title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: In the EuroBasket 2013 in Slovenia, Bogdanović represented the senior Serbian national team, averaging 9.4 points, 4.3 rebounds, and 2 assists per game. Bogdanović was a member of the Serbian national basketball team that won the silver medal at the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup, under head coach Aleksandar Đorđević. He emerged in the knockout phase against Greece, Brazil, and France, and ended the tournament with averages of 12 points, 2.4 rebounds, and 2.8 assists per game, on 47% shooting.


title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: In the last few pre-tournament friendly games for the EuroBasket 2015, Serbian team head coach Đorđević put Bogdanović on the bench due to the twenty-three-year-old player's persistent back injury problems. Despite that, he was named to the 12-man roster that represented Serbia at the EuroBasket. Throughout the first phase of the tournament, playing with pain injections, he saw limited minutes, and his production slightly decreased from the previous summer. Despite that, Serbia dominated in the tournament's toughest group, Group B, with a 5–0 record, and then eliminated Finland and Czech Republic in the round of 16 and quarterfinal games, respectively. However, they were stopped in the semifinal game by Lithuania, with a score of 67–64, and eventually lost to the tournament's host team, France, in the bronze-medal game, with a score of 81–68. Over 9 tournament games, Bogdanović averaged 8.9 points, 3.2 rebounds, and 3.2 assists per game, on 39.7% shooting from the field, and 27.1% shooting from the three-point line.


title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: Bogdanović also represented Serbia at the 2016 Summer Olympics where they won the silver medal, after losing to the United States in the final game with 96–66.


title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: Bogdanović also represented Serbia at the EuroBasket 2017 where they won the silver medal, after losing in the final game to Slovenia. With the absence of long-time team captain and leader Miloš Teodosić due to injury, Bogdanović stepped in as the team's leader. Over 9 tournament games, he averaged 20.4 points, 3.4 rebounds and 5 assists per game, on 47.4% overall field goal shooting. He was named All-Tournament Team.


title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: At the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup, the national team of Serbia was dubbed as favorite to win the trophy, but was eventually upset in the quarterfinals by Argentina. With wins over the United States and Czech Republic, it finished in fifth place. Bogdanović was once again the best player in the team, averaging 22.9 points, 4.1 rebounds and 4.4 assists over 8 games, while shooting 55.6% from the field and 53% from the three-point line. For his performances, he was selected to the FIBA Basketball World Cup All-Tournament Team. With 183 points scored throughout the tournament, he was the FIBA Basketball World Cup Top Scorer by total points scored.


title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: On 10 June 2022, it was announced that Bogdanović will miss the EuroBasket 2022 due to a right knee surgery.


title: Bogdan Bogdanović (basketball)

text: Bogdanović is related to the late noted Serbian architect Bogdan Bogdanović, sharing the same name. However, he is not related to fellow NBA basketball player Bojan Bogdanović, who is Croatian. In addition to basketball, he is also a fan of the "World of Warcraft" series of video games. On 10 April 2016, fans of Fenerbahçe named a star after Bogdan Bogdanović.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The New Order () of Europe was the political order which Nazi Germany wanted to impose on the conquered areas under its dominion. The establishment of the had already begun long before the start of World War II, but was publicly proclaimed by Adolf Hitler in 1941: "The year 1941 will be, I am convinced, the historical year of a great European New Order!"


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Among other things, it entailed the creation of a pan-German racial state, structured according to Nazi ideology, to ensure the existence of a perceived Aryan-Nordic master race, consolidate a massive territorial expansion into Central and Eastern Europe through colonization by German settlers, achieve the physical annihilation of Jews, Slavs (especially Poles and Russians), Roma ("gypsies"), and others considered to be "unworthy of life", as well as the extermination, expulsion or enslavement of most of the Slavic peoples and others regarded as "racially inferior". Nazi Germany's desire for aggressive territorial expansionism was one of the most important causes of World War II.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Historians are still divided as to its ultimate goals, some believing that it was to be limited to Nazi German domination of Europe, while others maintain that it was a springboard for eventual world conquest and the establishment of a world government under German control.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The term "Neuordnung" originally had a more limited meaning than it did later. It is typically translated as "New Order", but a more correct translation would be more akin to "reorganization". When it was used in Germany during the Third Reich era, it referred specifically to the desire of the Nazis to redraw the state borders within Europe, thereby transforming the existing geopolitical structures. In the same sense, it has also been used, now and in the past, to denote similar re-orderings of the international political order such as those following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the Allied victory in 1945. The complete phrase used by the Nazi establishment was actually "die Neuordnung Europas" (the New Order of Europe), for which "Neuordnung" was merely a shorthand.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: According to the Nazi government, that principle was pursued by Germany to secure a fair rearrangement of territory for the common benefit of a new, economically integrated Europe, which in Nazi terminology meant the continent of Europe with the exception of the "Asiatic" Soviet Union. Nazi racial views regarded the "Judeo-Bolshevist" Soviet state as both a criminal institution which needed to be destroyed, and as a barbarian place lacking any culture that would give it a "European" character. Therefore, "Neuordnung" was rarely used in reference to Soviet Russia, because the Nazis believed it did not feature any elements that could be re-organized along National Socialist lines.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The objective was to ensure a state of total post-war continental hegemony for Nazi Germany. That was to be achieved by the expansion of the territorial base of the German state itself, combined with the political and economic subjugation of the rest of Europe to Germany. Eventual extensions of the project to areas beyond Europe, as well as on an ultimately global scale, were anticipated for the future period in which Germany would have secured unchallenged control over her own continent, but "Neuordnung" did not carry that extra-European meaning at the time.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Through its wide use in Nazi propaganda, the phrase quickly gained coinage in Western media. In English-language academic circles especially, it eventually carried a much more inclusive definition, and was increasingly used to refer to the foreign and domestic policies, and the war aims, of the Nazi state, and its dictatorial leader Adolf Hitler. Therefore, the phrase had approximately the same connotations as the term "co-prosperity sphere" did in Japanese circles, in reference to their planned imperial domain. Nowadays, it is generally used to refer to all the post-war plans and policies, both in and outside of Europe, that the Nazis expected to implement after the anticipated victory of Germany and the other Axis powers in World War II.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The Nazis claimed to scientifically measure a strict hierarchy of human race. The "master race" was said to comprise the purest stock of the Aryan race, which was narrowly defined by the Nazis as being identical with the Nordic race, followed by other sub-Aryan races. The Nazis said that because Western civilization, created and maintained mostly by Nordics, was obviously superior to other civilizations, the "Nordic" peoples were superior to all other races and were entitled to dominate the world, a concept known as Nordicism.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Hitler's ideas about the eastward expansion that he promulgated in "Mein Kampf" were greatly influenced during his 1924 imprisonment by his contact with his geopolitical mentor Karl Haushofer. One of Haushofer's primary geopolitical concepts was the necessity for Germany to get control of the Eurasian Heartland in order for it to attain eventual world domination.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In a subsequently published speech given at Erlangen University in November 1930, Hitler explained to his audience that no other people had more of a right to fight for and attain "control" of the globe ("Weltherrschaft", i.e. "world leadership", "world rule") than the Germans. He realized that an extremely ambitious goal could never be achieved without significant military effort. Hitler had alluded to future German world dominance even earlier in his political career. In a letter written by Rudolf Hess to Walter Hewel in 1927, Hess paraphrases Hitler's vision: "World peace is certainly an ideal worth striving for; in Hitler's opinion it will be realizable only when one power, the racially best one has attained complete and uncontested supremacy. That [power] can then provide a sort of world police, seeing to it at the same time that the most valuable race is guaranteed the necessary living space. And if no other way is open to them, the lower races will have to restrict themselves accordingly".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Heinrich Himmler discussed the territorial aspirations of Germany during his first Posen speech in 1943. He commented on the goals of the warring nations involved in the conflict and stated that Germany was fighting for new territories and a global power status:


