title: Austerity

text: According to a 2020 study, austerity does not pay off in terms of reducing the default premium in situations of severe fiscal stress. Rather, austerity increases the default premium. However, in situations of low fiscal stress, austerity does reduce the default premium. The study also found that increases in government consumption had no substantial impact on the default premium.


title: Austerity

text: Clara E. Mattei, assistant professor of economics at the New School for Social Research, posits that austerity is less of a means to "fix the economy" and is more of an ideological weapon of class oppression wielded by economic and political elites in order to suppress revolts and unrest by the working class public and close off any alternatives to the capitalist system. She traces the origins of modern austerity to post-World War I Britain and Italy, when it served as a "powerful counteroffensive" to rising working class agitation and anti-capitalist sentiment. In this, she quotes British economist G. D. H. Cole writing on the British response to the economic downturn of 1921:


title: Austerity

text: "The big working-class offensive had been successfully stalled off; and British capitalism, though threatened with economic adversity, felt itself once more safely in the saddle and well able to cope, both industrially and politically, with any attempt that might still be made from the labour side to unseat it."


title: Austerity

text: J. Bradford DeLong and Lawrence Summers explained why an expansionary fiscal policy is effective in reducing a government's future debt burden, pointing out that the policy has a positive impact on its future productivity level. They pointed out that when an economy is depressed and its nominal interest rate is near zero, the real interest rate charged to firms formula_1 is linked to the output as formula_2. This means that the rate decreases as the real GDP increases, and the actual fiscal multiplier formula_3 is higher than that in normal times; a fiscal stimulus is more effective for the case where the interest rates are at the zero bound. As the economy is boosted by government spending, the increased output yields higher tax revenue, and so we have


title: Austerity

text: where formula_5 is a baseline marginal tax-and-transfer rate. Also, we need to take account of the economy's long-run growth rate formula_6, as a steady economic growth rate may reduce its debt-to-GDP ratio. Then we can see that an expansionary fiscal policy is self-financing:


title: Austerity

text: as long as formula_9 is less than zero. Then we can find that a fiscal stimulus makes the long-term budget in surplus if the real government borrowing rate satisfies the following condition:


title: Austerity

text: Research by Gauti Eggertsson et al. indicates that a government's fiscal austerity measures actually increase its short-term budget deficit if the nominal interest rate is very low. In normal time, the government sets the tax rates formula_11 and the central bank controls the nominal interest rate formula_12. If the rate is so low that monetary policies cannot mitigate the negative impact of the austerity measures, the significant decrease of tax base makes the revenue of the government and the budget position worse. If the multiplier is


title: Austerity

text: That is, the austerity measures are counterproductive in the short-run, as long as the multiplier is larger than a certain level formula_16. This erosion of the tax base is the effect of the endogenous component of the deficit. Therefore, if the government increases sales taxes, then it reduces the tax base due to its negative effect on the demand, and it upsets the budget balance.


title: Austerity

text: Supporters of austerity measures tend to use the metaphor that a government's debt is like a household's debt. They intend to convince people of the notion that the government's overspending leads to the government's default. But this metaphor has been shown to be inaccurate.


title: Austerity

text: For a country that has its own currency, its government can create credits by itself, and its central bank can keep the interest rate close to or equal to the nominal risk-free rate. Former FRB chairman Alan Greenspan says that the probability that the US defaults on its debt repayment is zero, because the US government can print money. The FRB of St. Louis says that the US government's debt is denominated in US dollars; therefore the government will never go bankrupt.


title: Austerity

text: A number of alternative plans have been used and proposed as an alternative to implementing austerity measures, examples include:


title: Austerity

text: Alternatives to implementing austerity measures may utilise increased government borrowing in the short-term (such as for use in infrastructure development and public work projects) to attempt to achieve long-term economic growth. Alternately, instead of government borrowing, governments can raise taxes to fund public sector activity.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: The battle of Avdiivka is an ongoing military engagement between the Russian Armed Forces and Donbas Separatist Forces on one side and the Ukrainian Armed Forces on the other. It is being fought over the city of Avdiivka, located in the Donbas region. Fighting started when violence erupted in the Donbas again on 21 February 2022, when Russian president Vladimir Putin recognized the Donetsk People's Republic. Days later, when Russia invaded Ukraine, Avdiivka was among the first places to be attacked.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: Avdiivka has been at the front lines of the Russo-Ukrainian War since 2015. It was the site of the 2017 battle of Avdiivka, resulting in destruction in the town, though Ukrainian forces still held it.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: When Russia officially started its invasion of Ukraine, Avdiivka was one of its main targets. On 13 March, Russian forces bombed the Avdiivka Coke Plant and it was reported on 25 March that Artem Murakhovskyi, a commander of the Azov Battalion, was killed in Avdiivka.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On 18 April, Russia renewed its invasion on Eastern Ukraine by heavily shelling and attacking Avdiivka. Around 2,000 of Avdiivka's residents were forced to flee underground.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: During the battle, use of white phosphorus munitions by Russian forces was reported several times. Governor of Donetsk Oblast Pavlo Kyrylenko reported a phosphorus attack on the city industrial zone on 26 March, on the area of the coking plant on 26 April, and on the city center, causing several fires, the next day. On 18 May, Avdiivka 1st school was destroyed by a Russian attack with phosphorus munitions. On 29 April, videos of the Russian army shelling Ukrainian forces in Avdiivka with a thermobaric weapon were published.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On May 26, Ukraine's General Staff reported that Russian forces were advancing through Avdiivka, capturing many areas in the city.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On 1 June, the DPR took control of a major highway. On 6 June, the DPR took territory near Kamianka. On 12 June, Russia again bombed the Avdiivka Coke Plant. School No. 6 was destroyed on 21 June, being the third school destroyed in Avdiivka. On 24 June, Russian forces fired on Avdiivka.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: Russian forces later captured Novoselivka Druha on 4 July, which is 10km northeast of Avdiivka, in an attempt to encircle the city. On 7 July, Russian forces shelled Avdiivka for 24 hours. They hit infrastructure, a hospital, residential buildings, a bus depot, and the Avdiivka Coke Plant.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On 18 July, the DPR claimed it had "half-surrounded" Avdiivka, having blocked two of the roads leading into the town. The ISW also stated that fighting north of Avdiivka had intensified on July 18.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On 28 July, DPR and Russian forces launched a claimed offensive to surround Avdiivka. Russian and separatist forces assaulted the towns of Krasnohorivka, Pisky, and other towns north of Avdiivka, with unspecified gains. On 31 July, the Ukrainian General Staff reported that Russian forces attempted advances around Kamyanka and Pisky and that unspecified separate Russian units had ”partial success” around Avdiivka. Donetsk People‘s Republic (DPR) Deputy Information Minister Daniil Bezsonov claimed that Russian and DPR forces secured positions on the southeastern outskirts of Pisky, which is consistent with Ukrainian reports. The Head of the Avdiivka City Military Administration Vitalii Barabash said that only 10% of the pre-war population of Avdiivka remained or about 2,500 people.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: Ukraine said on 5 August that it lost the Butivka coal mine to Russia and claimed it was pushed to the outskirts of Avdiivka. The DPR claimed its forces and Russia took Pisky, with Ukraine rejecting the claim. On August 7, combat footage showed that Russian forces had reached the centre of Pisky. As of August 12, the ISW reported that based on combat footage and satelite imagery, much of Pisky had been leveled by the Russians, because of heavy shelling using thermobaric artillery systems. The Russian defence ministry claimed to have fully captured Pisky by 14 August, but the Ukrainian military denied that it had been captured, saying fights were still ongoing.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On 24 August, Russian and DNR forces captured Pisky. In early September, several separatist units, including the Sparta Battalion and Somalia Battalion, launched an attack in the wider Avdiivka area, most importantly near Pisky. As of late September, the "Wall Street Journal" reported that Ukrainian forces "remain[ed] on the defensive" in Avdiivka. On 10 October, Ukraine said Russia was continuing its offensive in Avdiivka and was trying to encircle the city.


