title: So (album)

text: Towards the end of recording, Gabriel became "obsessed" with the track listing and created an audio cassette of all the song's beginnings and ends to hear how the sounds blended together. He wanted to have "In Your Eyes" as the final track, but its prominent bassline meant it had to be placed earlier on the vinyl edition as there is more room for the stylus to vibrate. With later CD releases, this restriction was removed and the track was placed at the end of the album. "So" was completed in February 1986 and cost £200,000 to make. It was over-dubbed at Power Station Studios in New York, despite Gabriel considering sending it via a computer-telephone set up, reasoning, "that's a lot of information to send via phone. Isn't it amazing though? You can send a song idea around the world to musicians then beam parts back by satellite". It was mastered by Ian Cooper in mid-February 1986 at London's Townhouse Studios.


title: So (album)

text: "So" has been described as Gabriel's most commercially accessible and least experimental album, one that features pop songs and incorporates art pop and progressive pop throughout. Like his previous albums, its basis is in art rock, although on "So", Gabriel develops an increased focus on melody and combines this with elements of soul and African music. "With a song like "(the previous album's)" 'The Rhythm of the Heat' or 'The Family and the Fishing Net', if I were to strum that along on a guitar or piano, the song might not work very well ... whereas more of the things on this album do work just as lyric, melody and chords in a more traditional sense."


title: So (album)

text: The songs are highly influenced by traditional world music, particularly African and Brazilian music, with Gabriel incorporating rhythms and drum beats from these regions. In a 2011 interview for "Uncut", Gabriel said, "I'd had my fill of instrumental experimenting for a while, and I wanted to write proper pop songs, albeit on my own terms." Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" notes that Gabriel "doesn't just add on African drums or Indian violin to ordinary songs; they are part of the foundation." Chris Roberts of "Classic Rock" also notes that the album "[takes] the Fairlight synth and [adds] a palatable dash of world music to art pop." Daniel Lanois' production was noted as textured, replete with ambient details and "immaculate warmth giving each note room to breathe, its textures lavish (in the preferred style of the time) without being sterile".


title: So (album)

text: Gabriel wanted the album to "crash open at the front". Despite disliking "metal" percussion instruments, he was persuaded by Lanois to allow the Police's Stewart Copeland to play cymbals and hi-hat on its opener, "Red Rain". Gabriel sings – in his upper register, with a throaty, gravelly texture – of a destructive world with social problems such as torture and kidnapping. Its concept originated from a dream in which he envisaged the parting of a vast, red sea and human-like glass bottles filling up with blood. It was also intended to continue the story of Mozo, a recurring character on Gabriel's first and second albums.


title: So (album)

text: "Sledgehammer" was the final track to be conceived. Most of Gabriel's band had packed away their equipment and were ready to leave the studio, but he asked them to reassemble to quickly run through a song he had an idea for. "Sledgehammer" was partially inspired by the music of Otis Redding, and Gabriel sought out Wayne Jackson, whom Gabriel had seen on tour with Redding in the 1960s, to record horns for the track. Opened by a shakuhachi bamboo flute, its beat is dominated by brass instruments, particularly Jackson's horn, and features lyrics abundant with sexual euphemisms. Manu Katché's drums were recorded in one take as he believed any subsequent version would be inferior to his original interpretation of the music.


title: So (album)

text: "So"s most political statement, "Don't Give Up", was fuelled by Gabriel's discontent with rising unemployment during Margaret Thatcher's premiership and Dorothea Lange's photograph "Migrant Mother". The track began as a Linn drum machine pattern of slow, low-pitched tom-tom drums that Gabriel made, and Lanois believed could serve as the centrepiece of a song. Tony Levin added bass to create a more harmonious sound, and during the second half of the track, put a nappy behind his bass strings to dampen the sound. Gabriel ensured the song, which follows a narrative of an unemployed man and his lover, was written as a conversational piece. He initially sought Dolly Parton to portray the woman; although Parton declined, his friend Kate Bush agreed to feature. Bush serves as the song's respondent, she assumes a comforting role and with delicate vocals, sings lines such as "Rest your head/ you worry too much".


title: So (album)

text: The album's first side culminates with "That Voice Again", in which Gabriel explores the concept of conscience, examining the "parental voice in our heads that either helps or defeats us". Co-written with David Rhodes, who plays guitar over Katché and Levin's input, the song was written after Gabriel's initial discussions with Martin Scorsese about scoring "The Last Temptation of Christ" (1988).


title: So (album)

text: "In Your Eyes" has been described as Gabriel's greatest love song. Inspired by the Sagrada Família and its architect Antoni Gaudí, Gabriel sings over a drumbeat of only feeling complete in the eyes of his lover. The track's powerful atmosphere is created through the singing of Senegalese musician Youssou N'Dour, who sings in his native Wolof.


title: So (album)

text: Gabriel became interested in the late American poet Anne Sexton after reading the anthology "To Bedlam and Part Way Back". He dedicated "So"s sixth track to her, calling it "Mercy Street" after "45 Mercy Street", a poem released in another posthumous collection. "Mercy Street" is set to one of several Forró-inspired percussion compositions that Gabriel recorded in Rio de Janeiro. When these compositions were unearthed in the studio, they were accidentally played back ten per cent slower than the original recording, giving them a grainy quality that Gabriel and Lanois thought highlighted the cymbal and guitars. It features two harmonious Gabriel vocals; one a shadow vocal an octave below the main vocal. Intended to give a sensual, haunting effect, this was hard to capture except when Gabriel first woke up.


title: So (album)

text: The dance song "Big Time" has funk influences and is built on a "percussive bass sound". Its lyrics satirise the yuppie culture of the 1980s, materialism and consumerism and are the result of Gabriel's self-examination, after he considered whether he may have desired fame after all.


title: So (album)

text: "We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)" was recorded for "Peter Gabriel or "Melt"" and is described as an interlude. It references the experiment on obedience carried out by American social psychologist Stanley Milgram, intended as a reference to the obedience citizens show to dictators during times of war. Marotta's drums on the song – said to resemble "a heartbeat heard from the womb" – were coupled with Shankar's violin and "two overdubbed guitar tracks by Rhodes".


title: So (album)

text: While "We Do What We're Told" was the final song on initial LP versions of the album, the cassette and CD releases close with "This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)", which Gabriel decided to include only forty-eight hours before the album's submission. "Excellent Birds" was composed with American musician Laurie Anderson. This was interpolated with a recording called "This Is the Picture", on which Nile Rodgers plays rhythm guitar. According to Anderson, she and Gabriel "could never agree on what a bassline was. (I think I probably don’t hear so well down there.) I wanted to learn from him, but it turned into a standoff and so we each put out our own version of the song." Her version, with Gabriel on additional vocals, appeared on her 1984 album "Mister Heartbreak". Prior to the song's inclusion on "So", Anderson and Gabriel performed it during the 1984 global satellite television broadcast "Good Morning, Mr. Orwell".


title: So (album)

text: "So" is Gabriel's first non-eponymous album. Gabriel has noted his dislike for titling albums, mainly because it distracts from the sleeve design. In an interview for "Rolling Stone", he explained that his American label Geffen Records refused to release "Peter Gabriel IV" until it was retitled "Security". He elaborated that for "So" "[he] decided to go for the anti-title ... It can be more a piece of graphic, if you like, as opposed to something with meaning and intention. And that's what I've done ever since". When the album was profiled in the "Classic Albums" documentary series, Gabriel quipped that its short title meant it could be enlarged and useful when marketing it. Before the album was eventually named "So", it was meant to be entitled "Good". The album's cover is a portrait of Gabriel photographed by Trevor Key, who was then most famous for capturing the bell artwork for Mike Oldfield's "Tubular Bells" (1973). The sleeve was designed by Peter Saville and Brett Wickens; Saville was best known for designing several sleeves for Factory Records artists and was paid £20,000 for his work on "So". According to Saville, the cover was based off of the one he designed for New Order's album "Low-Life" the previous year, utilizing a similar method of taking Polaroid photos to produce a "groovy" portrait of the artist; Saville described the results as "contemporary, young but grown up, mature." Gabriel recalled: "The only compromise I made was to go with Peter Saville's idea for a retro-style portrait. I was told my usual obscure LP sleeves alienated women." Saville, meanwhile, stated that the cover was influenced by the impassioned tone and unusually accessible nature of the music, following a nighttime drive where he witnessed a car crash, then reluctantly started playing a test cassette of the album and was moved to tears by Gabriel's performance. The cover was partly influenced by photographer David Bailey's work.


title: So (album)

text: "So" was released on 19 May 1986. It topped the charts of seven countries worldwide, including the United Kingdom, where it became Gabriel's second number one album. In the United States, "So" became one of Geffen Records' most commercially successful releases, peaking at number two and remaining on the chart for ninety-three weeks. In April 1986, "Sledgehammer" was released as the album's lead single and became Gabriel's first and only number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, displacing Genesis' first and only US number one "Invisible Touch". The track reached number four in the United Kingdom, where it ties with "Games Without Frontiers" as his highest-charting single, and peaked at number one in Canada. The success of "Sledgehammer" can be seen, in part, due to its hugely popular and innovative stop motion music video, designed by Aardman Animations. Gabriel would go on to say in an interview for "Rolling Stone" that he believed the video exposed "So"s songs to a wider audience, bolstering the album's success. Two high-charting singles followed, "Don't Give Up", which rose to number nine on the UK Singles Chart and a less successful seventy-nine in America, while "Big Time" peaked at number thirteen in the UK and number eight in America. "In Your Eyes" saw moderate success in America, where it reached twenty-six on the Hot 100, while "Red Rain" peaked at forty-six in the United Kingdom.


