroo. The neonate emerges after only 33 days. Usually only one young is born at a time. It is blind, hairless, and only a few centimetres long. Its hind legs are mere stumps; it instead uses its more developed forelegs to climb its way through the thick fur on its mother's abdomen into the pouch, which takes about three to five minutes. Once in the pouch, it fastens onto one of the two teats and starts to feed. Almost immediately, the mother's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After approximately 190 days, the baby (called a joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after around 235 days, it leaves the pouch for the last time. While the young joey will permanently leave the pouch at around 235 days old, it will continue to suckle until it reaches about 12 months of age. A doe may first reproduce as early as 18 months of age and as late as five years during drought, but normally she is two and a half years old before she begins to breed.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The female red kangaroo is usually permanently pregnant except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch. This is known as embryonic diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, red kangaroo mothers may "have up to three generations of offspring simultaneously; a young-at-foot suckling from an elongated teat, a young in the pouch attached to a second teat and a blastula in arrested development in the uterus".


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo has also been observed to engage in alloparental care, a behaviour in which a female may adopt another female's joey. This is a common parenting behaviour seen in many other animal species like wolves, elephants and fathead minnows.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The red kangaroo is an abundant species and has even benefited from the spread of agriculture and creation of man-made waterholes. However, competition with livestock and rabbits poses a threat. It is also sometimes shot by farmers as a pest, although a "destruction permit" is required from the relevant state government.


title: Red kangaroo

text: Kangaroos dazzled by headlights or startled by engine noise often leap in front of vehicles, severely damaging or destroying smaller or unprotected vehicles. The risk of harm to vehicle occupants is greatly increased if the windscreen is the point of impact. As a result, "kangaroo crossing" signs are commonplace in Australia.


title: Red kangaroo

text: Peak times for kangaroo/vehicle crashes are between 5:00 PM and 10:00 PM, in winter, and after extended dry-weather spells.


title: Red kangaroo

text: Like all Australian wildlife, the red kangaroo is protected by legislation, but it is so numerous that there is regulated harvest of its hide and meat. Hunting permits and commercial harvesting are controlled under nationally approved management plans, which aim to maintain red kangaroo populations and manage them as a renewable resource. Harvesting of kangaroos is controversial, particularly due to the animal's popularity.


title: Red kangaroo

text: In the year 2000, 1,173,242 animals were killed. In 2009 the government put a limit of 1,611,216 for the number of red kangaroos available for commercial use. The kangaroo industry is worth about A$270 million each year, and employs over 4000 people.


title: Red kangaroo

text: The kangaroos provide meat for both humans and pet food. Kangaroo meat is very lean with only about 2% fat. Their skins are used for leather.


title: Grey

text: Grey (more common in British English) or gray (more common in American English) is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is "without color", because it can be composed of black and white. It is the color of a cloud-covered sky, of ash and of lead.


title: Grey

text: The first recorded use of "grey" as a color name in the English language was in 700 CE. "Grey" is the dominant spelling in European and Commonwealth English, while "gray" has been the preferred spelling in American English; both spellings are valid in both varieties of English.


title: Grey

text: In Europe and North America, surveys show that grey is the color most commonly associated with neutrality, conformity, boredom, uncertainty, old age, indifference, and modesty. Only one percent of respondents chose it as their favorite color.


title: Grey

text: "Grey" comes from the Middle English or , from the Old English , and is related to the Dutch and German . The first recorded use of "grey" as a color name in the English language was in 800 CE.


title: Grey

text: In antiquity and the Middle Ages, grey was the color of undyed wool, and thus was the color most commonly worn by peasants and the poor. It was also the color worn by Cistercian monks and friars of the Franciscan and Capuchin orders as a symbol of their vows of humility and poverty. Franciscan friars in England and Scotland were commonly known as the grey friars, and that name is now attached to many places in Great Britain.


title: Grey

text: During the Renaissance and the Baroque, grey began to play an important role in fashion and art. Black became the most popular color of the nobility, particularly in Italy, France, and Spain, and grey and white were harmonious with it.


title: Grey

text: Grey was also frequently used for the drawing of oil paintings, a technique called "grisaille". The painting would first be composed in grey and white, and then the colors, made with thin transparent glazes, would be added on top. The grisaille beneath would provide the shading, visible through the layers of color. Sometimes the grisaille was simply left uncovered, giving the appearance of carved stone.


title: Grey

text: Grey was a particularly good background color for gold and for skin tones. It became the most common background for the portraits of Rembrandt van Rijn and for many of the paintings of El Greco, who used it to highlight the faces and costumes of the central figures. The palette of Rembrandt was composed almost entirely of somber colors. He composed his warm greys out of black pigments made from charcoal or burnt animal bones, mixed with lead white or a white made of lime, which he warmed with a little red lake color from cochineal or madder. In one painting, the portrait of Margaretha de Geer (1661), one part of a grey wall in the background is painted with a layer of dark brown over a layer of orange, red, and yellow earths, mixed with ivory black and some lead white. Over this he put an additional layer of glaze made of mixture of blue smalt, red ochre, and yellow lake. Using these ingredients and many others, he made greys which had, according to art historian Philip Ball, "an incredible subtlety of pigmentation". The warm, dark and rich greys and browns served to emphasize the golden light on the faces in the paintings.


title: Grey

text: Grey became a highly fashionable color in the 18th century, both for women's dresses and for men's waistcoats and coats. It looked particularly luminous coloring the silk and satin fabrics worn by the nobility and wealthy.


title: Grey

text: Women's fashion in the 19th century was dominated by Paris, while men's fashion was set by London. The grey business suit appeared in the mid-19th century in London; light grey in summer, dark grey in winter; replacing the more colorful palette of men's clothing early in the century.


title: Grey

text: The clothing of women working in the factories and workshops of Paris in the 19th century was usually grey. This gave them the name of "grisettes". ""Gris"" or grey also meant drunk, and the name ""grisette"" was also given to the lower class of Parisian prostitutes.


title: Grey

text: Grey also became a common color for military uniforms; in an age of rifles with longer range, soldiers in grey were less visible as targets than those in blue or red. Grey was the color of the uniforms of the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, and of the Prussian Army for active service wear from 1910 onwards.


title: Grey

text: Several artists of the mid-19th century used tones of grey to create memorable paintings; Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot used tones of green-grey and blue grey to give harmony to his landscapes, and James McNeill Whistler created a special grey for the background of the portrait of his mother, and for his own self-portrait.