title: Battle of Avdiivka (2022)

text: On 8 April, one person was killed and another injured by Russian shelling. On 13 April, one civilian was killed and 12 were wounded in Avdiivka. On 2 May, three civilians were killed due to Russian bombardment. On 3 May 2022, according to a news article on Dutch outlet Nos.nl, at least 10 people died and 15 more were injured during an attack on a coking plant. Allegedly, the attack took place after the workers had finished work and were waiting for the bus. On 23 May, Russian shelling and artillery bombarded Avdiivka all night long. Three civilians were injured and 20 houses as well as a kindergarten were damaged severely. On 30 May, one civilian was killed during a street fight in Avdiivka. 2 civilians were killed on June 12. On 5 July, 2 civilians were killed in Avdiivka. One civilian was killed and two wounded on 7 July. One civilian was killed on 6 August. On 12 October 7 civilians were killed and 12 more were injured after a Russian shelling of the city market.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: Mapanna Mallikarjun Kharge (born 21 July 1942) is an Indian politician, who is the current president of the Indian National Congress, and Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha from Karnataka since 16 February 2021. He became the first person outside the Nehru–Gandhi family to be the president of the party after 24 years. He is also the incumbent Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha from 16 February 2021. He was the Former Minister of Railways and Minister of Labour and Employment in the Government of India. Kharge was a Member of Parliament for Gulbarga, Karnataka from 2009 to 2019.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: He is a senior Karnataka politician and was the Leader of opposition in the Karnataka Legislative Assembly. He was the President of Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee during the 2008 Karnataka State Assembly Elections.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: He has won elections a record 10 consecutive times having won the Assembly elections an unprecedented 9 consecutive times (1972, 1978, 1983, 1985, 1989, 1994, 1999, 2004, 2008, 2009) . Mallikarjun Kharge was the leader of the Congress party in the Lok Sabha during 2014–2019. He defeated Shashi Tharoor in the 2022 Indian National Congress presidential election.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: Mallikarjun Kharge was born in the Varawatti, Bhalki Taluk, Bidar district, Karnataka to a Dalit caste family. In 1948, Kharge lost his mother and sister in a fire set off by the Razakars or the private militia of the Nizam of Hyderabad, while he himself had a narrow escape at the age of 7. He finished his schooling from Nutan Vidyalaya in Gulbarga and went on to obtain a Bachelor of Arts degree from the Government College, Gulbarga and his law degree from the Seth Shankarlal Lahoti Law College in Gulbarga. He started his legal practice as a junior in Justice Shivaraj Patil's office and fought cases for labour unions early in his legal career.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: Kharge started his political career as a student union leader while in the Government College, Gulbarga when he was elected as the General Secretary of the students' body. In 1969, he became the legal advisor to the MSK Mills Employees' Union. He was also an influential labour union leader of Samyukta Majdoor Sangha and led many agitations fighting for the rights of labourers. In 1969, he joined the Indian National Congress and became President of the Kalaburagi Town Congress Committee.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: He first contested the Karnataka State Assembly elections in 1972 and won from Gurmitkal constituency. In 1973, he was appointed the Chairman of the Octroi Abolition Committee which went into the question of revitalising the economy of the municipal and civic bodies in the state of Karnataka. Based on its report, the then Devaraj Urs government abolished the levy of octroi at multiple points. In 1974, he was appointed the Chairman of state-owned Leather Development Corporation and worked to improve the living conditions of thousands of cobblers who were indulging in the leather tanning industry. Work sheds cum residences were built across the state for their benefit during this time. In 1976, he was appointed the Minister of State for Primary Education, during which time, over 16,000 backlog vacancies of SC/STs teachers were filled up by recruiting them directly into the service. Grants under grant-in-aid code were given to schools run by SC/ST managements for the first time.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: In 1978, he was elected for the second time as MLA from Gurmitkal constituency and was appointed Minister of State for Rural Development and Panchayat Raj in the Devaraj Urs ministry. In 1980, he became the Minister for Revenue in the Gundu Rao Cabinet. During this time, the focus was on effective land reforms, resulting in giving occupancy rights to millions of land-less tillers and labourers. More than 400 land tribunals were constituted to expedite the transfer of land rights to the tillers. In 1983, he was elected for the third time to the Karnataka Assembly from Gurmitkal. In 1985, he was elected for the fourth time to the Karnataka Assembly from Gurmitkal and was appointed the Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Karnataka Assembly.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: In 1989, he was elected for the fifth time to the Karnataka Assembly from Gurmitkal. In 1990, he joined Bangarappa’s Cabinet as the Minister for Revenue, Rural Development and Panchayat Raj, portfolios he had held earlier and brought about significant change. Restarting the Land Reforms process that had stopped in the interim, resulted in hundreds of thousands of acres of land being registered in the name of the landless tillers.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: Between 1992 and 1994, he was the Minister for Co-operation, Medium and Large Industries in the Veerappa Moily Cabinet. In 1994, he was elected for the sixth time to the Karnataka Assembly from Gurmitkal and became the Leader of the Opposition in the Assembly. In 1999, he was elected for the seventh time to the Karnataka Assembly and was a front-runner to the post of Chief Minister of Karnataka. He became Minister for Home in the S. M. Krishna Cabinet during a particularly trying time for Karnataka especially the Rajkumar kidnap by the notorious poacher Veerappan and the Cauvery Riots. In 2004, he was elected for the eighth consecutive time to the Karnataka Assembly and was once again considered a front-runner to the post of the Chief Minister of Karnataka. He became the Minister for Transport and Water Resources in the Dharam Singh-led coalition government.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: In 2005, he was appointed the President of the Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee. In the Panchayat elections held soon after, Congress won the largest number of seats compared to BJP and JD(S) indicating a revival of the Congress fortunes in the rural areas of Karnataka. In 2008, he was elected for the record ninth consecutive time to the Assembly from Chitapur. Though the Congress party put up a better show when compared to the 2004 elections, the Congress lost the elections with a majority of the senior leaders losing. He was appointed the Leader of the Opposition for the second time in 2008.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: In 2009, Kharge contested the general elections from Gulbarga Parliamentary Constituency and won his tenth consecutive election.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: In the 2014 general elections, Kharge contested and won from the Gulbarga parliamentary seat, beating Revunaik Belamagih from the BJP with a margin of 74,737 votes. In June, he was appointed the Leader of the Congress party in the Lok Sabha.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: In the 2019 general elections, Kharge contested from the same parliamentary seat, however this time he lost to Dr. Umesh G. Jadhav from the BJP with a margin of 95,452 votes.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: On 12 June 2020 Kharge was elected (unopposed) to the Rajya Sabha from Karnataka, at the age of 78 years. On 12 February 2021, Kharge was appointed Leader of Opposition, Rajya Sabha.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: Kharge notably has been appointed as an observer by the INC for multiple states in the past, including Assam in 2014, Punjab in 2021, and Rajasthan in 2022. He has been criticized for his alleged inability to resolve internal party issues in these three states and therefore causing the loss in Assam and Punjab, and public embarrassment in Rajasthan.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: On October 1st 2022, he filed nominations to contest the INC party presidential polls.He was opposed by Shashi Tharoor and won with 7897 votes. He was the first INC President not from the Gandhi family in 24 years.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: Kharge married Radhabai on 13 May 1968 and has two daughters and three sons. Kharge is a polyglot, claiming to be fluent in English, Hindi, Urdu, Kannada and Marathi. His son Priyank Kharge is an MLA from the Chittapur assembly constituency.


title: Mallikarjun Kharge

text: He is the Founder-Chairman of Siddharth Vihar Trust that has built the Buddha Vihar in Gulbarga, India. He is also a patron of the Chowdiah Memorial Hall, a concert and theater venue in Bangalore. He helped the centre get over its debts and aided the centre's plans for renovation.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Southland is an American crime drama television series created by writer Ann Biderman and produced by Warner Bros. Television. The series was broadcast on NBC for one season in 2009, followed by four seasons on TNT from 2010 to 2013.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Its first season on NBC had seven episodes that aired from April 9 to May 21, 2009. In May 2009, NBC announced that "Southland" had been renewed for a second season with an initial 13-episode order to begin airing on September 25, 2009. In August 2009, shortly before its scheduled premiere, NBC moved the opening of its second season to October 23, 2009, citing the need to promote the show more fully. In October 2009, two weeks before the scheduled premiere of the second season, NBC announced that the series had been canceled after one season.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: In November 2009, TNT announced it had purchased the rights to the original seven episodes of "Southland", as well as six completed episodes from its second season. "Southland" began airing its second season on TNT on January 12, 2010. In April 2010, TNT announced it had picked up "Southland" for a ten-episode third season to begin airing on January 4, 2011. TNT's revival of the show included a substantial budget cut and corresponding cast reduction. "Southland" was renewed for a ten-episode fourth season in March 2011, which premiered on January 17, 2012. The series was renewed for a ten-episode fifth season which began airing February 13, 2013. In May 2013, TNT announced that "Southland" had been canceled after five seasons.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: "Southland" takes a "raw and authentic look" at Los Angeles and the lives of the LAPD officers who police it. The show's first season centers on the experiences and interactions of LAPD patrol officers and detectives, and is more a character-driven drama than a police procedural.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Among the characters are rookie Officer Ben Sherman and his training officer, John Cooper who, unknown to most of his colleagues, is gay; Detective Lydia Adams, who must balance work with the responsibility of living with her mother; Officer Chickie Brown, who aspires to be the first woman on the LAPD's elite SWAT team; and Detective Sammy Bryant, whose home life interferes with his working life.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: After its first season on NBC, "Southland" moved to TNT network. The second season placed less emphasis on the ensemble cast, instead focusing more on the Adams, Sherman, Cooper and Bryant characters and their partners. The weekly stories also centered more on how crimes came together, with fewer serialized story lines.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: The series was created by Emmy Award-winning writer Ann Biderman, who began her television writing career on the first season of police drama "NYPD Blue". The series' executive producers are Biderman, Christopher Chulack, and John Wells. Wells and Chulack, both also Emmy Award winners, had previously worked together on critically acclaimed medical drama "ER" and emergency services drama "Third Watch". Many other crew members had previously worked with Wells and Chulack on these series. Wells and Biderman also write for the series and Chulack is a regular director. Biderman left her executive producer position after the second season but continued to write for the series' third season.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Ex-police officer Angela Amato Velez served as a consulting producer and writer for the first season; she had previously worked for the executive producers on "Third Watch". Dee Johnson also served as a consulting producer and writer for the first season; she had previously worked with Wells and Chulack on "ER". Emmy Award-winning writing team Mitchell Burgess & Robin Green were hired as executive consultants and writers for the second and third seasons; they had previously worked together as executive producers on "The Sopranos". Diana Son served as a consulting producer and writer for the second season; she had previously worked on the crime drama "".


title: Southland (TV series)

text: David Graziano became a co-executive producer for the second season. Andrew Stearn was a producer for the first two seasons and was promoted to co-executive producer for the third season; he had previously worked on "Third Watch". Jonathan Lisco was hired as a co-executive producer for the third season; he is a former lawyer and created the New Orleans police drama "K-Ville". Jason Horwitch, creator of AMC's "Rubicon", joined the show as consulting producer for the fourth season.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: "ER" and "Third Watch" veteran Nelson McCormick is also a regular director for "Southland". Steadicam expert J. Michael Muro serves as a regular cinematographer and occasional director for the series. Dana Gonzales is the other regular director of photography.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: The producers used both actual and former gang members to play the role of gang bangers in "Southland".


title: Southland (TV series)

text: "Southland" received positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first season received an average score of 69, based on 22 reviews and the second season received an average score of 77, based on 12 reviews both indicating "generally favorable reviews". Upon returning for its third, fourth and fifth seasons, the series received wide critical acclaim, receiving an average score of 80, based on 9 reviews for the third season, an average score of 87, based on 7 reviews for the fourth season, and an average score of 86, based on 9 reviews, all indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Alessandra Stanley of "The New York Times" compared "Southland" favorably to series like "The Shield", "Rescue Me" and "The Wire" in citing the series debut as "one of the most gripping opening episodes of any network crime series". Noting the show's "bold, contemporary tone", Stanley concluded that ""Southland" is commendably stinting and cold, a series that doesn’t aim to please, and is all the more pleasurable for it." In a second review a year later, Mike Hale was less effusive in his praise. While commending the series for fine performances from its cast and its combination of straightforward immediate plots and long-range storytelling, Hale criticized the "heavyhandedness" he saw in some of the writing, noting especially the "sententious lectures about the nature of police work" delivered to Sherman by Cooper in the pilot episode. He finds the show "worthy" but in need of work to qualify as a classic.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Dorothy Rabinowitz of "The Wall Street Journal" says "Prattle is, in any case, a minor note compared with the crackling pace of the first script, its evocative mood of menace at every turn, each police car racing to destinations that will reveal who knows what tragedy or unspeakable sight." Matt Zoller Seitz of "Vulture" applauded the series' realism, and stated "It's the most engrossing cop series since season one of NBC's "", and maybe the most raggedy and real."


title: Southland (TV series)

text: "Southland" received three nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Stunt Coordination, winning the award twice in 2011 and 2012, and was nominated in 2013. In 2012, the series was awarded with a Peabody Award.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: Shortly before its TNT premiere, Warner Home Video released the first season on DVD in an uncensored version, with the profanities intact.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: In May 2011, Warner Home Video also released the second season in a similarly uncensored version. This title is currently only available through the studio's manufacture-on-demand (MOD) program.


title: Southland (TV series)

text: On February 5, 2013, a box set titled "Southland: The Complete Second, Third, and Fourth Seasons" was released on DVD; it included over an hour of bonus features.


title: Governor of New York

text: The governor of New York is the head of government of the U.S. state of New York. The governor is the head of the executive branch of New York's state government and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the New York Legislature, to convene the legislature and grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment and treason. The governor is the highest paid governor in the country.


title: Governor of New York

text: The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the New York State Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment. Unlike the other government departments that compose the executive branch of government, the governor is the head of the state Executive Department. The officeholder is afforded the courtesy style of "His/Her Excellency" while in office.


title: Governor of New York

text: Often considered a potential candidate to lead the executive branch of the federal government, 10 New York governors have been selected as presidential candidates by a major party, four of whom (Martin Van Buren, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt) were elected as president of the United States. Meanwhile, six New York governors have gone on to serve as vice president. Additionally, two New York governors, John Jay and Charles Evans Hughes, have served as chief justice.


title: Governor of New York

text: Under the New York State Constitution, a person must be at least 30 years of age, a United States citizen, and a resident of the state of New York for at least five years prior to being elected to serve as governor.


title: Governor of New York

text: The governor is responsible for appointing their Executive Chamber. These appointments do not require the confirmation of the New York State Senate. Most political advisors report to the secretary to the governor, while most policy advisors report to the director of state operations, who also answers to the secretary to the governor, making that position, in practice, the true chief of staff and most powerful position in the Cabinet. The literal c"hief of staff" is in charge of the Office of Scheduling and holds no authority over other cabinet officials.


title: Governor of New York

text: The governor is also charged with naming the heads of the various departments, divisions, boards, and offices within the state government. These nominees require confirmation by the state Senate. While some appointees may share the title of "commissioner", "director", etc., only department level-heads are considered members of the actual state cabinet, although the heads of the various divisions, boards, and offices may attend cabinet-level meetings from time to time.


title: Governor of New York

text: The position of governor in New York dates back to the British take over of New Amsterdam where the position replaced the former Dutch offices of director or director-general.


title: Governor of New York

text: Following the American Revolution, a new office of governor was established by the first New York State Constitution in 1777 to coincide with the calendar year. An 1874 amendment extended the term of office to three years, but the 1894 constitution reduced it to two years. The most recent constitution of 1938 extended the term to the current four years. David Paterson was the first African American to hold the office, and Kathy Hochul is the first woman to hold the office.


title: Governor of New York

text: The Constitution of New York has provided since 1777 for the election of a lieutenant governor of New York, who also acts as president of the State Senate, to the same term (keeping the same term lengths as the governor throughout all the constitutional revisions). Originally, in the event of the death, resignation or impeachment of the governor, or absence from the state, the lieutenant governor would take on the governor's duties and powers. Since the 1938 constitution, the lieutenant governor explicitly becomes governor upon such vacancy in the office.


title: Governor of New York

text: Should the office of lieutenant governor become vacant, the temporary president of the state senate performs the duties of a lieutenant governor until the governor can take back the duties of the office, or the next election; likewise, should both offices become vacant, the temporary president acts as governor, with the office of lieutenant governor remaining vacant. Although no provision exists in the constitution for it, precedent set in 2009 allows the governor to appoint a lieutenant governor should a vacancy occur. Should the temporary president be unable to fulfill the duties, the speaker of the assembly is next in the line of succession. The lieutenant governor is elected on the same ticket as the governor, but nominated separately.


title: Satwant Singh

text: Satwant Singh (1962 – 6 January 1989) was one of the bodyguards, along with Beant Singh, who assassinated the Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, at her New Delhi residence on 31 October 1984.


title: Satwant Singh

text: The motivation for the assassination of Indira Gandhi was revenge for the military attack carried out by the Indian government on Harmandir Sahib, in Amritsar, India.


title: Satwant Singh

text: Beant Singh drew a .38 revolver and fired three shots into Indira Gandhi's abdomen; as she fell to the ground, Satwant Singh fired all 30 rounds from his Sten automatic weapon into her abdomen (thus, 33 bullets were fired in total, of which 30 bullets hit her). Both assassins subsequently dropped their weapons and surrendered.


title: Satwant Singh

text: Beant Singh was shot to death during interrogation in custody soon after the assassination. Satwant Singh was arrested and later sentenced to death by hanging along with co-conspirator Kehar Singh. In his court statement, Satwant Singh appealed for end to communal violence in the country, while pinning the blame for the same on Indira and Rajiv Gandhi. The sentence was carried out on 6 January 1989.


title: Satwant Singh

text: The assassination of Gandhi brought their immediate families into the limelight, resulting in their winning two Lok Sabha seats from state of Punjab. The Lok Sabha is a directly elected 543 member house of the Parliament of India.


title: Satwant Singh

text: In the aftermath of the executions of Satwant Singh and Kehar Singh, communal violence occurred in Punjab, resulting in 14 Hindus being killed by militants.


title: Satwant Singh

text: In 2003, a Bhog ceremony was held at the highest Sikh temporal seat in Akal Takht, located in the Golden Temple Complex in Amritsar, where tributes were paid to Indira Gandhi's assassins.


title: Satwant Singh

text: In 2004, the anniversary of his death was again observed at Akal Takhat, Amritsar, where his mother was honored by the head priest and tributes were paid to Satwant Singh and Kehar Singh by various political parties. In 2007, the death anniversaries of Satwant Singh and his wife were observed in various parts of Punjab and other countries. On 6 January 2008, the Akal Takht declared Beant Singh and Satwant Singh "martyrs of Sikhism", while the SGPC also labeled them "martyrs of the Sikh nation".


title: Satwant Singh

text: The Sikh-centric political party in India, Shiromani Akali Dal, observed the death anniversary of Beant Singh and Satwant Singh as "martyrdom" for the first time on 31 October 2008. Every 31 October since, this date has been observed at Sri Akal Takht Sahib.


title: Satwant Singh

text: Singh's father was Tarlok Singh. He married Surinder Kaur (daughter of Virsa Singh) on 2 May 1988 while he was in prison. His fiancé wed him in absentia by marrying his photo in an Anand Karaj.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: Iron Eyes Cody (born Espera Oscar de Corti, April 3, 1904 – January 4, 1999) was an American actor of Italian descent who portrayed Native Americans in Hollywood films, famously as "Chief Iron Eyes" in Bob Hope's "The Paleface" (1948). He also played a Native American shedding a tear about litter in one of the country's most well-known television public service announcements from the group Keep America Beautiful. Living in Hollywood, he began to insist, even in his private life, that he was Native American, over time claiming membership in several different tribes. In 1996, Cody's half-sister said that he was of Italian ancestry, but he denied it. After his death, it was revealed that he was of Sicilian parentage, and not Native American at all.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: Cody was born Espera Oscar de Corti on April 3, 1904, in Kaplan in Vermilion Parish, in southwestern Louisiana, a second son of Francesca Salpietra from Sicily and her husband, Antonio de Corti from southern Italy. He had two brothers, Joseph and Frank, and a sister, Victoria. His parents had a local grocery store in Gueydan, Louisiana, where he grew up. His father left the family and moved to Texas, where he took the name Tony Corti. His mother married Alton Abshire and had five more children with him.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: When the three de Corti brothers were teenagers, they joined their father in Texas and shortened their last name from de Corti to Corti. Cody's father, Tony Corti, died in Texas in 1924. The brothers moved on to California, where they were acting in movies, and changed their surname to Cody. Joseph William and Frank Henry Cody worked as extras, then moved on to other work. Frank was killed by a hit-and-run driver in 1949.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: Cody began acting in the late 1920s. He worked in film and television until his death. Cody claimed his father was Cherokee and his mother Cree, also naming several different tribes, and frequently changing his claimed place of birth. To those unfamiliar with Indigenous American or First Nations cultures and people, he gave the appearance of living as if he were Native American, fulfilling the stereotypical expectations by wearing his film wardrobe as daily clothing—including braided wig, fringed leathers and beaded moccasins—at least when photographers were visiting, and in other ways continuing to play the same Hollywood-scripted roles off-screen as well as on.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: He appeared in more than 200 films, including "The Big Trail" (1930), with John Wayne; "The Scarlet Letter" (1934), with Colleen Moore; "Sitting Bull" (1954), as Crazy Horse; "The Light in the Forest" (1958) as Cuyloga; "The Great Sioux Massacre" (1965), with Joseph Cotten; "Nevada Smith" (1966), with Steve McQueen; "A Man Called Horse" (1970), with Richard Harris; and "Ernest Goes to Camp" (1987) as Chief St. Cloud, with Jim Varney.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: He also appeared in over a hundred television programs. In 1953, he appeared twice in Duncan Renaldo's syndicated television series, "The Cisco Kid" as Chief Sky Eagle. He guest starred on the NBC western series, "The Restless Gun", starring John Payne, and "The Tall Man", with Barry Sullivan and Clu Gulager. In 1961, he played the title role in "The Burying of Sammy Hart" on the ABC western series, "The Rebel", starring Nick Adams. A close friend of Walt Disney, Cody appeared in a Disney studio serial titled "The First Americans", and in episodes of "The Mountain Man", "Davy Crockett" and "Daniel Boone". In 1964 Cody appeared as Chief Black Feather on "The Virginian" in the episode "The Intruders." He also appeared in a 1974 episode of "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood" featuring Native American dancers.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: Cody was widely seen as the "Crying Indian" in the "Keep America Beautiful" public service announcements (PSA) in the early 1970s. The environmental commercial, first aired on Earth Day in 1971, depicted Cody in costume, shedding a tear after trash is thrown from the window of a car and it lands at his feet. The announcer, William Conrad, says: "People start pollution; people can stop it." The ad won two Clio awards, incited a frenzy of community involvement, and "helped reduce litter by 88% across 38 states", according to one reliable source. Cody was a participant in the documentary series "Hollywood" (1980), where he discussed early Western filmmaker William S. Hart's use of Native American Sign Language.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: The Joni Mitchell song "Lakota", from the 1988 album, "Chalk Mark in a Rainstorm", features Cody's chanting. He made a cameo appearance in the 1990 film "Spirit of '76".


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: In 1936, Cody married archaeologist Bertha Parker. She was active in excavations during the late 1920s and early 1930s before becoming an assistant in archaeology at the Southwest Museum. They adopted two children said to be of Dakota-Maricopa origin, Robert Tree Cody and Arthur. The couple remained married until Bertha's death in 1978.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: Although the non-Native public who knew him from the movies and television thought of Cody as a Native American, a 1996 story by "The Times-Picayune" in New Orleans questioned his heritage, reporting that he was a second-generation Italian-American. This was based on an interview with his half-sister, and documents including a baptismal record. Cody, who now wore his Hollywood costumes in daily life, denied the claim.


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: Cody died at the age of 94 from mesothelioma at home in Los Angeles on January 4, 1999. Before death, he had written this comment:


title: Iron Eyes Cody

text: "Make me ready to stand before you with clean and straight eyes. When life fades, as the fading sunset, may our spirits stand before you without shame."


title: Mortimer J. Buckley

text: Mortimer J. "Tim" Buckley (born 1969) is an American executive at The Vanguard Group. The Vanguard Board elected him unanimously to succeed F. William McNabb III as chief executive officer upon McNabb's retirement at the end of December 2017.


title: Mortimer J. Buckley

text: Buckley was born in 1969, the son of Dr. Mortimer John Buckley and his wife Marilyn (née Scully) Buckley. His father was the Chief of the Massachusetts General Hospital Cardiac Surgical Unit in Boston.


title: Mortimer J. Buckley

text: Buckley attended secondary school at the Belmont Hill School in Belmont, MA. He later earned a BA degree in economics in 1991 from Harvard College and an MBA degree in 1996 from Harvard Business School.


title: Mortimer J. Buckley

text: In 1991 Buckley joined Vanguard as an assistant to company founder John C. Bogle. From 2001 to 2006 Buckley was Chief Information Officer, and from 2006 to 2012 he was head of the Retail Investor Group. He became Chief Investment Officer upon the retirement of Gus Sauter in 2013.


title: Mortimer J. Buckley

text: In 2017, Vanguard's Board of Directors unanimously elected Buckley to succeed F. William McNabb III as chief executive officer, effective January 2018.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: As with previous installments, the games follow the journey of a young Pokémon trainer, taking place in the Alola region — based on Hawaii. Differences from "Sun" and "Moon" include an alternate storyline and new gameplay features, characters, Pokémon, and Pokémon forms, including new forms of the legendary Pokémon Necrozma as version mascots.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: The games received generally positive reception, with critics praising the additional features included over "Sun" and "Moon", although some criticized it for being too similar for a majority of the story. By the end of 2018, "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" had sold over eight million copies worldwide.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Similar to previous games in the series, "Pokémon Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" are role-playing video games with adventure elements. While set in an alternate version of the Alola region, the mechanics and graphics remain largely the same as "Pokémon Sun" and "Moon", with the primary differences being its modified storyline now including the Ultra Recon Squad. The player character designs are also different, though they remain customizable. "Global Missions", where players across the world work towards a collective goal, also make a return.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" introduce new Ultra Beasts: Stakataka, Blacephalon, Poipole and its evolution, Naganadel. In addition, there are new forms for the legendary Pokémon Necrozma, dubbed "Dusk Mane" and "Dawn Wings" forms, which are achieved by absorbing the legendary Pokémon Solgaleo and Lunala, respectively; it is conceptually similar to Black and White Kyurem from "Black 2" and "White 2" and Lusamine's mutated form from the original "Sun" and "Moon". Also, a new Lycanroc form was added, Dusk Lycanroc. Players can now travel around the Alola region to collect Totem Stickers, which allow the player to receive a Totem-sized variant of a Pokémon. Three new activities have been added: Mantine Surf, which allows the player to surf across the region's seas—it also serves as an alternate way of earning Battle Points; Alola Photo Club, which allows players to take pictures of their player character with Pokémon in various poses; and Ultra Warp Ride, which allows the player to travel through varying Ultra Wormholes and encounter the original seven Ultra Beasts in their own worlds—in addition to finding legendary Pokémon from every game in the series up to that point, up to three times, and an increased chance for shiny Pokémon to appear. New Z-Moves are available for multiple Pokémon, including Solgaleo, Lunala, Lycanroc, Mimikyu and Necrozma. An upgrade to the Rotom Pokédex adds Roto-Loto, which allows the player to use boosts, akin to O-Powers from the previous generation; and Z-Rotom Power, which allows players to use up to two Z-Moves per battle.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: The games put an emphasis on the legendary Pokémon Necrozma which, in these versions, takes Lusamine's place as the primary antagonist of the games. As with "Sun" and "Moon", the games are set in the Alola region which is based on Hawaii. Although largely the same, the new games feature additional buildings and locations in comparison to the first installments. Multiple main characters featured in "Sun" and "Moon", such as Lusamine and her children, return in the game with significant changes. A new group, the Ultra Recon Squad, is introduced with differing characters in the two games. Ultra Megalopolis, a vast city where Necrozma has robbed all of its light sources, is located within Ultra Space and is accessible through the Ultra Wormholes.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Another antagonist group, Team Rainbow Rocket, is featured in a post-game story and includes all of the previous antagonist group leaders featured throughout the series, ranging from Giovanni from "Pokémon Red", "Blue" and "Yellow" to Lysandre from "Pokémon X" and "Y". Legendary Pokémon from previous generations are also included.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Similar to "Sun" and "Moon", the player character is Elio or Selene, who moving to Melemele Island in Alola with their mother. As is tradition, the player has rivals on their journey: Hau, a friendly boy who accompanies the player throughout the story, and Gladion, the estranged son of Lusamine. During their travels in Alola following the region's traditional island challenges, they complete trials which involve battles with powerful Pokémon known as Totem Pokémon, and encounter numerous groups — a villainous one known as Team Skull, led by a man named Guzma; a more charitable one known as the Aether Foundation, led by a woman named Lusamine; and another called the Ultra Recon Squad, who came from a different dimension, the Ultra Megalopolis, where Necrozma has stolen its light. Much of the story revolves around multiple legendary Pokémon: a Cosmog, nicknamed Nebby, who eventually evolves into a Solgaleo in "Ultra Sun", or Lunala in "Ultra Moon"; and Necrozma, who attempts to seize the light from Alola.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: During the climax, Lusamine uses Nebby to create a wormhole to the Ultra Megalopolis, where she and Guzma attempt to fight Necrozma for the sake of the Ultra Recon Squad. However, they fail and are thrown back into their dimension later on in the story, with Necrozma following them. Necrozma fights Nebby, now a Solgaleo or Lunala, and prevails. Necrozma then absorbs the legendary Pokémon, gaining its Dusk Mane or Dawn Wings form in the respective version, and unleashes the Ultra Beasts upon Alola before fighting the player. After the player defeats it, Necrozma escapes into the Ultra Megalopolis, taking the world's light with it while the player, with the help of the Ultra Recon Squad, travels on the opposite legendary featured in each game—Lunala in "Ultra Sun" or Solgaleo in "Ultra Moon"—through Ultra Space to reach the Ultra Megalopolis. There, the player battles Necrozma, this time in its true form, as Ultra Necrozma, for the fate of the world and to rescue Nebby. The player defeats it once more, bringing light back to Alola. After completing these trials, the player proceeds to battle a newly established Elite Four and later defeats Hau to become Alola's first true Pokémon League Champion.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: In the post-game, the player encounters Team Rainbow Rocket, a dimensionally displaced group based on Team Rocket from "Red", "Blue", and "Yellow". The aforementioned group seizes control of the Aether Foundation's headquarters and takes Lusamine hostage. The player stages a counterattack alongside a reformed Guzma, Lillie, and former Team Plasma leader Colress. Battling through villainous team leaders from the past games—Maxie and Archie from "Ruby", "Sapphire", and "Emerald"; Cyrus from "Diamond", "Pearl", and "Platinum", Lysandre from "X" and "Y", and Ghetsis from "Black", "White", "Black 2", and "White 2"—the player finally encounters Giovanni, who leads Team Rainbow Rocket and has a Mewtwo at his disposal. After the player's victory, Giovanni vanishes, wondering "what new world shall [he] unleash [his] evil schemes upon". The player can then explore the Ultra Wormholes, the worlds of the Ultra Beasts, and catch them with the Beast Balls they have acquired. After catching Necrozma at Mount Lanakila, Colress will appear and give the player the N-Solarizer or N-Lunarizer, allowing Necrozma to fuse or separate from Solgaleo or Lunala respectively. Once the player has caught the Ultra Beasts, the Ultra Recon Squad will tell them to defeat or catch Stakataka in "Ultra Moon" or Blacephalon in "Ultra Sun".


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Shigeru Ohmori, one of the game's producers, stated that "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" were worked on by younger staff members while veterans worked on the upcoming "Pokémon" games for the Nintendo Switch, although some more experienced members, such as Shigeki Morimoto were assigned to it. He also stated that Game Freak was treating "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" as the "culmination of our work with the 3DS system". The development team of 80 was approximately half that of "Pokémon Sun" and "Moon" despite "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" having a script twice as long as "Sun" and "Moon". In a separate interview, Ohmori also described an idea to develop the "Ultra" installments formed late during the development of "Sun" and "Moon", with the titles intended to take advantage of the momentum gained by the "Pokémon" series following the massively successful release of the mobile game "Pokémon Go". Game director Kazumasa Iwao was previously in charge of the battle systems in "Sun" and "Moon".


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: In the post-game, the games include a tribute to former Nintendo CEO Satoru Iwata, mentioning his role in the development of "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver". The games received their first patch in December 2017, fixing several bugs.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" were revealed in a Pokémon Direct on 6 June 2017. Initial clerical errors in the "Pokémon" website showed that the games' release date for the Nintendo Switch were "TBA", although The Pokémon Company later clarified that the games were exclusive to the Nintendo 3DS.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Similar to its predecessor, the game's files were leaked on to the Internet before their official release, allowing software pirates to play the full game and data miners to find previously unannounced information including a new form for Necrozma, a new Ultra Beast, a new mythical Pokémon and more.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Less than a week before the game's release, the mobile game "Pokémon Go" released an update which enabled its players to customize their in-game avatars in the style of player characters from "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon", marking the first time the app had been used to promote a main series game.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Prior to release, both games were among the most highly anticipated titles for the Nintendo 3DS in 2017, according to Nielsen.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" received "generally favorable" reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic. Casey Defreitas in her review for "IGN" remarked that the games were "full of smart improvements". Other reviewers made similar points, with Kallie Plagge at "GameSpot" noting that despite similarities with "Sun" and "Moon", ""Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" make enough changes to stand apart as the definitive version of the seventh generation games". On the other hand, Allegra Frank of "Polygon" criticized that the aforementioned changes were only present at the end, with the bulk of the gameplay being the same as its predecessor.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: Following release, the two games sold 1.2 million physical copies—excluding digital copies purchased from the Nintendo eShop—within the first three days on sale in Japan. By the end of the year, the two games had sold over 2 million copies in Japan alone, making it the best-selling video game in the country for 2017. Sales from "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" pushed the cumulative sales of the franchise to exceed the 300 million copies sold milestone. According to Amazon, "Ultra Sun" and "Ultra Moon" were their seventh-best selling video games in 2017—however, they drop to 25th for "Ultra Sun" and 28th for "Ultra Moon" if other video game-related products and console variations are accounted for. , the games have sold 9.12 million copies, ranking them as the ninth–best selling Nintendo 3DS titles of all time.


title: Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon

text: The games were nominated for "People's Choice" at the Italian Video Game Awards, and won the "Excellence Prize" at the Famitsu Awards.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The Attack on Mers-el-Kébir (Battle of Mers-el-Kébir) on 3 July 1940, during the Second World War, was a British naval attack on neutral French Navy ships at the naval base at Mers El Kébir, near Oran, on the coast of French Algeria. The attack was the main part of Operation Catapult, a British plan to neutralise or destroy neutral French ships to prevent them from falling into German hands after the Allied defeat in the Battle of France. The British bombardment of the base killed 1,297 French servicemen, sank a battleship and damaged five other ships, for a British loss of five aircraft shot down and two crewmen killed.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The attack by air and sea was conducted by the Royal Navy, after France had signed armistices with Germany and Italy, coming into effect on 25 June. Of particular significance to the British were the five battleships of the and es and the two fast battleships of the , the second largest force of capital ships in Europe after the Royal Navy. The British War Cabinet feared that the ships would fall into Axis hands. Admiral François Darlan, commander of the French Navy, assured the British, even after the French armistices with Germany and Italy, that the fleet would remain under French control, but Winston Churchill and the War Cabinet judged that the risk was too great. Darlan repeatedly refused British requests to place the fleet in British custody or move it to the French West Indies, out of German reach.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The British attack was condemned in France as an attack on a neutral nation and resentment festered for years over what was considered betrayal by a former ally. The French thought that their assurances were honourable and should have been sufficient. Marshal Philippe Pétain, who was appointed the Prime Minister of France on 16 June, severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 8 July.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: French aircraft retaliated by and French ships exchanged fire several times with British ships, before a tacit truce was observed in the western Mediterranean. On 27 November 1942, after the beginning of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, the French Navy foiled Case Anton, a German and Italian operation to capture its ships at Toulon, by scuttling them. In 1997, Martin Thomas wrote that the British attack at Mers-el Kébir remains controversial but that other historians have written that it demonstrated to the world that Britain would fight on.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: After the Fall of France in 1940 and the armistice between France and Nazi Germany, the British War Cabinet was apprehensive about control over the French navy. The French and German navies combined could alter the balance of power at sea, threatening British imports over the Atlantic and communications with the rest of the British Empire. In Article 8, Paragraph 2 of the Armistice terms, the German government "solemnly and firmly declared that it had no intention of making demands regarding the French fleet during the peace negotiations" and there were similar terms in the armistice with Italy but they were considered by the British to be no guarantee of the neutralisation of the French fleet. On 24 June, Darlan assured Winston Churchill against such a possibility. Churchill ordered that a demand be made that the French Navy () should either join with the Royal Navy or be neutralised in a manner guaranteed to prevent the ships falling into Axis hands.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: At Italian suggestion, the armistice terms were amended to permit the French fleet temporarily to stay in North African ports, where they might be seized by Italian troops from Libya. The British made a contingency plan, Operation Catapult, to eliminate the French fleet in mid-June, when it was clear that Philippe Pétain was forming a government with a view to ending the war and it seemed likely that the French fleet might be seized by the Germans. In a speech to Parliament, Churchill repeated that the Armistice of 22 June 1940 was a betrayal of the Allied agreement not to make a separate peace. Churchill said, "What is the value of that? Ask half a dozen countries; what is the value of such a solemn assurance?... Finally, the armistice could be voided at any time on any pretext of non-observance...".


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The French fleet had seen little fighting during the Battle of France and was mostly intact. By tonnage, about 40 per cent was in Toulon, near Marseilles, 40 per cent in French North Africa and 20 per cent in Britain, Alexandria and the French West Indies. Although Churchill feared the fleet would be used by the Axis, the need to man, maintain and arm the French ships with items that were incompatible with German and Italian equipments made this unlikely. The and Benito Mussolini made overtures but Adolf Hitler feared that an attempted take-over would provoke the French fleet into defecting to the British. Churchill and Hitler viewed the fleet as a potential threat; the French leaders used the fleet (and the possibility of its rejoining the Allies) as a bargaining counter against the Germans to keep them out of unoccupied France (the ) and French North Africa. The armistice was contingent on the French right to man their vessels and the French Navy Minister, Admiral François Darlan, had ordered the Atlantic fleet to Toulon and to demobilise, with orders to scuttle the ships if the Germans tried to take them.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The British tried to persuade the French authorities in North Africa to continue the war or to hand over the fleet to British control. A British admiral visited Oran on 24 June, and Duff Cooper, Minister of Information, visited Casablanca on 27 June. The French Atlantic ports were in German hands and the British needed to keep the German surface fleet out of the Mediterranean, confine the Italian fleet to the Mediterranean and to blockade ports still under French control. The Admiralty was against an attack on the French fleet in case the ships were not sufficiently damaged, France declared war and the French colonies would be less likely to defect. The Royal Navy lacked the ships to permanently blockade the French naval bases in North Africa and keep the Atlantic approaches open, which made the risk of the Germans or the Italians seizing the French capital ships too great. Because the fleet in Toulon was well guarded by shore artillery, the Royal Navy decided to attack the base in North Africa.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The most powerful group of French warships was at Mers-el-Kébir in French Algeria, comprising the old battleships and , the newer "Force de Raid" battleships and , the seaplane tender , six destroyers and a gunboat "Rigault de Genouilly", under the command of Admiral Marcel-Bruno Gensoul. Admiral James Somerville, commander of Force H, based in Gibraltar, was ordered to deliver an ultimatum to the French, the terms of which were contrary to the German–French armistice. Somerville passed the duty of presenting the ultimatum to a French speaker, Captain Cedric Holland, commander of the carrier . Gensoul was affronted that negotiations were being conducted by a less-senior officer and sent his lieutenant, Bernard Dufay, which led to much delay and confusion. As the negotiations continued, it became clear that agreement was unlikely. The French made preparations for action and 42 aircraft were armed and made ready for take-off. Darlan was at home on 3 July and could not be contacted; Gensoul told the French government that the alternatives were internment or battle but omitted the option of sailing to the French West Indies. Removing the fleet to U. S. waters had formed part of the orders given by Darlan to Gensoul in the event that a foreign power should attempt to seize his ships.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: Along with French vessels in metropolitan ports, some had sailed to ports in Britain or to Alexandria in Egypt. Operation Catapult was an attempt to take these ships under British control or destroy them and the French ships in Plymouth and Portsmouth were boarded without warning on the night of 3 July. The submarine , the largest in the world, had been berthed in Plymouth for the last month. The crew resisted a boarding party and three Royal Navy personnel, including two officers, were killed along with a French sailor. Other ships captured included the old battleships and , the destroyers and , eight torpedo boats, five submarines and a number of lesser ships. The French squadron in Alexandria (Admiral René-Émile Godfroy)—including the battleship , the heavy cruiser and three modern light cruisers—was neutralised by local agreement.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The British force comprised the battlecruiser , the battleships and , the aircraft carrier "Ark Royal" and an escort of cruisers and destroyers. The British had the advantage of being able to manoeuvre, while the French fleet was anchored in a narrow harbour and its crews did not expect an attack. The main armament of "Dunkerque" and "Strasbourg" was forward of the superstructure and could not immediately be brought to bear. The British capital ships had guns and fired a heavier broadside than the French battleships. On 3 July, before negotiations were formally terminated, six British Fairey Swordfish planes escorted by three Blackburn Skuas from "Ark Royal" dropped magnetic mines in the harbour exit. The force was intercepted by five French Curtiss H-75 fighters which shot down a Skua into the sea with the loss of its two crew, the only British fatalities in the action.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: French warships were ordered from Algiers and Toulon as reinforcements but did not reach Mers-El-Kebir in time. The French put their submarines at Oran, , , and , on alert and they anchored in the outer harbour at 3:30 p.m. At 5:54 p.m., the four submarines received orders to put to sea. Churchill ordered the British ships to open fire at the same time and the British commenced at 5:57 p.m. from . The third British salvo scored hits and a magazine aboard "Bretagne" exploded, the ship sinking with 977 of her crew at After thirty salvoes, the French ships stopped firing; the British force altered course to avoid return fire from the French coastal forts but "Provence", "Dunkerque," the destroyer and two other destroyers were damaged; their crews ran them aground to prevent them from sinking. Four French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters arrived, outnumbering the British Skuas. Another nine French fighters were then spotted at and a dogfight ensued in which a Curtiss H-75 and an M.S.406 were damaged. Three more Curtiss fighters appeared and there was another engagement. The four French submarines were unable to close with the British warships.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: "Strasbourg", three destroyers and one gunboat managed to avoid the mines and escape to the open sea, under attack from a flight of bomb-armed Swordfish from "Ark Royal". The French ships responded with anti-aircraft fire and shot down two Swordfish, the crews being rescued by the destroyer ; a French flying boat also bombed a British destroyer. As the British bombing had little effect, at Somerville ordered his ships to pursue. The French (gunboat) , en route to Oran, met Force H at and steamed towards "Hood", only to come under fire by the light cruisers and at respectively. "Hood" also fired several 15 in shells at "Rigault de Genouilly", and the French ship fired nineteen shells in response before being hit by "Enterprise" and withdrawing. Meanwhile, a British aircraft sighted "Danaé" and "Eurydice" shortly before 8:00 p.m. and dropped illuminated floats to guide a British destroyer to them. The destroyer depth-charged the two submarines but they escaped without damage. At Somerville called off the pursuit, feeling that his ships were ill-deployed for a night engagement. After another ineffective Swordfish attack at "Strasbourg" reached Toulon on 4 July.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: During the night of 3/4 July 1940, "Ariane", "Danaé", "Diane" and "Eurydice" patrolled on the surface off Oran in a north–south patrol line and they remained on patrol off Oran until 8:00 p.m. on 4 July before returning to Oran. On 4 July, the British submarine encountered "Rigault de Genouilly" off the Algerian coast, mistook her for a cruiser and sank her. After receiving orders on 3 July to form a north–south patrol line in the Mediterranean Sea for a distance of east of Alboran Island and south of Cape Palos during the night of 6/7 July 1940 to protect Oran and attack British ships, the French submarines , and got underway from Toulon at 2:45 a.m. on 4 July 1940 bound for their patrol area at but they were recalled to Toulon on 5 July 1940. The French Air Force () made reprisal raids on Gibraltar, including a small night attack on 5 July, when many bombs landed in the sea.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The British believed that the damage inflicted on "Dunkerque" and "Provence" was not serious and on the morning of 8 July raided Mers-el-Kébir again in Operation Lever, with Swordfish aircraft from "Ark Royal". A torpedo hit the patrol boat "Terre-Neuve", moored alongside "Dunkerque", full of depth charges. "Terre-Neuve" quickly sank and the depth charges went off, causing serious damage to the battleship. Another attack took place on 8 July, when aircraft from the carrier attacked the "Richelieu" at Dakar, seriously damaging it. When word of the events at Dakar reached Oran, the French submarines "Ariane", "Diane", and "Eurydice" got back underway on 8 July to form a patrol line off Cape Falcon, Algeria, in case of another British attack on Oran, but the submarines encountered no British forces.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: Churchill wrote, "This was the most hateful decision, the most unnatural and painful in which I have ever been concerned". Relations between Britain and France were severely strained for some time and the Germans enjoyed a propaganda coup. Somerville said that it was "the biggest political blunder of modern times and will rouse the whole world against us... we all feel thoroughly ashamed...". The attack revived Anglophobia in France, demonstrated British resolve to continue the war and rallied the British Conservative Party around Churchill (Neville Chamberlain, Churchill's predecessor as prime minister, was still party leader). The British action showed the world that defeat in France had not reduced the determination of the government to fight on and ambassadors in Mediterranean countries reported favourable reactions.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: The French ships in Alexandria under the command of Admiral René-Emile Godfroy, including the old battleship "Lorraine" and four cruisers, were blockaded by the British on 3 July and offered the same terms as at Mers-el-Kébir. After delicate negotiations, conducted on the part of the British by Admiral Andrew Cunningham, Godfroy agreed on 7 July to disarm his fleet and stay in port until the end of the war. Some sailors joined the Free French while others were repatriated to France; the ships at Alexandria went on to be used by the Free French after May 1943. The British attacks on French vessels in port increased tension between Churchill and Charles de Gaulle, who was recognised by the British as the leader of the Free French Forces on 28 June 1940.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: According to his principal private secretary, Eric Seal, "[Churchill] was convinced that the Americans were impressed by ruthlessness in dealing with a ruthless foe; and in his mind the American reaction to our attack on the French fleet in Oran was of the first importance". On 4 July, Roosevelt told the French ambassador that he would have done the same. Jean Lacouture, in a biography of De Gaulle, blamed the tragedy mainly on miscommunication; if Darlan had been in contact on the day or if Somerville had possessed a more diplomatic character, a deal might have been done. Lacouture accepted that there was a danger that the French ships might have been captured by German or more likely Italian troops, which was proven by the ease with which the British seized French ships in British ports or the Germans seized French ships in Bizerte in Tunisia in November 1942.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: In 2004, David Brown wrote that foreign opinion was generally favourable to Operation Catapult and that the demonstration of British determination had succeeded. In 2010, Colin Smith wrote that the attack was the first big triumph of Churchill's premiership and that they had been received favourably by the governments of the US, Turkey, Greece and Brazil, with condemnation from Spain and Switzerland. Count Galeazzo Ciano, the Italian foreign minister, made a diary entry that the RN retained the "ruthlessness of the captains and pirates of the C16th".


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: Following the 3 July operation, Darlan ordered the French fleet to attack Royal Navy ships wherever possible; Pétain and his foreign minister Paul Baudouin over-ruled the order the next day. Military retaliation was conducted by ineffective but Baudouin noted that "the attack on our fleet is one thing, war is another". As sceptics had warned, there were also complications with the French empire; when French colonial forces defeated de Gaulle's Free French Forces at the Battle of Dakar in September 1940, Germany responded by permitting Vichy France to maintain its remaining ships armed, rather than demobilised. On 24 September Gibraltar was bombed by sixty Vichy French aircraft which dropped of bombs and that night, 81 bombers dropped of bombs. The French 2nd Destroyer Division comprising , , and had sailed from Casablanca on 24 September and in the early hours of 25 September encountered the destroyer patrolling off Gibraltar. "Épée" opened fire but its guns broke down after firing fourteen shells, "Fleuret" did not open fire because it could not get on target and the other French destroyers fired six shots between them. "Hotspur" returned fire but this was not reported by the French ships.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: On 27 September Force H stayed at sea after receiving "a charming message [that] the whole of the Toulon fleet was coming out to have a scrap with us" but the two navies adhered to a tacit understanding that the British did not attack more powerful French forces at sea or ships in port but intercepted other French ships:


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: In the autumn, the French sent a convoy through the Strait of Gibraltar untroubled, a state of affairs that rarely changed during the Mediterranean Campaign.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: In early June 1940, about 13,500 civilians had been evacuated from Gibraltar to Casablanca in French Morocco. Following the capitulation of the French to the Germans and the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, the Vichy government found their presence an embarrassment. Later in June, 15 British cargo vessels arrived in Casablanca under Commodore Crichton, repatriating 15,000 French servicemen who had been rescued from Dunkirk. Once the French troops had disembarked, the ships were interned until the Commodore agreed to take away the evacuees, who, reflecting tensions generated after the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, were escorted to the ships at bayonet point, minus many of their possessions.


title: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir

text: On 19 November 1942, the Germans tried to capture the French fleet based at Toulon, against the armistice terms, as part of Case Anton, the military occupation of Vichy France by Germany. All ships of any military value were scuttled by the French before the arrival of German troops, notably "Dunkerque", "Strasbourg" and seven (four heavy and three light) modern cruisers. For many in the French Navy this was a final proof that there had never been a question of their ships ending up in German hands and that the British action at Mers-el-Kébir had been unnecessary. Darlan was true to his promise in 1940, that French ships would not be allowed to fall into German hands. Godfroy, still in command of the French ships neutralised at Alexandria, remained aloof for a while longer but on 17 May 1943 joined the Allies.


title: Lou Bega

text: David Lubega Balemezi (born 13 April 1975), better known by his stage name Lou Bega, is a German singer. His 1999 song "Mambo No. 5", a remake of Pérez Prado's 1949 instrumental piece, reached number 1 in many European countries and was nominated for a Grammy Award. Bega added his own words to the song and sampled the original version extensively. Bega's musical signature consists of combining musical elements of the 1940s and 1950s with modern beats and grooves.


title: Lou Bega

text: Bega was born on 13 April 1975 in Munich, Bavaria to a Sicilian mother and a Ugandan father. His father Charles went to West Germany in 1972 to study biology at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Until age six, Bega spent most of his time with his mother Nicole in Italy. Then they lived permanently in Munich, where Bega attended German primary school. As a teenager, he traveled to Miami, Florida, where he found the inspiration for his hit single "Mambo No. 5". Bega also lived in Uganda for six months.


title: Lou Bega

text: Bega started his musical career as a rapper. At the age of 13, he founded a hip hop group with two other boys. It would be two years before Bega and his friends' first CD would be released in 1990. While living in Miami, he discovered Latin music. After returning to Munich, Bega met his then manager, Goar Biesenkamp, as well as music producers "Frank Lio" (Achim Kleist) and "Donald Fact" (Wolfgang von Webenau) (Syndicate Musicproduction), with whom he developed the concept for the song "Mambo No. 5". Bega signed a recording contract to the label Lautstark.


title: Lou Bega

text: His first single "Mambo No. 5" became a world wide hit in 1999, charting at No. 1 in most European countries, including Germany, UK, France, and No. 3 in the United States. In France, "Mambo No. 5" spent twenty weeks at No. 1. It was also used by the British television broadcaster Channel 4 for their coverage of test match cricket between 1999 and 2005.


title: Lou Bega

text: On 19 July 1999, Bega released his debut album "A Little Bit of Mambo", which peaked at No. 3 both in Bega's native Germany and the U.S. While it charted moderately in the UK, peaking at only No. 50, it reached No. 1 in Austria, Canada, Finland, Hungary, and Switzerland. The second single, "I Got a Girl" charted well, entering the Top 10 in some European countries, including France, Finland and Belgium. The third single, "Tricky, Tricky", achieved No. 18 on the Canadian charts and No. 74 on the U.S. "Billboard" charts. In France, Bega did well also with his single "Mambo Mambo", which reached No. 11 on the French charts.


title: Lou Bega

text: Bega's second studio album "Ladies and Gentlemen" was released on 28 May 2001. The album failed to experience success similar to its predecessor in Bega's native market or internationally. It peaked at No. 54 in Germany, and No. 23 on Switzerland's album chart. The album produced two singles, "Just a Gigolo" and "Gentleman", both of which charted moderately.


title: Lou Bega

text: On 21 May 2010, Bega released his fourth album titled "Free Again", which also did not find much success on the charts. It only charted in Switzerland peaking at No. 78.


title: Lou Bega

text: Bega's fifth studio album "A Little Bit of 80's" was released on 28 June 2013, in Germany on Ariola (Sony Music). In this album, Bega again covered classic international hits including "Smooth Operator" (1984)" by Sade, "I'm So Excited" (1982) by The Pointer Sisters, "Vamos a la playa" (1983) by Righeira, "Red Red Wine" (1968) by Neil Diamond and "Karma Chameleon" (1983) by Culture Club. Bega's first single off his fifth album, however, was "Give It Up" which was released in Germany on 14 June 2013. The song peaked at No. 6 in Germany.


title: Lou Bega

text: In 2019, Bega released "Scatman & Hatman", his first release since 2013. The track uses vocal samples from the 1994 single "Scatman (Ski-Ba-Bop-Ba-Dop-Bop)" by Scatman John. Shortly after the track's release, he told Jason Lipshutz of "Billboard" that he was inspired to create the track by the fact that Scatman John died in the same year that "Mambo No. 5" was released, adding,


title: Lou Bega

text: In 2006, Bega recorded a song titled "C'est la Vie" with Edvin Marton and a music video was also filmed. The song has only appeared on Marton's album "Stradivarius" as a bonus track and was never featured on any of Bega's albums.


title: Lou Bega

text: Bega has appeared on stage for royals as well as international corporations. Bega was on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", "Ally McBeal", "MAD TV", "The Martin Short Show", "Motown Live", "Jenny Jones", "Queen Latifah", "Access Hollywood", and others. Bega was also the only artist to be asked to sing the same song twice on Germany's headlining show "Wetten, dass..?". On New Year's Eve 2007, he performed in Poland. He has been the MC at the American Music Awards, the Grammy Awards, the "Billboard" Radio Awards and at the Love Parade in Berlin. He also performed live on television on the "Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway" in the United Kingdom on 4 April 2015.