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Had the British been defeated by Germany, the political re-ordering of Western Europe would have been accomplished. There was to be no post-war general peace conference in the manner of the one held in Paris after the First World War, merely bilateral negotiations between Germany and her defeated enemies. All still existing international organizations such as the International Labour Organization were to be dismantled or replaced by German-controlled equivalents.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: One of the primary German foreign policy aims throughout the 1930s had been to establish a military alliance with the United Kingdom, and despite anti-British policies having been adopted as this proved impossible, hope remained that the UK would in time yet become a reliable German ally. Hitler professed an admiration for the British Empire and preferred to see it preserved as a world power, mostly because its break-up would benefit other countries far more than it would Germany, particularly the United States and Japan. Britain's situation was likened to the historical situation of the Austrian Empire after its defeat by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866, after which Austria was formally excluded from German affairs but would prove to become a loyal ally of the German Empire in the pre-World War I power alignments in Europe. It was hoped that a defeated Britain would fulfill a similar role, being excluded from continental affairs, but maintaining its Empire and becoming an allied seafaring partner of the Germans.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: William L. Shirer, however, claims that the British male population between 17 and 45 would have been forcibly transferred to the continent to be used as industrial slave labour, although possibly with better treatment than similar forced labor from Eastern Europe. The remaining population would have been terrorized, including civilian hostages being taken and the death penalty immediately imposed for even the most trivial acts of resistance, with the UK being plundered for anything of financial, military, industrial or cultural value.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: After the war, Otto Bräutigam of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories claimed in his book that in February 1943 he had the opportunity to read a personal report by Wagner regarding a discussion with Heinrich Himmler, in which Himmler had expressed the intention to exterminate about 80% of the populations of France and England by special forces of the SD after the German victory.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: By annexing large territories in northeastern France, Hitler hoped to marginalize the country to prevent any further continental challenges to Germany's hegemony. Likewise, the Latin nations of Western and Southern Europe (Portugal, Spain and Italy) were to be eventually brought into a state of total German dependency and control.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: One of the most elaborate Nazi projects initiated in the newly conquered territories during this period of the war was the planned establishment of a "Greater Germanic Reich of the German Nation" ("Großgermanisches Reich Deutscher Nation"). This future empire was to consist of, in addition to Greater Germany, virtually all of historically Germanic Europe (except Great Britain), whose inhabitants the Nazis believed to be "Aryan" in nature. The consolidation of these countries as mere provinces of the Third Reich, in the same manner in which Austria was reduced to the "Ostmark", was to be carried out through a rapidly enforced process of "Gleichschaltung" (synchronization). The ultimate intent of this was to eradicate all traces of national rather than racial consciousness, although their native languages were to remain in existence.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Immediately prior to Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, five countries, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Croatia were already client states of Nazi Germany. Serbia was under direct German military occupation and Montenegro was under the occupation of Italy. Albania had been annexed by Italy. Greece was under direct German-Italian military occupation because of the growing resistance movement. Although technically in the Italian sphere of influence, Croatia was, in reality, a condominium puppet state of the two Axis powers, with Italy controlling the southwestern half, and Germany the northeastern half. Hitler observed that permanent German bases might be established in Belgrade (possibly to be renamed to "Prinz-Eugen-Stadt") and Thessaloniki.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Adolf Hitler in "Mein Kampf" argued in the chapter "Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy" that the Germans needed "Lebensraum" in the East and described it as a "historic destiny" which would properly nurture the future generations of Germans. Hitler believed that "the organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race." Hitler spoke on 3 February 1933 to the staff of the army and declared that Germany's problems could be solved by "the conquest of new living space in the east and its ruthless Germanization". His earlier invasions of Czechoslovakia and Poland can be directly connected to his desire for Lebensraum in "Mein Kampf".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Implementation of the long-term plan for the New Order was begun on June 22, 1941 with Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the USSR. The goal of the campaign was not merely the destruction of the Soviet regime—which the Nazis considered illegitimate and criminal—but also the racial reorganization of European Russia, outlined for the Nazi elite in the Generalplan Ost ("General Plan for the East"). Nazi party philosopher Alfred Rosenberg (who, incidentally, protested against the inhumane policy shown toward the Slavs) was the "Minister for the Eastern Territories", the person nominally in charge of the project, and Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, was assigned to implement the General Plan for the East which detailed the enslavement, expulsion, and extermination of the Baltic peoples and Slavic peoples.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Furthermore, Hitler hoped to turn Germany into a total blockade-proof autarky by exploiting the vast resources lying in Soviet territories: Ukraine was to provide grain, vegetable oil, fodder, iron ore, nickel, manganese, coal, molybdenum; Crimea natural rubber, citrus fruit and cotton; the Black Sea fish, and the Caucasus crude oil.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: By 1942 the quasi-colonial regimes called the "General Government" in Poland, the "Reichskommissariat Ostland" in the Baltic states and Belarus, and the "Reichskommissariat Ukraine" in Ukraine had been established. Two more administrative divisions were envisaged: a "Reichskommissariat Moskowien" that would include the Moscow metropolitan area and vast tracts of European Russia, and a "Reichskommissariat Kaukasus" in the Caucasus. This policy was accompanied by the annihilation of the entire Jewish population (the Final Solution), as well as the enslavement of their Slavic inhabitants, who it was planned, would be made slave laborers on the estates be granted to SS soldiers after the conquest of European Russia. Each of these SS "soldier peasants" was expected to father at least seven children.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: German women were encouraged to have as many children as possible to populate the newly acquired Eastern territories. To encourage this fertility policy, the Lebensborn program was expanded and the state decoration known as the Gold Honor Cross of the German Mother was instituted, which was awarded to German women who bore at least eight children for the Third Reich. There was also an effort by Martin Bormann and Himmler to introduce new marriage legislation to facilitate population growth, which would have allowed decorated war heroes to marry an additional wife. Himmler envisaged a German population of 300,000,000 by 2000.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Rosenberg viewed that the political goal of Operation Barbarossa was not merely the destruction of the Bolshevik regime, but the "reversing of Russian dynamism" towards the east (Siberia) and the freeing of the Reich of the "eastern nightmare for centuries to come" by eliminating the Russian state, regardless of its political ideology. The continued existence of Russia as a potential instigator of Pan-Slavism and its suggestive power over other Slavic peoples in the fight between "Germandom" and "Slavism" was seen as a major threat. This was to be solved by exploiting ethnic centrifugal forces and limiting the influence of "Greater Russiandom" ("Großrussentum") by promoting segmentation in the manner of "divide and conquer".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In a memorandum sent to Rosenberg in March 1942, Nazi anthropologist Otto Reche argued for the disappearance of 'Russia' both as an ethnic and political concept, and the promotion of a new plethora of ethnicities based on medieval Slavic tribes such as the Vyatichs and Severians. Even White Ruthenia, and in particular the Ukraine ("in its present extent") he deemed to be dangerously large. Heinrich Himmler had already advocated for such a general policy towards Eastern Europe in 1940. A top-secret memorandum in 1940 from Himmler entitled "Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Peoples in the East" expressed that the Germans must splinter as many ethnic splinter groups in German-occupied Europe as possible, including Ukrainians, "White Russians" (Belarusians), Gorals (see "Goralenvolk"), Lemkos, and Kashubians and to find all "racially valuable" people and assimilate them in Germany. The Eastern Ministry responded that Reche's emphasis on the plurality of ethnic groups in the Soviet Union was correct "in itself", but was skeptical about his proposal to resurrect obscure and extinct nationalities. He defended his proposal by arguing that "[sic] in the area of ethnicity much has already been successfully brought back to life!", but inquired as to whether names connected with the main towns in each area might serve this role instead. A memo date written by from the NSDAP Office of Racial Policy administration, in April 1942 details the splitting up of Reichskommissariat Moskowien into very loosely tied Generalkommissariats. The objective was to undermine the national cohesion of the Russians by promoting regional identification; a Russian from the Gorki Generalkommissariat was to feel that he was different from a Russian in the Tula Generalkommissariat. Also, a source of discussion in the Nazi circles was the replacement of the Cyrillic letters with the German alphabet. In July 1944, Himmler ordered Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the head of the RSHA, to begin the exporting of the faith of the Jehovah's Witnesses to the occupied east. Himmler considered the Jehovah's Witnesses to be frugal, hard-working, honest and fanatic in their pacifism, and he believed that these traits were extremely desirable for the suppressed nations in the east — despite some 2,500 and 5,000 Jehovah's Witnesses becoming victims of the Holocaust.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: A series of "semantic guidelines" published by the Reich Interior Ministry in 1942 declared that it was permissible to use the word 'Russia' only in a reference to the "Petersburg empire" of Peter the Great and its follow-ups until the revolution of 1917. The period from 1300 to Peter the Great (the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Tsardom of Russia) was to be called the "Muscovite state", while post-1917 Russia was not to be referred to as an empire or a state at all; the preferred terms for this period were "bolshevik chaos" or "communist elements". Furthermore, historic expressions such as "Little Russia" (Ukraine), "White Russia" (Belarus/White Ruthenia), "Russian Sea" (for the Black Sea), and "Russian Asia" (for Siberia and Central Asia) were to be absolutely avoided as terminology of the "Muscovite imperialism". "Tatars" was described as a pejorative Russian term for the Volga, Crimean, and Azerbaijan Turks which was preferably to be avoided, and respectively replaced with the concepts "Idel (Volga)-Uralian", "Crimean Turks", and Azerbaijanis.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: By 1942, Hitler's empire encompassed much of Europe, but the territories annexed lacked population desired by the Nazis. After Germany had acquired her "Lebensraum", she now needed to populate these lands according to Nazi ideology and racial principles. This was to be accomplished before the end of the war by a "reordering of ethnographical relations". The initial step of this project had already been taken by Hitler on 7 October 1939, when Himmler was named the Reich Commissar for the Consolidation of Germandom ("Reichskommissar für die Festigung deutschen Volkstums") (RKFDV) (see also "Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle", VoMi) This position authorized Himmler to repatriate ethnic Germans ("Volksdeutsche") living abroad to occupied Poland. Himmler's jurisdiction as the guardian of the "Volksdeutsche" re-settlement efforts was increased to other occupied territories to be Germanized as the war continued. To make room for the German settlers, hundreds of thousands of Poles and French living in these lands were transferred across borders. The great majority of Himmler's "Volksdeutsche" were acquired from the Soviet sphere of interest under the German–Soviet "population exchange" treaty.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: At the end of 1942 a total of 629,000 "Volksdeutsche" had been re-settled, and preparations for the transfer of 393,000 others were underway. The long-term goal of the VoMi was the resettlement of a further 5.4 million "Volksdeutsche", mainly from Transylvania, Banat, France, Hungary and Romania. The immigrants were classified either as racially or politically unreliable (settled in "Altreich"), of high quality (settled in the annexed eastern territories) or suitable for transit camps. Himmler encountered considerable difficulties with the "Volksdeutsche" of France and Luxembourg, who often wished to retain their former status as citizens of their respective countries.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco contemplated joining the war on the German side. The Spanish Falangists made numerous border claims. Franco claimed French Basque departments, Catalan-speaking Roussillon, Cerdagne and Andorra. Spain also wanted to reclaim Gibraltar from the United Kingdom because of the symbolic and strategic value. Franco also called for the reunification of Morocco as a Spanish protectorate, the annexation of the Oran district from French Algeria and large-scale expansion of Spanish Guinea. This last project was especially unfeasible because it overlapped German territorial ambition to reclaim German Cameroon and Spain would most likely be forced to give up Guinea entirely. Spain also sought federation with Portugal on common cultural and historical grounds (such as the Iberian Union).


