title: Toyota Mark X

text: The G's (renamed to GR Sport in 2016) variant is based on 250S or 350S models. The G's/GR Sport Mark X is very noticeably distinct with a 3-piece bodykit, rear trunk spoiler, clear smoked taillamps, forged aluminium 19x8J wheels, four-piston calipers with front and rear ventilated brake disks, upgraded suspension, red stitching leather interior, carbon style centre console and instrument panel, upgraded Alcantara front seats, etc.


title: Toyota Mark X

text: The Mark X GRMN ("Gazoo Racing, tuned by the Meister of the Nürburgring") is a limited-production variant (100 units in 2015, 350 units in 2019) based on the 3.5 L model. It has a specific front and rear bumper design (shared with the GR Sport variant for 2019 model), CFRP roof which reduces the weight by approximately , 19-inch BBS wheels, sports seats and steering wheel, and piano black interior accents with ultra suede upholstery and red contrast stitching. Mechanical upgrades include uprated power output to for the 2015 model, 6-speed manual transmission with Torsen limited-slip differential, sport-tuned suspension, high-performance brakes, and additional chassis reinforcements, which include 252 additional chassis spot welds for greater rigidity, coupled with specific-tuned dampers and electric power steering.


title: Toyota Mark X

text: On 27 September 2017, Toyota ended production of the Reiz in China with a total of 528,188 units produced since 2004.


title: Toyota Mark X

text: Production of the Mark X ended on 23 December 2019 in Japan with a total of 6.9 million units (including the Mark II) produced since the first production of Corona Mark II began 51 years earlier. Before the discontinuation, Toyota released the limited-production Mark X 250S Final Edition. The Final Edition comes equipped with 18-inch aluminium wheels, dark chrome-plated front bumper trim, and a red and black interior finished in Alcantara and leather. This marked the end of the Mark II lineage that was introduced in 1968.


title: Toyota Mark X

text: The Mark X ZiO MPV shares only a name with the Mark X saloon and is based on the smaller front-wheel drive New MC platform.


title: Security

text: Security is protection from, or resilience against, potential harm (or other unwanted coercive change) caused by others, by restraining the freedom of others to act. Beneficiaries (technically referents) of security may be of persons and social groups, objects and institutions, ecosystems or any other entity or phenomenon vulnerable to unwanted change.


title: Security

text: Security mostly refers to protection from hostile forces, but it has a wide range of other senses: for example, as the absence of harm (e.g. freedom from want); as the presence of an essential good (e.g. food security); as resilience against potential damage or harm (e.g. secure foundations); as secrecy (e.g. a secure telephone line); as containment (e.g. a secure room or cell); and as a state of mind (e.g. emotional security).


title: Security

text: The term is also used to refer to acts and systems whose purpose may be to provide security (security companies, security forces, security guard, cyber security systems, security cameras, remote guarding). Security can be physical and virtual.


title: Security

text: The word 'secure' entered the English language in the 16th century. It is derived from Latin "securus", meaning freedom from anxiety: "se" (without) + "cura" (care, anxiety).


title: Security

text: A security referent is the focus of a security policy or discourse; for example, a referent may be a potential beneficiary (or victim) of a security policy or system.


title: Security

text: Security referents may be persons or social groups, objects, institutions, ecosystems, or any other phenomenon vulnerable to unwanted change by the forces of its environment. The referent in question may combine many referents, in the same way that, for example, a nation state is composed of many individual citizens.


title: Security

text: The security context is the relationships between a security referent and its environment. From this perspective, security and insecurity depend first on whether the environment is beneficial or hostile to the referent, and also how capable is the referent of responding to its/their environment in order to survive and thrive.


title: Security

text: The means by which a referent provides for security (or is provided for) vary widely. They include, for example:


title: Security

text: Any action intended to provide security may have multiple effects. For example, an action may have wide benefit, enhancing security for several or all security referents in the context; alternatively, the action may be effective only temporarily, or benefit one referent at the expense of another, or be entirely ineffective or counterproductive.


title: Security

text: Approaches to security are contested and the subject of debate. For example, in debate about national security strategies, some argue that security depends principally on developing protective and coercive capabilities in order to protect the security referent in a hostile environment (and potentially to project that power into its environment, and dominate it to the point of strategic supremacy). Others argue that security depends principally on building the conditions in which equitable relationships can develop, partly by reducing antagonism between actors, ensuring that fundamental needs can be met, and also that differences of interest can be negotiated effectively.


title: Security

text: Computer security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, refers to the security of computing devices such as computers and smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, and the Internet. The field has growing importance due to the increasing reliance on computer systems in most societies. It concerns the protection of hardware, software, data, people, and also the procedures by which systems are accessed. The means of computer security include the physical security of systems and security of information held on them.


title: Security

text: Corporate security refers to the resilience of corporations against espionage, theft, damage, and other threats. The security of corporations has become more complex as reliance on IT systems has increased, and their physical presence has become more highly distributed across several countries, including environments that are, or may rapidly become, hostile to them.


title: Security

text: Ecological security, also known as environmental security, refers to the integrity of ecosystems and the biosphere, particularly in relation to their capacity to sustain a diversity of life-forms (including human life). The security of ecosystems has attracted greater attention as the impact of ecological damage by humans has grown.


title: Security

text: Food security refers to the ready supply of, and access to, safe and nutritious food. Food security is gaining in importance as the world's population has grown and productive land has diminished through overuse and climate change.


title: Security

text: Home security normally refers to the security systems used on a property used as a dwelling (commonly including doors, locks, alarm systems, lighting, fencing); and personal security practices (such as ensuring doors are locked, alarms activated, windows closed etc.)


title: Security

text: Human security is an emerging paradigm which, in response to traditional emphasis on the right of nation states to protect themselves, has focused on the primacy of the security of people (individuals and communities). The concept is supported by the United Nations General Assembly, which has stressed "the right of people to live in freedom and dignity" and recognized "that all individuals, in particular vulnerable people, are entitled to freedom from fear and freedom from want".


title: Security

text: National security refers to the security of a nation state, including its people, economy, and institutions. In practice, state governments rely on a wide range of means, including diplomacy, economic power, and military capabilities.


title: Security

text: Since it is not possible to know with precision the extent to which something is 'secure' (and a measure of vulnerability is unavoidable), perceptions of security vary, often greatly. For example, a fear of death by earthquake is common in the United States (US), but slipping on the bathroom floor kills more people; and in France, the United Kingdom and the US there are far fewer deaths caused by terrorism than there are women killed by their partners in the home.


title: Security

text: Another problem of perception is the common assumption that the mere presence of a security system (such as armed forces, or antivirus software) implies security. For example, two computer security programs installed on the same device can prevent each other from working properly, while the user assumes that he or she benefits from twice the protection that only one program would afford.


title: Security

text: Security theater is a critical term for measures that change perceptions of security without necessarily affecting security itself. For example, visual signs of security protections, such as a home that advertises its alarm system, may deter an intruder, whether or not the system functions properly. Similarly, the increased presence of military personnel on the streets of a city after a terrorist attack may help to reassure the public, whether or not it diminishes the risk of further attacks.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: Bjarne Stroustrup (; ; born 30 December 1950) is a Danish computer scientist, most notable for the invention and development of the C++ programming language. As of July 2022, Stroustrup is a professor of Computer Science at Columbia University.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: Stroustrup was born in Aarhus, Denmark. His family was working class, and he went to the local schools.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: He attended Aarhus University 1969–1975 and graduated with a master's degree in mathematics and computer science. His interests focused on microprogramming and machine architecture. He learned the fundamentals of object-oriented programming from its inventor, Kristen Nygaard, who frequently visited Aarhus.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: In 1979, he received a PhD in computer science from the University of Cambridge, where he was supervised by David Wheeler. His thesis concerned communication in distributed computer systems.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: In 1979, Stroustrup began his career as a member of technical staff in the Computer Science Research Center of Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA. There, he began his work on C++ and programming techniques. Stroustrup was the head of AT&T Bell Labs' Large-scale Programming Research department, from its creation until late 2002. In 1993, he was made a Bell Labs fellow and in 1996, an AT&T Fellow.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: From 2002 to 2014, Stroustrup was the College of Engineering Chair Professor in Computer Science at Texas A&M University. From 2011, he was made a University Distinguished Professor.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: From January 2014 to April 2022, Stroustrup was a technical fellow and managing director in the technology division of Morgan Stanley in New York City and a visiting professor in computer science at Columbia University.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: Stroustrup is best known for his work on C++. In 1979, he began developing C++ (initially called "C with Classes"). In his own words, he "invented C++, wrote its early definitions, and produced its first implementation [...] chose and formulated the design criteria for C++, designed all its major facilities, and was responsible for the processing of extension proposals in the C++ standards committee." C++ was made generally available in 1985. For non-commercial use, the source code of the compiler and the foundation libraries was the cost of shipping (US$75); this was before Internet access was common. Stroustrup also published a textbook for the language in 1985, "The C++ Programming Language".