title: So (album)

text: Bono contacted Gabriel to perform at A Conspiracy of Hope, a series of Live Aid-inspired concerts that intended to spread awareness of human rights issues in light of Amnesty International's twenty-fifth anniversary. Gabriel accepted and in June 1986, he performed alongside Sting, The Police, Lou Reed, and Joan Baez, with a set that opened with "Red Rain" and featured "Sledgehammer". Gabriel described it as "the best tour [he'd] ever been on". In the same month, Gabriel performed at London's Clapham Common, along with Boy George and Elvis Costello, for Artists Against Apartheid. Gabriel eventually embarked on the ninety-three date This Way Up tour to support "So", beginning in Rochester, New York on 7 November 1986. One of the dates was a special two-night residency (20–21 December) at Tokyo's Meiji Jingu Stadium to fund a global computer system for the University for Peace, a United Nations project. The tour suspended in early 1987 until June when it reached Europe, before going on to America and finishing at the Lycabettus Amphitheatre in Athens in October. Gabriel partially performed "So" at The Prince's Trust Concert and at Human Rights Now! Tour in 1988.


title: So (album)

text: "So" received mostly favourable reviews from music critics. Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" wrote "only a handful of Western rock musicians have managed to use exotic rhythms and instruments with so much ingenuity and conviction". Pareles also praised his vocals, describing them as "grainy but not bluesy, ageless and joyless, the voice of some ancient mariner recounting disasters". Tim Holmes writing for "Rolling Stone" described the album as "a record of considerable emotional complexity and musical sophistication" and was pleased that the records would assist exposing Gabriel to mainstream pop music.


title: So (album)

text: Terry Atkinson of "Los Angeles Times" viewed the album as offering "an amazing variety of tones, moods, and topics and a consistently powerful level of expression". Although disliking "Big Time", Atkinson concludes "So" is "a great album, possibly Gabriel's best". Steve Hochman, also of "Los Angeles Times", praised Gabriel's reinvention too, describing it as "real progress" compared to the contemporaneous work of other progressive rock acts such as Genesis, GTR and Marillion. "Chicago Tribune"s Lynn Van Matre praised the album's "wave of funky rhythms" and called for more appreciation of Gabriel's talent, but noted a lack of "quirkiness" and said there were no tracks as impactful as his 1980 single "Biko". Robert Christgau was also lukewarm in "The Village Voice", writing that "Gabriel's so smart he knows rhythm is what makes music go, which relieves him of humdrum melodic responsibilities but doesn't get him up on the one—smart guys do go for texture in a pinch."


title: So (album)

text: "So" has continued to perform well in most retrospective reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commended "So" as the "catchiest, happiest record he ever cut". Erlewine particularly praised Gabriel's fusion of art rock with African music and soul. Jude Rogers of the BBC wrote "once you look past the bombast of "Sledgehammer", ... you notice how easily its artful ideas slipped inside the 80s mainstream". "The Quietus" Wyndham Wallace praised "So"s sincerity and called it "a heartfelt journey through intense emotional territory, assembled and arranged with intricacy and commitment, laboured over with such care that it sounds effortless".


title: So (album)

text: Ryan Bray, writer for "Consequence of Sound", concluded "So" was an "all-too-rare record that manages to have it both ways, earning its richly deserved critical and commercial respect without giving so much as an artistic inch". He added that "it still stands on its own two feet as one of the consensus best records of the 80s". Mark Blake of "Q" described the album as "carbon-dated to 1986 thanks to those blaring saxes and Fairlight CMI digital sampling synths". He added that "Gabriel crafted an album of user-friendly pop that was still reassuringly odd." Terry Staunton of "Classic Rock" wrote "Red Rain was familiarly pensive and politically charged, but the radio waves completely surrendered to the record's muscular dance rock and slower tempo eloquence." Staunton concluded that Gabriel had displayed "a masterful confidence, delivering a satisfyingly unified whole".


title: So (album)

text: In a less positive retrospective review, "Mojo"s David Buckley contrasted the album with Gabriel's earlier, more experimental work, stating "on 1986's "So", he switched tack to write pop, and write big. The results are mixed. 'Sledgehammer', echoing both Stevie Wonder's 'Superstition' and David Bowie's 'Fame', retains its punch. Elsewhere, Gabriel sounds airbrushed on 'Mercy Street', 'Red Rain' and 'In Your Eyes', with only 'We Do What We're Told' a reminder of a daring past." Writing in "Uncut", John Lewis also directed criticism at the album. He praised its state-of-the-art production in parts, highlighting "Big Time" and "Sledgehammer" as standout tracks, but stated elsewhere it interfered, such as the Fairlight CMI synthesizer on "That Voice Again" and whistling ambient accompaniment on "Mercy Street".


title: So (album)

text: At the 29th Annual Grammy Awards, "So" was nominated for Album of the Year, losing to Paul Simon's "Graceland" (1986), while "Sledgehammer" received nominations for Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. At the sixth Brit Awards, hosted by Jonathan King at the Grosvenor House Hotel, London, Gabriel won Best British Male Artist and "Sledgehammer" won Best British Music Video. Gabriel was most successful at the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards where he was honoured with the Video Vanguard Award and "Sledgehammer" won an additional nine awards including Video of the Year, a record that has not been challenged. Its video is the most played music video in the history of MTV.


title: So (album)

text: "So" is often regarded as Gabriel's best album, as well as one of the best albums of the 1980s. It enabled Gabriel to transform from a cult artist, acclaimed for his cerebral, experimental solo work, into a mainstream, internationally known star. "Rolling Stone" placed "So" at 187 (2003 edition) and 297 (2020 edition) on its 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and at 14 on its 100 Best Albums of the 1980s, noting that "despite its mass appeal, however, "So" also presented compelling challenges." Stereogum placed it at number one on its list of Gabriel's best albums, writing, "Peter Gabriel's fifth studio album is a mesmerizing dichotomy: simultaneously hooky and experimental; timeless, yet completely crystallizing its moment in history ... It's a masterpiece.


title: So (album)

text: "So" has been profiled in the "Classic Albums" series and featured in "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". "Slant Magazine" listed the album at 41 on its list of the 100 Best Albums of the 1980s, describing it as "Gabriel's most accessible yet ambitious work. A chronicle of political, emotional, and artistic exploration, the album [attempts] to balance standard pop orthodoxy with his still-rumbling desire for sonic experimentation". Jim Allen wrote for "Ultimate Classic Rock", "What makes "So" important is the way he seamlessly blended peerless pop savvy with an iconoclast’s adventurous artistic instincts. His slightly twisted pop songs packed enough emotional impact, sonic surprises and catchy melodies to make for one of the era’s most consistently rewarding records." Conversely, in 2002 "The Guardian"s lead critic Alexis Petridis stated that Gabriel had "suffered a musical mid-life crisis", lampooning it as "an album packed with ultra-commercial priapic cod-funk" and calling it "a ruthless bid for mainstream success, yet he emerged without a stain on his avant-garde credentials".


title: So (album)

text: "So" is Gabriel's best-selling album, having been certified fivefold platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In 2002, "So" was re-issued and remastered. In 2011, several of tracks from "So" were featured on Gabriel's ninth studio release "New Blood", a project of orchestral re-recordings from Gabriel's discography. In 2012, for the album's twenty-fifth anniversary, a limited edition box set was released. It includes the remastered "So" album, the "Live at Athens" (1987) album and a "So DNA" album which examines its production, as well as new liner notes, photographs, vinyl collectibles and the "So: Classic Albums" documentary. In the same year, Gabriel embarked on the Back to Front Tour where Gabriel plays every song on the "So" album with several of the session musicians from its recording.


title: So (album)

text: Michael Glabicki of the American band Rusted Root acknowledges this album as a key influence on his own career exploring worldbeat music, saying, "I just kind of got locked into that sound. Peter Gabriel's "So" kind of gave everyone the go-ahead that this could work in a popular fashion. For people like me who were exploring those sounds, the wonder of if it's going to work or not just went away at that point." English musician Steven Wilson said, "People think the 80s were a shallow, superficial era", but he cited "So" as an album that was "really smart".


title: So (album)

text: All songs written by Peter Gabriel, except "That Voice Again" written with David Rhodes and "This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)" written with Laurie Anderson.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Maps to the Stars is a 2014 internationally co-produced satirical drama film directed by David Cronenberg, and starring Julianne Moore, Mia Wasikowska, John Cusack, Robert Pattinson, Olivia Williams, Sarah Gadon, and Evan Bird. The screenplay was written by Bruce Wagner, who had written a novel entitled "Dead Stars" based on the "Maps to the Stars" script, after initial plans for making the film with Cronenberg fell through.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: This is the second consecutive collaboration between Cronenberg and Pattinson (after "Cosmopolis") and marks the third collaboration between Cronenberg and Prospero Pictures, who previously collaborated on "A Dangerous Method" and "Cosmopolis". This is also the third Cronenberg film made with Canadian actress Sarah Gadon. It is the first Cronenberg film shot partially in the United States, although most of it was shot, like his other films, in his native city of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: The film concerns the plight of a child star and a washed up actress while commenting on the entertainment industry's relationship with as a whole. The film premiered in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival on May 19, 2014. Moore won the festival's Best Actress Award. Following its premiere at Cannes, the film had a theatrical release in France on May 21, 2014.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Agatha Weiss arrives in Los Angeles and employs limousine driver Jerome to take her to the site of the former house of child star Benjie Weiss. Agatha has severe burns to her face and body, requiring her to take a copious amount of medication. Benjie visits a child suffering from non-Hodgkin lymphoma in the hospital; the girl later dies, and Benjie is confronted by her ghost. Benjie's father, Dr. Stafford Weiss, is a TV psychologist who is treating aging actress Havana Segrand for abuse she suffered at the hands of her deceased mother, also an actress. Havana's agent struggles to get Havana a role in a remake of her mother's film "Stolen Waters." Havana routinely hallucinates about the deceased younger version of her mother.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Benjie and his mother, Cristina, negotiate a role for Benjie in a film as his comeback after drug rehabilitation. At the suggestion of Carrie Fisher, Havana hires Agatha, whom Carrie had met on Twitter, as a personal assistant. Agatha continues to see Jerome, and a romance forms, though Jerome appears resistant at first. Stafford learns through Havana that Agatha has returned to L.A. Agatha is Benjie's sister – however, she is shunned by her parents (Cristina and Stafford).