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: After the Spanish refusal to join the war, Spain and Portugal were expected to be invaded and become puppet states. They were to turn over coastal cities and islands in the Atlantic to Germany as part of the Atlantic Wall and to serve as German naval facilities. Portugal was to cede Portuguese Mozambique and Portuguese Angola as part of the intended Mittelafrika colonial project.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Hitler's geopolitical thoughts about Africa always occupied a secondary position to his expansionist aims in Europe itself. His public announcements prior to outbreak of the war that Germany's former colonies be returned to it served primarily as bargaining chips to further territorial goals in Europe itself. Africa was nevertheless expected to fall under German control in some way or another after Germany had first achieved supremacy over its own continent.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Hitler's overall intentions for the future organization of Africa divided the continent into three overall. The northern third was to be assigned to its Italian ally, while the central part would fall under German rule. The remaining southern sector would be controlled by a pro-Nazi Afrikaner state built on racial grounds. In early 1940 Foreign Minister Ribbentrop had communicated with South African leaders thought to be sympathetic to the Nazi cause, informing them that Germany was to reclaim its former colony of German South-West Africa, then a mandate of the Union of South Africa. South Africa was to be compensated by the territorial acquisitions of the British protectorates of Swaziland, Basutoland and Bechuanaland and the colony of Southern Rhodesia. On the division of French African colonies between the Spanish and Italian governments Hitler refused to provide any official promises during the war, however, fearful of losing the support of Vichy France.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In 1940 the general staff of the "Kriegsmarine" (navy) produced a much more detailed plan accompanied by a map showing a proposed German colonial empire delineated in blue (the traditional color used in German cartography to indicate the German sphere of influence as opposed to the red or pink that represented the British Empire) in sub-Saharan Africa, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean. The proposed domain was supposed to fulfill the long-sought territorial German goal of "Mittelafrika", and even further beyond. It would provide a base from which Germany would achieve a pre-eminent position on the African continent just as the conquest of Eastern Europe was to achieve a similar status over the continent of Europe.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In contrast to territories that were to be acquired in Europe itself (specifically European Russia), these areas were not envisaged as targets for extensive German population settlement. The establishment of a vast colonial empire was to serve primarily economic purposes, for it would provide Germany with most natural resources that it would not be able to find in its continental possessions, as well as an additional nearly unlimited supply of labor. Racialist policies would nevertheless be strictly enforced on all inhabitants (meaning segregation of Europeans and blacks and punishing of interracial relationships) to maintain "Aryan" purity.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The area included all pre-1914 German colonial territories in Africa, as well as additional parts of the French, Belgian and British colonial holdings in Africa. These included the French and Belgian Congos, Northern and Southern Rhodesia (the latter going perhaps to South Africa), Nyasaland, southern Kenya with Nairobi (northern Kenya was to be given to Italy), Uganda, Gabon, Ubangui-Chari, Nigeria, Dahomey, the Gold Coast, Zanzibar, nearly all of Niger and Chad, as well as the naval bases of Dakar and Bathurst.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: A second part of the plan entailed the construction of a huge string of fortified naval and air bases for future operations against the Western hemisphere, spanning much of the Atlantic coastline of Europe and Africa from Trondheim in Norway all the way down to the Belgian Congo, as well as many off-lying islands such as Cape Verde and the Azores. A less extensive but similar initiative was intended for the east coast of Africa.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In 1942, a secret diplomatic conference was held between Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire in which they agreed to divide Asia along a line that followed the Yenisei River to the border of China, and then along the border of China and the Soviet Union, the northern and western borders of Afghanistan, and the border between Iran and British India (which included what is now Pakistan). This treaty, of which a draft was presented to the Germans by ambassador Hiroshi Ōshima, was rejected by the German Foreign Office and the Navy, as it allocated India to Japan and limited the "Kriegsmarine"'s operations in the Indian Ocean. Hitler, however, found the treaty acceptable, leading to its signing on 18 January 1942.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The treaty proved to be detrimental for Axis strategic cooperation in the Indian Ocean, as crossing the boundary line required tedious prior consultation. This made any joint German-Japanese offensive against British positions in the Middle East impossible. Japanese operations against Allied shipping lines during the Indian Ocean raid had been highly successful along with the attack against Ceylon, but these were not followed due to the non-existent German-Japanese strategic cooperation. The Germans vigorously maintained watch on the demarcation line and objected to any Japanese incursion to the "German sphere" of the Axis-divided world. Thus the Japanese were forced to cancel a planned massive attack against Madagascar, as the island had been delegated to Germany in the treaty.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Germany's former colonial possessions in the Pacific (German New Guinea and German Samoa), which had been allocated to Australia and New Zealand after World War I as C-Class Mandates according to the Treaty of Versailles, were to be sold to Japan (both Weimar and Nazi-era Germany never relinquished claims to their pre-war colonial territories) at least temporarily in the interest of the Tripartite Pact, its alliance with that country. Australia and New Zealand were designated as future Japanese territories, although Hitler lamented his belief that the white race would disappear from those regions. He nevertheless made it clear to his officials that "the descendants of the convicts in Australia" were not Germany's concern and that their lands would be colonized by Japanese settlers in the immediate future, an opinion also shared by Joseph Goebbels, who expressed his conviction in his diary that the Japanese had always desired "the fifth continent" for emigration purposes. In his only recorded lengthy discussion on the subject he argued that its people still lived in trees and had not yet learned to walk upright. Historian Norman Rich stated that it can be assumed that Hitler would have attempted to recruit the Anglo-Saxons of these two countries as colonists for the conquered east; some of the English were to share the same fate.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: After the projected fall of the Soviet Union, Hitler planned to intensify the war in the Mediterranean. The OKW produced studies concerning an attack against the Suez Canal through Turkey, an offensive towards Baghdad-Basra from the Caucasus (most of which was already under German occupation as a result of Fall Blau) in support of revolting Arab nationalists, and operations in Afghanistan and Iran directed against British India. Hitler did not envision German colonization of the region, and was most likely to allow Italian dominance at least over the Levant. The Jews of the Middle East were to be murdered, as Hitler had promised to the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in November 1941 (see Einsatzgruppe Egypt).


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Turkey was favored as a potential ally by Hitler because of its important strategic location on the boundaries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as its extensive history as a state hostile against the Russian Empire and the later Soviet Union. To assure that Germany wanted to work with them on a long-range basis, the Turks were guaranteed an equal status in the German-dominated order, and were promised a number of territories which they might desire for reasons of security. These encompassed Edirne (Adrianople) and an expansion of Turkish frontiers at the expense of Greece, the creation of buffer states in the Caucasus under Turkish influence, a revision of the Turkish-Syrian frontier (the Baghdad Railway and the State of Aleppo) and the Turkish-Iraqi frontier (the Mosul region), as well as a settlement of "the Aegean question" to provide Turkey with suitable protection against encroachments from Italy. The Black Sea (which Hitler derided as "a mere frog-pond") was also to be conceded to Turkey as part of its sphere of influence, for this would negate the need of stationing a German navy in the region to replace the Soviet Black Sea Fleet. Crimea (tentatively dubbed "Gotenland" by the Nazis) was nevertheless to be fortified to ensure permanent German possession of the peninsula, and the Black Sea exploited as an "unlimited" resource of seafood.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Allied-occupied Iran was also to be drawn into the Axis camp, possibly by the means of an uprising. The possibility of Iran as an anti-Soviet bastion was already considered in the 1930s, and coincided with Hitler's declaration of Iran as an "Aryan state" (the name "Iran" literally means "homeland of the Aryans" in Persian). The changing of Persia's name to Iran in 1935 was done by the Shah at the suggestion of the German ambassador to Iran as an act of "Aryan solidarity". However the Iranians had always called their country "Iran", a name that predated the rise of Nazi Germany by more than a thousand years. On the eve of World War II Germany was already Iran's single-biggest trading partner, followed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and the United States.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: During pre-war diplomatic maneuvers, the NSDAP Office of Foreign Affairs took special interest in Afghanistan, believing that the German Empire had failed to exploit the country diplomatically during the First World War despite the Niedermayer-Hentig Expedition. The objective was to ensure that the country would remain neutral during a possible German-British conflict and even use it militarily against British India or Soviet Russia. Despite the NSDAP Foreign Office's good relations with the Afghan government, the Foreign Ministry under Ribbentrop favored overthrowing the current government and restoration of the rule of Amānullāh Khān, who had been living in exile since 1929. Hitler eventually came to support Rosenberg's office on this issue. After the German-French armistice of 1940, the Kabul government tried to question Berlin on German plans concerning the future of Afghanistan. Of special interest were the post-war borders of the country - the Afghan government hoped to see the re-incorporation of 15 million ethnic Pashtuns which had been placed in British India thanks to the Durand Line, and the securing of the northern Indian border so that an expansion towards the Indian Ocean became possible (See Pashtunistan). As the Nazi–Soviet Axis talks of October–November were then underway (and the possible expansion of the Soviet sphere of influence in south-central Asia and India was on the table), Berlin was reluctant to give any binding offers to Kabul.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The Third Saudi State under Ibn Saud was seen as a natural ally, and was to be given territorial concessions in south-west Arabia and Transjordan. Also, a post-war satellite Greater Arab Union was discussed.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Although initially intending to concede Italy control of the region, after that country had defected to the Allied camp in 1943, Hitler came to regard the Islamic countries and the Pan-Arab movement increasingly more as the natural ally of National Socialist Germany, as opposed to the "treacherous" Italians. On 17 February 1945 in particular he explained to his entourage his regrets that Germany's prior alliance with its southern neighbor had prevented her from pursuing a more revolutionary policy towards the Arab world, which would have also allowed its exit from the British and French spheres of influence in the area:


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Hitler's views on India were generally disparaging, and his plans for the region were heavily influenced by his racial views. Though many Indian nationalists looked to Nazi Germany as a potential ally in their struggle against British colonial rule, Hitler "made no secret of his contempt for anticolonial movements." In May 1930, Hitler wrote that the Indian independence movement was carried out by the "lower Indian race against the superior English Nordic race", and referred to Indians as "Asiatic jugglers". Seven years later in 1937, Hitler informed British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax that the British should "shoot Gandhi, and if this doesn't suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of the Congress, and if that doesn't suffice shoot 200, and so on, as you make it clear that you mean business." During the same discussion Hitler reportedly told Halifax that one of his favorite films was "The Lives of a Bengal Lancer", because it depicted a handful of "superior race" Britons holding sway over the Indian subcontinent.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg, who shared Hitler's racial and political views on India, claimed that although Vedic culture was Aryan in origin, any Nordic blood in India had long since dissipated due to racial miscegenation. Asit Krishna Mukherji, with support of the German consulate, published "The New Mercury", a National Socialist magazine and was lauded by Baron von Selzam in a "communiqué to all German legations in the Far East that no one had rendered services to the Third Reich in Asia comparable to those of Sir Asit Krishna Mukherji's." Savitri Devi, who would later marry him, shared his beliefs "in the pan Aryan revival of India", as well as in Hindu nationalism, and once World War II started, both "undertook clandestine war work on behalf of the Axis powers in Calcutta."