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: Stroustrup documented his principles guiding the design of C++ and the evolution of the language in his 1994 book, "The Design and Evolution of C++", and three papers for ACM's History of Programming Languages conferences.


title: Bjarne Stroustrup

text: Stroustrup was a founding member of the C++ standards committee (from 1989, it was an ANSI committee and from 1991 an ISO committee) and has remained an active member ever since. For 24 years he chaired the subgroup chartered to handle proposals for language extensions (Evolution Working Group).


title: Occitania

text: Occitania ( , , ) is the historical region in Western and Southern Europe where the Occitan language was historically spoken and where it is sometimes still used as a second language. This cultural area roughly encompasses the southern third of France (with the exception of the French Basque Country and French Catalonia) as well as part of Spain (Aran Valley), Monaco, and smaller parts of Italy (Occitan Valleys, Guardia Piemontese). Occitania has been recognized as a linguistic and cultural concept since the Middle Ages, but has never been a legal nor a political entity under this name. However, the territory was united in Roman times as the "Seven Provinces" () and in the Early Middle Ages ("Aquitanica" or the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse, or the share of Louis the Pious following Thionville "divisio regnorum" in 806).


title: Occitania

text: Currently, between 200,000–800,000 people of 16 million living in the area, are either native or proficient speakers of Occitan, although the languages more usually spoken in the area are French, Catalan, Spanish and Italian. Since 2006, the Occitan language has been an official language of Catalonia, which includes the Aran Valley where Occitan gained official status in 1990.


title: Occitania

text: Under Roman rule, most of Occitania was known as Aquitania, the earlier conquered territories were known as "Provincia Romana" (see modern Provence), while the northern provinces of what is now France were called "Gallia" (Gaul). Under the Later Empire, both Aquitania and "Provincia Romana" were grouped in the Seven Provinces or Viennensis. So Provence and Gallia Aquitania (or "Aquitanica") are the names used since medieval times for Occitania (i.e. Limousin, Auvergne, Languedoc and Gascony). Thus the historic Duchy of Aquitaine must not be confused with the modern French region called Aquitaine: this is the main reason why the term "Occitania" was revived in the mid-19th century. The names "Occitania" and "Occitan language" ("Occitana lingua") appeared in Latin texts from as early as 1242–1254 to 1290 and during the following years of the early 14th century; texts exist in which the area is referred to indirectly as "the country of the Occitan language" ("Patria Linguae Occitanae"). The name Lenga d'òc was used in Italian ("Lingua d'òc") by Dante in the late 13th century. The somewhat uncommon ending of the term "Occitania" is most probably a portmanteau French clerks coined from "òc" and "Aquitània" , thus blending the language and the land in just one concept.


title: Occitania

text: On 28 September 2016 Occitanie became the name of the administrative region that succeeded the regions of Midi-Pyrénées and Languedoc-Roussillon,


title: Occitania

text: The name Occitanie appeared in the Middle Ages on the basis of a geographical, linguistic and cultural concept, to designate the part of the French royal domain speaking the langue d’oc.


title: Occitania

text: Its current definition is variable. In the most common usage, Occitania designates the territory where the Occitan has remained used until today, within the limits defined between 1876 and the 20th century. If Occitan language and culture are almost always associated with it, we also find references to a common history, an ethnic group, a homeland, to a people or to a nation. The first sociological study in Occitan language to know how the Occitan define themselves was started in 1976. The survey shows that the Occitan reality is defined by "language" for 95% of people, "culture" (94%), characterization by "a common history" (69%), "an ethnic group" (50%), "a nation" (20%). Occitania, as defined by the modern Occitan linguistic territory, covers most of the current Southern France, the Alpine valleys of the Western Piedmont, in Italy, Val d'Aran in Spain and Monaco an area of approximately 190,000 km2. It had about fifteen million inhabitants in 1999 with about 20% inhabitants born outside the territory and about 20% of the natives who left. On the other hand, in the absence of a linguistic census, we know only imperfectly the number of speakers of Occitan.


title: Occitania

text: If the preceding notions are generally limited to the modern linguistic boundaries of Occitan, this term can also be used to designate a larger territory. The term "Occitania" becomes commonplace more and more in the vocabulary of scientists. It is used particularly in a historical sense and anthropological by designating a region extending north to the Loire, ignoring contemporary linguistic boundaries. In a book written by experts in medieval history, are included in Occitania of the year 1000 both the provinces of the north (now mainly in Poitou-Charentes) and Catalonia (without the Balearic Islands and the Valencian country) – "p. 484". The seven-pointed star, adopted as emblem by the Felibritge symbolized the seven provinces of Occitania, one of which was Catalan. Occitanie is indeed divided by this association into seven maintenances (sections) of which one was that of Catalonia-Roussillon.


title: Occitania

text: In 2016, the name "Occitanie" is used for the French administrative region Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées which is located on part of the traditional Occitania and includes the Roussillon.


title: Occitania

text: "Occitania" comes from the medieval Latin "Occitania". The first part of the name, "Occ-", comes from Occitan "òc" and the expression "langue d'oc", in Italian "lingua d'oc". It is an appellation promoted by Dante Alighieri of Occitan by the way of saying "yes" in Old Occitan-Catalan; as opposed to the "langue de si" (Italian) and the "langue d'oïl" (Old French). The ending "-itania" is probably an imitation of the name "[Aqu] itania" (Aquitaine). The term Occitania is a synonym for Languedoc and the Mediterranean coast in the Middle Ages.


title: Occitania

text: The first attestation of the use of "Occitanie" in French dates from 1556. The first certificate of "Occitania" in Italy dates 1549. In German, the word Occitania was found in 1572.


title: Occitania

text: All of the Occitan language countries have had various designations throughout history. The word "Occitania" has been the subject of whimsical etymologies (for example, Languedoc was formerly understood as "land of the Goths" or "language of the Goths"), as well as the rapprochement to the Occitan language exemplified in the names of the regions Languedoc and Occitania, we find in "La Minerve Française", a collective work published in Paris in 1818, a history of name-changes of the provinces which reveals the word Occitanie to be a doublet of the word Occident formed in the Lower Empire, giving it the original meaning of "western regions", and not a region where (necessarily) the Occitan language was spoken.


title: Occitania

text: Like the Occitan language, Occitania has been designated under various successive names. The terms are not exclusive: one can find authors who use different terms in the same time period. "Occitania" or "Pays d'Oc" are the most frequently used terms today. However the term "Provence" is still used when the Felibritge sing the Copa Santa for example during the "annual festival of Estello".


title: Occitania

text: The term "Occitania" now covers a linguistic region. This meaning was used in medieval times attested since 1290. On 29 May 1308, during the Council of Poitiers, it appears that the king of France was declared to reign over two nations: one of "lingua gallica" and the other of lingua occitana. This partition between Occitan language and langue d'oïl in the Gallo-Roman space is very ancient since it started with Romanisation itself. In 1381, the King Charles VI of France considered that his kingdom comprised two parts: the country of langue d'oc, or Occitania, and the oil-language country or Ouytanie ""Quas in nostro Regno occupare solebar tam in linguae Occitanae quam Ouytanae"". "Occitania" remained in force in the administration until the French Revolution of 1789. It was taken up again in the 19th century by the literary association of Felibritge then it is again claimed since the 20th century, especially since the end of the 1960s. According to Frédéric Mistral's dictionary ""Treasury of Felibritge"", the term Occitania is sometimes used by scholars to describe Southern France in general but mainly for the former province of Languedoc.


title: Occitania

text: The "langue d'oc" is a territorialized language, that is to say, spoken mainly on a territory whose boundaries can be described. This part attempts to describe the origins of the Occitanie concept, the different names that this territory has taken and the creation of the modern concept of Occitania.


title: Occitania

text: The speakers of the Occitan language do not use a single meaning of their language because Occitan is not a monolithic language with for example a single dictionary where each speaker finds exactly their vocabulary, but a juxtaposition of dialects. Also, many studies have focused on the differences between Provençal, Languedoc, etc. We must also remember the many common features of the Occitan cultural space, which are generally considered partisans.


title: Occitania

text: Robert Lafont develops this idea in the introduction of the "History and Anthology of Occitan Literature". The reference to troubadours is essential. This socio-linguistic argument is modulated according to the authors but it is accepted by all the current scholarship, including the authors who speak of "domain d'oc", since by definition, their study of the d'oc domain rests on the consciousness of the existence of a common culture.


title: Occitania

text: The different speakers of the language share many common traits (tonic accentuation, close vocabulary, frequent use of the subjunctive, etc.) that allow mutual understanding. For Occitanists, this intercomprehension means that Occitan is one language; for others, it means that these languages are very close but all agree that the speakers in this defined space understand each other.


title: Occitania

text: The social characteristics of Occitania are not eternal and intangible because factors of endogenous mutations and European influences, especially of Northern France, can blur these social peculiarities.


title: Occitania

text: The best studied example is that of Roman Law which is better maintained in the Occitan Early Middle Ages society than in Northern France thanks to the promulgations of Visigoth and Burgundians laws. From the mid-11th century, the teaching of the Corpus Juris Civilis taken shortly after Bologna in the universities of Toulouse, Montpellier, Avignon, Perpignan... will promote a massive renaissance of Roman Law in Occitania.


title: Occitania

text: With regard to education: Pierre Goubert and Daniel Roche write, to explain the low literacy in Occitania in the 18th century, that there exists in these territories a confidence maintained in the old vulgar languages. The relations to education are today completely reversed between Northern and Southern France thanks to the anthropological imprint of the family strain.


title: Occitania

text: From a demographic point of view, the influence of the family was still felt in 2007 because of the small number of families with many children.


title: Occitania

text: In politics, many debates have also taken place around the expression "Red Southern" coined by Maurice Agulhon to find out if the "pays d'oc" was more "republic" than the northern half of France. Emmanuel Todd analyzing the regions that voted for Jean-Luc Mélenchon, calling himself a "Republican" in the 2012 presidential elections, declares that ""what is obvious is his general inscription in the Occitan family[...] that loves vertical structures, the state or the church.""


title: Occitania

text: Finally, for André Armengaud, these common social characteristics make it possible to write a historical synthesis. But since 1979, no other "History of Occitan" has been undertaken.


title: Occitania

text: If the term Occitania appeared in French from the mid-16th century, then in 1732 in a collection of laws of the ancien régime, it only becomes current at 19th century. Thus, the duke of Angoulême conspired with a view to the establishment of a Kingdom of Occitania or of a Vice-Royalty of Occitania at the time of the Restoration. The term was popularized by the publications of Raynouard and Rochegude, and known in its contemporary sense by the English historian Sharon Turner.


title: Occitania

text: It appeared in the "Treasury of Felibritge" and in the statutes of this organization in 1911. In the Interwar period, a Felibritgan school, the "Escòla Occitana" was created in 1919 in the Toulousean Languedoc. The Institute of Occitan Studies was born in 1930. These initiatives (as well as others) remain closely linked, notably because of the dual membership of their main animators at Felibritge.