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Using Havana's role in "Stolen Waters" to gain access to the production lot, Agatha visits Benjie on set. A schizophrenic, Agatha tells him that she has returned from a sanatorium to make amends for setting the fire that burned her and nearly killed him when he was seven. When Stafford learns Agatha visited Benjie, he finds her in her hotel room, gives her $10,000, and tells her to leave L.A. before she ruins everything.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Benjie breaks his sobriety, getting high on GHB, and carelessly shoots the dog of his only friend. Agatha visits her mother, Cristina, and reveals that before she set the fire she had discovered that her parents were brother and sister, making Agatha and Benjie children of incest. Cristina tells her they were separated as children and didn't know they were related. Stafford comes home, and when Agatha tells him she knows about their familial relations, Stafford violently beats her, until Cristina intervenes. During the altercation, Agatha steals Cristina's wedding ring. On set, Benjie is haunted by the girl from the hospital and, during an hallucination, he strangles his young co-star. The child survives, though Benjie is now to be replaced in the film.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Havana requests Jerome as a driver and seduces him in the backseat of his parked limo in the driveway of her home as Agatha watches from the window. Havana enters the house and berates Agatha for her poor performance at work and then verbally humiliates her when she finds that the girl has stained her expensive couch with menstrual blood. Agatha beats Havana to death with one of her awards.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Benjie escapes the hospital and comes to Havana's house to find Agatha. Agatha tells him it all must end now. She shows him that she has their mother's wedding ring and instructs him to go get their father's ring.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Stafford returns home to see Cristina on fire outside beside the pool. As she screams, engulfed in flames, he uses a piece of pool furniture to push her into the pool where she dies. Benjie arrives and finds his father by the pool in a catatonic state. He takes his father's wedding ring off his finger, then reunites with Agatha at the site of their previous home that Agatha had burned down. On the fireplace hearth, the siblings perform an impromptu wedding ceremony with their parents' wedding rings.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: They take an extreme amount of Agatha's pills together so that they may die by suicide, before lying down to watch the stars.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Throughout the film, liberal quotings from Paul Éluard's poem "Liberté" meander "through each of the characters' lives," creating an underlying mantra for the film.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Plans for the film hit financial difficulties and it was in development for around six years. During promotion of "Cosmopolis" in May 2012, at Cannes, David Cronenberg said that "It's not a 'go' picture. We have a script that I love that Bruce wrote; it's a very difficult film to get made as was "Cosmopolis" actually. Whether I can get this movie to happen, I tried it five years ago, I couldn't get it made, so I still might not be able to get it made." He also added that ""Maps to the Stars" is very extreme. It's not obviously a very big commercial movie, and even as an independent film it's difficult. "Maps to the Stars" is completely different [from "Cosmopolis"], but it's very acerbic and satirical; it's a hard sell."


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Talking about the script, Cronenberg revealed that "It's kind of a satire on Hollywood. It's very typical of Bruce Wagner's writing. And it's sort of a condensed essence of Bruce. And while it's satirical, it's also very powerful, emotionally, and insightful and funny. You could say it's a Hollywood film because the characters are agents, actors and managers, but it is not a satire like "The Player"." Producer Martin Katz described it as an "absurdist comedy about the entertainment business."


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Viggo Mortensen and Rachel Weisz were initially cast but left due to scheduling difficulties, and were later replaced by Cusack and Moore. Moore, who bleached her hair blonde for the part of Havana, said in an interview about the film that, "It's not only about celebrity culture, but the pursuit of fame at any cost." It is the second collaboration between Pattinson and Cronenberg after "Cosmopolis".


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Production began in July 2013. Cronenberg stated that "it would be the first time I've ever shot a foot of film in the United States. It's strange, just because of the way the co-production deals work, that even though I've had movies that are set in the U.S. like "Cosmopolis" or "The Dead Zone", I've never shot in the United States. This would be the first time. And I'm really excited about it." He further added that "Well, "Maps to the Stars" is an L.A. story and I really felt that is something I could not create on a set in Toronto, whereas the structure of "Cosmopolis" allows me to create New York on a soundstage in Toronto.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Principal photography began on July 8, 2013, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and continued until August 12, 2013. Most of the shooting took place in Toronto and many of the interior locations in the film were filmed at the Eastern Avenue site of "Cinespace Studios". On July 19, some scenes were shot in and around the diner at Queen street in Leslieville, Ontario.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Filming then moved to Los Angeles, California. Most of the shoot was outdoors, at some landmark sites. On August 17, filming took place downtown at Union Station, Los Angeles with Pattinson and Wasikowska and on August 18 and 19, scenes were shot at Rodeo Drive and The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills, L.A. Scenes were also filmed at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Hollywood Boulevard and Runyon Canyon near Mulholland Drive on August 20 and at Park Way Beverly Hills L.A. on August 21. Cronenberg lit the Hollywood Sign for a scene on August 20, by using 4K HMI lights. He has said that "It's no different than shining a light from a helicopter." Filming wrapped up on August 22, 2013, in L.A.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Howard Shore composed the score for the film. He has collaborated with Cronenberg on all but one of his films since 1979. The album was released by Howe Records on September 9, 2014. The first single featuring a track from the soundtrack album was released on May 21, 2014.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: On April 14, 2014, the first preview trailer was released for sales and distribution. It was followed by the full-length official trailer of the film next day. The same month with the announcement of the film's premieres at the Cannes Film Festival, two images of Julianne Moore, Mia Wasikowska and Robert Pattinson from the film were released. EOne revealed another trailer for the film on September 10, 2014, ahead of film's release in Spain and Canada.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: The film screened at 2014 New Zealand International Film Festival in the "Legends" section on July 25, 2014. It screened in the Gala Presentations section of the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2014 and also screened at the 2014 New York Film Festival on September 27, 2014. It was released in UK on September 26, 2014. It served as the closing film at the 2014 Tokyo International Film Festival on October 31, 2014, and was theatrically released in Canada on the same day. On November 8, 2014, it screened at Stockholm International Film Festival. It was released in Australia on November 20, 2014.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: In September 2014, Focus World acquired the United States distribution rights of the film and gave the film an award-qualifying limited release in L.A. from December 5 to 11, 2014, before its day-and-date release on February 27, 2015.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in France on September 24, 2014. It was available on DVD in UK on November 24, 2014 and was released on March 3, 2015, in Germany. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released the DVD and Blu-ray Disc of the film in United States on April 14, 2015.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: The film had a limited release in France in May 2014, and then released in different countries and has grossed worldwide total of $4 million.


title: Maps to the Stars

text: The film generated mostly positive reviews, and performances from the cast were praised. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 61% of 155 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.3/10. The site's summary states: "Narratively unwieldy and tonally jumbled, "Maps to the Stars" still has enough bite to satisfy David Cronenberg fans in need of a coolly acidic fix." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the films holds an average score of 67, based on 39 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Maps to the Stars

text: Dave Calhoun of "Time Out" stated that "This creepy portrait of Beverly Hills screw-ups is deeply silly, but it has just enough venomous bite." "The Daily Telegraph" Robbie Collin gave the film five stars out of five and wrote that it "takes place in a kind of pharmaceutically heightened hyper-reality of its own: it's not so much a twisted dream of making it in show-business, as a writhing, hissing, Hollywood waking nightmare." He said that "Moore, in particular, is tremendous" and concluded that "Cronenberg has made a film that you want to unsee – and then see and unsee again." Oliver Lyttelton, in his review for "The Playlist", graded the film B+ by saying that "The film is a sickly enjoyable wallow in the scandalous, fucked-up side of showbusiness, and a real return to form for the filmmaker." Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave the film four out of five stars and called the film "A gripping and exquisitely horrible movie about contemporary Hollywood – positively vivisectional in its sadism and scorn." Mark Kermode, also of "The Guardian", compared the film to ""Sunset Boulevard", with sprinklings of "Chinatown", "Beyond the Valley of the Dolls" and "Mommie Dearest" thrown in for good measure." He called Moore "magnificently horrendous" with Wasikowska "provid[ing] ice-cool counterpoint", Williams "terrific" and Pattinson "nicely underplayed". In his review for "Slant Magazine", Budd Wilkins compared the film to David Lynch's "Mulholland Drive" (2001): ""Maps to the Stars" is a scabrous, etched-in-acid comedy that digs deeper into the perversions and pathologies undergirding the Dream Factory than anything since "Mulholland Drive"."


title: Maps to the Stars

text: However, Peter Debruge of "Variety" criticized the film as "part showbiz sendup, part ghost story, part dysfunctional-family drama, [it] instead comes across as so much jaded mumbo-jumbo." Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" thought that the film "comes off like a prank more than a coherent take on 21st century Hollywood, even if there are crumbs of truth and wit scattered throughout it." Lee Marshall of "Screen International" said that "The film doesn't quite get away with its attempt to reconcile satire with pathos, but it comes perilously close."


title: Maps to the Stars

text: The film was included in the list of "Canada's Top Ten" feature films of 2014, selected by a panel of filmmakers and industry professionals organized by TIFF.