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: During the first years of the war in Europe, as Hitler sought to reach an arrangement with the British, he held the notion that India should remain under British control after the war, as in his mind the only alternative was a Soviet occupation of the subcontinent. As the British had rejected German peace offers, Hitler ordered on 17 February 1941 to prepare a military study for a post-Barbarossa operation in Afghanistan against India. The goal of this operation was not so much to conquer the subcontinent, but to threaten British military positions there to force the British to come to terms. A week later the Afghanistan operation was the subject of a discussion between head of the Army General Staff Franz Halder, "Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres" Walter von Brauchitsch and chief of the "Operationsabteilung" OKH Adolf Heusinger. In an assessment produced on 7 April 1941, Halder estimated that the operation would require 17 divisions and one separate regiment. A Special Bureau for India was created with these goals in mind.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Indian revolutionary Subhas Chandra Bose escaped from India on 17 January 1941 and arrived in Berlin via Moscow. There he proposed organizing an Indian national government in exile and urged the Axis to declare their support for the Indian cause. He eventually managed to extract such promises from Japan after the Fall of Singapore and later on from Italy as well, but the Germans refused. Bose was granted an audience with Benito Mussolini, but Hitler initially refused to see him, although he did acquire access to Joachim von Ribbentrop after much difficulty. The German Foreign Ministry was skeptical of any such endeavors, as the German goal was to use Bose for propaganda and subversive activity, especially following the model of the 1941 pro-Axis coup in Iraq. These propaganda measures included anti-Raj radio broadcasts and the recruitment of Indian prisoners of war for the "Free India Legion". Bose eventually met with Hitler on 29 May 1942. During the discussion, which mostly consisted of Hitler monologing to Bose, Hitler expressed his skepticism for India's readiness for a rebellion against the Raj, and his fears of a Soviet takeover of India. He stated that if Germany had to do anything about India it would first have to conquer Russia, for the road to India could only be accomplished through that country, although he did promise to financially support Bose and help relocate him to the Far East. Bose later described the encounter by stating that it was impossible to get Hitler involved in any serious political discussion.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: On 18 January 1942, it was decided that the Indian subcontinent was to be divided between the Axis powers. Germany was to take the part of British India roughly corresponding to the western part of modern-day Pakistan, while the rest of British India, along with Afghanistan, was marked for Japan.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Before completing the expected German conquest of Europe, the Nazi leadership hoped to keep the United States out of the war. In an interview with "Life" in the spring of 1941, Hitler stated that a German invasion of the Western Hemisphere was as fantastic as an invasion of the moon, and he said he was convinced that the idea was being promoted by men who mistakenly thought that war would be good for business.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: U.S. pro-Nazi movements such as the Friends of the New Germany and the German-American Bund played no role in Hitler's plans for the country, and received no financial or verbal support from Germany after 1935. However, certain Native American advocate groups, such as the fascist-leaning American Indian Federation, were to be used to undermine the Roosevelt administration from within by means of propaganda. Fictitious reports about Berlin declaring the Sioux as Aryans were circulated by the German-American Bund with the aim of increasing tensions between Native Americans and the government of the United States, impelling Native Americans to resist being drafted or registered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; such rumours were reported by John Collier, commissioner of Indian Affairs, to the Congress as true, thus not merely spreading them further but also legitimating them in the eyes of many. As a boy, Hitler had been an enthusiastic reader of Karl May westerns and he told Albert Speer that he still turned to them for inspiration as an adult when he was in a tight spot.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Approximately nine months before the United States joined the Allies, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a reference to the New Order in a speech he gave on March 15, 1941, recognizing Hitler's hostility towards the United States and the destructive potential it represented, about which Roosevelt was quite acutely aware:


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Hitler held U.S. society in contempt, stating that the United States (which he consistently referred to as the "American Union") was "half Judaized, and the other half Negrified" and that "in so far as there are any decent people in America, they are all of German origin". Already in his 1928 book "Zweites Buch", he had maintained that National Socialist Germany must prepare for the ultimate struggle against the U.S. for hegemony. In mid-late 1941, as Hitler became overconfident of an Axis victory in Europe against the UK and the Soviet Union, he began planning an enormous extension of the Kriegsmarine, projected to include 25 battleships, 8 aircraft carriers, 50 cruisers, 400 submarines and 150 destroyers, far exceeding the naval expansion that had already been decided on in 1939's Plan Z. Historian Gerhard L. Weinberg stated that this super-fleet was intended against the Western Hemisphere. Hitler also considered the occupation of the Portuguese Azores, Cape Verde and Madeira and the Spanish Canary islands to deny the British a staging ground for military actions against Nazi-controlled Europe, and also to gain Atlantic naval bases and military airfields for operations against North America. Hitler desired to use the islands to "deploy long-range bombers against American cities from the Azores", via a plan that actually arrived on Hermann Göring's RLM office desks in the spring of 1942 for the design competition concerning such an aircraft. In July 1941, Hitler approached Japanese ambassador Ōshima with an offer to wage a joint struggle against the U.S.—Japan's own Project Z aircraft design program was one possible manner in which such a goal could be accomplished, all during the timeframe that the USAAC had itself, on April 11, 1941, first proposed a competition for airframe designs for the same sort of missions against the Axis forces, the Northrop XB-35 and the Convair B-36, flying directly from North American soil to attack Nazi Germany.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In this final battle for world domination, Hitler expected the defeated British to eventually support the Axis forces with its large navy. He stated that "England and America will one day have a war with one another, which will be waged with the greatest hatred imaginable. One of the two countries will have to disappear." and "I shall no longer be there to see it, but I rejoice on behalf of the German people at the idea that one day we will see England and Germany marching together against America".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: The actual physical conquest of the United States was unlikely, however, and the future disposition of U.S. territories remained cloudy in Hitler's mind. He perceived the anticipated battle with that country, at least under his own rule, to be a sort of "battle of the continents"—possibly along the lines of then-contemporary U.S. thought, such as the opening text from the second film in Frank Capra's "Why We Fight" series, illustrating one U.S. viewpoint of what Hitler could have thought on such matters while viewing the crowds at the 1934 Nuremberg rally—with a Nazi-dominated Old World fighting for global dominance against the New World, in which Germany would attain "leadership" of the world rather than establish direct control over it. Further decisions down the line were left up to future generations of German rulers.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Canada featured fairly little in Nazi conceptions of the post-war world. Because Hitler's political objectives were primarily focused on Eastern Europe before and during the war — in contrast to his own opinions towards the United States from 1928 in his unpublished volume, "Zweites Buch"—Hitler considered the United States a negligible political factor in the world, while Canada interested him even less. He politically grouped the country together with the United States in a U.S.-dominated North America, and considered it equally as "materialistic, racially bastardized, and decadent" as its southern neighbor. In 1942, when expressing his fear of an imminent collapse of the British Empire which he preferred to remain intact, Hitler believed that the United States would seize and annex Canada at the first opportunity, and that the Canadians would be quick to welcome such a move.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: This lack of policy direction from the top meant that Nazi politicians concerned with representing Germany's interests and relations with Canada had to resort to an improvised line of policy which they believed to be in accordance with Hitler's wishes. The country was noted for its abundance of natural resources, and because of its great geographic size coupled with a low population density was characterized as "a country without people", in contrast to Germany which was considered "a people without space". In his 1934 travelogue account of Canada, "Zwischen USA und dem Pol" (), German journalist Colin Ross described Canadian society as artificial because it was composed of many different parts that weren't tied together by either blood or long-standing traditions (highlighting the differences between the French and English Canadians in particular), and that for this reason one could not speak of either a Canadian nation or "Volk". As a result, the country's political system was also considered mechanic and non-organic, and that Ottawa did not constitute "the heart of the nation". Because of both these factors the Canadians were deemed incapable of comprehending "true culture", and German immigration in Canada was considered a mistake because they would be forced to live in an "empty civilization".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Neither Hitler nor any other major Nazi leader showed much interest towards South America, except as a warning example of "racial mixing". However, the NSDAP/AO was active in various South American countries (notably among German Brazilians and German Argentines), and trade relations between Germany and the South American countries were seen as of great importance. Between 1933 and 1941, the Nazi aim in South America was to achieve economic hegemony by expanding trade at the expense of the Western Powers. Hitler also believed that German-dominated Europe would displace the United States as the principal trading partner of the continent. Long-term Nazi hopes for political penetration of the region were placed on the local fascist movements, such as the Integralists in Brazil and fascists in Argentina, combined with the political activation of the German immigrant communities. Hitler also had hopes of seeing German immigrants "returning" from the Western Hemisphere to colonize the conquered East. Despite being occasionally suspicious of the South American Germans of adopting a "South attitude towards life", top Nazis believed that their experience working in underdeveloped areas would make them ideal settlers for the annexed eastern territories.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: On 27 October 1941 Roosevelt stated in a speech "I have in my possession a secret map, made in Germany by Hitler's government, by planners of the new world order. It is a map of South America and part of Central America as Hitler proposes to organize it" into five countries under German domination. The speech amazed both the United States and Germany; the latter claimed the map was a forgery. While British Security Coordination indeed forged the map and arranged for discovery by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, it likely was based in part on a real, public map of boundary changes German agents used to persuade South American countries to join the New Order.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Although pursuing an alliance based on "Realpolitik" with Imperial Japan in the battle against the "Western Plutocracies" and Soviet Bolshevism, the Nazi leadership ultimately considered this cooperation only temporary in nature. The racial ideology of Nazism predicted that the fate of human civilization depended on the ultimate triumph of the Germanic-Nordic peoples, and in fact the populous Asian continent was seen as the greatest threat to hegemony of the white race. The Japanese people were characterized as 'culture-bearers', meaning they could make use of the technological and civilizational achievements of the Aryan race and by so doing maintain an advanced society, but could not truly create 'culture' themselves. Gerhard Weinberg asserts that the historical evidence points to the conclusion that Hitler, like he had done with the Soviets in the 1939–1941 period, employed a tactic of conceding to the Japanese whatever they desired until they in turn could be defeated in a subsequent war. In early 1942, Hitler is quoted saying to Ribbentrop: "We have to think in terms of centuries. Sooner or later there will have to be a showdown between the white and the yellow races."