title: Occitania

text: After the Second World War, the creation of the Institute of Occitan Studies was presided over by a resistant (at a time when the Felibritge like the SEO were tainted by lawsuits of collaboration), but above all its action in terms of linguistic reform, particularly its desire to adapt the classical norm to Provençal, marked a break with a large fraction of the Felibritge François Fontan created the first overtly Occitan nationalist party in 1959.


title: Occitania

text: In France, Occitania has been confronted with a problem of recognition of Occitan since 1992; the French is the only "language of the Republic". In 1994, it was made compulsory in the public space (places of commerce and work, public transport, etc.) and in the administration (laws, regulations, documents, judgments, etc.).


title: Occitania

text: In 2015, with the prospect of creating a large region gathering "Midi-Pyrénées" and "Languedoc-Roussillon", the name "Occitanie" came at the head of an online survey organized by the regional press (23% of the 200,000 voting, in front of "Occitanie-Pays catalan" 20%). Note, however, a variable support rate depending on the geographical origin of the voters. As part of the territorial reform, a consultation on the name of the region, organized by the Regional Council Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées took place in spring 2016 to give a name to the new region regrouping Midi-Pyrenees and Languedoc-Roussillon. Occitanie came first (44.90% of the vote), with 91,598 voters. Second was Languedoc-Pyrenees with 17.81% of the votes, then Pyrenees-Mediterranean (15.31%), Occitanie-Catalan Country (12.15%) and finally Languedoc (10.01%). This new region was renamed "Occitanie" (with the subtitle "Pyrenees-Mediterranean"), according to the vote of the regional councillors on June 24 of 2016, and after final validation by the Government of France and Conseil d'État.


title: Occitania

text: Occitan or langue d'oc ("lenga d'òc") is a Latin-based Romance language in the same way as Spanish, Italian or French. There are six main regional varieties, with easy inter-comprehension among them: Provençal (including Niçard spoken in the vicinity of Nice), Vivaroalpenc, Auvernhat, Lemosin, Gascon (including Bearnés spoken in Béarn) and Lengadocian. All these varieties of the Occitan language are written and valid. Standard Occitan is a synthesis which respects soft regional adaptations.


title: Occitania

text: Catalan is a language very similar to Occitan and there are quite strong historical and cultural links between Occitania and Catalonia.


title: Occitania

text: The regions of Ancien Régime that make up Occitania are the following: Auvergne (Auvèrnhe), Forez (west and south fringe), Bourbonnais (southern half), Couserans (Coserans), Dauphiné (southern half), County of Foix (County of Fois), County of Nice (County of Nissa), Périgord (Peiregòrd), Gascony, Guyenne (Guiana), Languedoc (Lengadòc), Angoumois (eastern end), Limousin (Lemosin), Poitou (Poetou) (southeastern extremity), La Marche (la Marcha), Provence (Provença), Comtat Venaissin (lo Comtat Venaicin), Velay, Vivarais (Vivarés).


title: Occitania

text: The administrative regions covering Occitania are the following: Occitanie region (except the Pyrénées-Orientales where a majority speak Catalan, although the Fenouillèdes region, in the North-West of the department, that is to say of Occitan language and culture), Nouvelle-Aquitaine (except the peripheries where one speaks basque, poitevin and saintongeais), Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes (in the southern half, namely almost all the Drôme and the Ardèche, the southern Isère and some fringes of the Loire) and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. In the Centre-Val de Loire Occitan is spoken in some communes in southern Cher and Indre.


title: Occitania

text: The geographical delimitation of Occitania most commonly accepted was specified between 1876—beginning of research on the linguistic boundaries—and the 20th century. Occitania roughly covers a southern third of France (commonly known as "Midi", including Monaco), the Occitan Valleys and Guardia Piemontese, in Italy, as well as the Val d'Aran, in Spain.


title: Occitania

text: The practice of Occitan is not the same uniformly throughout the territory. In addition, there is a linguistic transition area in the north called Croissant where the terms of d'oil and Occitan interfere strongly (see Croissant). Instead, some territories are not generally considered to be part of Occitania according to the modern definition:


title: Occitania

text: Written texts in Occitan appeared in the 10th century: it was first used in legal texts, and then in literary, scientific, and religious texts. Spoken dialects of Occitan are many centuries older and appeared as soon as the 8th century, at least, as revealed through toponyms and Occitanized words left in Latin manuscripts.


title: Occitania

text: Occitania was often politically united during the Early Middle Ages, under the Visigothic Kingdom and several Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns. In the year 805 in Thionville, Charlemagne declared the partition of his empire into three autonomous territories along linguistic and cultural boundaries: what is now modern Occitania was to be formed from the reunion of a broader Provence and Aquitaine. Instead, however, at the 9th century division of the Frankish Empire, Occitania was split into different counties, duchies and kingdoms, bishops and abbots. Since then, the country has never been politically united, although Occitania remained intact through a common culture. Nonetheless, Occitania suffered a tangle of varying loyalties to nominal sovereigns: from the 9th to the 13th centuries, the dukes of Aquitaine, the counts of Foix, the counts of Toulouse and the Counts of Barcelona competed for control over the various "pays" of Occitania.


title: Occitania

text: Occitan literature flourished during this time period: in the 12th and 13th centuries, the troubadours invented courtly love ("fin'amor"), and the "Lenga d'Òc" spread throughout European cultivated circles; the terms "Lenga d'Òc, Occitan", and "Occitania" first appeared at the end of the 13th century.


title: Occitania

text: From the 13th to the 17th centuries, the kings of France gradually conquered Occitania. By the end of the 15th century, the nobility and bourgeoisie had started learning French, while the peasantry generally continued to speak Occitan; this process began from the 13th century in the two northernmost regions, northern Limousin and Bourbonnais. In 1539, Francis I issued the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts that imposed the use of French in administration. But despite measures such as this, a strong feeling of national identity against the French occupiers remained as Jean Racine wrote on a trip to Uzès in 1662: "What they call France here is the land beyond the Loire, which to them is a foreign country."


title: Occitania

text: In 1789, the revolutionary committees tried to re-establish the autonomy of the "Midi" regions, using the Occitan language; however, Jacobin power prevented its realization.


title: Occitania

text: The 19th century witnessed a strong revival of the Occitan literature, exemplified by the writer Frédéric Mistral, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1904. But from 1881 onwards, children who spoke Occitan at school were punished in accordance with minister Jules Ferry's recommendations; this led to a deprecation of the language known as "la vergonha" (the shaming). In 1914, fourteen million inhabitants in the region spoke Occitan, but French overtook Occitan in prominence during the 20th century. The situation got worse with the media excluding the use of the "langue d'oc". In spite of this decline, however, the Occitan language is still alive and gaining fresh impetus.


title: Occitania

text: Although not really a colony in a modern sense, there was an Occitan enclave in the County of Tripoli, founded in 1102 by Raymond IV of Toulouse during the Crusades north of Jerusalem. Most people in this county came from Occitania and Italy.


title: Occitania

text: Around the 14th century, some "Provençal" settlements were founded by Valdenses in Southern Italy: the Capitanata area, Basilicate, and Calabria. Most of them were destroyed by the Inquisition during the 16th century, but the Guardia Piemontese managed to keep its language and occitan identity until nowadays.


title: Occitania

text: At the end of the 17th century, Valdenses flying persecution in the Occitan valleys settled in Baden, Hessen, and Wurtemberg (nowadays Germany). The use of Occitan language vanished during the 20th century, but some Occitan placenames are still in use.


title: Occitania

text: In the 19th century, Occitans settled in America. Some Valdense colonies have retained their use of the language into the present day, such as those in Uruguay and in the United States.


title: Occitania

text: The oldest Occitanist association is the Felibritge, founded in 1854. In 1945, after the Second World War, some of the association's members founded a distinct movement, the Institut d'Estudis Occitans (Institute of Occitan Studies).


title: Occitania

text: Some associations adhering to Felibritge and Parlaren claim a Provençal language distinct from Occitan.


title: Occitania

text: Other associations claim distinct "languages d'oc", even if, paradoxically, some of them are grouped together in an Alliance of Oc languages:


title: Occitania

text: On the other hand, some groups claim an Occitan-Roman identity including the Catalan Countries (France-Spain).


title: Occitania

text: In Spain, Aranese political parties alternately run the Conselh Generau d'Aran, the principal institution of government in the Val d'Aran. They also have elected officials in the municipalities of Aran, the Parliament of Catalonia and the Spanish Senate. They are close to Catalan parties with the exception of the localist party Partit Renovador d'Arties-Garòs who has, however, made alliances with Unity of Aran. Unity of Aran (UA-PNA) is a social-democratic and regionalist-autonomist party affiliated to Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSOE-PSC), while Aranese Democratic Convergence (CDA-PNA), currently in power, is a centrist and autonomist party linked to the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia. Esquèrra Republicana Occitana (ÈRO) founded in 2008, Left/Social Democracy and Independence, is a local section of Republican Left of Catalonia. Corròp is a citizen movement born in February 2015 that aims to break with the Aranese bipartisanship and is inspired by the Catalan independence movement Popular Unity Candidacy (CUP), but with a view to Occitania.


title: Occitania

text: In the 2017 Catalan regional election, the electors of the Val d'Aran voted mostly for "constitutionalists," parties which support continued union with Spain.


title: Occitania

text: In France, Occitan political parties and movements (such as the Occitan Nationalist Party, Occitan Party, Freedom !, ...) have had difficulty winning a large audience and getting officials elected. They had never had elected representatives in national or European institutions, or in general councils. However, in the 2010 French regional elections, the Occitan Party, within the framework of the participation of the federation Regions and Peoples with Solidarity to Europe Écologie, elected representatives to five regional councils: Dàvid Grosclaude in Aquitaine., Guilhem Latrubesse in Midi-Pyrénées, Gustau Aliròl in Auvergne, Anne-Marie Hautant and Hervé Guerrera in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. The latter was also elected to the city council of Aix-en-Provence and counselor to the Agglomeration Community of Aix Country. The movement Bastir! ran for the first time in the 2014 municipal elections and won 55 seats. The president of the Occitan Party, Gustave Alirol, is currently also president of the "Regions and Peoples with Solidarity" party and vice-president of the "European Free Alliance," which participates in a group of 50 deputies in the European Parliament.