title: Grey

text: Whistler's arrangement of tones of grey had an effect on the world of music, on the French composer Claude Debussy. In 1894, Debussy wrote to violinist Eugène Ysaÿe describing his "Nocturnes" as "an experiment in the combinations that can be obtained from one color – what a study in grey would be in painting".


title: Grey

text: In the late 1930s, grey became a symbol of industrialization and war. It was the dominant color of Pablo Picasso's celebrated painting about the horrors of the Spanish Civil War, "Guernica".


title: Grey

text: After the war, the grey business suit became a metaphor for uniformity of thought, popularized in such books as "The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit" (1955), which became a successful film in 1956.


title: Grey

text: The whiteness or darkness of clouds is a function of their depth. Small, fluffy white clouds in summer look white because the sunlight is being scattered by the tiny water droplets they contain, and that white light comes to the viewer's eye. However, as clouds become larger and thicker, the white light cannot penetrate through the cloud, and is reflected off the top. Clouds look darkest grey during thunderstorms, when they can be as much as 20,000 to 30,000 feet high.


title: Grey

text: Stratiform clouds are a layer of clouds that covers the entire sky, and which have a depth of between a few hundred to a few thousand feet thick. The thicker the clouds, the darker they appear from below, because little of the sunlight is able to pass through. From above, in an airplane, the same clouds look perfectly white, but from the ground the sky looks gloomy and grey.


title: Grey

text: The color of a person's hair is created by the pigment melanin, found in the core of each hair. Melanin is also responsible for the color of the skin and of the eyes. There are only two types of pigment: dark (eumelanin) or light (phaeomelanin). Combined in various combinations, these pigments create all natural hair colors.


title: Grey

text: Melanin itself is the product of a specialized cell, the melanocyte, which is found in each hair follicle, from which the hair grows. As hair grows, the melanocyte injects melanin into the hair cells, which contain the protein keratin and which makes up our hair, skin, and nails. As long as the melanocytes continue injecting melanin into the hair cells, the hair retains its original color. At a certain age, however, which varies from person to person, the amount of melanin injected is reduced and eventually stops. The hair, without pigment, turns grey and eventually white. The reason for this decline of production of melanocytes is uncertain. In the February 2005 issue of "Science", a team of Harvard scientists suggested that the cause was the failure of the melanocyte stem cells to maintain the production of the essential pigments, due to age or genetic factors, after a certain period of time. For some people, the breakdown comes in their twenties; for others, many years later. According to the site of the magazine "Scientific American", "Generally speaking, among Caucasians 50 percent are 50 percent grey by age 50." Adult male gorillas also develop silver hair, but only on their backs – see Physical characteristics of gorillas.


title: Grey

text: Over the centuries, artists have traditionally created grey by mixing black and white in various proportions. They added a little red to make a warmer grey, or a little blue for a cooler grey. Artists could also make a grey by mixing two complementary colors, such as orange and blue.


title: Grey

text: Today the grey on televisions, computer displays, and telephones is usually created using the RGB color model. Red, green, and blue light combined at full intensity on the black screen makes white; by lowering the intensity, it is possible to create shades of grey.


title: Grey

text: In printing, grey is usually obtained with the CMYK color model, using cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. Grey is produced either by using black and white, or by combining equal amounts of cyan, magenta, and yellow. Most greys have a cool or warm cast to them, as the human eye can detect even a minute amount of color saturation. Yellow, orange, and red create a "warm grey". Green, blue, and violet create a "cool grey". When no color is added, the color is "neutral grey", "achromatic grey", or simply "grey". Images consisting wholly of black, white and greys are called monochrome, black-and-white, or greyscale.


title: Grey

text: There are several tones of grey available for use with HTML and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) as named colors, while 254 true greys are available by specification of a hex triplet for the RGB value. All are spelled "gray", using the spelling "grey" can cause errors. This spelling was inherited from the X11 color list. Internet Explorer's Trident browser engine does not recognize "grey" and renders it green. Another anomaly is that "gray" is in fact much darker than the X11 color marked "darkgray"; this is because of a conflict with the original HTML gray and the X11 gray, which is closer to HTML's "silver". The three "slategray" colors are not themselves on the greyscale, but are slightly saturated toward cyan (green + blue). Since there are an even (256, including black and white) number of unsaturated tones of grey, there are two grey tones straddling the midpoint in the 8-bit greyscale. The color name "gray" has been assigned the lighter of the two shades (128, also known as #808080), due to rounding up.


title: Grey

text: Until the 19th century, artists traditionally created grey by simply combining black and white. Rembrandt Van Rijn, for instance, usually used lead white and either carbon black or ivory black, along with touches of either blues or reds to cool or warm the grey.


title: Grey

text: In the early 19th century, a new grey, Payne's grey, appeared on the market. Payne's grey is a dark blue-grey, a mixture of ultramarine and black or of ultramarine and sienna. It is named after William Payne, a British artist who painted watercolors in the late 18th century. The first recorded use of "Payne's grey" as a color name in English was in 1835.


title: Grey

text: Grey is a very common color for animals, birds, and fish, ranging in size from whales to mice. It provides a natural camouflage and allows them to blend with their surroundings.


title: Grey

text: The substance that composes the brain is sometimes referred to as grey matter, or "the little grey cells", so the color grey is associated with things intellectual. However, the living human brain is actually pink in color; it only turns grey when dead.


title: Grey

text: Grey goo is a hypothetical end-of-the-world scenario, also known as ecophagy: out-of-control self-replicating nanobots consume all living matter on Earth while building more of themselves.


title: Grey

text: In sound engineering, grey noise is random noise subjected to an equal-loudness contour, such as an "inverted" A-weighting curve, over a given range of frequencies, giving the listener the perception that it is equally loud at all frequencies.


title: Grey

text: In the Christian religion, grey is the color of ashes, and so a biblical symbol of mourning and repentance, described as sackcloth and ashes. It can be used during Lent or on special days of fasting and prayer. As the color of humility and modesty, grey is worn by friars of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin and Franciscan order as well as monks of the Cistercian order. Grey cassocks are worn by clergy of the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church.


title: Grey

text: Buddhist monks and priests in Japan and Korea will often wear a sleeved grey, brown, or black outer robe.


title: Grey

text: In Paganism, grey is a symbol of stability, contemplation, neutrality, and reserving oneself. It can be used in place of any color just like white, and can bind and banish things just like black.


title: Grey

text: Grey is rarely used as a color by political parties, largely because of its common association with conformity, boredom and indecision. An example of a political party using grey as a color are the German Grey Panthers.


title: Grey

text: The term "grey power" or "the grey vote" is sometimes used to describe the influence of older voters as a voting bloc. In the United States, older people are more likely to vote, and usually vote to protect certain social benefits, such as Social Security.