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: In July 1941, as plans were being laid out for post-Barbarossa military operations, the Wehrmacht's naval top-level command, the "Oberkommando der Marine", was not ready to exclude the possibility of a war between Germany and Japan. In 1942, NSDAP official (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories) predicted that "the self-determination of the numerically strong Asian peoples after this war" would challenge German-controlled Europe with Japanese instigation, and stated that "a Greater Asia and an independent India are formations that dispose over hundreds of millions of inhabitants. A German world power with 80 or 85 million Germans by contrast is numerically too weak". Wetzel further pondered on Germany's choices on the population policies in occupied Russia: if the Russians were restricted to having as few children as possible in the interest of German colonization, this would further "weaken the white race in view of the dangers of Asia".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: As the Japanese were conquering one European colonial territory after another in Asia and Oceania, and seemingly poised to take over Australia and New Zealand as well, Hitler further believed that the white race would disappear altogether from these regions, which he viewed as a turning point in history. He was relieved that Japan had entered the war on Germany's side, however, as he had long hoped to use that country as a strategic counterweight against the United States, but also because Japanese hegemony in East Asia and the Pacific would guarantee both countries' security against other powers. Looking into the future, he remarked that "There's one thing Japan and Germany have in common; both of us need fifty to a hundred years for purposes of digestion: we for Russia, they for the Far East".


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: During his speech at the meeting of SS major-Generals at Posen on 4 October 1943, Heinrich Himmler commented on the future conflicts between Nazi-controlled Europe and Asia:


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Himmler addressed this apocalyptic vision in an earlier speech given to SS generals at the University of Kharkiv, Ukraine in April 1943. He first spoke on the necessity of the war against the Soviets and Jewry:


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: After the decisive German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad on 2 February 1943, Germany was forced onto the defensive and was no longer able to actively pursue implementation of the New Order in the Soviet Union, although the genocide against Jews, Romani, and other minorities continued. Following the subsequent failure of the 1943 summer offensive to regain the territories lost to the Soviets earlier that year, the Wehrmacht was no longer able to mount an effective large-scale counter-attack on the Eastern Front. In a discussion with Joseph Goebbels on 26 October 1943 Hitler opined that Germany should conclude a temporary armistice with the Soviet Union and return to its 1941 border in the east. This would then give Germany the opportunity to defeat the British forces in the west first (no mention was made of the United States's part in the Allied alliance) before resuming a new war for "Lebensraum" against the Soviet Union at a later point in time. Hitler thought that his future successor might have to carry out this later war, as he believed himself to be too old by then.


title: New Order (Nazism)

text: Late in the war, after the failure of the final Ardennes offensive and the Allied crossing of the Rhine into Germany itself, Hitler hoped that a decisive victory on the Eastern Front might still preserve the Nazi regime, resulting in Operation Spring Awakening. He believed that, with the conclusion of a separate peace-treaty with the Soviet Union, a division of Poland might still be realized and leave Hungary and Croatia (the former still under German occupation at the time, the latter a Croatian fascist puppet-state) under German control. Hitler only acknowledged Germany's imminent defeat mere days prior to his suicide.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 () or Artoo-Detoo is a fictional robot character in the "Star Wars" franchise created by George Lucas. He has appeared in ten of the eleven theatrical "Star Wars" films to date. At various points throughout the course of the films, R2, an astromech droid, is a friend to C-3PO, Padmé Amidala, Anakin Skywalker, Leia Organa, Luke Skywalker, and Obi-Wan Kenobi. R2-D2 and his companion C-3PO are the only characters to appear in every theatrical "Star Wars" film, with the exception of "" (2018).


title: R2-D2

text: English actor Kenny Baker played R2-D2 in all three original "Star Wars" films and received billing credit for the character in the prequel trilogy, where Baker's role was reduced as R2-D2 was portrayed mainly by radio controlled props and CGI models. In the sequel trilogy, Baker was credited as consultant for "The Force Awakens"; however, Jimmy Vee also co-performed the character in some scenes. Vee later took over the role beginning in "The Last Jedi". In "The Rise of Skywalker", puppeteers Hassan Taj and Lee Towersey perform the role of R2-D2, replacing Jimmy Vee, who had played the role in the previous two films. His sounds and vocal effects were created by sound designer Ben Burtt.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 was designed in artwork by Ralph McQuarrie, co-developed by John Stears and built by Peteric Engineering. The revised "Empire Strikes Back" droids had fibreglass shells built by Tony Dyson and his White Horse Toy Company.


title: R2-D2

text: George Lucas's creation of R2-D2 was influenced by the peasant Matashichi from Akira Kurosawa's 1958 feature film "The Hidden Fortress" (released in the United States in 1962), although his personality is completely the opposite. Lucas and artist Ralph McQuarrie also drew inspiration from the robots Huey, Dewey, and Louie from Douglas Trumbull's 1972 film "Silent Running".


title: R2-D2

text: Around the same time that "A New Hope" was being shot, Ray Harryhausen had already created "Bubo" for the 1981 film "Clash of the Titans". In the film, Bubo is a mechanical metal owl that flies heavily and communicates through whistles and tweets. Harryhausen denied a relation.


title: R2-D2

text: The name derives from when Lucas was making one of his earlier films, "American Graffiti". Sound editor Walter Murch states that he is responsible for the utterance which sparked the name for the droid. Murch asked for Reel 2, Dialog Track 2, in the abbreviated form "R-2-D-2". Lucas, who was in the room and had dozed off while working on the script for "Star Wars", momentarily woke when he heard the request and, after asking for clarification, stated that it was a "great name" before going back to writing his script.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 stands for Second Generation Robotic Droid Series-2, according to a "Star Wars" encyclopedia published after the release of the film "Star Wars". Tony Dyson, owner of the special effects studio The White Horse Toy Company, was commissioned by special effects supervisor Brian Johnson to fabricate the revised mechanical design for "The Empire Strikes Back", making several units operated by remote control. A number were used by Baker, and two were stunt double models made for the scene where the droid was shot from the swamp onto the shore on Dagobah.


title: R2-D2

text: In "Star Wars", R2-D2 and C-3PO (Anthony Daniels) are both introduced on board the "Tantive IV", along with Princess Leia (Carrie Fisher) of Alderaan, when they are being pursued upon by Darth Vader (portrayed by David Prowse, voiced by James Earl Jones) aboard an Imperial Star Destroyer. Leia inserts into R2-D2 an information disc containing the plans for the Death Star battle station, and encodes a distress message on the droid's holographic projector. The droids then escape in a pod that crashes on Tatooine near Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi's (Alec Guinness) desert abode.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 and C-3PO are then abducted by Jawas and bought by Owen (Phil Brown) and Beru Lars (Shelagh Fraser), uncle and aunt of Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill). While Luke cleans the sand out of R2-D2's gears, he discovers a fragment of Leia's message, and removes the droid's restraining bolt to see more; once free of the bolt, R2 claims to have no knowledge of the message. That night, R2-D2 leaves the farm to seek out Obi-Wan. When Owen and Beru are killed by Imperial stormtroopers, Luke is forced to leave Tatooine with Obi-Wan, Han Solo (Harrison Ford), and Chewbacca (Peter Mayhew) on board the "Millennium Falcon" to deliver R2-D2 to the Rebel Alliance. On their arrival at Alderaan's co-ordinates, they are pulled in by the Death Star's tractor beam and are forced to land, but eventually rescue Princess Leia. After Vader kills Obi-Wan, the rest of the group escapes and delivers the Death Star plans to the Rebel Alliance. R2 later serves as Luke's droid during the attack on the station. R2-D2 is severely damaged during the battle, but is repaired before the ceremony at the end of the film.


title: R2-D2

text: In "The Empire Strikes Back", R2-D2 accompanies Luke to Dagobah, and later to Cloud City, where he helps to rescue and repair a heavily damaged C-3PO and to override city security computers. He also manages to reactivate the "Millennium Falcon"s hyperdrive, resulting in a last-minute escape from Imperial forces.