title: Occitania

text: There are 14 to 16 million inhabitants in Occitania today. According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 native speakers and another million people with some exposure to the language. Native speakers of Occitan are to be found mostly in the older generations. The Institut d'Estudis Occitans (IEO) has been modernizing the Occitan language since 1945, and the Conselh de la Lenga Occitana (CLO) since 1996. Nowadays Occitan is used in the most modern musical and literary styles such as rock 'n roll, folk rock (Lou Dalfin), rap (Fabulous Trobadors), reggae (Massilia Sound System) and heavy metal, detective stories or science-fiction. It is represented on the internet. Association schools ("Calandretas") teach children in Occitan.


title: Occitania

text: The Occitan political movement for self-government has existed since the beginning of the 20th century and particularly since post-war years (Partit Occitan, Partit de la Nacion Occitana, Anaram Au Patac, Iniciativa Per Occitània, Paratge, Bastir! etc.). The movement remains negligible in electoral and political terms. Nevertheless, Regional Elections in 2010 allowed the Partit Occitan to enter the Regional councils of Aquitaine, Auvergne, Midi-Pyrénées, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.


title: Occitania

text: Major demonstrations in Carcassonne (2005 and 2009) and Béziers (2007) and the week-long "Estivada" festivals in Rodez (2006–2010) suggest that there is a revival of Occitan language and culture. However, in France, Occitan is still not recognized as an official language, as the status of French has been constitutionally protected since 1992, and Occitan activists want the French government to adopt Occitan as the second official language for seven regions representing the South of France.


title: Occitania

text: The Occitan language is only recognized as official, protected and promoted in the Val d'Aran (in Spain); in Italy it has the status of a protected language; and in France it only has acceptance in the educational network but without legal recognition.


title: Occitania

text: The "Fédération des langues régionales pour l'enseignement public" calculated the number of students in the Occitan language in October 2005 at 4,326.


title: Occitania

text: According to a 2002 report by the French Ministry of Culture ("Report to Parliament on the use of the French language", 2003), in public schools, "collèges" and "lycées" and private schools: in the academic year 2001–02, 67,549 students had enrolled in classes of or in Occitan.


title: Occitania

text: Despite this precarious social position, Occitan was one of the official languages of the 2006 Turin Winter Olympics.


title: Occitania

text: Romantic composer Gabriel Fauré was born in Pamiers, Ariège in the Pyrenees region of France. Déodat de Séverac, another Romantic music composer, was also born in the region, and, following his schooling in Paris, he returned to Occitania to compose; he sought to incorporate the music indigenous to the area into his compositions.


title: Occitania

text: Occitan cuisine is considered Mediterranean, but has some specific features that separate it from Catalan cuisine or Italian cuisine. Indeed, because of the size of Occitania and the great diversity of landscapes- from the mountaineering of the Pyrenees and the Alps, rivers and lakes, and finally the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast – it can be considered as a highly varied cuisine. Compared to other Mediterranean cuisines, Occitan gastronomy significantly uses basic elements and flavors, such as meat, fish and vegetables, along with the frequent usage of olive oil; elements from Atlantic coast cuisine are also common, such as cheeses, pastes, creams, butters and other high-calorie foods. Well-renowned meals common on the Mediterranean coast include ratatolha (the equivalent of Catalan "samfaina"), alhòli, bolhabaissa (similar to Italian "Brodetto alla Vastese"), pan golçat (bread with olive oil), and salads with mainly olives, rice, corn and wine. Another significant aspect that distinguishes Occitan cuisine from that of its Mediterranean neighbors is the abundant amount of aromatic herbs; some of them are typically Mediterranean, like parsley, rosemary, thyme, oregano or again basil.


title: Occitania

text: Some world-renowned traditional meals are Provençal "ratatolha" (ratatouille), "alhòli" (aioli) and "adauba" (Provençal stew), Niçard "salada nissarda" (Salad Niçoise) and "pan banhat" (Pan-bagnat), Limousin "clafotís" (clafoutis), Auvergnat "aligòt" (aligot), Languedocien "caçolet" (cassoulet), or again Gascon "fetge gras" (foie gras).


title: Occitania

text: Occitania is also home of a great variety of cheeses (like Roquefort, Bleu d'Auvergne, Cabécou, Cantal, Fourme d'Ambert, Laguiole, Pélardon, Saint-Nectaire, Salers), and a great diversity of wines (such as Bordeaux, Rhône wine, Gaillac wine, Saint-Émilion wine, Blanquette de Limoux, Muscat de Rivesaltes, Provence wine, Cahors wine, Jurançon). Alcohols such as Pastis and Marie Brizard or brandies such as Armagnac and Cognac are also produced in the area.


title: House of Oldenburg

text: The House of Oldenburg is a German dynasty with links to Denmark since the 15th century. It has branches that rule or have ruled in Denmark, Iceland, Greece, Norway, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Schleswig, Holstein, and Oldenburg. The current Queen of Denmark, King of Norway and King of the United Kingdom, as well as the former King of Greece, are all patrilineal descendants of the Glücksburg branch of this house.


title: House of Oldenburg

text: The dynasty rose to prominence when Count Christian I of Oldenburg was elected as King of Denmark in 1448, of Norway in 1450 and of Sweden in 1457. The house has occupied the Danish throne ever since.


title: House of Oldenburg

text: Marriages of medieval counts of Oldenburg paved the way for their heirs to become kings of various Scandinavian kingdoms. Through marriage with a descendant of King Valdemar I of Sweden and of King Eric IV of Denmark, a claim to Sweden and Denmark was staked as early as 1350.


title: House of Oldenburg

text: At that time, its competitors were the successors of Margaret I of Denmark. In the 15th century, the Oldenburg heir of that claim married Hedwig of Schauenburg, a descendant of Euphemia of Sweden and Norway and also a descendant of Eric V of Denmark and Abel of Denmark. Since descendants better situated in genealogical charts died out, their son Christian (the abovementioned) became the king of all three kingdoms of the whole Kalmar Union. The House of Mecklenburg was its chief competitor regarding the Northern thrones, and other aspirants included the Duke of Lauenburg. Different Oldenburgine branches have reigned in several countries. The House of Oldenburg was briefly poised to claim the British thrones through the marriage of Queen Anne and Prince George of Denmark and Norway; however, due to the early deaths of all their children, the crown passed to the House of Hanover.


title: Michael Zegen

text: Michael Jonathan Zegen (born February 20, 1979) is an American actor. He is best known for his roles in the television series "Rescue Me" (2004–2011), "Boardwalk Empire" (2011–2014), and "The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel" (2017–present).


title: Michael Zegen

text: Zegen was born to a teacher mother and a lawyer father, and lived in Glen Rock, New Jersey, before moving to nearby Ridgewood when he was five. He has two brothers. He is Jewish. His mother was born in Austria in a displaced persons' camp, and his maternal grandparents were Holocaust survivors from Ukraine and Poland. He attended Ridgewood High School, where he was active in the school's theater program. Zegen is a 2001 graduate of Skidmore College.


title: Michael Zegen

text: His role on "Rescue Me" began as a recurring character in seasons 1–3, playing the nephew of series lead Tommy Gavin (Denis Leary). In seasons 5–6, he was promoted to the main cast when his character began probationary firefighter school to become a firefighter.


title: Michael Zegen

text: In 2010, Zegen was cast as gangster Bugsy Siegel for the second, third, and fifth season of the HBO series, "Boardwalk Empire". In 2011, Zegen, along with James Ransone, was cast in supporting roles in the HBO comedy series "How To Make It In America". In mid-2011, Zegen was cast in a recurring guest role in the second season of the AMC series "The Walking Dead". In 2014 he created the role of Liam off-Broadway in the dark comedy "Bad Jews". Zegan made his Broadway debut in A View from the Bridge in 2015. In 2017, Zegen played Joel Maisel in "The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel". For the role he has won two Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series awards from the Screen Actors Guild. He returned to Broadway in 2021 to star in "Trouble in Mind" by Alice Childress.


title: Brigadier general

text: Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops (four battalions).


title: Brigadier general

text: Brigadier general (Brig. Gen.) is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops (four battalions).


title: Brigadier general

text: In some countries, this rank is given the name of "brigadier", which is usually equivalent to "brigadier general" in the armies of nations that use the rank.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a "brigadier general", or simply a "brigadier", would command a brigade in the field.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the first quarter of the 20th century, British and Commonwealth armies used the rank of brigadier general as a temporary appointment, or as an honorary appointment on retirement; in the 1920s this practice changed to the use of brigadier, which was not classed as a general officer.


title: Brigadier general

text: Brigade general is the rank of a brigade commander in countries where the French Revolutionary System's general officer rank designation is used.


title: Brigadier general

text: It is used both brigadier general and major general because it is used for the designated rank of the general officers that the country stipulates as brigade commanders' class by law.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank of brigadier general (with some local variations) is used in the Argentine Air Force. Unlike other armed forces of the World, the rank of "brigadier general" is actually the "highest" rank in the Air Force. This is due to the use of the rank of "brigadier" and its derivatives to designate all general officers in the Air Force: brigadier (lowest general officer); brigadier-major (middle); and brigadier-general (highest). The rank of brigadier general is reserved for the Chief General Staff of the Air Force, as well as the Chief of the Joint General Staff if he should be an Air Force officer.


title: Brigadier general

text: The Argentine Army does not use the rank of brigadier-general, instead using brigade general () which in turn is the lowest general officer before Divisional General () and Lieutenant General ().