title: Justin Bruening

text: Justin Bruening (born September 24, 1979) is an American actor and former fashion model. He was originally discovered at McDonald's in Escondido, California, by Sue Nessel, a scout for Scott Copeland. Within a week, he was shooting photos with Bruce Weber. In 2003, his acting career began when he was cast in the role of Jamie Martin on the daytime drama "All My Children", earning him a Soap Opera Digest Award in 2005 for the portrayal. In late 2007, not long after leaving the role, Bruening was cast as Mike Traceur, the son of character Michael Knight, a new take on the original "Knight Rider" series. In 2011, he was cast as Tyler Berrett, a recurring role on The CW series "Ringer" starring Sarah Michelle Gellar and in 2013, he joined "Ravenswood."


title: Justin Bruening

text: Justin Bruening was born on September 24, 1979 in St. Helena, Nebraska. Raised in the small town of St. Helena, Nebraska (a then-population of 85), he graduated from high school with only nine classmates.


title: Justin Bruening

text: Following graduation, Bruening moved to San Diego, California. It was there that he was discovered by Sue Nessel, a talent scout for Scott Copeland International, at McDonald's in Escondido just north of San Diego. Soon afterwards, Copeland got him his first modeling job for Abercrombie & Fitch.


title: Justin Bruening

text: Following his first commercial job, Bruening was encouraged to study acting by Copeland and was noticed by "All My Children" casting director Judy Wilson. Bruening originally auditioned for the role of JR Chandler on "All My Children", but was eventually cast in the role of James "Jamie" Martin in July 2003. For a brief time, in 2004 and 2005, Bruening also portrayed Jamie Martin on "One Life to Live" during a crossover storyline. During his role of Jamie, Bruening was featured as "Daytime's Hottest Star" in "Teen People", "Us Weekly", "Star" and "J-14" magazines.


title: Justin Bruening

text: In addition to his work on soap operas, he has had a guest appearance on "Hope & Faith" and a small part in the film "Fat Girls". He was up for the role of Superman in "Superman Returns", but the part was won by Brandon Routh instead. He also appeared in the Britney Spears music video "Boys". On October 21, 2007 he appeared on CBS's "Cold Case", in the episode "Thick As Thieves".


title: Justin Bruening

text: On November 2, 2007, it was announced that Bruening would be starring in a new rendition of the original "Knight Rider" series, portraying the original Knight Rider's son, Mike Traceur, for a two-hour film on NBC. NBC decided after successful ratings for the film to continue the story as a series, and commissioned an official series for its debut for the 2008–2009 television season.


title: Justin Bruening

text: In 2011, Bruening began a recurring role on the CW mystery series, "Ringer". In 2012, he began a recurring role on the ABC family drama, "Switched at Birth". In 2013, he had a recurring role on the ABC drama, "Grey's Anatomy" as Paramedic Matt. He then featured in the limited season run of the "Pretty Little Liars"' spin-off "Ravenswood" in 2013. In 2018, he was cast as 'Nash' the co-star of the Hallmark Channel tv movie "Last Vermont Christmas".


title: Justin Bruening

text: Bruening proposed to former "All My Children" co-star Alexa Havins on the set of the soap opera. They were married on June 5, 2005. The two were friends first before becoming romantically involved. After Bruening left "All My Children", Havins exited shortly after and the couple moved to Los Angeles. On August 10, 2010, he and Havins welcomed their first child, daughter Lexington Grace Bruening. Justin and Alexa Havins have two more children.


title: North Asia

text: North Asia or Northern Asia, also referred to as Siberia, is the northern region of Asia, which is defined in geographical terms and is coextensive with the Asian part of Russia, and consists of three Russian regions east of the Ural Mountains: Ural, Siberia, and the Russian Far East. North Asia is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to its north; by Eastern Europe to its west; by Central and East Asia to its south; and by the Pacific Ocean and North America to its east. It covers an area of , or 8.8% of Earth's total land area; and is the largest subregion of Asia by area, but is also the least populated, with a population of around 33 million, accounting for merely 0.74% of Asia's population.


title: North Asia

text: Topographically, the region is dominated by the Eurasian Plate, except for its eastern part, which lies on the North American, Amurian, and Okhotsk Plates. It is divided by three major plains: the West Siberian Plain, Central Siberian Plateau, and Verhoyansk-Chukotka collision zone. The Uralian orogeny in the west raised Ural Mountains, the informal boundary between Asia and Europe. Tectonic and volcanic activities are frequently occurred in the eastern part of the region as part of the Ring of Fire, evidenced by the formation of island arcs such as the Kuril Islands and ultra-prominent peaks such as Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Kronotsky, and Koryaksky. The central part of North Asia is a large igneous province called the Siberian Traps, formed by a massive eruption occurred 250 million years ago. The formation of the traps coincided with the Permian–Triassic extinction event.


title: North Asia

text: North Asia, geographically, is a subregion of Asia. However, because it was colonised and incorporated into Russia, many international organisations either consider or classify North Asia as part of Eastern Europe along with European Russia. European cultural influences, specifically Russian, are predominant in the entire region, due to it experiencing Russian emigration from Europe starting from the 18th century. Slavs and other Indo-Europeans make up the vast majority of North Asia's population, and over 85% of the region's population is of European descent.


title: North Asia

text: The region was first populated by hominins in the Late Pleistocene, approximately 100,000 years ago, and modern humans are confirmed to arrived in the region by 45,000 years ago with the first humans in the region having West Eurasian origins. Its Neolithic culture is characterized by characteristic stone production techniques and the presence of pottery of eastern origin. The Bronze Age began during the 3rd millennium BCE, with influences of Indo-Iranian cultures as evidenced by the Andronovo culture. During the 1st millennium BCE, polities such as the Scythians and Xiongnus emerged in the region, who often clashed with its Persian and Chinese neighbors in the south. The Göktürks dominated southern Siberia during the 1st millennium CE, while in the early 2nd millennium, the Mongol Empire and its successor states ruled the region. The Khanate of Sibir was one of the last independent Turkic states in North Asia before its conquest by the Tsardom of Russia in the 16th century. Russia would then gradually annex the region into its territory until the Convention of Peking was signed in 1860. After the October Revolution in 1917, the region was contested between the Bolsheviks and Whites until the Soviet Union asserted full control in 1923. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left Russia as the administrator of the region.


title: North Asia

text: For geographic and statistical reasons, the UN geoscheme and various other classification schemes will not subdivide countries, and thus place all of Russia in the Europe or Eastern Europe subregion.


title: North Asia

text: There are no mountain chains in Northern Asia to prevent air currents from the Arctic flowing down over the plains of Siberia and Turkestan.


title: North Asia

text: The plateau and plains of Northern Asia comprise the West Siberian lowlands; the Angara Shield, with the Taimyr Peninsula, the coastal lowlands (North Siberian Lowland and East Siberian Lowland), the Central Siberian Plateau, (Putorana Plateau, Lena Plateau, Anabar Plateau, Tunguska Plateau, Vilyuy Plateau, and the Lena-Angara Plateau); and the Lena–Vilyuy Lowland. Western Siberia is usually regarded as the Northwest Asia, Kazakhstan also sometimes included there. But Northwest Asia sometimes refers to Caucasus or nearby provinces.


title: North Asia

text: The geomorphology of Northern Asia in general is imperfectly known, although the deposits and mountain ranges are well known.


title: North Asia

text: To compensate for new sea floor having been created in the Siberian basin, the whole of the Asian Plate has pivoted about a point in the New Siberian Islands, causing compression in the Verkhoyansk mountains, which were formed along the eastern margin of the Angara Shield by tectonic uplift during the Mesozoic Era. There is a southern boundary to this across the northern margin of the Alpine folds of Afghanistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, which at the east of Brahmaputra turns to run south towards the Bay of Bengal along the line of the Naga hills and the Arakan Yoma, continues around Indonesia, and follows the edge of the continental shelf along the eastern seaboard of China. The Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate meet across the neck of Alaska, following the line of the Aleutian Trench, rather than meeting at the Bering Straits.


title: North Asia

text: Northern Asia is built around the Angara Shield, which lies between the Yenisey River and the Lena River. It developed from fragments of Laurasia, whose rocks were mainly Precambrian crystalline rocks, gneisses, and schists, and Gondwana. These rocks can be found in the Angara Shield, Inner Mongolian-Korean Shield, Ordes Shield, and Southeast Asia Shield. The fragments have been subject to orogenesis around their margins, giving a complex of plateaux and mountain ranges. One can find outcrops of these rocks in unfolded sections of the Shields. Their presence has been confirmed below Mesozoic and later sediments.


title: North Asia

text: There are three main periods of mountain building in Northern Asia, although it has occurred many times. The outer fold mountains that are on the margins of the Shields and that only affected Asia north of the line of the Himalayas, are attributed to the Caledonian and Hercynian orogenies of the late Palaeozoic Era. The Alpine orogeny caused extensive folding and faulting of Mesozoic and early Tertiary sediments from the Tethys geosyncline. The Tibetan and Mongolian plateaux, and the structural basins of Tarim, Qaidam, and Junggar, are delimited by major east–west lithospheric faults that were probably the results of stresses caused by the impact of the Indian Plate against Laurasia. Erosion of the mountains caused by this orogeny has created a large amount of sediment, which has been transported southwards to produce the alluvial plains of India, China, and Cambodia, and which has also been deposited in large amounts in the Tarim and Dzungarian basins.


title: North Asia

text: Northern Asia was glaciated in the Pleistocene, but this played a less significant part in the geology of the area compared to the part that it played in North America and Europe. The Scandinavian ice sheet extended to the east of the Urals, covering the northern two thirds of the Ob Basin and extending onto the Angara Shield between the Yenisei River and the Lena River. There are legacies of mountain glaciation to be found on the east Siberian mountains, on the mountains of the Kamchatka Peninsula, on the Altai, on Tian Shan, and on other small areas of mountains, ice caps remain on the islands of Severnaya Zemlya and Novaya Zemlya, and several Central Asian mountains still have individual glaciers. North Asia itself has permafrost, ranging in depths from 30 to 600 metres and covering an area of 9.6 million km.