title: Lou Bega

text: In July 2016, Bega performed as a special guest in several of André Rieu's famous Maastricht concerts. In December 2021, he performed "Mambo No. 5" at a Polish military base during a show for the support of Polish troops deployed against refugees at the Polish-Belarusian border, thanking them for "defending our border".


title: Lou Bega

text: Bega sang the theme song for the Disney Channel animated series "Brandy & Mr. Whiskers". Bega also recorded and starred in a music video of a Disney version of "Mambo No. 5" that featured Disney-themed lyrics.


title: Lou Bega

text: In the video game "Tropico", Bega is one of the characters that the player can choose as their dictatorial persona. He was included as part of a licensing deal that also saw Bega's song "Club Elitaire" integrated into the German release of "Tropico". Also, in the Ubi Soft/Disney Interactive video game "Walt Disney's The Jungle Book Rhythm n' Groove", Bega participates in a challenge with his namesake. The player dances as King Louie, attempting to dance to Bega's rendition of "I Wanna Be Like You". Doing so will unlock a video of him with children dancing to the aforementioned song. Bega also wrote the theme song for the French cartoon series "Marsupilami".


title: Gullak

text: Gullak () is an Indian web series created by Shreyansh Pandey for the streaming service SonyLIV under the banner of The Viral Fever (TVF). The series revolves around the Mishra family, comprising Santosh and Shanti Mishra and their sons Anand "Annu" Mishra and Aman Mishra and features Jameel Khan, Geetanjali Kulkarni, Vaibhav Raj Gupta and Harsh Mayar in the respective mentioned lead roles, with Sunita Rajwar as their neighbour.


title: Gullak

text: The first season premiered on the TVF's streaming platform TVF Play and on Sony Liv, on 27 June 2019, with all episodes aired on the same day. The show received positive response from audience.


title: Gullak

text: The program was renewed for a second season with mostly new crew members. Palash Vaswani directed the series, Durgesh Singh was the primary writer and Anurag Saikia and Simran Hora composed the soundtrack. The second season aired through Sony Liv on 15 January 2021, and unlike the first season, it received mixed reviews from critics. The series has been renewed for a third season.


title: Gullak

text: The trailer for "Gullak Season 3" was released on 22 March 2022. The trailer received a positive response from the audience. The show was released on 7 April 2022 on SonyLIV.


title: Gullak

text: Archika Khurana of "The Times Of India" said, "The beauty of the series lies in its narrative, which is as promising as its prequels and easy to relate to."


title: Gullak

text: The show was said to be, "An old-world charm of the modern Indian nuclear family." by Troy Ribeiro of "IANS".


title: Gullak

text: RJ Divya Solgama gave the series a 4/5 saying, "'The Most Lovable Family On OTT Are Back With Thrice Amount Of Love & Cuteness."


title: Gullak

text: "Desi Martini’s" Mahima Pandey, with 4.5/5 said, "Mishra Parivaar is back with another perfect season; life gets tough but they still make us smile."


title: Gullak

text: Sunidhi Prajapat of "OTTPlay" rated the series 4/5 and praised the show, "The new installment of the Mishra family’s adventures takes you on a rollercoaster ride of emotions."


title: Gullak

text: Abhimanyu Mathur of "Hindustan Times" said "Gullak's third season does get more dramatic and darker this time. The themes tackled are more serious than the previous two seasons. The stakes, at times, seem higher. The show isn't as light as it once was. But it is still well made. Even if it tackles serious issues, it does not get preachy or judgemental. It retains that freshness."


title: Gullak

text: Shubham Kulkarni of "Koimoi" rated the third season at a 3.5/5 and said, "Gullak 3 brings back the feel good factor with a pinch of nostalgia and a tablespoon full of emotions."


title: Gullak

text: Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" criticized the third season, saying that "The Writing Isn't As Impeccable This Time Around But Acting Is Absolutely Top-Notch."


title: Technical drawing

text: Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed.


title: Technical drawing

text: To make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such conventions constitute a visual language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous and relatively easy to understand. Many of the symbols and principles of technical drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO 128.


title: Technical drawing

text: The need for precise communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted; their meanings are multiply determined. Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.


title: Technical drawing

text: A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing (technical or expressive). A professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician.


title: Technical drawing

text: A sketch is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually not intended as a finished work. In general, sketching is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time-consuming.


title: Technical drawing

text: Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches, like metaphors, are used by architects as a means of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarize their complex patterns, thereby enhancing the design process.


title: Technical drawing

text: The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.


title: Technical drawing

text: "Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-square's edge. The T-square is used to hold other devices such as set squares or triangles. In this case, the drafter places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.


title: Technical drawing

text: In addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the French curve, for drawing curves. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves.


title: Technical drawing

text: Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will draw from the USITT standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a drafter to create his own templates.


title: Technical drawing

text: This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general, drafting can be a time-consuming process.


title: Technical drawing

text: A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well.


title: Technical drawing

text: In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order.


title: Technical drawing

text: Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect, or shop personnel (such as a machinist), skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task, and are always in demand to some degree.


title: Technical drawing

text: Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of computer-aided design systems (CAD).


title: Technical drawing

text: There are two types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical drawings: two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D").


title: Technical drawing

text: 2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or MicroStation replace the paper drawing discipline. The lines, circles, arcs, and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the drawing when producing first and third angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections and cross-section views. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch, the 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft but provide no way to check the various components will fit together.


title: Technical drawing

text: A 3D CAD system (such as KeyCreator, Autodesk Inventor, or SolidWorks) first produces the geometry of the part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of that geometry. Any orthographic, projected or sectioned view is created by the software. There is no scope for error in the production of these views. The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter of first or third angle projection and displaying the relevant symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product. Buildings, aircraft, ships, and cars are modeled, assembled, and checked in 3D before technical drawings are released for manufacture.


title: Technical drawing

text: Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any discipline. The various disciplines (electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) have industry recognized symbols to represent common components.


title: Technical drawing

text: BS and ISO produce standards to show recommended practices but it is up to individuals to produce the drawings to a standard. There is no definitive standard for layout or style. The only standard across engineering workshop drawings is in the creation of orthographic projections and cross-section views.


title: Technical drawing

text: In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, the objects can be described by at least one view plus material thickness note, 2, 3 or as many views and sections that are required to show all features of object.


title: Technical drawing

text: The art and design that goes into making buildings is known as architecture. To communicate all aspects of the shape or design, detail drawings are used. In this field, the term "plan" is often used when referring to the full section view of these drawings as viewed from three feet above finished floor to show the locations of doorways, windows, stairwells, etc. Architectural drawings describe and document an architect's design.


title: Technical drawing

text: Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the Latin "ingenerare", meaning "to create". Because this could apply to everything that humans create, it is given a narrower definition in the context of technical drawing. Engineering drawings generally deal with mechanical engineered items, such as manufactured parts and equipment.


title: Technical drawing

text: Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.


title: Technical drawing

text: Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.


title: Technical drawing

text: Software engineering practictioners make use of diagrams for designing software. Formal standards and modeling languages such as Unified Modeling Language (UML) exist but most diagramming happens using informal ad hoc diagrams that illustrate a conceptual model.


title: Technical drawing

text: Practitioners reported that diagramming helped with analysing requirements, design, refactoring, documentation, onboarding, communication with stake holders. Diagrams are often transient or redrawn as required. Redrawn diagrams can acts as a form of shared understanding in a team.


title: Technical drawing

text: "Technical illustration" is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer".


title: Technical drawing

text: The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer's interest and understanding".


title: Technical drawing

text: According to Viola (2005), "illustrative techniques are often designed in a way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter".


title: Technical drawing

text: A "cutaway drawing" is a technical illustration, in which part of the surface of a three-dimensional model is removed in order to show some of the model's interior in relation to its exterior.


title: Technical drawing

text: The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to "allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering".


title: Technical drawing

text: The two types of technical drawings are based on graphical projection. This is used to create an image of a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface.


title: Technical drawing

text: Two-dimensional representation uses orthographic projection to create an image where only two of the three dimensions of the object are seen.


title: Technical drawing

text: In a three-dimensional representation, also referred to as a pictorial, all three dimensions of an object are visible.


title: Technical drawing

text: Multiview is a type of orthographic projection. There are two conventions for using multiview, first-angle and third-angle. In both cases, the front or main side of the object is the same. First-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they land. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen will be drawn to the right of the front side. Third-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they are. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen is actually the left side of the object and will be drawn to the left of the front side.


title: Technical drawing

text: While multiview relates to external surfaces of an object, section views show an imaginary plane cut through an object. This is often useful to show voids in an object.


title: Technical drawing

text: Auxiliary views utilize an additional projection plane other than the common planes in a multiview. Since the features of an object need to show the true shape and size of the object, the projection plane must be parallel to the object surface. Therefore, any surface that is not in line with the three major axis needs its own projection plane to show the features correctly.


title: Technical drawing

text: Patterns, sometimes called developments, show the size and shape of a flat piece of material needed for later bending or folding into a three-dimensional shape.


title: Technical drawing

text: An "exploded-view drawing" is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of assembly of the various parts. It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated relative distances away from their original locations.