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Australian Imperial Force during World War I, the rank of brigadier general was always temporary and held only while the officer was posted to a particular task, typically the command of a brigade. (Until 1915, Australian brigades were commanded by colonels.) When posted elsewhere, the rank would be relinquished and the former rank resumed. This policy prevented an accumulation of high-ranking general officers brought about by the relatively high turnover of brigade commanders. "Brigadier general" was also used as an honorary rank on retirement.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank insignia was like that of the current major general, but without the star/pip. Brigadier generals wore the same gorget patches (a line of gold oak leaf embroidery down the centre), cap badge (crossed sword and baton within a laurel wreath, surmounted by a crown in gold embroidery) and cap visor (two rows of gold oakleaf embroidery) as other generals.


title: Brigadier general

text: As in the United Kingdom, the rank was later replaced by colonel commandant in 1922 and brigadier in 1928. However, those holding the rank of brigadier general continued to do so throughout the inter-war period, until the last of them retired or was promoted during the Second World War. A brigadier general was a general officer, but brigadiers were not generals, which is shown by the rank insignia being like that of a colonel, but with an extra (third) star/pip, and a brigadier wore the same gorget patches (scarlet cloth with a line of crimson gimp), cap badge (the Royal Crest in gold embroidery), and cap visor (one row of gold oakleaf embroidery) as a colonel.


title: Brigadier general

text: Prior to 2001, the Bangladesh Army rank was known as brigadier, in conformity with the rank structure of the Commonwealth Nations. In 2001 the Bangladesh Army introduced the rank of brigadier general, however "the grade stayed equivalent to brigadier", and although classified as a "one-star rank", a brigadier general is not considered to be a general officer – the lowest ranking general officer is Major General. Brigadier general is equivalent to commodore of the Bangladesh Navy and air commodore of the Bangladesh Air Force. It is still more popularly called "brigadier".


title: Brigadier general

text: The Belgian Army uses the rank of (French) and (Dutch, 'brigade general'). However, in this small military there are no permanent promotions to this rank, and it is only awarded as a temporary promotion to a full colonel who assumes a post requiring the rank, notably in an international context (e.g. as military attaché in a major embassy).


title: Brigadier general

text: (Brigade general) is the lowest rank amongst general officers of the Brazilian Army; i.e. like in most British Commonwealth counties, the lowest general officer rank is a two-star rank, and a "General de Brigada" wears a two-star insignia. Hence, it is equivalent to the major general rank of many counties. In the Brazilian Air Force, all of the senior ranks include 'Brigadeiro'; the two-star rank is "Brigadeiro" (Brigadier), the three-star rank is "Major-Brigadeiro" (Major-Brigadier), and the four-star rank is "Tenente-Brigadeiro-do-Ar" (Lieutenant-Air-Brigadier).


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Canadian Forces, the rank of brigadier-general (BGen) ( or in French) is a rank for members who wear army or air force uniform, equal to a commodore for those in navy uniform. A brigadier-general is the lowest rank of general officer. A brigadier-general is senior to a colonel or naval captain, and junior to a major-general or rear-admiral.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank title "brigadier-general" is still used notwithstanding that brigades in the army are now commanded by colonels. Until the late 1990s brigades were commanded by brigadier-generals. In the air force context, brigadier-generals used to command air force groups until these bodies were abolished in the late 1990s.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank insignia for a brigadier-general on air force uniforms is a single wide braid on the cuff, as well as a single silver maple leaf beneath crossed sabre and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown, worn on the shoulder straps of the service dress jacket, and on slip-ons on other uniforms. The rank insignia on army uniforms is a gold maple leaf beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown, on the shoulder straps. On the visor of the service cap are two rows of gold oak leaves; the air force wedge cap features silver braid on the edges of the ear flaps. The cap insignia for a general officer is a modified version of the Canadian Forces insignia. Army brigadier-generals wear gorget patches on the collar of the service uniform tunic.


title: Brigadier general

text: Brigadier-generals are initially addressed verbally as "General" and name; thereafter by subordinates as "Sir" or "Ma'am" in English or in French. They are normally entitled to staff cars.


title: Brigadier general

text: Until unification in 1968 of the Royal Canadian Air Force, Canadian Army, and the Royal Canadian Navy, rank structure and insignia followed the British pattern. This system of rank insignia was reinstated in 2014. In army usage, the term "brigadier" was used to denote what is now known as a brigadier-general while the air force used the rank of air commodore.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Chilean Army, is a one-star rank and is the immediately superior two-star rank. While the Chilean Air Force uses for its one-star rank, two-star Air Force officers hold the rank of literally 'air brigade general'.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank of brigadier general is the first general officer rank in the "Fuerzas Militares", and the National Police.


title: Brigadier general

text: France uses the rank of "brigade general" (). The rank contrasts with the French sub-officer rank of . As with all French general officers, a French brigade general is titled "general" without any implication that he is an army general; for instance General Charles de Gaulle never rose higher than brigade general.


title: Brigadier general

text: Until 1793, the rank of ("brigadier of the armies") existed in the French Army, which could be described as a senior colonel or junior brigade commander. The normal brigade command rank was (literally "camp marshal"). When rank insignia were introduced, wore one star and a wore two stars. During the French Revolution, the revolutionaries' drive to rationalise the state led to a change in the system of ranks. The rank of was abolished and the normal brigade command rank, , was replaced by brigade general. The rank of brigade general inherited the two stars of the rank of , explaining the absence since 1793 of a French rank with only one star.


title: Brigadier general

text: Nowadays, a French generally commands a brigade. The rank can also be awarded in an honorary fashion to retiring colonels. The insignia are two stars, worn on the shoulder or at the sleeve of the uniform, depending on the order of dress. Two different kepis are issued: the service kepi sports the two stars, while the formal kepi features a large band of oak leaves (the kepi of a division general has two smaller such bands).


title: Brigadier general

text: Charles de Gaulle held the rank of brigade general. He was given a temporary promotion to this rank in May 1940 as commander of the 4th Armoured Division (). However his initial authority as head of the Free French really came from being the only cabinet member (Under-Secretary of State for National Defence and War) outside occupied France, not from his military rank. As a reminder of his war position, he refused any further promotion.


title: Brigadier general

text: The country is divided into two areas for administrative and operational reasons, and in each area there is an infantry brigade. The two brigade group structure envisages distinct operational areas of responsibility for each of the brigades and is supported in its responsibilities by the Naval Service and Air Corps. Each of the brigade formations and the Air Corps is commanded by a brigadier general, while the Naval Service is commanded by a commodore.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Italian Armed Forces the rank has different denominations. In the Army, the rank for combat arms officers is whilst for the logistics and technical corps is called . The rank is also present in the other armed forces, police corps and other services of Italy, with different denominations, and it is associated with the lowest level within the government top management.


title: Brigadier general

text: Within the Mexican Armed Forces, there exists two grades of brigadier general. The lowest general officer is , with the second lowest being . The general officer rank higher than the two brigadier generals is Divisional general.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Philippines, Brigadier General (Philippine Army Philippine Air Force and Philippine Marines)/ Commodore (Philippine Navy and Philippine Coast Guard)/ Chief Superintendent (Bureau of Fire Protection and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology) / Police Brigadier General "(Chief Superintendent before)" (Philippine National Police)/ Gial De Brigada "(1890-1902)" (Philippine Revolutionary Army) is the lowest rank of generals but already eligible in the promotion to become "Chief of Staff" of the Armed Forces of the Philippines or "PNP Chief" of the Philippine National Police surpassing the Major General and Lieutenant General ranks.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Portuguese Army and Air Force, "brigadeiro-general" is a temporary general rank for the colonels that have to exercise a special command. It is the equivalent of the commodore rank in the Portuguese Navy.


title: Brigadier general

text: The rank was reintroduced in 1999. Before that, simply as "brigadeiro", it existed from 1707 to 1864 and again from 1929 to 1947, not being considered a general rank. From 1947 to 1999, "brigadeiro" become the two-star general rank in the Portuguese Army. As two-star rank, it was substituted by the rank of major-general in 1999.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Spanish Army, Spanish Air Force, and Spanish Marine Infantry (, a branch of the ) is the lowest rank of general officers. Its equivalent in the Navy () is .


title: Brigadier general

text: In the Turkish Army and the Turkish Air Force, the equivalent rank is (the Turkish Navy equivalent is ). The name is derived from , the Turkish word for a brigade. Both and - as military terms may owe their origins to the older Turkish word , meaning horsetail, which was used as a symbol of authority and rank in Ottoman and pre-Ottoman times.


title: Brigadier general

text: Brigadier-general was formerly a rank or appointment in the British Army and Royal Marines, and briefly in the Royal Air Force. The appointment was abolished in the Army and the Marines in 1921; the equivalent rank today is Brigadier.


title: Brigadier general

text: In the United States Army, United States Air Force, United States Marine Corps, and United States Space Force, a brigadier general is a one-star general officer. It is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral (lower half) in the other uniformed services.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Kathleen Mansfield Murry (née Beauchamp; 14 October 1888 – 9 January 1923) was a New Zealand writer, essayist and journalist, widely considered one of the most influential and important authors of the modernist movement. Her works are celebrated across the world, and have been published in 25 languages.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Born and raised in a house on Tinakori Road in the Wellington suburb of Thorndon, Mansfield was the third child in the Beauchamp family. After being raised by her parents and her beloved grandmother, she began school in Karori with her sisters before attending Wellington Girls' College. The Beauchamp girls later switched to the elite Fitzherbert Terrace School, where Mansfield became friends with Maata Mahupuku, who became a muse for early work and with whom she is believed to have had a passionate relationship.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield wrote short stories and poetry under a variation of her own name, Katherine Mansfield, which explored anxiety, sexuality and existentialism alongside a developing New Zealand identity. When she was 19, she left New Zealand and settled in England, where she became a friend of D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, Lady Ottoline Morrell and others in the orbit of the Bloomsbury Group. Mansfield was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis in 1917, and she died in France aged 34.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Kathleen Mansfield Beauchamp was born in 1888 into a socially prominent Wellington family in Thorndon. Her grandfather Arthur Beauchamp briefly represented the electorate in parliament. Her father Harold Beauchamp became the chairman of the Bank of New Zealand and was knighted in 1923. Her mother was Annie Burnell Beauchamp (née Dyer), whose brother married the daughter of Richard Seddon. Her extended family included the author Countess Elizabeth von Arnim, and her great-granduncle was Victorian artist Charles Robert Leslie.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield had two elder sisters, a younger sister and a younger brother. In 1893, for health reasons, the Beauchamp family moved from Thorndon to the country suburb of Karori, where Mansfield spent the happiest years of her childhood. She used some of those memories as an inspiration for the short story "Prelude".


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: The family returned to Wellington in 1898. Mansfield's first printed stories appeared in the "High School Reporter" and the Wellington Girls' High School magazine in 1898 and 1899. Her first formally published story "His Little Friend" appeared the following year in a society magazine, "New Zealand Graphic and Ladies Journal".


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: She wrote in her journals of feeling alienated in New Zealand, and of how she had become disillusioned because of the repression of the Māori people. Māori characters often are portrayed in a sympathetic or positive light in her later stories, such as "How Pearl Button Was Kidnapped".


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: In 1902 Mansfield became enamoured of Arnold Trowell, a cellist, but her feelings were for the most part not reciprocated. Mansfield was herself an accomplished cellist, having received lessons from Trowell's father.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: She moved to London in 1903, where she attended Queen's College with her sisters. Mansfield recommenced playing the cello, an occupation that she believed she would take up professionally, but she began contributing to the college newspaper with such dedication that she eventually became its editor. She was particularly interested in the works of the French Symbolists and Oscar Wilde, and she was appreciated among her peers for her vivacious, charismatic approach to life and work.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield met fellow student Ida Baker at the college, and they became lifelong friends. They both adopted their mother's maiden names for professional purposes, and Baker became known as LM or Lesley Moore, adopting the name of Lesley in honour of Mansfield's younger brother Leslie.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield travelled in Continental Europe between 1903 and 1906, staying mainly in Belgium and Germany. After finishing her schooling in England she returned to New Zealand, and only then began in earnest to write short stories. She had several works published in the "Native Companion" (Australia), her first paid writing work, and by this time she had her heart set on becoming a professional writer. This was also the first occasion on which she used the pseudonym K. Mansfield. She rapidly grew weary of the provincial New Zealand lifestyle and of her family, and two years later, headed back to London. Her father sent her an annual allowance of 100 pounds for the rest of her life. In later years, she expressed both admiration and disdain for New Zealand in her journals, but she never was able to return there because of her tuberculosis.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield had two romantic relationships with women that are notable for their prominence in her journal entries. She continued to have male lovers and attempted to repress her feelings at certain times. Her first same-sex romantic relationship was with Maata Mahupuku (sometimes known as Martha Grace), a wealthy young Māori woman whom she had first met at Miss Swainson's school in Wellington and again in London in 1906. In June 1907, she wrote:"I want Maata—I want her as I have had her—terribly. This is unclean I know but true."She often referred to Maata as Carlotta. She wrote about Maata in several short stories. Maata married in 1907, but it is claimed that she sent money to Mansfield in London. The second relationship, with Edith Kathleen Bendall, took place from 1906 to 1908. Mansfield professed her adoration for her in her journals.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: After having returned to London in 1908, Mansfield quickly fell into a bohemian way of life. She published one story and one poem during her first 15 months there. Mansfield sought out the Trowell family for companionship, and while Arnold was involved with another woman, Mansfield embarked on a passionate affair with his brother Garnet. By early 1909, she had become pregnant by Garnet, but Trowell's parents disapproved of the relationship, and the two broke up. She then hastily entered into a marriage with George Bowden, a teacher of singing 11 years her senior; they were married on 2 March, but she left him the same evening before the marriage could be consummated.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: After Mansfield had a brief reunion with Garnet, Mansfield's mother Annie Beauchamp arrived in 1909. She blamed the breakdown of the marriage to Bowden on a lesbian relationship between Mansfield and Baker, and she quickly had her daughter dispatched to the spa town of Bad Wörishofen in Bavaria, where Mansfield miscarried. It is not known whether her mother knew of this miscarriage when she left shortly after arriving in Germany, but she cut Mansfield out of her will.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield's time in Bavaria had a significant effect on her literary outlook. In particular, she was introduced to the works of Anton Chekhov. Some biographers accuse her of plagiarizing Chekhov with one of her early short stories. She returned to London in January 1910. She then published more than a dozen articles in Alfred Richard Orage's socialist magazine "The New Age" and became a friend and lover of Beatrice Hastings, who lived with Orage. Her experiences of Germany formed the foundation of her first published collection "In a German Pension" (1911), which she later described as "immature".


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: In 1910, Mansfield submitted a lightweight story to "Rhythm", a new avant-garde magazine. The piece was rejected by the magazine's editor John Middleton Murry, who requested something darker. Mansfield responded with a tale of murder and mental illness titled "The Woman at the Store". Mansfield was inspired at this time by Fauvism.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield and Murry began a relationship in 1911 that culminated in their marriage in 1918, but she left him in 1911 and again in 1913. The characters Gudrun and Gerald in D. H. Lawrence's "Women in Love" are based on Mansfield and Murry.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Charles Granville (sometimes known as Stephen Swift), the publisher of "Rhythm", absconded to Europe in October 1912 and left Murry responsible for the debts the magazine had accumulated. Mansfield pledged her father's allowance toward the magazine, but it was discontinued, being reorganised as "The Blue Review" in 1913 and folding after three issues. Mansfield and Murry were persuaded by their friend Gilbert Cannan to rent a cottage next to his windmill in Cholesbury, Buckinghamshire in 1913 in an attempt to alleviate Mansfield's ill health. The couple moved to Paris in January the following year with the hope that a change of setting would make writing easier for both of them. Mansfield wrote only one story during her time there, "Something Childish But Very Natural", then Murry was recalled to London to declare bankruptcy.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield had a brief affair with the French writer Francis Carco in 1914. Her visit to him in Paris in February 1915 is retold in her story "An Indiscreet Journey".


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield's life and work were changed by the death of her younger brother Leslie Beauchamp, known as Chummie to his family. In October 1915, he was killed during a grenade training drill while serving with the British Expeditionary Force in Ypres Salient, Belgium, aged 21. She began to take refuge in nostalgic reminiscences of their childhood in New Zealand. In a poem describing a dream she had shortly after his death, she wrote:


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: At the beginning of 1917, Mansfield and Murry separated, but he continued to visit her at her apartment. Ida Baker, whom Mansfield often called, with a mixture of affection and disdain, her "wife", moved in with her shortly afterwards. Mansfield entered into her most prolific period of writing after 1916, which began with several stories, including "Mr Reginald Peacock's Day" and "A Dill Pickle", being published in "The New Age". Virginia Woolf and her husband Leonard, who had recently set up the Hogarth Press, approached her for a story, and Mansfield presented to them "Prelude", which she had begun writing in 1915 as "The Aloe". The story depicts a New Zealand family moving house.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: In December 1917, at the age of 29, Mansfield was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis. For part of spring and summer 1918, she joined her friend Anne Estelle Rice, an American painter, at Looe in Cornwall with the hope of recovering. While there, Rice painted a portrait of her dressed in red, a vibrant colour Mansfield liked and suggested herself. The "Portrait of Katherine Mansfield" is now held by the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Rejecting the idea of staying in a sanatorium on the grounds that it would cut her off from writing, she moved abroad to avoid the English winter. She stayed at a half-deserted, cold hotel in Bandol, France, where she became depressed but continued to produce stories, including "Je ne parle pas français". "Bliss", the story that lent its name to her second collection of stories in 1920, was also published in 1918. Her health continued to deteriorate and she had her first lung haemorrhage in March.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: By April, Mansfield's divorce from Bowden had been finalised, and she and Murry married, only to part again two weeks later. They came together again, however, and in March 1919 Murry became editor of "The Athenaeum", a magazine for which Mansfield wrote more than 100 book reviews (collected posthumously as "Novels and Novelists"). During the winter of 1918–1919, she and Baker stayed in a villa in San Remo, Italy. Their relationship came under strain during this period; after she wrote to Murry to express her feelings of depression, he stayed over Christmas. Although her relationship with Murry became increasingly distant after 1918 and the two often lived apart, this intervention of his spurred her, and she wrote "The Man Without a Temperament", the story of an ill wife and her long-suffering husband. Mansfield followed "Bliss" (1920), her first collection of short stories, with the collection "The Garden Party and Other Stories", published in 1922.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: In May 1921, Mansfield, accompanied by her friend Ida Baker, travelled to Switzerland to investigate the tuberculosis treatment of the Swiss bacteriologist Henri Spahlinge. From June 1921, Murry joined her, and they rented the Chalet des Sapins in the Montana region (now Crans-Montana) until January 1922. Baker rented separate accommodation in Montana village and worked at a clinic there. The Chalet des Sapins was only a "1/2 an hours scramble away" from the Chalet Soleil at Randogne, the home of Mansfield's first cousin once removed, the Australian-born writer Elizabeth von Arnim, who visited Mansfield and Murry often during this period. Von Arnim was the first cousin of Mansfield's father. They got on well, although Mansfield considered her wealthier cousin—who had in 1919 separated from her second husband Frank Russell, the elder brother of Bertrand Russell—to be rather patronising. It was a highly productive period of Mansfield's writing, for she felt she did not have much time left. "At the Bay", "The Doll's House", "The Garden Party" and "A Cup of Tea" were written in Switzerland.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield spent her last years seeking increasingly unorthodox cures for her tuberculosis. In February 1922, she went to Paris to have a controversial X-ray treatment from the Russian physician Ivan Manoukhin. The treatment was expensive and caused unpleasant side effects without improving her condition.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: From 4 June to 16 August 1922 Mansfield and Murry returned to Switzerland, living in a hotel in Randogne. Mansfield finished "The Canary", the last short story she completed, on 7 July 1922. She wrote her will at the hotel on 14 August 1922. They went to London for six weeks before Mansfield, along with Ida Baker, moved to Fontainebleau, France, on 16 October 1922.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: At Fontainebleau, Mansfield lived at G. I. Gurdjieff's Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man, where she was put under the care of Olgivanna Lazovitch Hinzenburg (who later married Frank Lloyd Wright). As a guest rather than a pupil of Gurdjieff, Mansfield was not required to take part in the rigorous routine of the institute, but she spent much of her time there with her mentor Alfred Richard Orage, and her last letters inform Murry of her attempts to apply some of Gurdjieff's teachings to her own life.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield suffered a fatal pulmonary haemorrhage on 9 January 1923, after running up a flight of stairs. She died within the hour, and was buried at Cimetiere d'Avon, Avon, near Fontainebleau. Because Murry forgot to pay for her funeral expenses, she initially was buried in a pauper's grave; when matters were rectified, her casket was moved to its current resting place.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield was a prolific writer in the final years of her life. Much of her work remained unpublished at her death, and Murry took on the task of editing and publishing it in two additional volumes of short stories ("The Dove's Nest" in 1923, and "Something Childish" in 1924); a volume of poems; "The Aloe"; "Novels and Novelists"; and collections of her letters and journals.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: The following high schools in New Zealand have a house named after Mansfield: Whangarei Girls' High School; Rangitoto College, Westlake Girls' High School, and Macleans College in Auckland; Tauranga Girls' College; Wellington Girls' College; Rangiora High School in North Canterbury, New Zealand; Avonside Girls' High School in Christchurch; and Southland Girls' High School in Invercargill. She has also been honoured at Karori Normal School in Wellington, which has a stone monument dedicated to her with a plaque commemorating her work and her time at the school, and at Samuel Marsden Collegiate School (previously Fitzherbert Terrace School) with a painting, and an award in her name.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Her birthplace in Thorndon has been preserved as the Katherine Mansfield House and Garden, and the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Park in Fitzherbert Terrace is dedicated to her.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: A street in Menton, France, where she lived and wrote, is named after her. An award, the "Katherine Mansfield Menton Fellowship" is offered annually to enable a New Zealand writer to work at her former home, the Villa Isola Bella. New Zealand's pre-eminent short story competition is named in her honour.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Mansfield was the subject of a 1973 BBC miniseries "A Picture of Katherine Mansfield", starring Vanessa Redgrave. The six-part series included depictions of Mansfield's life and adaptations of her short stories. In 2011, a television biopic titled "Bliss" was made of her early beginnings as a writer in New Zealand; in this she was played by Kate Elliott.


title: Katherine Mansfield

text: Archives of Katherine Mansfield material are held in the Turnbull Collection of the National Library of New Zealand in Wellington, with other important holdings at the Newberry Library in Chicago, the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas, Austin and the British Library in London. There are smaller holdings at New York Public Library and other public and private collections.


title: Olivier salad

text: Olivier salad () is a traditional salad dish in Russian cuisine, which is also popular in other post-Soviet countries and around the world. In different modern recipes, it is usually made with diced boiled potatoes, carrots, brined dill pickles (or cucumber), green peas, eggs, celeriac, onions, diced boiled chicken or bologna sausage (sometimes ham or hot dogs), and tart apples, with salt, pepper, and mustard added to enhance flavor, dressed with mayonnaise. In many countries, the dish is commonly referred to as Russian salad, in Brazil it is called Maionese, in a few Scandinavian countries (Norway and Denmark) it is called italienisk salat (Italian salad, for the colours of the italian flag are in the salad) and in Dutch it is called huzarensalade (hussars' salad). In former Yugoslavian countries it is called ruska salata (Russian salad).


title: Olivier salad

text: In Russia and other post-Soviet states, as well as in Russophone communities worldwide, the salad has become one of the main dishes on zakuski tables served during New Year's Eve ("Novy God") celebrations.


title: Olivier salad

text: The original version of the salad was invented in the 1860s by a cook of Belgian origin, Lucien Olivier, the chef of the Hermitage, one of Moscow's most celebrated restaurants. Olivier's salad quickly became immensely popular with Hermitage regulars, and became the restaurant's signature dish.


title: Olivier salad

text: At the turn of the 20th century, one of Olivier's sous-chefs, Ivan Ivanov, attempted to steal the recipe. While preparing the dressing one evening in solitude, as was his custom, Olivier was suddenly called away. Taking advantage of the opportunity, Ivanov sneaked into Olivier's private kitchen and observed his "mise en place", which allowed him to make reasonable assumptions about the recipe of Olivier's famed dressing. Ivanov then left Olivier's employ and went to work as a chef for Moskva, a somewhat inferior restaurant, where he began to serve a suspiciously similar salad under the name "metropolitan salad" (). It was reported by the gourmands of the time, however, that the dressing on the "Stolichny" salad was of a lower quality than Olivier's, meaning that it was "missing something."


title: Olivier salad

text: Later, Ivanov sold the recipe for the salad to various publishing houses, which further contributed to its popularization. Due to the closure of the Hermitage restaurant in 1905, and the Olivier family's subsequent departure from Russia, the salad could now be referred to as "Olivier."


title: Olivier salad

text: One of the first printed recipes for Olivier salad, by Aleksandrova, appearing in 1894, called for half a hazel grouse, two potatoes, one small cucumber (or a large cornichon), 3–4 lettuce leaves, 3 large crayfish tails, 1/4 cup cubed aspic, 1 teaspoon of capers, 3–5 olives, and 1 tablespoon Provençal dressing (mayonnaise).


title: Olivier salad

text: As often happens with gourmet recipes which become popular, the ingredients which were rare, expensive, seasonal, or difficult to prepare were gradually replaced with cheaper and more readily available foods.


title: Olivier salad

text: The earliest published recipe known to date appeared in the Russian magazine "Наша пища" ("Nasha pishcha", "Our Food") No. 6 (31 March 1894). This magazine, published from 1891 to 1896 and edited by M. Ignatiev, stated that the original recipe contained "mogul sauce" or "kabul sauce" (similar to Worcestershire sauce), manufactured by John Burgess & Son (the brand he reputedly used) and Crosse & Blackwell.


title: Olivier salad

text: The book "Руководство к изучению основ кулинарного искусства" ("Rukovodstvo k izucheniyu osnov kulinarnogo iskusstva", "Guide to the Fundamentals of Culinary Arts") (1897) by P. Aleksandrova gave a recipe containing grouse, crayfish, potatoes, cucumber, lettuce, aspic, capers, olives and mayonnaise. The author wrote that veal, partridge or chicken could be substituted but the authentic recipe contained grouse.


title: Olivier salad

text: In post-revolutionary Russia, cheaper ingredients were substituted for the originals: grouse was replaced by chicken or sausage, crayfish by hard-boiled egg, cucumbers, olives and capers by pickled cucumbers and green peas.


title: Olivier salad

text: Earlier, it always included cold meat such as ham or veal tongue, or fish. The mid-20th century restaurant version involved not just vegetables, but also pickled tongue, sausage, lobster meat, truffles, "etc." garnished with capers, anchovy fillets, "etc." Some versions molded it in aspic.


title: Olivier salad

text: In modern usage, it is usually boiled diced vegetables bound in mayonnaise, with Doktorskaya-type sausage. The most common alternative version, where the sausage is replaced with boiled or smoked chicken, is called "Stolichny salad", after Ivanov's version.


title: Olivier salad

text: A multitude of other versions, named, unnamed, and even trademarked, exist, but only Olivier and Stolichny salad have entered the common vernacular of post-Soviet states.


title: Olivier salad

text: Today's popular version of Olivier salad—containing boiled potatoes, dill pickles, peas, eggs, carrots, and boiled beef/chicken or bologna, dressed with mayonnaise—is a version of Ivanov's Stolichny salad, and only faintly resembles Olivier's original creation. This version was a staple of any Soviet holiday dinner, especially of a Novy God (New Year's Eve) dinner (to the extent that its presence was considered on a par with Soviet Champagne or mandarin oranges), due to availability of components in winter. Even though more exotic foods are widely available in Russia now, its popularity has hardly diminished: this salad was and maybe still is the most traditional dish for the home New Year celebration for Russian people.


title: Olivier salad

text: Festive Russian and post-Soviet states' homemade versions are traditionally at the cook's whim. While some of the ingredients are considered to be basic and essential, others are either favoured or dismissed as a threat to supposed authenticity.


title: Olivier salad

text: European cafes and delicatessens often provide an entire range of potato salads. Additionally, cafeterias, convenience stores, and truck stops sell a number of sub-par factory packaged or locally made versions, mostly extremely simple, using basic ingredients with cheap mayonnaise-like dressing.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Serbia Olivier salad is called "russian salad" and is very common on the New Year and Christmas table.


title: Olivier salad

text: The salad is widely popular as руска салата ("ruska salata") in Bulgaria, Serbia, and North Macedonia, and "sallatë ruse" in Albania. The Bulgarian version of the salad usually consists of potatoes, carrots, peas, pickles and some sort of salami or ham. In Bosnia and Herzegovina both the "ruska salata" and "francuska salata" (which is essentially Russian salad prepared without meat) are very popular, especially during holidays.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Croatia and Slovenia it is typically prepared without meat and potatoes, and is usually called "francuska salata" in Croatian and "francoska solata" in Slovene, both meaning "French salad".


title: Olivier salad

text: The Romanian variant, called salată de boeuf ("beef salad"), is considered a traditional dish. It is a combination of finely chopped beef (or chicken) and root vegetables, folded in mayonnaise and finished with murături, traditional Romanian mixed pickles. It can also be made vegetarian.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Turkey it is known as "Rus salatası" ("Russian Salad"). The Turkish version consists of boiled and sliced carrots and potatoes, sliced cucumber pickles, boiled peas and mayonnaise and is sometimes decorated with boiled and sliced eggs, black olives and beet root pickles. It is served as meze and is used as a filling for some sandwiches and kumpir (jacket potato). Another Turkish name for Olivier salad is "Amerikan salatası" ("American salad"), a euphemistic misnomer originating from the Cold War period.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Slovakia it is called "zemiakový šalát" ("potato salad"). There are several versions; however, it typically consists of boiled and cubed vegetables (potatoes, carrots), finely chopped onions and pickles in a mayonnaise dressing, often with diced hard-boiled eggs and canned green peas. It is seasoned with salt, black pepper and mustard. Some fluid from the pickles may also be added.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Czech it is called simply "bramborový salát" ("potato salad"). It consists of boiled and cubed vegetables (potatoes, carrots, parsley and celery root), finely chopped onions and pickles in a mayonnaise dressing, often with diced hard-boiled eggs, some kind of soft salami and canned green peas. It is the side-dish of choice to go with schnitzel or breaded carp, staple Christmas meals in the Czech Republic.


title: Olivier salad

text: Polish "sałatka jarzynowa" or "sałatka warzywna" ("vegetable salad", often simply called "sałatka") is vegetarian, consisting of peas, hard boiled eggs, and the mirepoix, always cut into small cubes, seasoned with mayonnaise, salt, pepper. Recipes usually vary by region (tart apples or pickles can be added) and even by household, sometimes even adding meat (e.g. ham). One such notable exception is "szałot" (), a Silesian variety which may include not only boiled potatoes, carrots, peas and boiled eggs, but also bacon, sausages or pickled herring. Such salads are often served on family celebrations, in particular on Christmas Eve.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Hungary the meatless version is called "Franica saláta" (French Salad)." Versions with meat added are called ""Orosz hússaláta"" (Russian meat salad). With or without meat, it is a popular food all year round.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Greece it can be found on almost any restaurant's menu and is called ρώσικη σαλάτα ("rossiki salata"); it usually contains no meat. "Ensaladilla rusa" ("Russian little salad") is widely consumed in Spain and it is served as a tapa in many bars. It typically consists of minced boiled potato, minced boiled carrots, canned tuna, minced boiled eggs, peas, and mayonnaise. In Italy, "Insalata russa" has the same ingredients. A similar version is also popular in Portugal, where it is called "salada russa". It is usually served either as a standalone dish or as a garnish to fish dishes, particularly fish fillets.


title: Olivier salad

text: In Norway, Iceland and Denmark it is called "russisk salat", and contains carrots and green peas in mayonnaise dressing. It may also include small shrimp. Often the salad is paired with smoked meat on bread. A similar but distinct salad known as "" is also available in Scandinavian countries, consisting of shredded cabbage and carrots in a mayonnaise dressing. The two salads, "russisk salat" and "italiensk salat", are often confused. In Finland, the regional salad replaces potatoes with spaghetti. In the Netherlands there is a similar salad called Huzarensalade ("Hussar Salad"), but this salad already existed in the 1840s. Its name probably derives from the Dutch hussar regiments, and refers to the original ingredient of horsemeat.


title: Olivier salad

text: Olivier salad () is popular in Iran, where it is usually made with potatoes, eggs, Persian pickled cucumbers, carrots, chicken, peas and mayonnaise, and is frequently a sandwich filler.


title: Olivier salad

text: It is a popular salad in Vietnam, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India as well, where it is usually made with potatoes, peas, apples or pineapples, and mayonnaise and is frequently used as a side dish in cafes. Another version of Russian salad is also very popular in Pakistan which bears no resemblance to Olivier salad and instead is a cabbage and apple slaw.


title: Olivier salad

text: Japanese potato salad (potesara, ポテサラ), is often said to be a yoshoku version of the Olivier salad, differing in a semi-mashed consistency of the potato, chopped ham as a main meat ingredient (instead of traditional poultry) and a liberal use of rice vinegar and karashi mustard in its dressing.


title: Olivier salad

text: Olivier salad is believed to have been introduced as a "Capital salad" or "Niislel salad" in Mongolia during the Soviet period. It usually consists of minced ham and carrots, minced boiled eggs, minced boiled carrots, and potatoes dressed with mayonnaise. It is widely popular amongst Mongolians, especially during the festive seasons.


title: Olivier salad

text: The dish is also very popular in many Latin American countries where it is called "ensalada rusa" and has been reduced to its minimum: minced boiled potatoes and carrots, green beans and abundant mayonnaise-based dressing. In Argentina it is usually served on its own as a first course, or with a very thinly sliced beef wrapping called matambre, in a dish called "matambre con rusa". Argentinians of Eastern European Jewish origin may make the salad with tuna. In Peru, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Argentina it is a traditional Christmas side dish. In Haiti, “salad russe” is made of diced boiled vegetables including beets, carrots, potatoes and sometimes corn, mixed with mayonnaise and spices. It is often served as a side dish.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Hyperkalemia is an elevated level of potassium (K) in the blood. Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0mmol/L (3.5 and 5.0mEq/L) with levels above 5.5mmol/L defined as hyperkalemia. Typically hyperkalemia does not cause symptoms. Occasionally when severe it can cause palpitations, muscle pain, muscle weakness, or numbness. Hyperkalemia can cause an abnormal heart rhythm which can result in cardiac arrest and death.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Common causes of hyperkalemia include kidney failure, hypoaldosteronism, and rhabdomyolysis. A number of medications can also cause high blood potassium including spironolactone, NSAIDs, and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. The severity is divided into mild (5.5–5.9mmol/L), moderate (6.0–6.4mmol/L), and severe (>6.5mmol/L). High levels can be detected on an electrocardiogram (ECG). Pseudohyperkalemia, due to breakdown of cells during or after taking the blood sample, should be ruled out.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Initial treatment in those with ECG changes is salts, such as calcium gluconate or calcium chloride. Other medications used to rapidly reduce blood potassium levels include insulin with dextrose, salbutamol, and sodium bicarbonate. Medications that might worsen the condition should be stopped and a low potassium diet should be started. Measures to remove potassium from the body include diuretics such as furosemide, potassium-binders such as polystyrene sulfonate and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate, and hemodialysis. Hemodialysis is the most effective method.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Hyperkalemia is rare among those who are otherwise healthy. Among those who are hospitalized, rates are between 1% and 2.5%. It is associated with an increased mortality, whether due to hyperkalaemia itself or as a marker of severe illness, especially in those without chronic kidney disease. The word "hyperkalemia" comes from "hyper-" 'high' + "kalium" 'potassium' + "-emia" 'blood condition'.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: The symptoms of an elevated potassium level are generally few and nonspecific. Nonspecific symptoms may include feeling tired, numbness and weakness. Occasionally palpitations and shortness of breath may occur. Hyperventilation may indicate a compensatory response to metabolic acidosis, which is one of the possible causes of hyperkalemia. Often, however, the problem is detected during screening blood tests for a medical disorder, or after hospitalization for complications such as cardiac arrhythmia or sudden cardiac death. High levels of potassium (> 5.5mmol/L) have been associated with cardiovascular events.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Decreased kidney function is a major cause of hyperkalemia. This is especially pronounced in acute kidney injury where the glomerular filtration rate and tubular flow are markedly decreased, characterized by reduced urine output. This can lead to a dramatically elevated potassium in conditions of increased cell breakdown as the potassium is released from the cells and cannot be eliminated in the kidney. In chronic kidney disease, hyperkalemia occurs as a result of reduced aldosterone responsiveness and reduced sodium and water delivery in distal tubules.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Medications that interfere with urinary excretion by inhibiting the renin–angiotensin system is one of the most common causes of hyperkalemia. Examples of medications that can cause hyperkalemia include ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, non-selective beta blockers, and calcineurin inhibitor immunosuppressants such as ciclosporin and tacrolimus. For potassium-sparing diuretics, such as amiloride and triamterene; both the drugs block epithelial sodium channels in the collecting tubules, thereby preventing potassium excretion into urine. Spironolactone acts by competitively inhibiting the action of aldosterone. NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, or celecoxib inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, leading to reduced production of renin and aldosterone, causing potassium retention. The antibiotic trimethoprim and the antiparasitic medication pentamidine inhibits potassium excretion, which is similar to mechanism of action by amiloride and triamterene.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) deficiency or resistance can also cause hyperkalemia. Primary adrenal insufficiency are: Addison's disease and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (including enzyme deficiencies such as 21α hydroxylase, 17α hydroxylase, 11β hydroxylase, or 3β dehydrogenase).


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Metabolic acidosis can cause hyperkalemia as the elevated hydrogen ions in the cells can displace potassium, causing the potassium ions to leave the cell and enter the bloodstream. However, in respiratory acidosis or organic acidosis such as lactic acidosis, the effect on serum potassium are much less significant although the mechanisms are not completely understood.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Insulin deficiency can cause hyperkalemia as the hormone insulin increases the uptake of potassium into the cells. Hyperglycemia can also contribute to hyperkalemia by causing hyperosmolality in extracellular fluid, increasing water diffusion out of the cells and causes potassium to move alongside water out of the cells also. The co-existence of insulin deficiency, hyperglycemia, and hyperosmolality is often seen in those affected by diabetic ketoacidosis. Apart from diabetic ketoacidosis, there are other causes that reduce insulin levels such as the use of the medication octreotide, and fasting which can also cause hyperkalemia. Increased tissue breakdown such as rhabdomyolysis, burns, or any cause of rapid tissue necrosis, including tumor lysis syndrome can cause the release of intracellular potassium into blood, causing hyperkalemia.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Beta2-adrenergic agonists act on beta-2 receptors to drive potassium into the cells. Therefore, beta blockers can raise potassium levels by blocking beta-2 receptors. However, the rise in potassium levels is not marked unless there are other co-morbidities present. Examples of drugs that can raise the serum potassium are non-selective beta-blockers such as propranolol and labetalol. Beta-1 selective blockers such as metoprolol do not increase serum potassium levels.


title: Hyperkalemia

text: Exercise can cause a release of potassium into bloodstream by increasing the number of potassium channels in the cell membrane. The degree of potassium elevation varies with the degree of exercise, which range from 0.3 meq/L in light exercise to 2 meq/L in heavy exercise, with or without accompanying ECG changes or lactic acidosis. However, peak potassium levels can be reduced by prior physical conditioning and potassium levels are usually reversed several minutes after exercise. High levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline have a protective effect on the cardiac electrophysiology because they bind to beta 2 adrenergic receptors, which, when activated, extracellularly decrease potassium concentration.