title: North Asia

text: Several of the mountainous regions are volcanic, with both the Koryak Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula having active volcanoes. The Anadyr Plateau is formed from igneous rocks. The Mongolian Plateau has an area of basaltic lavas and volcanic cones.


title: North Asia

text: The Angara Shield also underlies the lowlands of the Ob River, but to the south and east in the Central Asian mountains and in the East Siberian Mountains there are folded and faulted mountains of Lower Palaeozoic rocks.


title: North Asia

text: Most estimates are that there are around 33 million Russian citizens living east of the Ural Mountains, a widely recognized but informal geographical divide between Europe and Asia. Of these Russian citizens of Siberia, most are Slavic-origin Russians and russified Ukrainians. The Turkic peoples who are native to some parts of Siberia and native Tungusic and Mongolic peoples are now a minority in North Asia due to the Russification process during the last three centuries. Russian census records indicate they make up only an estimated 10% of the region's population, with the largest being the Buryats numbering at 445,175, and the Yakuts at 443,852 (Russian Census of 2002). According to the 2002 census, there are 500,000 Tatars in Siberia, but 300,000 of them are Volga Tatars who settled in Siberia during periods of colonization. Other ethnic groups that live in the region and make a significant portion include ethnic Germans numbering about 400,000.


title: North Asia

text: In 1875, Chambers reported the population of Northern Asia to be 8 million. Between 1801 and 1914, an estimated 7 million settlers moved from European Russia to Siberia, 85% during the quarter-century before World War I.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Raja Rani () is a 2013 Indian Tamil-language romance comedy drama film directed by Atlee in his directorial debut. Produced by AR Murugadoss, the film stars Arya, Jai, Nayanthara and Nazriya Nazim, while Sathyaraj, Santhanam, Sathyan appear in supporting roles. The core plot of the movie was heavily inspired by the 1986 Tamil film "Mouna Ragam" and the 2007 Kannada film "Milana".


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The film released on 27 September 2013, and received positive reviews upon release. It was remade in Bengali as "Shudhu Tomari Jonyo" in 2015 and was remade in Odia as "Tu Je Sei" in 2016.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The movie begins with the marriage of John and Regina at a church. The marriage is an arranged one, to which both have consented reluctantly to make their parents happy. After the marriage, they live together as strangers in their apartment, where the neighbours are upset with John who comes home drunk every night, which he does deliberately to annoy Regina. Eventually, Regina applies for a transfer to Australia to stay away from John.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: One night, Regina falls down with fits. John calls an ambulance and takes Regina to the hospital, where he is unable to respond to the doctor's queries about Regina's age and medical history. When he goes to apologise to the doctor later on, he is told that it is important to know about his wife's health, even if he dislikes her. John then asks Regina about her health issues, and she reveals that she had fits twice in the past. The movie sees its first flashback as she explains her past and the love of her life, Surya.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: While in college, she falls in love with Surya, who works in the call center of a mobile company. Surya gets selected for airline cabin-crew training in the US. They decide to inform their parents about their love but his father objects to their relationship and hence they decide to get married without informing their parents. On the designated day, Surya fails to show up at the register office for the wedding. Regina's father James feels sorry for his daughter and takes Regina to Surya's house, where they learn that Surya has already left for the US. A few days later, Regina gets a call from Surya's friend Aiyappan, saying that Surya had committed suicide in the US. In her shock, she suffers fits for the first time.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Upon hearing this story, John begins to like Regina and now has immense respect for her. Regina, however, continues to treat John with scant respect, until one day, when Sarathy comes to their flat and reveals John's past in the second major flashback of the movie. John had fallen in love with Keerthana, and they eventually get married. On the day after their marriage, Keerthana is hit by a car while crossing the road, and she dies in front of John. This leaves John heartbroken and he vows not to marry another girl again. 4 years later, Sarathy consoles him and convinces him to marry again. This brings back the events that occurred in the beginning of the film with John wedding Regina.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Regina now begins to like John. Though they like each other, they never reveal it to each other. Finally, on John's birthday, Regina gives John a gift and insists that he open it alone, but John never opens the gift as he thinks that Regina is only pretending to be affectionate in front of her father.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Regina's request for the transfer to Australia is approved. When she tells John, while he was having a beer that she bought for him, he asks her to go ahead with her plans, as he thinks that she was trying to bribe him with the beer to get him to agree to a divorce, while she actually wanted to express her love for him.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: John drops off Regina at the airport. When he is about to leave the airport, he gets a call from Regina, who tells him that she saw Surya at the emigration counter. John rushes off to meet Surya and tries to get him to accept Regina. Surya says that he was forced to leave by his father and that he faked his suicide so that Regina would get over him. Surya lies to John saying that he is now happily married and tells John that one cannot always marry the girl he loves, but should always love the girl he marries. As he leaves, he glances at the ring in his hand, which was gifted to him by Regina, showing that Surya will always live with the memories of their relationship and never marry another girl.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Regina, who is terribly angry, slaps John as she never wanted to get back with Surya, as that was the past. Regina throws the gift that John never opened. When he opens it he finds the words "Let's begin our new Life". John and Regina realise their love for each other and begin their life together.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: In early 2012, Atlee, an assistant director to Shankar, narrated his script to Rama Narayanan, who agreed to finance the film. Atlee revealed he wrote the script with Arya in mind to portray the lead role, and was insistent on signing Nayanthara as the female lead as he felt they made a good on-screen pair. Atlee had initially selected Sivakarthikeyan to portray a role in the film, but subsequently chose Jai to appear as Nayanthara's love interest in a flashback segment. Nani was also considered for Arya's role, but he did not have the dates. Priya Anand was considered another leading role, but the opportunity was later offered to Nazriya Nazim who had made her debut with "Neram" (2013) in Tamil films. Sathyaraj, Santhanam and Sathyan were also signed to play other supporting roles in the film. The film has music by G. V. Prakash Kumar, art direction by T. Muthuraj and cinematography by debutant George C. Williams, a former associate of Nirav Shah.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The film began its first schedule at a bungalow in Greams road, Chennai. Kamal Haasan switched on the camera and a song picturising Jai and Nayanthara was canned on the occasion. The sequence involving Jai and Nayanthara were canned first and Arya joined the team after completing his work on "Irandam Ulagam".


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Critics have noted that the film draws similarities and inspirations from Mani Ratnam's "Mouna Ragam " and the Kannada movie "Milana".


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The soundtrack album for "Raja Rani" was composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar. The lyrics were penned by Na. Muthukumar, Pa. Vijay and Gaana Bala. The single "Hey Baby" was released on 19 August 2013. The complete album was released on 23 August 2013 at Sathyam Cinemas, Chennai. The audio was released by actors Jiiva and Arya.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: "Behindwoods" rated the album 3.25 out of 5, and said "G.V strikes with lively & cheerful melodies. A very pleasant album !" "IndiaGlitz" rated it 2.5 out of 5 and said, "GV Prakash keeps his promise". Cinemalead.com rated the album with 3.5 out of 5 stars and said the album is Innovative, Interesting and Intriguing


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: A first official film teaser showing the lead pair quarrelling through their projections in a mirror, was released on 11 May 2013 by Fox Star Studios. The teaser went instantly viral garnering a large number of views. The film released in many theatres across the USA especially Towne 3 cinemas in San Jose. The film was a blockbuster.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The official trailer was released along with the music album in a very innovative manner on 23 August 2013. The trailer was released on YouTube earlier in the day and was simultaneously telecast across 12 television channels at 7 PM. The trailer received positive response.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: "Raja Rani" received positive reviews from critics. "Rediff" rated it 3/5 and stated, "Debutant director Atlee's "Raja Rani" is a simple refreshing tale about how to cope with life, when we lose someone we love. The film has a lot going for it and definitely succeeds in entertaining the audience." "Behindwoods" rated it 3/5 and stated "The movie's running time is 2 hours 45 minutes and there are moments in the second half leading to the finale which sag. The end product could have been much tauter. To sum up, though the second half of "Raja Rani" moves along predictable lines, it's still a promising debut by Atlee". The Times of India gave 3 stars out of 5 and wrote "The film does leave you exhausted by the time it ends. Still, it remains always watchable, mainly because the director, like his mentor Shankar, embraces his old school storytelling methods with conviction".


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: Sudhish Kamath of "The Hindu" cited "Atlee's promising debut "Raja Rani" merits a watch in spite of its fundamentally flawed structure". "IndiaGlitz" said, "One look at the movie and there might be suspicions of Atlee as a debutant, he gives away a clean family entertainer with no hoopla's. There are two other major contributing factors. George C. Williams's enchanting cinematography giving a bouncing color to the film, and flows with freshness. And the other is GV's music, if the songs are chartbusters, then the BGM is another success story. They flow well with the scenes right from the start to the end, way to go team."


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: In contrast, Gautaman Bhaskaran of "Hindustan Times" rated it 2 stars and said, "At a little over 150 minutes, "Raja Rani" is a bumpy ride with potholes of songs, with characters who are nothing better than caricatures and with a romance that hardly engages". "Sify" too gave an unfavourable review stating, "Debutant director Atlee's highly hyped "Raja Rani" starts off promisingly and keeps us engaged in the first half. But post-interval it loses steam, and turns out to be a cheesy, emotionally manipulative drama with a predictable long drawn out climax that goes on and on for 35 minutes".