title: Grey

text: "Greys" is a term sometimes used pejoratively by environmentalists in the green movement to describe those who oppose environmental measures and supposedly prefer the grey of concrete and cement.


title: Grey

text: During the American Civil War, the soldiers of the Confederate Army wore grey uniforms. At the beginning of the war, the armies of the North and of the South had very similar uniforms; some Confederate units wore blue, and some Union units wore grey. There naturally was confusion, and sometimes soldiers fired by mistake at soldiers of their own army. On June 6, 1861, the Confederate government issued regulations standardizing the army uniform and establishing cadet grey as the uniform color. This was (and still is) the color of the uniform of cadets at the United States Military Academy at West Point, and cadets at the Virginia Military Institute, which produced many officers for the Confederacy.


title: Grey

text: The new uniforms were designed by Nicola Marschall, a German-American artist, who also designed the original Confederate flag. He closely followed the design of contemporary French and Austrian military uniforms. Grey was not chosen for its camouflage value; this benefit was not appreciated for several more decades. The South lacked a major dye industry, though, and grey dyes were inexpensive and easy to manufacture. While some units had uniforms colored with good-quality dyes, which were a solid bluish-grey, others had uniforms colored with vegetable dyes made from sumac or logwood, which quickly faded in sunshine to the yellowish color of butternut squash.


title: Grey

text: The German Army wore grey uniforms from 1907 until 1945, during both the First World War and Second World War. The color chosen was a grey-green called field grey (). It was chosen because it was less visible at a distance than the previous German uniforms, which were Prussian blue. It was one of the first uniform colors to be chosen for its camouflage value, important in the new age of smokeless powder and more accurate rifles and machine guns. It gave the Germans a distinct advantage at the beginning of the First World War, when the French soldiers were dressed in blue jackets and red trousers. The Finnish Army also began using grey uniforms on the German model.


title: Grey

text: Some of the more recent uniforms of the German Army and East German Army were field grey, as were some uniforms of the Swedish army. The formal dress (M/83) of the Finnish Army is grey. The Army of Chile wears field grey today.


title: Grey

text: During the 19th century, women's fashions were largely dictated by Paris, while London set fashions for men. The intent of a business suit was above all to show seriousness, and to show one's position in business and society. Over the course of the century, bright colors disappeared from men's fashion, and were largely replaced by a black or dark charcoal grey frock coat in winter, and lighter greys in summer. In the early 20th century, the frock coat was gradually replaced by the lounge suit, a less formal version of evening dress, which was also usually black or charcoal grey. In the 1930s the English suit style was called the drape suit, with wide shoulders and a nipped waist, usually dark or light grey. After World War II, the style changed to a slimmer fit called the continental cut, but the color remained grey.


title: Grey

text: In America and Europe, grey is one of the least popular colors; In a European survey, only one percent of men said it was their favorite color, and thirteen percent called it their least favorite color; the response from women was almost the same. According to color historian Eva Heller, "grey is too weak to be considered masculine, but too menacing to be considered a feminine color. It is neither warm nor cold, neither material or spiritual. With grey, nothing seems to be decided." It also denotes undefinedness, as in a grey area.


title: Grey

text: Grey is the color most commonly associated in many cultures with the elderly and old age, because of the association with grey hair; it symbolizes the wisdom and dignity that come with experience and age. The New York Times is sometimes called "The Grey Lady" because of its long history and esteemed position in American journalism.


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: "Klaatu barada nikto" is a phrase that originated in the 1951 science fiction film "The Day the Earth Stood Still". The humanoid alien protagonist of the film, Klaatu (Michael Rennie), instructs Helen Benson (Patricia Neal) that if any harm befalls him, she must say the phrase to the robot Gort (Lockard Martin). In response, Gort does not do anything hostile but instead retrieves Klaatu's corpse and resurrects him.


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: The Robot Hall of Fame describes the phrase as "one of the most famous commands in science fiction" and Frederick S. Clarke of "Cinefantastique" called it "the most famous phrase ever spoken by an extraterrestrial."


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: Edmund H. North, who wrote "The Day the Earth Stood Still", also created the alien language used in the film, including the phrase ""Klaatu barada nikto"". The official spelling of the phrase comes directly from the script.


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: The phrase was never translated in the film and neither Edmund North nor 20th Century Fox ever released an official translation.


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: Near the end of the film, as Klaatu is pursued by the U.S. Armed Forces, he urges Helen Benson to memorize the phrase, saying "There's no limit to what he can do. He could destroy the Earth... If anything should happen to me, you must go to Gort; you must say these words: "Klaatu barada nikto".' Please repeat that."


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: Shortly after, Klaatu is shot and killed. Knowing that Klaatu has died, Gort vaporizes the polymer cube encasing him and kills the two soldiers standing guard. Helen conveys Klaatu's message. Gort takes her inside the spaceship, and then retrieves Klaatu's lifeless body, which he revives.


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: In the 2008 remake, the line was added at Keanu Reeves' insistence. Klaatu uses it near the beginning of the film to shut down Gort, and again at the end, highly distorted and barely audible, when he stops the destruction of the Earth.


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: Because there is no official translation of the phrase, a few notable attempts have been made to determine the phrase's meaning:


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: Philosophy professor Aeon J. Skoble speculates the phrase is part of a fail-safe feature used during diplomatic missions, whereby Gort's deadly force can be deactivated in the event the robot is undesirably triggered into a defensive posture. Skoble observes that this theme has evolved into a "staple of science fiction that the machines charged with protecting us from ourselves will misuse or abuse their power." In this interpretation the phrase apparently tells Gort that Klaatu considers escalation unnecessary (stand down and return home).


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: "Fantastic Films" explored the meaning of ""Klaatu barada nikto"" in the 1978 article "The Language of Klaatu". In the article Tauna Le Marbe, the magazine's Alien Linguistics Editor, attempts to translate all the alien words Klaatu used throughout the film. Le Marbe's literal translation was "Stop Barbarism, (I have) death, bind;" the free translation was "I die, repair me, do not retaliate."


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: The documentary "Decoding "Klaatu Barada Nikto": Science Fiction as Metaphor" examined the phrase "Klaatu barada nikto" with some of the people involved with "The Day the Earth Stood Still". Robert Wise, director of the original, recalled a conversation he had with Edmund North, saying North told him, "...it's just something I kind of cooked up. I thought it sounded good."


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: Billy Gray, who played Bobby Benson in the film, said that "barada nikto must mean... save Earth". Florence Blaustein, widow of the producer Julian Blaustein, said North had to pass a street called Baroda every day going to work and said, "I think that's how that was born." Film historian Steven Jay Rubin recalled an interview he had with North when he asked the question, "What is the direct translation of 'Klaatu barada nikto?' And Edmund North said to me, 'There's hope for Earth, if the scientists can be reached.'"


title: Klaatu barada nikto

text: In accepting the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1998, Director Robert Wise closed his remarks by saying, "...I'd like to say 'Klaatu barada nikto', which, roughly translated tonight, means 'Thank you very much from the bottom of my heart.'"


title: Solo Sikoa

text: Joseph Yokozuna Fatu (born March 18, 1993) is an American professional wrestler signed to WWE. He currently performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Solo Sikoa where he is a member of The Bloodline and a former NXT North American Champion. Fatu is a member of the Anoaʻi family of Samoan wrestlers.


title: Solo Sikoa

text: Fatu was born on March 18, 1993, in Sacramento, California, U.S. Fatu was born into the Anoaʻi family of Samoan wrestlers, which includes his father, Rikishi a WWE Hall of Famer, his older brothers, Jimmy Uso and Jey Uso, his cousin Roman Reigns, and many others including The Rock, Umaga, Yokozuna and the Wild Samoans. He played American football at American River College and Dickinson State University. After finishing college, Sikoa gave up football to pursue wrestling.


title: Solo Sikoa

text: On August 2021, it was announced Fatu signed a contract with WWE. He was assigned to the development brand WWE NXT, making his debut on October 26, 2021 at as Solo Sikoa, interrupting a segment between the co-hosts Grayson Waller and L.A. Knight and subsequently attacked Waller, thus establishing himself as a face. He entered into a feud with Boa after his alter-ego attacked and choked him backstage on the December 28 episode of "NXT". On the January 11, 2022 episode of "NXT", Boa and Sikoa fought to a double countout and continued to brawl in the backstage area, resulting in Boa's alter-ego launching a fireball in Sikoa's face. This led to a No Disqualification Falls Count Anywhere match on the January 25 episode of "NXT", where Sikoa defeated Boa after splashing him through a table. During the following months, he was involved in matches for the NXT North American Championship at Stand & Deliver (a five-way ladder match) and Spring Breakin' (a triple threat match), but was unsuccessful in winning the title. On the August 2 episode of "NXT", Sikoa defeated Von Wagner in a falls count anywhere match after weeks of brawling, though suffered a knee injury in the process.


title: Solo Sikoa

text: On September 3, at the Clash at the Castle premium event, Sikoa made his return from injury, interfering in the main event match between his cousin Roman Reigns and Drew McIntyre, helping Reigns retain the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship against McIntyre and aligning himself with The Bloodline, turning heel in the process. He made his main roster in-ring debut on the September 9 episode of "SmackDown", losing to McIntyre by disqualification after Karrion Kross attacked McIntyre from behind.


title: Solo Sikoa

text: On September 13, 2022 during the "NXT 2.0 One Year Anniversary Show", Sikoa made a surprise appearance, and defeated Carmelo Hayes to win the NXT North American Championship. After defending the title three nights later at "SmackDown" against Madcap Moss, Sikoa was forced to vacate the title on September 20.During Reigns Undisputed WWE Universal Championship defense against Logan Paul, Sikoa confronted Paul's younger brother Jake Paul who prevented The Usos helping Reigns to retain his title by fighting them. Reigns later retained the title. At Survivor Series WarGames, Sikoa, along with the Bloodline, defeated the team of The Brawling Brutes (Sheamus, Ridge Holland and Butch), Drew McIntyre and Kevin Owens in a WarGames match in his pay-per-view debut.


title: Solo Sikoa

text: Fatu made his acting debut in Karyn Kusama's 2018 crime drama film, "Destroyer", playing the role of Taz.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a set of roles, policies, hardware, software and procedures needed to create, manage, distribute, use, store and revoke digital certificates and manage public-key encryption. The purpose of a PKI is to facilitate the secure electronic transfer of information for a range of network activities such as e-commerce, internet banking and confidential email. It is required for activities where simple passwords are an inadequate authentication method and more rigorous proof is required to confirm the identity of the parties involved in the communication and to validate the information being transferred.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: In cryptography, a PKI is an arrangement that "binds" public keys with respective identities of entities (like people and organizations). The binding is established through a process of registration and issuance of certificates at and by a certificate authority (CA). Depending on the assurance level of the binding, this may be carried out by an automated process or under human supervision. When done over a network, this requires using a secure certificate enrollment or certificate management protocol such as CMP.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: The PKI role that may be delegated by a CA to assure valid and correct registration is called a "registration authority" (RA). Basically, an RA is responsible for accepting requests for digital certificates and authenticating the entity making the request. The Internet Engineering Task Force's RFC 3647 defines an RA as "An entity that is responsible for one or more of the following functions: the identification and authentication of certificate applicants, the approval or rejection of certificate applications, initiating certificate revocations or suspensions under certain circumstances, processing subscriber requests to revoke or suspend their certificates, and approving or rejecting requests by subscribers to renew or re-key their certificates. RAs, however, do not sign or issue certificates (i.e., an RA is delegated certain tasks on behalf of a CA)." While Microsoft may have referred to a subordinate CA as an RA, this is incorrect according to the X.509 PKI standards. RAs do not have the signing authority of a CA and only manage the vetting and provisioning of certificates. So in the Microsoft PKI case, the RA functionality is provided either by the Microsoft Certificate Services web site or through Active Directory Certificate Services which enforces Microsoft Enterprise CA and certificate policy through certificate templates and manages certificate enrollment (manual or auto-enrollment). In the case of Microsoft Standalone CAs, the function of RA does not exist since all of the procedures controlling the CA are based on the administration and access procedure associated with the system hosting the CA and the CA itself rather than Active Directory. Most non-Microsoft commercial PKI solutions offer a stand-alone RA component.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: An entity must be uniquely identifiable within each CA domain on the basis of information about that entity. A third-party validation authority (VA) can provide this entity information on behalf of the CA.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: PKI provides "trust services" - in plain terms trusting the actions or outputs of entities, be they people or computers. Trust service objectives respect one or more of the following capabilities: Confidentiality, Integrity and Authenticity (CIA).


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Confidentiality: Assurance that no entity can maliciously or unwittingly view a payload in clear text. Data is encrypted to make it secret, such that even if it was read, it appears as gibberish. Perhaps the most common use of PKI for confidentiality purposes is in the context of Transport Layer Security (TLS). TLS is a capability underpinning the security of data in transit, i.e. during transmission. A classic example of TLS for confidentiality is when using an internet browser to log on to a service hosted on an internet based web site by entering a password.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Integrity: Assurance that if an entity changed (tampered) with transmitted data in the slightest way, it would be obvious it happened as its integrity would have been compromised. Often it is not of utmost importance to prevent the integrity being compromised (tamper proof), however, it is of utmost importance that if integrity is compromised there is clear evidence of it having done so (tamper evident).


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Authenticity: Assurance that every entity has certainty of what it is connecting to, or can evidence its legitimacy when connecting to a protected service. The former is termed server-side authentication - typically used when authenticating to a web server using a password. The latter is termed client-side authentication - sometimes used when authenticating using a smart card (hosting a digital certificate and private key).


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Public key cryptography is a cryptographic technique that enables entities to securely communicate on an insecure public network, and reliably verify the identity of an entity via digital signatures.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a system for the creation, storage, and distribution of digital certificates which are used to verify that a particular public key belongs to a certain entity. The PKI creates digital certificates which map public keys to entities, securely stores these certificates in a central repository and revokes them if needed.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Broadly speaking, there have traditionally been three approaches to getting this trust: certificate authorities (CAs), web of trust (WoT), and simple public key infrastructure (SPKI).


title: Public key infrastructure

text: The primary role of the CA is to digitally sign and publish the public key bound to a given user. This is done using the CA's own private key, so that trust in the user key relies on one's trust in the validity of the CA's key. When the CA is a third party separate from the user and the system, then it is called the Registration Authority (RA), which may or may not be separate from the CA. The key-to-user binding is established, depending on the level of assurance the binding has, by software or under human supervision.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: The term trusted third party (TTP) may also be used for certificate authority (CA). Moreover, PKI is itself often used as a synonym for a CA implementation.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Authorities in the WebPKI provide revocation services to allow invalidation of previously issued certificates. According to the Baseline Requirements by the CA/Browser forum, the CAs must maintain revocation status until certificate expiration. The status must be delivered using Online Certificate Status Protocol. Most revocation statuses on the Internet disappear soon after the expiration of the certificates.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: In this model of trust relationships, a CA is a trusted third party – trusted both by the subject (owner) of the certificate and by the party relying upon the certificate.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: According to NetCraft report from 2015, the industry standard for monitoring active Transport Layer Security (TLS) certificates, states that "Although the global [TLS] ecosystem is competitive, it is dominated by a handful of major CAs — three certificate authorities (Symantec, Sectigo, GoDaddy) account for three-quarters of all issued [TLS] certificates on public-facing web servers. The top spot has been held by Symantec (or VeriSign before it was purchased by Symantec) ever since [our] survey began, with it currently accounting for just under a third of all certificates. To illustrate the effect of differing methodologies, amongst the million busiest sites Symantec issued 44% of the valid, trusted certificates in use — significantly more than its overall market share."


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Following major issues in how certificate issuing were managed, all major players gradually distrusted Symantec issued certificates starting from 2017.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: This approach involves a server that acts as an offline certificate authority within a single sign-on system. A single sign-on server will issue digital certificates into the client system, but never stores them. Users can execute programs, etc. with the temporary certificate. It is common to find this solution variety with X.509-based certificates.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: An alternative approach to the problem of public authentication of public key information is the web-of-trust scheme, which uses self-signed certificates and third-party attestations of those certificates. The singular term "web of trust" does not imply the existence of a single web of trust, or common point of trust, but rather one of any number of potentially disjoint "webs of trust". Examples of implementations of this approach are PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) and GnuPG (an implementation of OpenPGP, the standardized specification of PGP). Because PGP and implementations allow the use of e-mail digital signatures for self-publication of public key information, it is relatively easy to implement one's own web of trust.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: One of the benefits of the web of trust, such as in PGP, is that it can interoperate with a PKI CA fully trusted by all parties in a domain (such as an internal CA in a company) that is willing to guarantee certificates, as a trusted introducer. If the "web of trust" is completely trusted then, because of the nature of a web of trust, trusting one certificate is granting trust to all the certificates in that web. A PKI is only as valuable as the standards and practices that control the issuance of certificates and including PGP or a personally instituted web of trust could significantly degrade the trustworthiness of that enterprise's or domain's implementation of PKI.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: The web of trust concept was first put forth by PGP creator Phil Zimmermann in 1992 in the manual for PGP version 2.0:


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Another alternative, which does not deal with public authentication of public key information, is the simple public key infrastructure (SPKI) that grew out of three independent efforts to overcome the complexities of X.509 and PGP's web of trust. SPKI does not associate users with persons, since the "key" is what is trusted, rather than the person. SPKI does not use any notion of trust, as the verifier is also the issuer. This is called an "authorization loop" in SPKI terminology, where authorization is integral to its design. This type of PKI is specially useful for making integrations of PKI that do not rely on third parties for certificate authorization, certificate information, etc.; a good example of this is an air-gapped network in an office.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Decentralized identifiers (DIDs) eliminates dependence on centralized registries for identifiers as well as centralized certificate authorities for key management, which is the standard in hierarchical PKI. In cases where the DID registry is a distributed ledger, each entity can serve as its own root authority. This architecture is referred to as decentralized PKI (DPKI).


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Developments in PKI occurred in the early 1970s at the British intelligence agency GCHQ, where James Ellis, Clifford Cocks and others made important discoveries related to encryption algorithms and key distribution. Because developments at GCHQ are highly classified, the results of this work were kept secret and not publicly acknowledged until the mid-1990s.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: The public disclosure of both secure key exchange and asymmetric key algorithms in 1976 by Diffie, Hellman, Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman changed secure communications entirely. With the further development of high-speed digital electronic communications (the Internet and its predecessors), a need became evident for ways in which users could securely communicate with each other, and as a further consequence of that, for ways in which users could be sure with whom they were actually interacting.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Assorted cryptographic protocols were invented and analyzed within which the new cryptographic primitives could be effectively used. With the invention of the World Wide Web and its rapid spread, the need for authentication and secure communication became still more acute. Commercial reasons alone (e.g., e-commerce, online access to proprietary databases from web browsers) were sufficient. Taher Elgamal and others at Netscape developed the SSL protocol ('https' in Web URLs); it included key establishment, server authentication (prior to v3, one-way only), and so on. A PKI structure was thus created for Web users/sites wishing secure communications.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Vendors and entrepreneurs saw the possibility of a large market, started companies (or new projects at existing companies), and began to agitate for legal recognition and protection from liability. An American Bar Association technology project published an extensive analysis of some of the foreseeable legal aspects of PKI operations (see ABA digital signature guidelines), and shortly thereafter, several U.S. states (Utah being the first in 1995) and other jurisdictions throughout the world began to enact laws and adopt regulations. Consumer groups raised questions about privacy, access, and liability considerations, which were more taken into consideration in some jurisdictions than in others.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: The enacted laws and regulations differed, there were technical and operational problems in converting PKI schemes into successful commercial operation, and progress has been much slower than pioneers had imagined it would be.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: By the first few years of the 21st century, the underlying cryptographic engineering was clearly not easy to deploy correctly. Operating procedures (manual or automatic) were not easy to correctly design (nor even if so designed, to execute perfectly, which the engineering required). The standards that existed were insufficient.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: PKI vendors have found a market, but it is not quite the market envisioned in the mid-1990s, and it has grown both more slowly and in somewhat different ways than were anticipated. PKIs have not solved some of the problems they were expected to, and several major vendors have gone out of business or been acquired by others. PKI has had the most success in government implementations; the largest PKI implementation to date is the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) PKI infrastructure for the Common Access Cards program.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: PKIs of one type or another, and from any of several vendors, have many uses, including providing public keys and bindings to user identities which are used for:


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Some argue that purchasing certificates for securing websites by SSL/TLS and securing software by code signing is a costly venture for small businesses. However, the emergence of free alternatives, such as Let's Encrypt, has changed this. HTTP/2, the latest version of HTTP protocol, allows unsecured connections in theory; in practice, major browser companies have made it clear that they would support this protocol only over a PKI secured TLS connection. Web browser implementation of HTTP/2 including Chrome, Firefox, Opera, and Edge supports HTTP/2 only over TLS by using the ALPN extension of the TLS protocol. This would mean that, to get the speed benefits of HTTP/2, website owners would be forced to purchase SSL/TLS certificates controlled by corporations.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: Currently the majority of web browsers are shipped with pre-installed intermediate certificates issued and signed by a certificate authority, by public keys certified by so-called root certificates. This means browsers need to carry a large number of different certificate providers, increasing the risk of a key compromise.


title: Public key infrastructure

text: When a key is known to be compromised, it could be fixed by revoking the certificate, but such a compromise is not easily detectable and can be a huge security breach. Browsers have to issue a security patch to revoke intermediary certificates issued by a compromised root certificate authority.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Hot Chocolate are a British soul band popular during the 1970s and 1980s, formed by Errol Brown and Tony Wilson. The group had at least one hit song every year on the UK Singles Chart from 1970 to 1980.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Their hits include, "You Sexy Thing", a UK number two which also made the top 10 in three decades and reached number three on the US "Billboard" Hot 100—the song also featured in the popular British comedy film "The Full Monty" (1997)—"So You Win Again", topped the UK Charts, "Every 1's a Winner", reached number six in the US, "It Started with a Kiss", UK top five, and "Emma", charted at number three in the UK and number 8 in the US. In 2004, Brown received the Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Formed in 1968, the band initially consisted of vocalist Errol Brown, guitarist Franklyn De Allie, drummer Jim King (shortly thereafter replaced by the unrelated Ian King), percussionist Patrick Olive, and bassist Tony Wilson; with keyboardist Larry Ferguson joining the band in the following year. The band was originally named "Hot Chocolate Band" by Mavis Smith, who worked for the Apple Corps press office. This was quickly shortened first to "The Hot Chocolate" and then to "Hot Chocolate" by Mickie Most. By 1970 the band's line-up had changed again to include Harvey Hinsley and Tony Connor (who was also a member of Audience at the time) replacing De Allie and King respectively.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Hot Chocolate started their recording career making a reggae version of John Lennon's "Give Peace a Chance", but frontman Errol Brown was told he needed permission. He was contacted by Apple Records, discovered that Lennon liked his version, and the group was subsequently signed to Apple Records. The link was short-lived as the Beatles were starting to break up, and the Apple connection soon ended.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Later in 1970 Hot Chocolate, with the help of record producer Mickie Most, began releasing tracks that became hits, such as "Love Is Life", "Emma", "You Could Have Been a Lady" (a US and Canadian hit for April Wine), and "I Believe in Love". All those releases were on the Rak record label, owned by Most. Brown and bassist Tony Wilson wrote most of their original material, and also provided hits for Herman's Hermits, "Bet Yer Life I Do", Julie Felix, "Heaven Is Here", and Mary Hopkin, "Think About Your Children".


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Gradually the band started to become UK Singles Chart regulars. One of the hits from this period, "Brother Louie", featured a guest spoken vocal from Alexis Korner.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: It was in the disco era of the mid-1970s that Hot Chocolate became a big success. A combination of high production standards, the growing confidence of the main songwriting team of Wilson and Brown, and tight vocal harmonies enabled them to secure further big hits such as "You Sexy Thing" and "Every 1's a Winner", which were also US hits, peaking at No. 3 (1976) and No. 6 (1979), respectively. After Wilson's departure for a solo career, that included a 1976 album "I Like Your Style", Brown assumed all songwriting duties. Wilson was initially replaced by Brian Satterwhite; before Satterwhite departed the band and Olive switched to bass as his primary instrument.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: In 1977, after 15 hits, they finally reached number one with "So You Win Again". It was one of the few of their recordings that was not written, at least partly, by Brown The track was a Russ Ballard composition.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: The band became the only group, and one of just three acts, that had a hit in every year of the 1970s in the UK charts (the other two being Elvis Presley and Diana Ross). The band eventually had at least one hit, every year, between 1970 and 1984.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: The band continued well into the 1980s, and clocked up another big hit record: "It Started with a Kiss", in 1982, which reached number 5 in the UK. In all, the group charted 25 UK top 40 hit singles. Their single "You Sexy Thing" became the only track that made British top ten status in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: In 1987, Dutch DJ and producer Ben Liebrand made remixes of the Hot Chocolate hits; "You Sexy Thing" and "Every 1's a Winner". Liebrand also made a combination remix of those two hits called "Two in a Bed" for the exclusive Disco Mix Club.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Renewed interest in Hot Chocolate came in part with the band's appearances on a string of successful film soundtracks starting with the 1997 comedy "The Full Monty", as well as in a 1989 acne lotion commercial (featuring a young Patsy Palmer). From the late 1980s onwards the group experienced a resurgence of credibility: Urge Overkill, PJ Harvey and the Sisters of Mercy all added Hot Chocolate songs to their live sets, and Cud's cover of "You Sexy Thing" featured in John Peel's Festive 50.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: Errol Brown and Larry Ferguson departed the band in 1986; ultimately leading the group to disband. Brown then began a solo career. Two of his singles made the UK Singles Chart – "Personal Touch" and "Body Rockin'". Hot Chocolate had a hit in 1988 in Germany. "Never Pretend" was written by Harvey Hinsley and Susan Stuttard, and the vocalist was Grant Evelyn. The band's enduring popularity was verified when two compilation albums both reached No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart (see below). In 2003, Errol Brown received the MBE; and in 2004, the Ivor Novello Award for his contribution to British music.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: In 1992 the band reformed with new vocalist Greg Bannis and keyboardists Steve Ansell, Andy Smith, Willy Dowling, and Steve Matthews (the latter two of whom departed the band in 1994), and manager and agent Ric Martin took control over the band's bookings and live appearances. Kennie Simon took over lead vocals in 2010 following the departure of Bannis and Hot Chocolate continue to make live appearances in the UK and Europe.


title: Hot Chocolate (band)

text: On 6 May 2015, original frontman and principal songwriter Errol Brown died from liver cancer. He was 71.


title: Jaime Lorente

text: Jaime Lorente López (born 12 February 1991) is a Spanish actor. He is best known for playing the roles of Denver in "Money Heist" and Nano in "Elite".


title: Jaime Lorente

text: Jaime Lorente López studied Dramatic Art at The Superior School of Dramatic Art of Murcia and has a master's degree in advanced studies from the UNIR in Logroño, Spain.


title: Jaime Lorente

text: Lorente performed in the theatre production "Equus", for which he won the Best Actor Award in the first edition of the María Jesús Sirvent Awards. He has also acted in theatre productions such as "El Público", "La Vengadora de Las Mujeres", "El Secreto a Voces" and "De Fuera Vendrá".


title: Jaime Lorente

text: In 2016, Lorente began acting in the Antena 3 series "El secreto de Puente Viejo" as Elías Mato. In 2017, he portrayed "Denver" in the hit TV series, "Money Heist", for which he was nominated for the "Best Supporting Actor on Television" Award by the Spanish Actors Union. In 2018, he portrayed "Nano" in the Netflix Original Series "Élite". In 2020, Lorente will portray Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar "El Cid" in the historical Amazon Prime Video series "El Cid".


title: Jaime Lorente

text: In addition to acting, Lorente has published a book titled "A propósito de tu boca", a collection of poems that he started writing in high school. He has also made forays into music, releasing his first EP ("La noche") in 2022.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: The Georgian National Legion or Georgian Legion (; "kartuli legioni") is a military unit formed by mostly ethnic Georgian volunteers fighting on the side of Ukraine in the War in Donbas and the Russo-Ukrainian War. The unit was organized in 2014, and in 2016 it was transferred under the control of the Ukrainian Army, under the 25th Mechanized Infantry Battalion "Kyiv Rus".


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: The GL was noted as being particularly good at recruiting Americans by Kacper Rekawek, an expert on foreign fighters in Ukraine; before the formation of the International Legion of Ukraine in 2022, most foreign fighters served the Georgian Legion.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: The Georgian Legion was founded by Mamuka Mamulashvili a veteran of the Abkhaz–Georgian conflict, First Chechen War, and the Russo-Georgian War. He later commented “The idea of creating the legion was to gather people of different nationalities to serve together to stand against Russian aggression, and we did it.” Georgian volunteers frequently cited Ukraine and Georgia's common cause against Russia and insisted that fighting against the Russian aggression in Ukraine was also a patriotic act that served Georgia's interests.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: The Georgian Legion was formed sometime in 2014 after the start of the War in the Donbas with initially only 6 Georgian members and had grown to about 20 members by the end of that year. In mid December 2014 the group was visited by Giorgi Baramidze, the then Georgian minister for European integration. In January 2015, the unit suffered its first casualty, Tamaz Sukhiashvili, a veteran of the Georgian Army. Involvement of individual Georgians on the Ukrainian side was, to a degree, encouraged by the then-Ukraine-based former President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili and his associates from Georgia's United National Movement party.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: On 5 February, the Georgians' service was appreciated by the head of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate, Patriarch Filaret, by awarding 29 Georgian fighters a medal for their "love and sacrifice for Ukraine."


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: After the Minsk II agreement of February 11, the future of the unit was briefly uncertain. In October the Ukrainian parliament passed a law allowing foreign nationals and stateless persons to be hired by the Ukrainian army on contract and the bill was signed into law on November 5.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: In February 2016, the Georgian Legion was officially integrated into the 25th mechanized infantry battalion "Kyiv Rus" of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: It fought in eastern Ukraine under the overall command of the 54th Mechanized Brigade. In December 2017, the Legion withdrew from the brigade citing the "incompetence" of the brigade's command after a costly operation conducted near Svitlodarsk on 16 December 2017. The 54th Mechanized Brigade denied that a "Georgian Legion" had ever existed among their ranks.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: In January 2018 the Legion's commander Mamulashvili said the unit remained committed to the Ukrainian cause and moved to another brigade and added that the decision was not connected to a political conflict between Mikheil Saakashvili and President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: In February 2022, immediately prior to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Georgian Legion was involved in training newly recruited Ukrainian civilians. The unit took part in combat from the first days of the invasion; it fought in the Battle of Antonov Airport and Battle of Hostomel.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: In early March 2022, the Georgian Legion reportedly had over 300 new interested recruits attempting to join. According to Legion policy, only experienced fighters or military veterans are allowed to join their ranks. People who didn't meet those requirements were refused. People with extremist views are also not welcome in the unit. The legion subsequently redeployed to help fend off the Eastern Ukraine offensive.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion, 32 Georgian Legion volunteers have so far been reported killed. These include:


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: On 30 March 2022, a video surfaced of the aftermath of an ambushed Russian paratrooper BMD-2 armored vehicle, geolocated in the area of Dmitrovka located a few kilometers from Bucha, Kyiv Oblast. A different video of the same event shows how one of the captured and seemingly injured Russian serviceman is shot by an unknown member of the Ukrainian forces.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: Ukrainian Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba said the video will "definitely be investigated". Mamuka Mamulashvili denied the Georgian in the video was part of the Legion.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: The Georgian Legion is made up of about 500 Georgians and an equal number of various other nationalities.


title: Georgian Legion (Ukraine)

text: The Legion conducts sabotage and reconnaissance activities, and also instructs and trains Ukrainian soldiers and foreign volunteers. It also repeatedly participated in positional battles and offensives.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Slavery in Britain existed before the Roman occupation and until the 11th century, when the Norman conquest of England resulted in the gradual merger of the pre-conquest institution of slavery into serfdom, and all slaves were no longer recognised separately in English law or custom. By the middle of the 12th century, the institution of slavery as it had existed prior to the Norman conquest had fully disappeared, but other forms of unfree servitude continued for some centuries.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: British merchants were a significant force behind the Atlantic slave trade between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, but no legislation was ever passed in England that legalised slavery. In the Somerset case of 1772, Lord Mansfield ruled that, as slavery was not recognised by English law, James Somerset, a slave who had been brought to England and then escaped, could not be forcibly sent to Jamaica for sale, and he was set free. In Scotland colliery slaves were still in use until 1799 where an act was passed which established their freedom and made this slavery and bondage illegal.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: An influential abolitionist movement grew in Britain during the 18th and 19th century, until the Slave Trade Act 1807 abolished the slave trade in the British Empire, but it was not until the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 that the institution of slavery was abolished completely.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Despite being illegal, modern slavery still exists in Britain, as elsewhere, often following human trafficking from poorer countries, but also frequently targeting UK nationals.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Historically, Britons were enslaved in large numbers, typically by rich merchants and warlords who exported indigenous slaves from pre-Roman times, and by foreign invaders from the Roman Empire during the Roman Conquest of Britain.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: A thousand years later, British merchants became major participants in the Atlantic slave trade in the early modern period. As part of the triangular trade-system, ship-owners transported enslaved West Africans to European possessions in the New World (especially to British colonies in the West Indies) to be sold there. The ships brought commodities back to Britain then exported goods to Africa. Some plantation owners brought slaves to Britain, where many of them ran away from their masters. After a long campaign for abolition led by Thomas Clarkson and (in the House of Commons) by William Wilberforce, Parliament prohibited dealing in slaves by passing the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron enforced. Britain used its influence to persuade other countries around the world to abolish the slave trade and to sign treaties to allow the Royal Navy to interdict slaving ships.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: In 1772, "Somerset v Stewart" held that slavery had no basis in English law and was thus a violation of "habeas corpus". This built on the earlier Cartwright case from the reign of Elizabeth I which had similarly held the concept of slavery was not recognised in English law. This case was generally taken at the time to have decided that the condition of slavery did not exist under English law. Legally ("de jure") slave owners could not win in court, and abolitionists provided legal help for enslaved black people. However actual ("de facto") slavery continued in Britain with ten to fourteen thousand slaves in England and Wales, who were mostly domestic servants. When slaves were brought in from the colonies they had to sign waivers that made them indentured servants while in Britain. Most modern historians generally agree that slavery continued in Britain into the late 18th century, finally disappearing around 1800.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Slavery elsewhere in the British Empire was not affected — indeed it grew rapidly especially in the Caribbean colonies. Slavery was abolished in the colonies by buying out the owners in 1833 by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. Most slaves were freed, with exceptions and delays provided for the East India Company, Ceylon, and Saint Helena. These exceptions were eliminated in 1843.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: The prohibition on slavery and servitude is now codified under Article 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights, in force since 1953 and incorporated directly into United Kingdom law by the Human Rights Act 1998. Article 4 of the Convention also bans forced or compulsory labour, with some exceptions such as a criminal penalty or military service.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: From before Roman times, slavery was prevalent in Britain, with indigenous Britons being routinely exported. Following the Roman conquest of Britain, slavery was expanded and industrialised.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: After the fall of Roman Britain, both the Angles and Saxons propagated the slave system. One of the earliest accounts of slaves from early medieval Britain come from the description of fair-haired boys from York seen in Rome by Pope Gregory the Great, in a biography written by an anonymous monk.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Vikings traded with Gaelic, Pict, Brythonic and Saxon kingdoms in between raiding them for slaves. Saxon slave traders sometimes worked in league with Norse traders, often selling Britons to the Irish. In 870, Vikings besieged and captured the stronghold of Alt Clut (the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde) and in 871 most of the site's inhabitants were taken, most probably by Olaf the White and Ivar the Boneless, to the Dublin slave markets. Maredudd ab Owain (d. 999) is said to have paid a large ransom for the return of 2,000 Welsh slaves.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Anglo-Saxon opinion eventually turned against the sale of slaves abroad: a law of Ine of Wessex stated that anyone selling his own countryman, whether bond or free, across the sea, was to pay his own weregild in penalty, even when the man sold was guilty of a crime. Nevertheless, legal penalties and economic pressures that led to default in payments maintained the supply of slaves, and in the 11th century there was still a slave trade operating out of Bristol, as a passage in the "Vita Wulfstani" makes clear.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: The "Bodmin manumissions", preserves the names and details of slaves freed in Bodmin (then the principal town of Cornwall) during the 9th and 10th centuries, indicating both that slavery existed in Cornwall at that time and that numerous Cornish slave-owners eventually set their slaves free.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: While there was no legislation against slavery, William the Conqueror introduced a law preventing the sale of slaves overseas.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: In 1102, the Church Council of London convened by Anselm issued a decree: "Let no one dare hereafter to engage in the infamous business, prevalent in England, of selling men like animals." However, the Council had no legislative powers, and no act of law was valid unless signed by the monarch.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Contemporary writers noted that the Scottish and Welsh took captives as slaves during raids, a practice which was no longer common in England by the 12th century. Some historians, like John Gillingham, have asserted that by about 1200, the institution of slavery was largely non-existent in the British Isles.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Other academics such as Judith Spicksley, have argued that forms of slavery did in fact continue in England between the 12th and 17th centuries, but under other terms such as "serfs", "villein" and "bondsmen", however the serf or villein differed from the slave in that they could not be purchased as a moveable object who could be removed from his land; meaning that instead serfdom was closer to the purchasing of rental titles today than to true slavery. Slavery did still occur though, and seen in the carrying away of over a thousand children from Wales to be "servants", which is recorded as taking place in 1401.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: Transportation to the colonies as a criminal or an indentured servant served as punishment for both great and petty crimes in England from the 17th century until well into the 19th century. A sentence could be for life or for a specific period. The penal system required convicts to work on government projects such as road construction, building works and mining, or assigned them to free individuals as unpaid labour. Women were expected to work as domestic servants and farm labourers. Like slaves, indentured servants could be bought and sold, could not marry without the permission of their owner, were subject to physical punishment, and saw their obligation to labour enforced by the courts. However, they did retain certain heavily restricted rights; this contrasts with slaves who had none.


title: Slavery in Britain

text: A convict who had served part of his time might apply for a "ticket of leave", granting them some prescribed freedoms. This enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and enabled a few to develop the colonies while removing them from the society. Exile was an essential component, and was thought to be a major deterrent to crime. Transportation was also seen as a humane and productive alternative to execution, which would most likely have been the sentence for many if transportation had not been introduced.