title: R2-D2

text: In "Return of the Jedi", R2-D2 plays a critical role in rescuing Luke, Leia, and Han from Jabba the Hutt. He later joins the Rebel strike team on Endor. He is badly damaged during the battle between the Imperial troops and the Rebels, but is repaired in time for the celebration marking the second Death Star's destruction and the fall of the Empire.


title: R2-D2

text: In "The Phantom Menace", set 32 years before "A New Hope", R2-D2 is portrayed as belonging to the Naboo defense forces, one of three astromech droids deployed for repair duty onboard Queen Padmé Amidala's (Natalie Portman) starship as it attempts to get past the Trade Federation blockade. The sole survivor of the three, R2-D2 repairs the deflector shields and saves the day. Having proved his worth, R2-D2 then becomes part of Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn's (Liam Neeson) party on Tatooine where he meets C-3PO and Anakin Skywalker (Jake Lloyd). Later still, he serves as the astromech droid for Anakin's starfighter during the Battle of Naboo.


title: R2-D2

text: In "Attack of the Clones", set 10 years after "The Phantom Menace", R2-D2 again serves Anakin (Hayden Christensen) and Obi-Wan (Ewan McGregor). He accompanies Anakin and Padmé to Naboo, and then to Tatooine when Anakin tries to rescue his mother Shmi (Pernilla August). Here, he is reunited with C-3PO, and the two get into various misadventures on Geonosis. He and C-3PO are later witness to Anakin and Padmé's secret wedding.


title: R2-D2

text: In "Revenge of the Sith", R2-D2 helps Anakin and Obi-Wan in their mission to rescue Chancellor Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid) from Count Dooku's (Christopher Lee) capital ship, the "Invisible Hand". He is attacked by super battle droids, but defeats them through ingenious tactics. After Anakin falls to the dark side of the Force and becomes Darth Vader, he takes R2-D2 with him when he goes to assassinate the Separatist council, but tells him to stay with the ship. After the Galactic Empire is established at the end of the film, C-3PO's memory is erased to keep the knowledge of the locations of Vader and Padmé’s newborn children, Luke and Leia, a secret from their father. However, R2-D2's memory is not wiped; as a result, R2-D2 is the only surviving character at the end of the saga who knows the entire story of the Skywalker family. Both R2-D2 and C-3PO end up in the possession of Captain Raymus Antilles (Rohan Nichol) onboard the "Tantive IV".


title: R2-D2

text: In "", set approximately 30 years after "Return of the Jedi", R2-D2 is revealed to be kept in storage at the Resistance base on the planet D'Qar, having put himself in a low-power mode after Luke Skywalker's disappearance. He later awakens and reveals Luke's location by combining map data stored in his memory with that of the droid BB-8. He then travels with Rey (Daisy Ridley) and Chewbacca to the planet highlighted on the map, where they find Luke in self-imposed exile. In the credits, Kenny Baker was credited as 'R2-D2 consultant,' while Jimmy Vee provided an uncredited portrayal in some scenes.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 appeared in "", with actor Jimmy Vee taking over the role from Kenny Baker, who retired from the role due to his age and health. Baker died in August 2016.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 has a brief but pivotal role in the film, reuniting with Luke aboard the "Millennium Falcon" and showing him Leia's distress message from the original film in a successful attempt to convince Luke to train Rey. He is later shown interfacing with the "Falcon"'s computer while Rey and Chewbacca pilot the ship amid the final confrontation with the evil First Order’s forces.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 returns once more in "". Initially remaining at the Resistance base, he is shown watching Leia as she dies. He later plays an important role in restoring C-3PO's memory after Rey, Finn (John Boyega) and Poe Dameron (Oscar Isaac) are forced to erase it so the droid can translate a Sith artifact that holds a clue to the location of the Sith homeworld and the new fleet of the resurrected Palpatine. R2-D2 accompanies Poe in his X-wing for the final assault, and is later shown joining the others in celebrating the defeat of Palpatine and the Sith Eternal.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 and C-3PO had their own animated series, "", set before they came into Luke Skywalker's possession. This was excluded from the new canon in 2014.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 makes a guest appearance with C-3PO, Luke Skywalker (and Mark Hamill) and Chewbacca in an episode of "The Muppet Show".


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 appears in the 2008 animated film "", and the subsequent . In the film, he accompanies Anakin (voiced by Matt Lanter) and his Padawan Ahsoka Tano (voiced by Ashley Eckstein) on a mission to rescue Jabba the Hutt's son Rotta. In the series, he helps them fight the Separatists.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 also appears in "Star Wars Rebels" in the episodes "Droids in Distress" and "Blood Sisters" and several episodes of "Star Wars Forces of Destiny".


title: R2-D2

text: In the second season of the Disney+ series "The Mandalorian" R2-D2 accompanies Luke Skywalker as he goes to retrieve Grogu to be trained as a Jedi.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 appears in the sixth and seventh episodes of "The Mandalorian" spin-off series "The Book of Boba Fett". After Grogu decides to abandon his Jedi training, Luke has R2-D2 fly Grogu to Tatooine in his X-wing starfighter so that he may be reunited with his guardian, Din Djarin.


title: R2-D2

text: The makes it clear that R2-D2 has been in Padmé's possession since the events of "The Phantom Menace".


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 appears in Marvel's 2015 "Star Wars" comic series, which is set between the films of the original trilogy. He also appears briefly in the miniseries "".


title: R2-D2

text: With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed "Star Wars" novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film "Star Wars" were rebranded as "Star Wars Legends" and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.


title: R2-D2

text: Along with the "Star Wars" films, R2-D2 makes non-canon cameo appearances in several other films, such as "Star Trek" and "Star Trek Into Darkness", where he was seen flying in debris, in "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", he is seen on the underside of the alien ship, in "Raiders of the Lost Ark", he is seen on the wall of the room containing the Ark, in "Poltergeist", he is seen in several objects on Robbie's room, and in "", the robot was seen flying among rubble and debris in the sky. In "Ready Player One", R2-D2 is also seen as a toy model in Wade and Samantha's apartment. He also appears in the "Wreck-It Ralph" sequel, "Ralph Breaks the Internet".


title: R2-D2

text: In an early script to 2014's "The Lego Movie", R2-D2 was set to be one of the main characters, but was written out due to the directors failing to obtain the rights to the character.


title: R2-D2

text: Several R2-D2 models were built for the original "Star Wars" films; one that was remote controlled and rolled on three wheeled legs, and others which were worn by English actor Kenny Baker and walked on two legs. Deep Roy (who also doubled Yoda in several scenes), served as Baker's double, in both "Episodes V" and "VI"; providing stunts and filling in when Baker was unavailable. The original props for "Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope" were designed by John Stears and built by Stears' team and Peteric Engineering. The revised fibreglass droids used in "The Empire Strikes Back" were built by Tony Dyson and the White Horse Toy Company. The radio controlled R2 was operated by John Stears in "A New Hope", Brian Johnson in "The Empire Strikes Back" and by Kit West in "Return of the Jedi".


title: R2-D2

text: Kenny Baker, who portrayed R2-D2 in costume, was not involved in the "Star Wars Holiday Special". R2-D2 was portrayed entirely by a radio controlled unit, operated by Mick Garris (Lucas' receptionist at the time). In the credits, R2-D2 is credited as playing himself. Garris later went on to operate the radio controlled R2-D2 at various events, including the Oscars.


title: R2-D2

text: There were a total of 15 R2-D2s on the set of "Attack of the Clones". Eight were radio-controlled; two were worn by Baker; the remainder were stunt models that could be moved by puppet strings or towed by wires. The robotic R2-D2's were prone to failure, particularly while shooting the Tatooine scenes in Tunisia.


title: R2-D2

text: Radio-controlled units were extensively utilized for the Prequel trilogy due to advances in technology, though Baker was still used in some scenes. R2-D2 had three principal operators: Don Bies, Jolyon Bambridge and Grant Imahara.


title: R2-D2

text: The sound effects for R2-D2's "voice" were created by sound designer Ben Burtt, using an ARP 2600 analog synthesizer, as well as his own vocalizations processed through other effects. Original props of R2-D2 and C-3PO are used as Audio-Animatronics in the queue area of Disneyland's Star Tours–The Adventures Continue attraction.


title: R2-D2

text: Although Kenny Baker is credited, Anthony Daniels (who portrays C-3PO) has stated that Baker did not film any scenes in "Revenge of the Sith". Baker himself has said he probably only appears in footage caught while shooting the previous two movies.


title: R2-D2

text: For "The Force Awakens", producer Kathleen Kennedy hired two fans, Lee Towersey and Oliver Steeples, to build new R2-D2 robots for the film, after being impressed by their working replicas that were brought to "Star Wars" Celebration Europe in 2013.


title: R2-D2

text: Towersey was also one of the two puppeteers, along with Hassan Taj, who operated the droid in "The Rise of Skywalker".


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 was inducted into the Robot Hall of Fame in 2003 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A replica can be seen at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh. The Smithsonian Institution included R2-D2 in its list of 101 Objects that Made America. In 2022 R2-D2 was surveyed as being the most popular movie robot in the United States.


title: R2-D2

text: Marc Rotenberg of the Electronic Privacy Information Center called a security robot intended for schools and malls R2-D2's "evil twin"; William Santana Li, who co-founded the company that built the robot, said he wanted people to think of the robot as "a mash-up of Batman, "Minority Report" and R2-D2".