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The film released in 350 screens in Tamil Nadu. It earned approximately 32 million on its first day, which was said to be Arya's best ever opening, and had collected an opening weekend collection of 122 million in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. The total collections from overseas market after the opening weekend were estimated at 50 million. "Raja Rani" eventually emerged a huge success after earning over from the South Indian box office within four weeks. The film thus emerged as the third blockbuster in Arya's career after "Arinthum Ariyamalum" and "Boss Engira Bhaskaran" as well as the fifth most successful film of the year.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: It was remade in Bengali as "Shudhu Tomari Jonyo" in 2015, with Dev reprising Arya's role, Srabanti Chatterjee reprising Nayanthara's role, Soham Chakraborty reprising Jai's role and Mimi Chakraborty reprising Nazriya Nazim's role. It was also remade in 2016 in Odia as "Tu Je Sei" starring Babushan.


title: Raja Rani (2013 film)

text: The scene where John (Arya) marries Regina (Nayanthara) is spoofed in Director's own "Bigil". In the film, Angel (Nayanthara) refuses to marry John (Abi Saravanan) and instead falls for Michael (Vijay).


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Calgary International Airport , branded as YYC Calgary International Airport, is an international airport that serves the city of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It is located approximately northeast of downtown and covers an area of 20.82 square kilometres (8.04 sq mi; 5,144 acres; 2,082 ha). With 6.3 million passengers and 124,108 aircraft movements in 2021, Calgary International is the busiest airport in Alberta and the third-busiest in Canada by passenger traffic. This airport is served by the Calgary International Airport Emergency Response Service for aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) protection. The region's petroleum and tourism industries (and its proximity to Banff National Park) have helped foster growth at the airport, which has nonstop flights to an array of destinations in North and Central America, Europe, and Asia. Calgary serves as the headquarters for WestJet and is a hub for Air Canada.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Built in the late 1930s, the site has since grown to house four runways, two terminal buildings with five concourses for passengers, warehouses for cargo handling, and other infrastructure. The Calgary Airport Authority operates the property while paying rent to the federal government. Close to the airport is the Deerfoot Trail freeway for transport into the city, and public transit also serves the airport.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The first airport to serve Calgary opened in 1914, in the neighbourhood of Bowness. It occupied one-square kilometre () and consisted of a hut and a grass runway. The site of the first airport (77 Street NW and 43 Avenue NW) is now home to a community centre (The Landing) as well as Bowness High School and Bowglen Park.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Operations shifted to a new airport southwest of the city in 1928, named Old Banff Coach Road Airport (near Old Banff Coach Road later as Bow Trail and 45 Street SW). However, issues with turbulence in the area prompted another airfield to be built the following year in the neighbourhood of Renfrew known as the "Calgary Municipal Airport" or "Stanley Jones Airport". The local airline Renfew Air Service constructed the Rutledge Hangar at the Renfrew site (6th Street and Regal Crescent) in 1929, a lamella arch structure composed of Douglas Fir planks on a reinforced concrete base. The Renfew Air Service folded in November 1931 as a result of the Great Depression, and ownership of the Rutledge Hangar was taken over by the Edmonton Credit Corporation who subsequently lease the hangar to the City of Calgary. The RCAF used the airport in the 1940s. The Rutledge Hangar remains standing at the original Renfew site by Boys and Girls Club of Calgary and was designated an Alberta Provincial Historic Resource on 5 May 2003.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: As the City of Calgary grew to surround the Renfrew airport site the municipal government decided to relocate the airport to a new location. The city purchased an area of land north of Calgary in 1938 for about $31,000; and remains the site of Calgary's current airport. The city came to an agreement with Trans-Canada Air Lines to construct and lease a hangar on the site for $45,000 (), and the federal Department of Transportation financed the construction of three runways and other improvements, the first of which opened on 25 September. The new Calgary airfield was named "McCall Field" after First World War ace and lifelong Calgarian Fred McCall.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: As a result of Canada entering the Second World War, the federal government assumed control of McCall Field in 1940, re-purposing it as a fuel and maintenance stop for aircraft involved in the war effort and later stationing the No. 37 Service Flying Training School at the airfield from 22 October 1941 until its closure on 10 March 1944. McCall Field continued to operate regular passenger flights during the Second World War.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Following the end of the Second World War, the airport had been expanded to include additional hangars, four runways and other infrastructure. The City of Calgary resumed management of McCall Field in 1946, repurposed the a hangar as a passenger terminal, and convinced the federal government to extend the airports east–west runway to in October 1949 at an estimated cost of $750,000 the construction required a excavation below grade to prevent frost heaving. At the time of completion, McCall Field's east–west runway was the third-longest runway in Alberta behind the Calgary Airport's north–south runway and the runway at CFB Namao.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The re-purposed military hangars did not meet the needs of the growing transportation needs of the city, and efforts were made by city officials to secure funding for a new passenger terminal. A new passenger terminal was constructed in 1956; its design originated in the 1950s as a thesis project by Provincial Institute of Technology and Art architecture student Ken Bond, who later formed the architectural firm Clayton, Bond and Mogridge, which was awarded the contract for designing the new terminal. The one-million dollar project featured an open public concourse, and ticketing offices for three airlines was dubbed one of the most modern air terminals in Canada when it opened on 2 June 1956. A lavish opening ceremony was attended by federal Transportation Minister George C. Marler, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta John J. Bowlen, and Mayor Donald Hugh Mackay, and a number of other dignitaries. The festivities included an air show featuring an Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck. Following construction of the new passenger terminal, McCall Field would see 110,984 passenger arrivals, 96,287 departures and nearly of cargo through the airport in 1957.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In the 1960s Calgary City Council began lobbing the federal government to designate McCall Field as an "international airport", a status defined by the Department of Transportation. As a compromise on April 6, 1962, the federal government approved the naming the airport terminal "Calgary International Airport" from "Calgary Municipal Airport". However, Mayor Harry Hays, local Aldermen and residents continued to refer to the airport in general as "McCall Field". Calgary International Airport did not receive official "International" status from the federal government until 1969. The first non-stop transatlantic flights were scheduled by Canadian Pacific Airlines in 1961, connecting Calgary with Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, and more flights from Europe commenced the following year.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The jet age arrived shortly after the construction of Calgary's new passenger terminal. The terminal was not designed with jet aircraft in mind, and the airport's runways were not suitable for the larger and faster aircraft. In 1961 the airport replaced the diagonal runway with an runway capable of handling modern jet aircraft. In 1963 the airport underwent a $4-million refurbishment which saw improved electronic landing aids, and the main north–south runway extended by to its present length of .


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The City of Calgary was unable to afford the continued upgrades the Calgary Municipal Airport necessary to cope with the rising aircraft traffic. The city proceeded to sell the Calgary Municipal Airport to the federal government in 1966 for $2 million, and the Department of Transportation proceeded to refurbish the runways shortly afterwards.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The new passenger terminal constructed in 1956 proved to only temporarily meet the needs of the city, and was inadequate for expansion or facilitating jet aircraft servicing. Following the sale of the Calgary International Airport by the City of Calgary to the Government of Canada in 1966, plans were put in motion to build a new passenger terminal. The airport's sale came with a promise by Federal Transportation Minister Jack Pickersgill that the federal government would build a $20-million passenger terminal within five years; however, continued delays pushed completion of the terminal to 1977.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Construction began on the new passenger terminal in 1972, construction would be delayed due to re-designs to meet increased air traffic needs, causing the price of the new terminal to grow well beyond the original $20-million figure. Finally, on 12 October 1977, the new $130-million (equivalent to $-million in ), terminal was opened by Mayor Rod Sykes, Provincial Transportation Minister Hugh Horner, and Federal Transportation Minister Otto Lang two months before construction had completed. Sykes was able to leverage his friendship with Lord Mountbatten to convince British Airways to have one of the newly introduced Concorde land in Calgary on the day, and although the jet showed up a day late due to mechanical issues, it was still quite the coup for a city of less than half a million residents. Among other festivities for the opening event included flyovers by a Boeing 747, Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, and the Canadian Air Force Snowbirds. The 1977 passenger terminal remains the core of Calgary International Airport's domestic terminal to this day.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The Jumbo Jet age arrived in Calgary with the newly introduced Boeing 747 landing for the first time in 1973, with Wardair providing non-stop bi-weekly charter service from Calgary to London. Air Canada was not far behind, and began non-stop service to London using the 747 starting on June 27, 1974. In April 1974, Calgary International Airport hosted CP Air's flight testing for the Boeing 747 after airport firefighters went on strike at both Vancouver International Airport and Toronto Pearson Airport.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In 1974 the Government of Alberta acquired ownership of Pacific Western Airlines, Canada's third largest airline at the time and move the head office and hub to Calgary. The airline continued under provincial government ownership until 1983, and later merged with Canadian Pacific Air Lines to form Canadian Airlines. Canadian Airlines maintained Calgary as the hub and headquarters for the airline until it was acquired by Air Canada in 2001.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In the early 1990s the Government of Canada introduced the National Airports Policy which moved towards privatization, liberalization and economic deregulation of air transportation, which included the formation of a Local Airport Authority under the name "Calgary Airport Authority" in 1992 for the management, operation and development of the Calgary International Airport under lease from the federal government. The Calgary Airport Authority, incorporated in July 1990 is a non-share capital, not-for-profit corporation formed under the authority of Alberta's "Regional Airports Authorities Act". The Calgary Airport Authority signed a long-term 60-year lease with an additional 20-year option, which was subsequently exercised in 2011.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In 1992, Calgary International Airport opened a new air traffic control tower at the southern end of Aero Drive. The control tower when completed was tall with of office room, and was designed with the knowledge that it would not provide the necessary line of sight to the expanded east airfield.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In February 1996 WestJet, which began as a low-cost carrier began operations with a base of operations at Calgary International, occupying an expanded area of the terminal. The airline's first flight, a Boeing 737 departed Calgary International on route to Vancouver International Airport on 29 February 1996.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: During the September 11, 2001 attacks 13 international flights destined for the United States were diverted to Calgary International Airport as part of Operation Yellow Ribbon. The operation was a joint effort between NAV Canada and Transport Canada in communication with the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, which facilitated the grounding of potentially destructive air traffic.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The Calgary Airport Authority began analyzing the facility's air capacity in the late 1990s, and found the airport could reach its maximum capacity as early as 2006. The Airport Authority and NAV Canada made a number of changes to airport operations in the 2000s to improve the efficiency and capacity of the facility, but by 2008, with a number of changes made, NAV Canada reported the airfield would begin to exceed its practical capacity. The Calgary Airport Authority planned and under the "Airport Development Program", a major development program aimed at improving the capacity and quality of the airport, which included the construction of a new runway, air traffic control tower and passenger terminal.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: On 25 May 2013, the new Air Traffic Control Tower opened at Calgary International Airport. The one-year, $25-million (equivalent to $-million) project came in advance of the airport's new runway, and at 91 m (300 ft), the tower was the tallest free-standing control tower in Canada. The airport's previous 50 m (165 ft) control tower was demolished in October 2014.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The Calgary Airport Authority initiated the Parallel Runway Project, a $620-million (equivalent to $-million) project to assess and construct a new runway, which led to the construction of the runway 17L/35R beginning in April 2011. Upon its completion on June 28, 2014, runway 17L/35R became the longest runway in Canada. During the construction of the runway, a $295-million (equivalent to $-million), , six-lane roadway tunnel was constructed underneath the runway to connect Barlow Trail to 36th Street N.E. The decision for Calgary City Council on whether to construct the tunnel while the runway was being constructed, or wait until a later date was a major issue during the 2010 Calgary municipal election.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The Airport Authority addressed cargo capacity through the construction of a cargo facility in 2015 followed by a facility constructed in 2016.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The final stage of the Calgary Airport Authority's Airport Development Program was the construction of a new $1.6-billion (equivalent to $-billion) international terminal. Officially opened on 31 October 2016, the international terminal facility added 24 new aircraft gates, North America's first call-to-gate passenger boarding system, CATSA Plus enhanced passenger screening system, moving walkways and dedicated electric passenger vehicle system. The international terminal was designed with several sustainable principles including 581 geothermal wells for heating and cooling, and an annual rainwater capture capacity of .


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In October 2016 Transport Canada officially renamed Calgary International Airport to "YYC Calgary International Airport", affixing the "YYC" IATA code to the airport's name.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In 2020, after several months of travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the governments of Alberta and Canada announced a new program to enable certain travellers to enter Canada more easily. Canadian citizens and essential workers entering Canada at Calgary, as well as at the Sweetgrass–Coutts Border Crossing, can be tested for the virus and, if they test negative, will be allowed to quarantine for only 48 hours instead of the usual 14 days.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The Calgary International Airport houses two passenger terminals, one for domestic flights and the other for international flights.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The four-storey Domestic Terminal was originally opened in 1977 and has undergone a number of renovations in the decades following. The ground level of the terminal serves as the arrivals area with baggage claim and transportation facilities present. The second level of the terminal serves as the departures level and includes airport check-in, security and access to departure gates. The basement level of the airport contains utilities and tenant storage while the mezzanine level contains a food court, airline offices and the airport authority offices. The Domestic Terminal has three concourses: Concourses A, B, and C; with A and B serving WestJet and her subsidiaries, while Concourse C serves Air Canada. "Concourse A" includes departure gates A1-A24; "Concourse B" includes departure gates B31-B40; and "Concourse C" includes departure gates C50-C65.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The International Terminal was originally opened on 31 October 2016 and consists of five levels; utilities and baggage processing in the basement. Arrivals meet and greet areas, Canada Customs and relevant infrastructure on the ground level with departure check-in, security, US customs and the international departures concourse being located on the second floor. The third level contains the international departures concourse and finally the mezzanine level contains the US departure lounges. The International Terminal includes gates 70 through 97 shared across two concourses: "Concourse D" for all flights to and from foreign countries except the US as well as domestic flights; and "Concourse E" for flights to and from the United States. For the International Terminal, passengers travelling to the United States clear customs and immigration prior to departure at the preclearance facility.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The Domestic Terminal is connected to the International Terminal by a 620-metre walkway corridor and path for the YYC Link Passengers Shuttles; twenty, ten-seat electric vehicles used to transport connecting passengers.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: WestJet, headquartered in Calgary and for which Calgary is the hub, has criticized the design of the international terminal, which opened in 2016. The airline's CEO stated that the distance between the terminals was too long for connecting travellers and that YYC Link was insufficient to solve this problem. As a result, WestJet had to alter its schedules in order to allow additional time for passengers transiting through Calgary. The Calgary Airport Authority responded that it did not see issues with the connections process, although it said passengers would need some time to adjust to the new facilities.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Calgary International Airport consists of two north–south parallel runways with two intersecting runways. The parallel runways are 17R/35L (west) which is generally used for aircraft arriving and departing to the west, and 17L/35R (east) which is generally used for aircraft arriving and departing to the east. During the winter months in Calgary, cold arctic air will move in from the north which means aircraft will primarily depart and arrive on north-facing runways (35R and 35L), while the summer months with warm winds from the south, aircraft will primarily take-off and land on south-facing runways (17R and 17L). The diagonal runway 11/29 is generally used when crosswinds are present, which commonly occurs in the summer when westerly Chinooks roll into Calgary, or when extreme wind conditions prohibit the use of the parallel runways. The fourth and smallest runway, 08/26, is almost exclusively used by light aircraft and the general aviation sector.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The longest runway in Canada at the time of its 2014 opening, Runway 17L/35R was built to reduce congestion and better accommodate larger, heavier aircraft: the weight of such aircraft, combined with the low air density resulting from the airport's high elevation and temperatures during the summer, means that a longer runway is necessary for take-off. Runway 17L/35R is also layered with concrete, a material more durable than the asphalt that composes the airport's other three runways.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: The airport has allotted an extensive amount of area for cargo operations, including over of warehouse space. Freight airlines such as Cargolux make regular trips to Europe, Asia, and other destinations. In 2017, the Calgary airport handled a total of 147,000 tonnes (144,678 tons) of cargo.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In 2011, Calgary International Airport received the Air Cargo World Award of Excellence for airports between 100,000 and 199,999 cargo tonnage, having the highest score for Canadian airports, and second highest for North-American airports.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Calgary International Airport has two hotels located on site. The "Calgary Airport Marriott In-Terminal Hotel" is a 10-storey, 318 room hotel located in the international passenger terminal was opened On 1 September 2016. The "Delta Hotels by Marriott Calgary Airport In-Terminal" located across Airport Road from the domestic passenger terminal.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: At , the airport's air traffic control tower was the tallest standalone control tower in Canada upon its opening in 2013; compared to the previous tower, it has space for more air traffic controllers and is situated closer to the centre of the airport, giving controllers better views of the airfield. Meanwhile, the headquarters of WestJet and its subsidiary WestJet Encore are located onsite.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: In 2019, YYC Calgary International Airport was again the fourth-busiest airport in Canada in terms of the total number of passengers served, which was almost 18 million. This was another record year in passenger volume, surpassing the previous record set in 2018 by 3.54%.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Of the total for 2019, travellers bound for domestic destinations constituted 69.7% of all passenger traffic, while people travelling to the United States amounted to 19.6%, remaining 10.7% was traffic to international destinations, excluding United States.YYC's cargo operations grew significantly with 155,820 tonnes of cargo moving through the airport, an increase of 6.7% over the previous year.


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Calgary International Airport passenger and cargo volumes since 2010 are provided in the following table:


title: Calgary International Airport

text: Deerfoot Trail provides freeway access to the rest of the city. There is also a tunnel beneath Runway 17L/35R that links the east side of the airport site to the terminal buildings. Two parking garages and a rental-car facility are situated across from the terminals. Public transport options are also available at the airport: Buses operated by Calgary Transit link YYC Calgary International to downtown, a nearby station of the local CTrain light-rail network, and other parts of the city.


title: Heat sink

text: A heat sink (also commonly spelled heatsink) is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated away from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device's temperature. In computers, heat sinks are used to cool CPUs, GPUs, and some chipsets and RAM modules. Heat sinks are used with high-power semiconductor devices such as power transistors and optoelectronics such as lasers and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), where the heat dissipation ability of the component itself is insufficient to moderate its temperature.


title: Heat sink

text: A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it, such as the air. Air velocity, choice of material, protrusion design and surface treatment are factors that affect the performance of a heat sink. Heat sink attachment methods and thermal interface materials also affect the die temperature of the integrated circuit. Thermal adhesive or thermal paste improve the heat sink's performance by filling air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader on the device. A heat sink is usually made out of aluminium or copper.


title: Heat sink

text: A heat sink transfers thermal energy from a higher-temperature device to a lower-temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is frequently air, but can also be water, refrigerants or oil. If the fluid medium is water, the heat sink is frequently called a cold plate. In thermodynamics a heat sink is a heat reservoir that can absorb an arbitrary amount of heat without significantly changing temperature. Practical heat sinks for electronic devices must have a temperature higher than the surroundings to transfer heat by convection, radiation, and conduction. The power supplies of electronics are not absolutely efficient, so extra heat is produced that may be detrimental to the function of the device. As such, a heat sink is included in the design to disperse heat.


title: Heat sink

text: Fourier's law of heat conduction shows that when there is a temperature gradient in a body, heat will be transferred from the higher-temperature region to the lower-temperature region. The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, formula_1, is proportional to the product of the temperature gradient and the cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred. When it is simplified to a one-dimensional form in the "x" direction, it can be expressed as:


title: Heat sink

text: For a heat sink in a duct, where air flows through the duct, the heat-sink base will usually be hotter than the air flowing through the duct. Applying the conservation of energy, for steady-state conditions, and Newton’s law of cooling to the temperature nodes shown in the diagram gives the following set of equations:


title: Heat sink

text: Using the mean air temperature is an assumption that is valid for relatively short heat sinks. When compact heat exchangers are calculated, the logarithmic mean air temperature is used.