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 and C-3PO guest starred in a series of segments of "Sesame Street" in 1978. The two droids were featured as presenters at the 50th Academy Awards.


title: R2-D2

text: In the "Pinky and the Brain" final series "Star Warners" who parodies Star Wars Brain plays R2-D2 and Pinky plays C-3PO.


title: R2-D2

text: Ewan McGregor, who portrayed Obi-Wan Kenobi in the Star Wars prequel trilogy, said in an interview, "As soon as R2-D2 comes on the set, everyone goes a bit silly." He said "there is something about him that makes you feel great affection for him". In the DVD audio commentary for "Revenge of the Sith", George Lucas says R2-D2 is his favorite character, and that it is intentional that R2-D2 saves the day at least once in every film.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 had appeared in some episodes of "The Simpsons". Also in the sixteenth Halloween special ("Treehouse of Horror XVI") in the "I've Grown a Costume on Your Face" segment Apu Nahasapeemapetilon appears disguised and later turned into a real version of R2-D2.


title: R2-D2

text: R2-D2 is parodied in several episodes of "Family Guy". The final scene in "Blind Ambition" where Peter Griffin receives a medal of honor after a blind Peter saves Horace's life parodies the ending in the original 1977 "Star Wars". In the episodes parodying the original "Star Wars" trilogy, Cleveland Brown plays R2-D2's role, while Quagmire plays C-3PO.


title: R2-D2

text: The 2015 Israeli sci-fi comedy "OMG, I'm a Robot!" features "Robo Joseph" – a "Jewish R2-D2" dubbed by Rob Schneider.


title: R2-D2

text: In 2015, Hasbro released a "Bop It" game using the design of R2-D2 on September 4, 2015 for "Force Friday". The top part of the unit (his head) becomes the 'Bop It' button, the bottom part of his head becomes the 'Twist It' and his legs are the 'Pull It'. The game is based on the "Bop It Micro Series" and the voice is replaced with voice recordings from C-3PO. Instead of the game saying "I'm going to sleep." before the unit shuts off, this version says "I'll just switch off for a while."


title: R2-D2

text: The navigation system of the SR-71 plane has been affectionately called R2-D2. The system had R2-D2 like navigational purposes and was mounted behind the pilot directed upward.


title: R2-D2

text: In the Latin American Spanish dubbing of the "Star Wars" films, the name R2-D2 is pronounced as "Arturito" (Little Arthur), which sounds similar to the English pronunciation.


title: R2-D2

text: In the Italian version of the original trilogy, was named "C1-P8". Anglicisms were not common in the Italian language during the 1970s and 1980s, and the names of various characters were changed to be easier to pronounce and recognize for Italian speakers. Some of these changes were reverted in the dubbing of the prequel and sequel trilogies, where the original name was used instead. Other name changes in the Italian version of the original trilogy include C-3PO, Han Solo, Leia Organa and Darth Vader, who were called respectively "D-3BO", "Ian Solo", "Leila Organa" and "Dart Fener" (or "Lord Fener").


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Kamchatka Krai () is a federal subject of Russia (a krai), situated in the Russian Far East, and is administratively part of the Far Eastern Federal District. Its capital and largest city is Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, home to over half of its population of 322,079 (2010).


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Kamchatka Krai was formed on July 1, 2007, as a result of the merger of Kamchatka Oblast and Koryak Autonomous Okrug, based on the voting in a referendum on the issue on October 23, 2005. The okrug retains the status of a special administrative division of the krai, under the name of Koryak Okrug.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: The Kamchatka Peninsula forms the majority of the krai's territory, separating the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea in the Pacific Ocean. The remainder is formed by a minor northern mainland portion, Karaginsky Island, and the Commander Islands in the Bering Sea. It is bordered by Magadan Oblast to the west and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug to the north. Kamchatka Krai is an active volcanic zone that is home to Kluchevskaya, the highest active volcano in Eurasia, and the Decade Volcanoes of Avachinsky and Koryaksky.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Kamchatka Krai occupies the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the adjacent part of the mainland, the island Karaginsky and the Commander Islands. It is bounded to the east by the Bering Sea of the Pacific Ocean (a coastline of more than ) and to the west by the Okhotsk Sea (a coastline of approximately ).


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Mountain ranges: Sredinny Range (about long), Eastern Range (about long), and the Koryak Mountains, with the Ukelayat Range, Vetvey Range, Penzhinsky, Pahachinsky, Pylgin, and Olyutor ranges. Heights: Khuvkhoitun (), Ledyanaya (), Acute (), Shishel (), Tylele volcano ().


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: The longest rivers are the Vyvenka, Penzhina, Talovka, Lakhacha, Apuka, Kamchatka, and Ukelayat. The largest freshwater lakes are Kronotskoye, Talovskoye, and Palanskoye.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Peninsulas: Olyutor Peninsula, Gavena Peninsula, Ilpinsky Peninsula, Ozernoy Peninsula, Kamchatskiy Peninsula, , and the Yelistratova Peninsula.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Islands (NW-NE going clockwise): Verkhoturov Island, Karaginsky Island, the Commander Islands, Ptichy Island (Kamchatka Krai), Konus Island, Zubchaty Island, Rovny Island, Dobrzhanskogo Island, Vtoroy Island, Krayniy Island and Trety Island. Despite their proximity, the Kuril Islands are not part of Kamchatka Krai, falling instead under Sakhalin Oblast.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Kamchatka belongs to the zone of volcanic activity, there are about 300 large and medium-sized volcanoes, 29 of them are active. The largest volcano in Eurasia – Kluchevskaya (altitude ). With the volcanic activity associated with the formation of many minerals and a manifestation of hydro geothermal activity: education fumaroles, geysers, hot springs, etc.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Despite Kamchatka lying at similar latitudes to Scotland, it is mostly subarctic, more continental in the hinterland, and more maritime and prone to monsoons on the coast.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Most of the peninsula is covered with forests of stone birch, while alder and cedar elfin are commonly found at higher altitudes. In central areas, especially in the Kamchatka River valley, widespread forests of larch and spruce can be found. In floodplains, forests grow with fragrant poplar, alder, Chosenia, and Sakhalin willow. In the second tier, undergrowth such as the common hawthorn, Asian cherry, Kamchatka rowan, and shrubs growing Kamchatka elderberries, Kamchatka honeysuckle, meadowsweet, willow shrubs, and many other species.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: More than 14.5% of the territory of the Kamchatka Territory is specially protected. There are six protected areas of federal significance (three-state reserves, one federal reserve "South Kamchatka," two spa areas – "Resort Paratunka," "Malkinskie mineral waters"); four natural parks of regional significance ("Nalychevo," "Bystrinsky," "South Kamchatka," "Kluchevskoy"); 22 reserves of regional importance; 116 monuments of nature; four protected areas (landscape natural park "Blue Lake," Southwest and Tundra Sobolewski reserves).


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: Kronotsky Nature Reserve is a nature area reserved for the study of natural sciences in the remote Russian Far East, on the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. It was created in 1934 and its current boundary contains an area of . It also has Russia's only geyser basin, plus several mountain ranges with numerous volcanoes, both active and extinct. Due to its often harsh climate and its mix of volcanoes and geysers, it is frequently described as the "Land of Fire and Ice".


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: It is mainly accessible only to scientists, plus approximately 3,000 tourists annually who pay a fee equivalent to US$700 to travel by helicopter for a single day's visit. Kronotsky Nature Reserve has been proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: The legislative assembly was formed in 2007 after the merger of Kamchatka Oblast and Koryak Autonomous Okrug. It therefore replaced the Council of People's Deputies of Kamchatka Oblast (1997-2007) and the Duma of Koryak Autonomous Okrug (1994-2007).


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: The Chairman of the Legislative Assembly of Kamchatka Krai is the presiding officer of that legislature:


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: The main industries in Kamchatka include fishing and forestry. Coal and other raw materials are extracted. Due to its geographical location near major shipping routes, it is a center for shipbuilding, ship repair, and related services. There are also oil and mineral resources which are yet to be fully developed.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: The largest companies in the region include Kamchatskenergo (power distribution company with revenues of $ million in 2017), Oceanrybflot (fishing company, $ million), Morskoy Trast ($ million), Amethystvoye Mining and Processing Combine (gold mine, part of Renova Group, $ million).


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: After nearly two decades, Kamchatka recorded a net natural population growth instead of decline in 2007. However, in first half of 2008, the trend was reversed and population decline was observed again, partly due to an increased mortality rate among the rural population.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: 2009 – 1.58 | 2010 – 1.51 | 2011 – 1.61 | 2012 – 1.73 | 2013 – 1.77 | 2014 – 1.85 | 2015 – 1.89 | 2016 – 1.90(e)


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: There were 108 recognized ethnic groups in the krai as of 2010. Indigenous peoples of the North made up only 5% of the total population.


title: Kamchatka Krai

text: According to a 2012 survey, 31.2% of the population of Kamchatka adhere to the Russian Orthodox Church, 4.4% are unaffiliated Christians, 0.8% are Orthodox Christians who do not belong to the Russian Orthodox Church. 2% of the population adhere to the Slavic native faith or Siberian shamanism, 1.2% to Islam, 0.6% to forms of Protestantism, and 0.4% to Hinduism. In addition, 22.8% of the population declare themselves to be spiritual but not religious, 21% are atheist, and 14.8% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: OpenStreetMap (OSM) is a collaborative project to create a free editable geographic database of the world. The geodata underlying the maps is considered the primary output of the project. The creation and growth of OSM has been motivated by restrictions on use or availability of map data across much of the world, and the advent of inexpensive portable satellite navigation devices.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Created by Steve Coast in the UK in 2004, it was inspired by the success of Wikipedia and the predominance of proprietary map data in the UK and elsewhere. By 2012 it had grown to over two million registered users. Users may collect data using manual survey, GPS devices, aerial photography, and other free sources, or use their own local knowledge of the area. This crowdsourced data is then made available under the Open Database License. The site is supported by the OpenStreetMap Foundation, a non-profit organisation registered in England and Wales.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The data from OSM can be used in various ways including production of paper maps and electronic maps, geocoding of address and place names, and route planning. Prominent users include Facebook, Apple, Microsoft, Amazon Logistics, Uber, Craigslist, Snapchat, OsmAnd, Wikimedia Maps, Maps.me, MapQuest Open, JMP statistical software, and Foursquare. Many users of GPS devices use OSM data to replace the built-in map data on their devices. OpenStreetMap data has been favourably compared with proprietary datasources, although data quality varied across the world.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Steve Coast founded the project in 2004 while at university in Britain, initially focusing on mapping the United Kingdom. In the UK and elsewhere, government-run and tax-funded projects like the Ordnance Survey created massive datasets but failed to freely and widely distribute them. The first contribution was made in the city of London in 2005.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In April 2006, the OpenStreetMap Foundation was established to encourage the growth, development and distribution of free geospatial data and provide geospatial data for anybody to use and share. In December 2006, Yahoo! confirmed that OpenStreetMap could use its aerial photography as a backdrop for map production.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In April 2007, Automotive Navigation Data (AND) donated a complete road data set for the Netherlands and trunk road data for India and China to the project and by July 2007, when the first OSM international The State of the Map conference was held, there were 9,000 registered users. Sponsors of the event included Google, Yahoo! and Multimap. In October 2007, OpenStreetMap completed the import of a US Census TIGER road dataset. In December 2007, Oxford University became the first major organisation to use OpenStreetMap data on their main website.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Ways to import and export data have continued to grow – by 2008, the project developed tools to export OpenStreetMap data to power portable GPS units, replacing their existing proprietary and out-of-date maps. In March, two founders of CloudMade, a commercial company that uses OpenStreetMap data, announced that they had received venture capital funding of €2.4million. In November 2010, Bing changed their licence to allow use of their satellite imagery for making maps.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In 2012, the launch of pricing for Google Maps led several prominent websites to switch from their service to OpenStreetMap and other competitors. Chief among these were Foursquare and Craigslist, which adopted OpenStreetMap, and Apple, which ended a contract with Google and launched a self-built mapping platform using TomTom and OpenStreetMap data.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In June 2021, OpenStreetMap Foundation announced plans to move from the United Kingdom to a country in the European Union, citing Brexit as the inciting factor. According to the organisation, there are several reasons for the move, including "the failure of the UK and EU to agree on mutual recognition of database rights", the rising difficulties in "banking, finance and using PayPal in the UK" and the loss of .eu domains.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In mid-December 2022, the Linux Foundation announced the launch of a new mapping collaboration, the Overture Maps Foundation. Its stated mission is "powering current and next-generation map products by creating reliable, easy-to-use, and interoperable open map data." Overture founding members were Amazon Web Services (AWS), Meta, Microsoft and TomTom. Overture is to be complementary to OSM and Overture encourages members to contribute data directly to OSM.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Map data is collected from scratch by volunteers performing systematic ground surveys using tools such as a handheld GPS unit, a notebook, digital camera, or a voice recorder. The data is then entered into the OpenStreetMap database using a number of software tools including JOSM and Merkaator. Mapathon competition events are also held by OpenStreetMap team and by non-profit organisations and local governments to map a particular area.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The availability of aerial photography and other data from commercial and government sources has added important sources of data for manual editing and automated imports. Special processes are in place to handle automated imports and avoid legal and technical problems.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Editing of maps can be done using the default web browser editor called iD, an HTML5 application using D3.js and written by Mapbox, which was originally financed by the Knight Foundation. JOSM, Potlatch, and Merkaartor are more powerful desktop editing applications that are better suited for advanced users.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: "Vespucci" is the primary full-featured editor for Android; it has been regularly released since 2009. "StreetComplete" is an Android app launched in 2016, which allows users without any OpenStreetMap knowledge to answer simple questions for existing data in OpenStreetMap, and thus contribute data. Maps.me and OsmAnd, two offline mobile map applications available for Android and iOS, both include limited OSM data editors. "Go Map!!" is an iOS app that lets users create and edit information in OpenStreetMap. "Pushpin" is another iOS app that lets users add POI on the go.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The project has a geographically diverse user-base, due to emphasis of local knowledge and "on-the-ground" situation in the process of data collection. Many early contributors were cyclists who survey with and for bicyclists, charting cycleroutes and navigable trails. Others are GIS professionals who contribute data with an extension for ArcGIS. Contributors are predominately men, with only 3–5% being women.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: By August 2008, shortly after the second The State of the Map conference was held, there were over 50,000 registered contributors; by March 2009, there were 100,000 and by the end of 2009 the figure was nearly 200,000. In April 2012, OpenStreetMap cleared 600,000 registered contributors. On 6 January 2013, OpenStreetMap reached one million registered users. Around 30% of users have contributed at least one point to the OpenStreetMap database.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Ground surveys are performed by a mapper, on foot, bicycle, or in a car, motorcycle, or boat. Map data was typically recorded on a GPS unit. In late 2006 Yahoo! made their aerial imagery available for tracing to OSM contributors, which simplified mapping of readily visible and identifiable features. The project still makes use of GPS traces from volunteers which are used to delineate the more difficult to identify and classify features such as footpath, as well as providing ground-truth for aerial imagery alignment.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Once the data has been collected, it is entered into the database by uploading it onto the project's website together with appropriate attribute data. As collecting and uploading data may be separated from editing objects, contribution to the project is possible without using a GPS unit.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Some committed contributors adopt the task of mapping whole towns and cities, or organising mapping parties to gather the support of others to complete a map area. A large number of less active users contribute corrections and small additions to the map.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In addition to several different sets of satellite image backgrounds available to OSM editors, data from several street-level image platforms are available as map data photo overlays: Bing Streetside 360° image tracks, and the open and crowdsourced Mapillary and KartaView platforms, generally smartphone and other windshield-mounted camera images. Additionally, a Mapillary traffic sign data layer can be enabled; it is the product of user-submitted images.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Some government agencies have released official data on appropriate licences. This includes the United States, where works of the federal government are placed under public domain.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Globally, OSM initially used the Prototype Global Shoreline from NOAA. Due to it being oversimplified and crude, it has been mainly replaced by other government sources or manual tracing.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In the United States, most roads originate from TIGER from the Census Bureau. Geographic names were initially sourced from Geographic Names Information System, and some areas contain water features from the National Hydrography Dataset. In the UK, some Ordnance Survey OpenData is imported. In Canada Natural Resources Canada's CanVec vector data and GeoBase provide landcover and streets.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Out-of-copyright maps can be good sources of information about features that do not change frequently. Copyright periods vary, but in the UK Crown copyright expires after 50 years and hence Ordnance Survey maps until the 1960s can legally be used. A complete set of UK 1 inch/mile maps from the late 1940s and early 1950s has been collected, scanned, and is available online as a resource for contributors.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: In February 2015, OpenStreetMap added route planning functionality to the map on its official website. The routing uses external services, namely OSRM, GraphHopper and MapQuest.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The web site OpenStreetMap.org provides a slippy map interface based on the Leaflet JavaScript library (and formerly built on OpenLayers), displaying map tiles rendered by the Mapnik rendering engine, and tiles from other sources including OpenCycleMap.org.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Custom maps can also be generated from OSM data through various software including Jawg Maps, Mapnik, Mapbox Studio, Mapzen's Tangrams.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: OpenStreetMap maintains lists of online and offline routing engines available, such as the Open Source Routing Machine. OSM data is popular with routing researchers, and is also available to open-source projects and companies to build routing applications (or for any other purpose).


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The 2010 Haiti earthquake has established a model for non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to collaborate with international organisations. OpenStreetMap and Crisis Commons volunteers using available satellite imagery to map the roads, buildings and refugee camps of Port-au-Prince in just two days, building "the most complete digital map of Haiti's roads".


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The resulting data and maps have been used by several organisations providing relief aid, such as the World Bank, the European Commission Joint Research Centre, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, UNOSAT and others.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: NGOs, like the Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team and others, have worked with donors like United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to map other parts of Haiti and parts of many other countries, both to create map data for places that were blank, and to engage and build capacity of local people.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: After Haiti, the OpenStreetMap community continued mapping to support humanitarian organisations for various crises and disasters. After the Northern Mali conflict (January 2013), Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines (November 2013), and the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa (March 2014), the OpenStreetMap community has shown it can play a significant role in supporting humanitarian organisations.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: The Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team acts as an interface between the OpenStreetMap community and the humanitarian organisations.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Along with post-disaster work, the Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team has worked to build better risk models and grow the local OpenStreetMap communities in multiple countries including Uganda, Senegal, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in partnership with the Red Cross, Médecins Sans Frontières, World Bank, and other humanitarian groups.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: OpenStreetMap data was used in scientific studies. For example, road data was used for research of remaining roadless areas and in the creation of the annual Forest Landscape Integrity Index.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: Since 2007, the OSM community has held an annual, international conference called "State of the Map". There are also various national, regional and continental SotM conferences, such as SotM U.S., SotM Baltics, SotM Asia & SotM Africa.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: OpenStreetMap data was originally published under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike licence (CC BY-SA) with the intention of promoting free use and redistribution of the data. In September 2012, the licence was changed to the Open Database Licence (ODbL) published by Open Data Commons (ODC) in order to more specifically define its bearing on data rather than representation.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: As part of this relicensing process, some of the map data was removed from the public distribution. This included all data contributed by members that did not agree to the new licensing terms, as well as all subsequent edits to those affected objects. It also included any data contributed based on input data that was not compatible with the new terms. Estimates suggested that over 97% of data would be retained globally, but certain regions would be affected more than others, such as in Australia where 24 to 84% of objects would be retained, depending on the type of object. Ultimately, more than 99% of the data was retained, with Australia and Poland being the countries most severely affected by the change.


title: OpenStreetMap

text: All data added to the project needs to have a licence compatible with the Open Database Licence. This can include out-of-copyright information, public domain or other licences. Contributors agree to a which require compatibility with the current licence. This may involve examining licences for government data to establish whether it is compatible.