title: Heat sink

text: Natural convection requires free flow of air over the heat sink. If fins are not aligned vertically, or if fins are too close together to allow sufficient air flow between them, the efficiency of the heat sink will decline.


title: Heat sink

text: For semiconductor devices used in a variety of consumer and industrial electronics, the idea of "thermal resistance" simplifies the selection of heat sinks. The heat flow between the semiconductor die and ambient air is modeled as a series of resistances to heat flow; there is a resistance from the die to the device case, from the case to the heat sink, and from the heat sink to the ambient air. The sum of these resistances is the total thermal resistance from the die to the ambient air. Thermal resistance is defined as temperature rise per unit of power, analogous to electrical resistance, and is expressed in units of degrees Celsius per watt (°C/W). If the device dissipation in watts is known, and the total thermal resistance is calculated, the temperature rise of the die over the ambient air can be calculated.


title: Heat sink

text: The idea of thermal resistance of a semiconductor heat sink is an approximation. It does not take into account non-uniform distribution of heat over a device or heat sink. It only models a system in thermal equilibrium and does not take into account the change in temperatures with time. Nor does it reflect the non-linearity of radiation and convection with respect to temperature rise. However, manufacturers tabulate typical values of thermal resistance for heat sinks and semiconductor devices, which allows selection of commercially manufactured heat sinks to be simplified.


title: Heat sink

text: Commercial extruded aluminium heat sinks have a thermal resistance (heat sink to ambient air) ranging from for a large sink meant for TO-3 devices, up to as high as for a clip-on heat sink for a TO-92 small plastic case. The popular 2N3055 power transistor in a TO-3 case has an internal thermal resistance from junction to case of . The contact between the device case and heat sink may have a thermal resistance between , depending on the case size and use of grease or insulating mica washer.


title: Heat sink

text: The materials for heat sink applications should have high heat capacity and thermal conductivity in order to absorb more heat energy without shifting towards a very high temperature and transmit it to the environment for efficient cooling. The most common heat sink materials are aluminium alloys. Aluminium alloy 1050 has one of the higher thermal conductivity values at 229 W/(m·K) and heat capacity of 922 J/(kg·K), but is mechanically soft. Aluminium alloys 6060 (low-stress), 6061, and 6063 are commonly used, with thermal conductivity values of 166 and 201 W/(m·K) respectively. The values depend on the temper of the alloy. One-piece aluminium heat sinks can be made by extrusion, casting, skiving or milling.


title: Heat sink

text: Copper has excellent heat-sink properties in terms of its thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, biofouling resistance, and antimicrobial resistance (see also Copper in heat exchangers). Copper has around twice the thermal conductivity of aluminium, around 400 W/(m·K) for pure copper. Its main applications are in industrial facilities, power plants, solar thermal water systems, HVAC systems, gas water heaters, forced air heating and cooling systems, geothermal heating and cooling, and electronic systems.


title: Heat sink

text: Copper is three times as dense and more expensive than aluminium, and copper is less ductile than aluminum. One-piece copper heat sinks can be made by skiving or milling. Sheet-metal fins can be soldered onto a rectangular copper body.


title: Heat sink

text: Fin efficiency is one of the parameters that makes a higher-thermal-conductivity material important. A fin of a heat sink may be considered to be a flat plate with heat flowing in one end and being dissipated into the surrounding fluid as it travels to the other. As heat flows through the fin, the combination of the thermal resistance of the heat sink impeding the flow and the heat lost due to convection, the temperature of the fin and, therefore, the heat transfer to the fluid, will decrease from the base to the end of the fin. Fin efficiency is defined as the actual heat transferred by the fin, divided by the heat transfer were the fin to be isothermal (hypothetically the fin having infinite thermal conductivity). These equations are applicable for straight fins:


title: Heat sink

text: Fin efficiency is increased by decreasing the fin aspect ratio (making them thicker or shorter), or by using a more conductive material (copper instead of aluminium, for example).


title: Heat sink

text: Another parameter that concerns the thermal conductivity of the heat-sink material is spreading resistance. Spreading resistance occurs when thermal energy is transferred from a small area to a larger area in a substance with finite thermal conductivity. In a heat sink, this means that heat does not distribute uniformly through the heat-sink base. The spreading resistance phenomenon is shown by how the heat travels from the heat source location and causes a large temperature gradient between the heat source and the edges of the heat sink. This means that some fins are at a lower temperature than if the heat source were uniform across the base of the heat sink. This nonuniformity increases the heat sink's effective thermal resistance.


title: Heat sink

text: A pin-fin heat sink is a heat sink that has pins that extend from its base. The pins can be cylindrical, elliptical or square. A pin is one of the more common heat-sink types available on the market. A second type of heat-sink fin arrangement is the straight fin. These run the entire length of the heat sink. A variation on the straight-fin heat sink is a cross-cut heat sink. A straight-fin heat sink is cut at regular intervals.


title: Heat sink

text: In general, the more surface area a heat sink has, the better it works. However, this is not always true. The concept of a pin-fin heat sink is to try to pack as much surface area into a given volume as possible. As well, it works well in any orientation. Kordyban has compared the performance of a pin-fin and a straight-fin heat sink of similar dimensions. Although the pin-fin has 194 cm surface area while the straight-fin has 58 cm, the temperature difference between the heat-sink base and the ambient air for the pin-fin is , but for the straight-fin it was 44 °C, or 6 °C better than the pin-fin. Pin-fin heat sink performance is significantly better than straight fins when used in their intended application where the fluid flows axially along the pins rather than only tangentially across the pins.


title: Heat sink

text: Another configuration is the flared-fin heat sink; its fins are not parallel to each other, as shown in . Flaring the fins decreases flow resistance and makes more air go through the heat-sink fin channel; otherwise, more air would bypass the fins. Slanting them keeps the overall dimensions the same, but offers longer fins. Forghan, et al. have published data on tests conducted on pin-fin, straight-fin and flared-fin heat sinks. They found that for low air approach velocity, typically around 1 m/s, the thermal performance is at least 20% better than straight-fin heat sinks. Lasance and Eggink also found that for the bypass configurations that they tested, the flared heat sink performed better than the other heat sinks tested.


title: Heat sink

text: Cavities (inverted fins) embedded in a heat source are the regions formed between adjacent fins that stand for the essential promoters of nucleate boiling or condensation. These cavities are usually utilized to extract heat from a variety of heat-generating bodies to a heat sink.


title: Heat sink

text: Placing a conductive thick plate as a heat-transfer interface between a heat source and a cold flowing fluid (or any other heat sink) may improve the cooling performance. In such arrangement, the heat source is cooled under the thick plate instead of being cooled in direct contact with the cooling fluid. It is shown that the thick plate can significantly improve the heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat-transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended surfaces).


title: Heat sink

text: The heat transfer from the heat sink occurs by convection of the surrounding air, conduction through the air, and radiation.


title: Heat sink

text: Heat transfer by radiation is a function of both the heat-sink temperature and the temperature of the surroundings that the heat sink is optically coupled with. When both of these temperatures are on the order of 0 °C to 100 °C, the contribution of radiation compared to convection is generally small, and this factor is often neglected. In this case, finned heat sinks operating in either natural-convection or forced-flow will not be affected significantly by surface emissivity.


title: Heat sink

text: In situations where convection is low, such as a flat non-finned panel with low airflow, radiative cooling can be a significant factor. Here the surface properties may be an important design factor. Matte-black surfaces radiate much more efficiently than shiny bare metal. A shiny metal surface has low emissivity. The emissivity of a material is tremendously frequency-dependent and is related to absorptivity (of which shiny metal surfaces have very little). For most materials, the emissivity in the visible spectrum is similar to the emissivity in the infrared spectrum; however, there are exceptions notably, certain metal oxides that are used as "selective surfaces".


title: Heat sink

text: In vacuum or outer space, there is no convective heat transfer, thus in these environments, radiation is the only factor governing heat flow between the heat sink and the environment. For a satellite in space, a surface facing the Sun will absorb a lot of radiant heat, because the Sun's surface temperature is nearly 6000 K, whereas the same surface facing deep space will radiate a lot of heat, since deep space has an effective temperature of only several Kelvin.


title: Heat sink

text: Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of electronic devices and circuits. In general, the temperature of the device or component will depend on the thermal resistance from the component to the environment, and the heat dissipated by the component. To ensure that the component does not overheat, a thermal engineer seeks to find an efficient heat transfer path from the device to the environment. The heat transfer path may be from the component to a printed circuit board (PCB), to a heat sink, to air flow provided by a fan, but in all instances, eventually to the environment.


title: Heat sink

text: Two additional design factors also influence the thermal/mechanical performance of the thermal design:


title: Heat sink

text: As power dissipation of components increases and component package size decreases, thermal engineers must innovate to ensure components won't overheat. Devices that run cooler last longer. A heat sink design must fulfill both its thermal as well as its mechanical requirements. Concerning the latter, the component must remain in thermal contact with its heat sink with reasonable shock and vibration. The heat sink could be the copper foil of a circuit board, or a separate heat sink mounted onto the component or circuit board. Attachment methods include thermally conductive tape or epoxy, wire-form z clips, flat spring clips, standoff spacers, and push pins with ends that expand after installing.


title: Heat sink

text: Thermally conductive tape is one of the most cost-effective heat sink attachment materials. It is suitable for low-mass heat sinks and for components with low power dissipation. It consists of a thermally conductive carrier material with a pressure-sensitive adhesive on each side.


title: Heat sink

text: This tape is applied to the base of the heat sink, which is then attached to the component. Following are factors that influence the performance of thermal tape: