title: Fuel

text: The most common type of nuclear fuel used by humans is heavy fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear fission reactor; "nuclear fuel" can refer to the material or to physical objects (for example fuel bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, perhaps mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials.


title: Fuel

text: Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by humans but are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy.


title: Fuel

text: In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of atomic nuclei that can release energy by the absorption of a proton or neutron. In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine to form helium through the proton-proton chain reaction or by the CNO cycle. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once iron-56 or nickel-56 nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. The elements then on use up energy instead of giving off energy when fused. Therefore, fusion stops and the star dies. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (isotope of 2 and 3) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (ITER), inertial confinement (heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods.


title: Fuel

text: Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density. This occurs naturally in liquids and solids. High energy density can also be provided by an internal combustion engine. These engines require clean-burning fuels. The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. Thus, liquids meet the requirements of being both energy-dense and clean-burning. In addition, liquids (and gases) can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, and thus less laborious. As there is a general movement towards a low carbon economy, the use of liquid fuels such as hydrocarbons is coming under scrutiny.


title: Lindsay Sloane

text: Lindsay Sloane Leikin-Rollins (born August 8, 1977) is an American actress. She is known for playing Valerie Birkhead on "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" (1997–99) and Emily in "The Odd Couple" (2015–17). She has also starred in films such as "Bring It On" (2000), "Over Her Dead Body" (2008), "She's Out of My League" (2010), "The Other Guys" (2010), "Horrible Bosses" (2011), and its sequel "Horrible Bosses 2" (2014).


title: Lindsay Sloane

text: Lindsay Sloane Leikin was born on Long Island, New York, the daughter of Renée, a children's librarian, and Joey Leikin, a sales manager. She was raised in a Jewish family.


title: Lindsay Sloane

text: After moving to Los Angeles, Sloane signed with an agent at the age of eight. Her mother once drove her to an audition through the 1992 LA Riots. Her first recurring television role was as Alice Pedermeir on "The Wonder Years" from 1991 to 1993. She played Zoey Miller for seven episodes on the short-lived NBC sitcom "Mr. Rhodes". She later played Valerie Birkhead on "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" from 1997 to 1999, and starred in "Sabrina Down Under", a spinoff movie to the series as a different character, a mermaid named Fin. Sloane joined the casts of the short-lived series "Grosse Pointe" and "The Stones". She auditioned unsuccessfully for many roles in a number of television shows including "Blossom" and "Full House".


title: Lindsay Sloane

text: Sloane also appeared in episodes of "Dharma & Greg", "My So-Called Life", "That '70s Show", "The West Wing", "Entourage", "Greg the Bunny", "How I Met Your Mother", "The League", and "Psych". Sloane was featured in the seventh season of "Weeds", playing Maxeen, a character who hires Silas for a modeling gig and dates Andy. Most recently, she appeared in the main cast of the CBS sitcom "The Odd Couple" as Emily.


title: Lindsay Sloane

text: Her film résumé includes roles in "Bring It On", "Exposed", "The In-Laws", "Nancy Drew", "Sabrina Down Under", "Over Her Dead Body", "She's Out of My League", "The Other Guys" and "The Accidental Husband". She voiced the older sister in "Why, Charlie Brown, Why?". As well as a guest role as Stephanie in "Mr. Sunshine", Sloane also appears in the movie "Horrible Bosses" as Charlie Day's character's fiancée Stacy and in the 2011 movie "A Good Old Fashioned Orgy".


title: Lindsay Sloane

text: In 2004, Sloane married Dar Rollins, an agent for International Creative Management. The couple have two daughters.


title: Alan Smithee

text: Alan Smithee (also Allen Smithee) is an official pseudonym used by film directors who wish to disown a project. Coined in 1968 and used until it was formally discontinued in 2000, it was the sole pseudonym used by members of the Directors Guild of America (DGA) when directors, dissatisfied with the final product, proved to the satisfaction of a guild panel that they had not been able to exercise creative control over a film. The director was also required by guild rules not to discuss the circumstances leading to the movie or even to acknowledge being the project's director.


title: Alan Smithee

text: Before 1968, DGA rules did not permit directors to be credited under a pseudonym. This was intended to prevent producers from forcing them upon directors, which would inhibit the development of their résumés. The guild also required that the director be credited, in support of the auteur theory, which posits that the director is the primary creative force behind a film.


title: Alan Smithee

text: The Smithee pseudonym was created for use on the film "Death of a Gunfighter", released in 1969. During its filming, lead actor Richard Widmark was unhappy with director Robert Totten and arranged to have him replaced by Don Siegel. Siegel later estimated that he had spent 9 to 10 days filming, while Totten had spent 25 days. Each had roughly an equal amount of footage in Siegel's final edit, but Siegel made clear that Widmark had effectively been in charge the entire time. When the film was finished, Siegel did not want to take the credit for it and Totten refused to take credit in his place. The DGA panel hearing the dispute agreed that the film did not represent either director's creative vision.


title: Alan Smithee

text: The original proposal was to credit the fictional "Al Smith", but the name was deemed too common and was already in use within the film industry. The last name was first changed to "Smithe", then "Smithee", which was thought to be distinctive enough to avoid confusion with similar names but without drawing attention to itself. Critics praised the film and its "new" director, with "The New York Times" commenting that the film was "sharply directed by Allen Smithee who has an adroit facility for scanning faces and extracting sharp background detail," and Roger Ebert commenting, "Director Allen Smithee, a name I'm not familiar with, allows his story to unfold naturally."


title: Alan Smithee

text: Following its coinage, the pseudonym "Alan Smithee" was applied retroactively to "Fade In" (also known as "Iron Cowboy"), a film starring Burt Reynolds and directed by Jud Taylor, which was first released before the release of "Death of a Gunfighter". Taylor also requested the pseudonym for "City in Fear" (1980) with David Janssen. Taylor commented on its use when he received the DGA's Robert B. Aldrich Achievement Award in 2003:


title: Alan Smithee

text: The spelling "Alan Smithee" became standard, and the Internet Movie Database lists about two dozen feature films and many more television features and series episodes credited to this name. A persistent urban legend suggests that this particular spelling was chosen because it is an anagram of the phrase "the alias men", but this is apocryphal.


title: Alan Smithee

text: Over the years the name and its purpose became more widely known. Some directors violated the embargo on discussing their use of the pseudonym. In 1997, the film "" was released, in which a man named Alan Smithee (Eric Idle) wishes to disavow a film he directed, but is unable to do so because the only pseudonym he is permitted to use is his own name. The film was directed by Arthur Hiller, who reported to the DGA that producer Joe Eszterhas had interfered with his creative control, and successfully removed his own name from the film, so Alan Smithee was credited instead. The film was a commercial and critical failure, released in only 19 theaters, grossing only $45,779 in the United States with a budget of about $10 million, and Rotten Tomatoes reports an aggregate critical rating of only 8% positive. The film also was nominated for eight Golden Raspberry Awards at the following year's ceremony, and won five, including Worst Picture. The harsh negative publicity that surrounded the film drew unwanted mainstream attention to the pseudonym. Following this, the DGA retired the name; for the film "Supernova" (2000), dissatisfied director Walter Hill was instead credited as "Thomas Lee", and Accidental Love director, David O. Russell, left the product credited to Stephen Greene.


title: Alan Smithee

text: Meanwhile, the name had been used outside of the film industry, and it continues to be used in other media and on film projects not under the purview of the DGA. Although the pseudonym was intended for use by directors, the Internet Movie Database lists several uses as writer credits as well. Variations of the name have also occasionally been used, such as "Alan and Alana Smithy" (screenwriters for the 2011 film "Hidden 3D").


title: Alan Smithee

text: In a few cases, the alias is used for a creative contributor other than the director, shown in boldface.


title: Alan Smithee

text: The following films were credited to their actual directors during their original theatrical presentations. When re-edited for TV, or for other reasons, the Smithee credit was used:


title: Newegg

text: Newegg Commerce, Inc. is an American online retailer of items including computer hardware and consumer electronics. It is based in City of Industry, California. It is majority-owned by Liaison Interactive, a multinational technology company.


title: Newegg

text: The company was founded by Fred Chang, a U.S. immigrant from Taiwan, in 2001. "Newegg" was selected as the company name to signify new hope for e-commerce during a period when e-commerce businesses were struggling to survive.


title: Newegg

text: In 2004, Newegg established Rosewill as a private-label reseller of computing and household products from many manufacturers.


title: Newegg

text: In 2005, Newegg.com was named one of the Internet's Top 10 retailers by "Internet Retailer Magazine", with 2004 sales revenue of just under $1 billion. Newegg.com grew an additional 30% in 2005, bringing annual sales to approximately $1.3 billion. Newegg launched NeweggMall.com in July 2008, Newegg.ca in October 2008, and NeweggBusiness.com in August 2009. In 2009, it was listed as on the Forbes America's Largest Private Companies list.


title: Newegg

text: Chang had been Newegg's chairman and CEO until August 1, 2008, when it was announced he would step down as CEO and chairman while remaining a member of the board of directors and executive committee. He was succeeded by Tally Liu. Chang also retained his position as president of Newegg's Chinese operations.


title: Newegg

text: On September 28, 2009, Newegg Inc filed for an IPO (initial public offering) with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. The filing stated that Newegg has been profitable every year since 2001 and generated sales of $2.1 billion in 2008. The company's largest outside shareholder is New York-based venture-capital firm Insight Venture Partners. The IPO was managed by JP Morgan, Bank of America, Merrill Lynch and Citi. In 2011, the company withdrew its registration for filing for an IPO, saying it would continue to explore alternative options for funding.


title: Newegg

text: It launched Newegg Marketplace in 2010, and exceeded $2.5 billion in revenue that year. The company has more than 1,500 employees.


title: Newegg

text: On June 15, 2017, during London Tech Week, Newegg announced a global expansion plan to serve key parts of Asia Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Middle East. Once complete, the online retailer is expected to reach customers in a total of 50 countries. On November 2, 2017, the company announced key global milestones, including localized payment options, enhanced customer service and a greater product selection for its international customers.


title: Newegg

text: In 2016, Liaison Interactive (), a Chinese technology company, acquired a majority stake in Newegg in an investment deal. In 2020, Newegg entered into a merger agreement with Lianlou Smart Limited (NASDAQ: LLIT), a special-purpose acquisition company, wherein Newegg stockholders became majority owners of LLIT. Following the consummation of the merger, Newegg listed as a publicly traded company on Nasdaq (NASDAQ: NEGG) in May 2021 as Newegg Commerce, Inc.


title: Newegg

text: In November 2016, Newegg announced a new checkout feature that lets Newegg.com customers choose to have their package held for pickup at one of more than 2,500 FedEx Corp. locations, including 1,800 FedEx retail stores.


title: Newegg

text: In January 2017, Indiegogo and Newegg announced a partnership whereby Newegg provides select crowdfunding campaigns with social exposure; guidance on go-to-market and sales strategies; and assistance with order fulfillment, shipping and logistical options to help get their products into customers’ hands quickly and efficiently.


title: Newegg

text: In May 2017, Newegg formally rolled out Newegg Logistics, designed to help B2C and B2B e-commerce sellers and other organizations streamline order fulfillment, shipment and returns.


title: Newegg

text: In October 2017, Newegg unveiled "Newegg Now", a weekly livestream featuring tech commentary and reviews, as well as time-sensitive deals available exclusively during each "Newegg Now" broadcast.


title: Newegg

text: In February 2019, Newegg announced a program called Newegg online work, Employees interested in part-time work are randomly selected to make purchases.


title: Newegg

text: In May 2020, Newegg formally launched a direct-to-consumer (D2C) initiative to help its vendor partners maximize their reach within the Newegg platform.


title: Newegg

text: In June 2020, Newegg introduced the Newegg PC Builder, an online configurator that lets customers configure and source all the components needed to build a custom PC. While the June 2020 release was limited to customers in North America, in August 2020, the company expanded the configurator to the countries it serves in Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America and the Middle East.


title: Newegg

text: In February 2021, Newegg announced a program called Newegg Shuffle, where consumers interested in hot tech devices are chosen at random to make a purchase.


title: Newegg

text: In May 2021, Newegg launched an automotive category offering with a vehicle-specific year/make/model/options navigation interface.


title: Newegg

text: In June 2022, Newegg debuted Gaming PC Finder, a personalization tool to evaluate gaming PC specs, components and performance options.


title: Newegg

text: In July 2022, Newegg launched JustGPU.com, a research and e-commerce site dedicated to graphics cards. The site allows customers to evaluate, review and compare GPU details to consider a purchase.


title: Newegg

text: Newegg offers services to its third-party-logistics (3PL) clients and other e-commerce companies. In April 2020, Newegg announced Newegg Staffing, a staffing agency serving the logistics, manufacturing, clerical and supply chain management industries. In August 2020, the company expanded its in-house staffing agency to the Midwest and East Coast with new locations in Indianapolis, Indiana, and Edison, New Jersey. And in June 2020, Newegg established Newegg Bridge, which provides customer service management and social media monitoring to its 3PL clients.


title: Newegg

text: In March 2010, Newegg sold 300 counterfeit Intel Core i7-920 CPUs. The problem was first exposed by a member of the website HardOCP who posted on the site's forum about receiving the fake CPU. Newegg at first released a statement saying that the processors were "demo units", but later said that they discovered that the processors were actually counterfeit, and that the company was terminating its relationship with one supplier in response. The company offered replacement units to the customers who received counterfeit processors, while Intel stated that they had been made aware of the problem and were investigating as well.


title: Newegg

text: In early 2018, customers in the state of Connecticut were notified that Newegg had not collected state sales tax due on out-of-state purchases in the past three years. Newegg was given a choice of collecting such tax in the future or turning over customer information to the state's Department of Revenue Services, which would require customers to file a sales tax form for the past three years of purchases. Newegg chose to furnish the customer information; as Newegg did not have a physical presence in Connecticut, Newegg believed it did not need to collect state sales tax from the ruling in "Quill Corp. v. North Dakota". Connecticut's Department of Revenue Services later issued tax bills to these customers.


title: Newegg

text: In September 2018, Newegg announced that malicious code had been placed on their servers for over a month, allowing hackers to access customers' credit card information upon check out.


title: Newegg

text: In February 2022, the YouTube channel Gamers Nexus uploaded a video detailing business practices in regard to Newegg's RMA department. The video explains that Newegg shipped a motherboard to Steve Burke of Gamers Nexus, which he returned without opening the box due to him not needing a motherboard anymore. Newegg claimed it was damaged and refused to refund the product. The video has been viewed over 1 million times as of Feb. 15, 2022. After the video was posted, other customers and YouTube channels, such as UFD Tech, came forward with other complaints. This resulted in Newegg issuing an apology and changing its open box RMA policy.


title: Newegg

text: In September 2022, Newegg began offering AM5 motherboards bundled together with DDR4 RAM kits for a discount. This is an incompatible combination, as AM5 motherboards support DDR5 RAM exclusively and are physically incompatible with DDR4. This was reported by Gamers Nexus in October 2022, who accused Newegg of using these combo deals to mislead potentially unwitting customers into buying incompatible hardware in order to offload unwanted inventory.


title: Newegg

text: Newegg has sponsored gaming tournaments for titles including "Counter-Strike", "" and "". Newegg had a monthly case mod contest in 2005 in which contestants submitted pictures, descriptions, and directions describing how to personalize their computers with esoteric appearances and functions.


title: Newegg

text: In March 2019, esports entertainment company Allied Esports named Newegg a founding partner and the official e-commerce partner of the HyperX Esports Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada. In June 2019, Newegg and Allied Esports co-hosted the Triple Crown Royale at the HyperX Esports Arena Las Vegas. Participants competed in three popular titles: Apex Legends, Fortnite and PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds (PUBG). The competition gave select members of the public the opportunity to compete against professional players from Counter Logic Gaming (CLG), including Marksman & Psalm from the CLG Fortnite team, and Emy & GooseBreeder from the CLG CS:GO Red team. In January 2020, Counter Logic Gaming announced an expanded partnership with Newegg as CLG's presenting partner and online technology retail partner for its North American League of Legends Championship Series (LCS) team.


title: Newegg

text: In October 2020, Newegg relaunched its hardware subsidiary ABS to focus on the gaming community. ABS (also known as Advanced Battlestations) offers a full range of gaming PCs for everyone from beginners to advanced video game enthusiasts.


title: Newegg

text: On February 10, 2010, Newegg was sued by three former employees accusing it of numerous labor and business abuses, such as violating "a slew of labor laws, overworking and abusing immigrant workers, and ordering employees to hack into competitors' computer systems". In an official statement denying the claims in the lawsuit, the company stated:


title: Newegg

text: Newegg is aware of the allegations made by two former employees and a former consultant. Newegg has always taken pride in the fairness of our labor and hiring practices and to ethical business practices toward our competitors, vendors and most of all, our valued customers. We have always been fully committed to compliance with all applicable laws and regulations. Accordingly, we strongly deny the assertions made by the individuals filing this lawsuit, and intend to defend ourselves vigorously and thoroughly against claims that have neither merit nor basis in fact.


title: Newegg

text: In January 2013, Newegg won a victory over Soverain Software when the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit overturned the district court ruling in favour of Soverain and invalidated a shopping cart patent by citing prior art from 1984, CompuServe’s Electronic Mall. On January 13th, 2014, the Supreme Court refused Soverain Software's petition for writ of certiorari to rehear a January 2013 decision of the Court of Appeals, effectively ending Soverain's case.


title: Newegg

text: In November 2013, Newegg lost a case in Texas against TQP Development over Newegg's use of https:// protocol mixing SSL and RC4. Whitfield Diffie and Ron Rivest, the inventors of public-key cryptography and RC4 encryption respectively, testified for Newegg.


title: Newegg

text: On July 6, 2015, after 20 months of waiting, Newegg filed an extraordinary petition urging US District Judge Rodney Gilstrap to issue judgment so that they would be able to file an appeal. On July 15, 2015, Gilstrap ruled that Newegg did not infringe on a patent belonging to TQP Development.


title: Date rape drug

text: A date rape drug is any drug that incapacitates another person and renders that person vulnerable to sexual assault, including rape. The substances are associated with date rape because of reported incidents of their use in the context of two people dating, during which the victim is sexually assaulted or raped or suffers other harm. However, substances have also been exploited during retreats, for example ayahuasca retreats. The substances are not exclusively used to perpetrate sexual assault or rape, but are the properties or side-effects of substances normally used for legitimate medical purposes. One of the most common incapacitating agents for date rape is alcohol, administered either surreptitiously or consumed voluntarily, rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent.


title: Date rape drug

text: No comprehensive data exists on the frequency of drug-facilitated sexual assaults involving the use of surreptitious drug administration, due to the report rate of assaults and because rape victims who do report are often either never tested for these drugs, are tested for the wrong ones, or the tests are administered after the drug has been metabolized and left their body.


title: Date rape drug

text: A 1999 study of 1,179 urine specimens from victims of suspected drug-facilitated sexual assaults in 49 American states found six (0.5%) positive for Rohypnol, 97 (8%) positive for other benzodiazepines, 48 (4.1%) positive for GHB, 451 (38%) positive for alcohol and 468 (40%) negative for any of the drugs searched for.


title: Date rape drug

text: A similar study of 2,003 urine samples of victims of suspected drug-facilitated sexual assaults found less than 2% tested positive for Rohypnol or GHB. The samples used in these studies could only be verified as having been submitted within a 72-hour time frame or a 48-hour time frame.


title: Date rape drug

text: A three-year study in the UK detected sedatives or disinhibiting drugs that victims said they had not voluntarily taken in the urine of two percent of suspected drug-facilitated sexual assault victims. In 65% of the 1,014 cases included in this study, testing could not be conducted within a time frame that would allow detection of GHB. A 2009 Australian study found that of 97 instances of patients admitted to hospital believing their drinks might have been spiked, illicit drugs were detected in 28% of samples, and nine cases were identified as "plausible drink spiking cases". This study defined a "plausible drink spiking case" in such a way that cases where (a) patients believed that their drink had been spiked, and (b) lab tests showed agents that patients said they had not ingested would still be ruled out as plausible if the patient did not also (c) exhibit "signs and symptoms" that were considered "consistent with agents detected by laboratory screening."


title: Date rape drug

text: In slang, a Mickey Finn (or simply a Mickey) is a drink laced with a psychoactive drug or incapacitating agent (especially chloral hydrate) given to someone without their knowledge, with intent to incapacitate them. Serving someone a "Mickey" is most commonly referred to as "slipping someone a mickey". Drink spiking is common practice by predators at drinking establishments who often lace alcoholic drinks with sedative drugs.


title: Date rape drug

text: Multiple reports of needle spiking were reported by young women in the United Kingdom from 2021 onwards.


title: Date rape drug

text: On 27 October 2021, the Garda Síochána (Irish police) began an investigation after a woman was spiked with a needle in a Dublin nightclub.


title: Date rape drug

text: Alcohol, consumed voluntarily, is the most commonly used drug involved in sexual assaults. Since the mid-1990s, the media and researchers have also documented an increased use of drugs such as flunitrazepam and ketamine to facilitate sexual assaults in the context of dating. Other drugs that have been used include hypnotics such as zopiclone, methaqualone and the widely available zolpidem (Ambien), sedatives such as neuroleptics (anti-psychotics), chloral hydrate and some histamine H1 antagonists, common recreational drugs such as ethanol, cocaine, and less common anticholinergics, barbiturates, opioids, PCP, scopolamine, nasal spray ingredient oxymetazoline, and certain GABAergics like GHB. Also gamma-Butyrolactone is often referred to be used in sexual assaults.


title: Date rape drug

text: Researchers agree that the drug most commonly involved in drug-facilitated sexual assaults is alcohol, which the victim has consumed voluntarily in most cases. In most jurisdictions, alcohol is legal and readily available and is used in the majority of sexual assaults. Many perpetrators use alcohol because their victims often drink it willingly, and can be encouraged to drink enough to lose inhibitions or consciousness. Sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most jurisdictions and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience", assaulting a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.


title: Date rape drug

text: Alcohol consumption is known to have effects on sexual behavior and aggression. During social interactions, alcohol consumption causes more biased appraisal of a partner’s sexual motives while impairing communication about and enhancing misperception of sexual intentions, effects exacerbated by peer influence about how to behave when drinking.


title: Date rape drug

text: The effects of alcohol at the point of forced sex commonly include an impaired ability to rectify misperceptions and a diminished ability to resist sexual advances and aggressive sexual behavior.


title: Date rape drug

text: "The Blade" released a special report, "The Making of an Epidemic," criticizing a study conducted in the 1990s that concluded that 55% of rape victims had been intoxicated. According to "The Blade", the study specifically ignored an Ohio statute that excluded "situations where a person plies his intended partner with drink or drugs in hopes that lowered inhibition might lead to a liaison." The author of the study later admitted that the wording of the survey had been ambiguous.


title: Date rape drug

text: The increase of sexual assaults on college campuses has been attributed to the social expectations of students to participate in alcohol consumption; social norm dictates that students drink heavily and engage in casual sex.


title: Date rape drug

text: Zolpidem (Ambien) is one of the most common date-rape drugs according to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration.


title: Date rape drug

text: Benzodiazepines (tranquilizers), such as Valium, Librium, Klonopin, Xanax, and Ativan, are prescribed to treat anxiety, panic attacks, insomnia, and several other conditions, and are also frequently used recreationally. Benzodiazepines are often used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults, with the most notorious being flunitrazepam (chemical name) or Rohypnol (proprietary or brand name), also known as "roofies," "rope," and "roaches."


title: Date rape drug

text: The benzodiazepines midazolam and temazepam were the two most common benzodiazepines utilized for date rape.


title: Date rape drug

text: Benzodiazepines can be detected in urine through the use of drug tests administered by medical officials or sold at pharmacies and performed at home. Most tests will detect benzodiazepines for a maximum of 72 hours after it was taken. Most general benzodiazepine detection tests will not detect Rohypnol: the drug requires a test specifically designed for that purpose. One new process can detect a 2 mg dose of Rohypnol for up to 28 days post-ingestion. Other tests for Rohypnol include blood and hair tests. Because the most commonly used drug tests often yield false negatives for Rohypnol, experts recommend use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis.


title: Date rape drug

text: Rohypnol (Flunitrazepam) pills are typically small and dissolve readily into drinks without significantly affecting their taste or color, allowing the pills to be easily administered surreptitiously to victims.


title: Date rape drug

text: In one 2002 survey of 53 women who used Rohypnol recreationally, 10% said they were physically or sexually assaulted while under its influence. If enough of the drug is taken, a person may experience a state of automatism or dissociation. After the drug wears off, users may find themselves unable to remember what happened while under its influence (anterograde amnesia), and feeling woozy, hung-over, confused, dizzy, sluggish and uncoordinated, often with an upset stomach. They may also have some difficulty moving their limbs normally.


title: Date rape drug

text: Rohypnol is believed to be commonly used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults in the United States, the United Kingdom, and throughout Europe, Asia and South America. Although Rohypnol's use in drug-facilitated sexual assaults has been covered extensively in the news media, researchers disagree about how common such use actually is. Law enforcement manuals describe it as one of the drugs most commonly implicated in drug-facilitated sexual assaults. Despite having a long half-life (18–28 hours) an incorrect belief is that Rohypnol is undetectable 12 hours after administration which may result in victims failing to get a blood or urine test the following day.


title: Date rape drug

text: Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a central nervous system depressant. It has no odor and tastes salty, but the taste can be masked when mixed in a drink.


title: Date rape drug

text: GHB is used recreationally to stimulate euphoria, to increase sociability, to promote libido and lower inhibitions. It is sold under names such as Rufies, Liquid E and Liquid X. It is usually taken orally, by the capful or teaspoon.


title: Date rape drug

text: From 1996 to 1999, 22 reports of GHB being used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults were made to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration. A 26-month study of 1,179 urine samples from suspected drug-facilitated sexual assaults across the United States found 4% positive for GHB. The National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC) says that in the United States GHB had surpassed Rohypnol as the substance most commonly used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults, likely because GHB is much more easily available, cheaper and leaves the body more quickly. GHB is only detectable in urine for six to twelve hours after ingestion.


title: Date rape drug

text: MDMA is an empathogen. Although it is not sedating like other date rape drugs, it has been used to facilitate sexual assault. It can increase disinhibition and sexual desire. Often Ecstasy is combined with amphetamines or other drugs.


title: Date rape drug

text: Several devices have, in recent years, been developed to detect the presence of date rape drugs, many designed with discreetness in mind. One, developed by two Tel Aviv University researchers, is a sensor for gamma-hydroxybutyric acid and ketamine, but appears similar to a straw, and sends a text to the user's phone to warn them. In 2022, another "Smart Straw" product was designed by students at the University of Nantes: a non-electronic stainless steel straw including a ring that would change colors in the presence of GHB, Rohypnol, or ketamine. Another, designed by four North Carolina State University students, is a nail polish that changes color in the presence of date rape drugs. Several others have also been designed with these color-changing mechanisms in mind.


title: Date rape drug

text: There were three stories in the media about Rohypnol in 1993, 25 in 1994 and 854 in 1996. In early 1996, "Newsweek" magazine published "Roofies: The date-rape drug" which ended with the line "Don't take your eyes off your drink." That summer, researchers say all major American urban and regional newspapers covered date rape drugs, with headlines such as "Crackdown sought on date rape drug" ("Los Angeles Times"), "Drug zaps memory of rape victims" ("San Francisco Chronicle"). In 1997 and 1998, the date rape drug story received extensive coverage on CNN, ABC's "20/20" and "Primetime Live", as well as "The Oprah Winfrey Show". Women were advised not to drink from punch bowls, not to leave a drink unattended and keeping drinks with them at all times (including when going to a dance or the bathroom, or using the phone), not to try new drinks, not to share drinks, not to drink anything with an unusual taste or appearance, take their own drinks to parties, drink nothing opened by another person, and if they feel sick to go with someone they know and not alone or with someone they just met or do not know.


title: Date rape drug

text: News media has been criticized for overstating the threat of drug-facilitated sexual assault, for providing "how to" material for potential date rapists and for advocating "grossly excessive protective measures for women, particularly in coverage between 1996 and 1998. Law enforcement representatives and feminists have also been criticized for supporting the overstatements for their own purposes.


title: Date rape drug

text: Craig Webber states that this extensive coverage has created or amplified a moral panic rooted in societal anxieties about rape, hedonism and the increased freedoms of women in modern culture. Goode et al say it has given a powerful added incentive for the suppression of party drugs, has inappropriately undermined the long-established argument that recreational drug use is purely a consensual and victimless crime. By shining a spotlight on premeditated criminal behavior, Philip Jenkins states that it has relieved the culture from having to explore and evaluate more nuanced forms of male sexual aggression towards people, such as those displayed in date rapes that were not facilitated by the surreptitious administration of drugs.


title: Date rape drug

text: For similar moral panics around social tensions manifesting via discussion of drugs and sex crime, researchers point to the opium scare of the late 19th century, in which "sinister Chinese" were said to use opium to coerce white women into sexual slavery. Similarly, in the Progressive Era, a persistent urban legend told of white middle-class women being surreptitiously drugged, abducted and sold into sexual slavery to Latin American brothels. This analysis doesn't contradict instances when date rape drugs are used or sexual trafficking occurs; its focus is on actual prevalence of certain crimes relative to media coverage of it.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The atypical antipsychotics (AAP), also known as second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) and serotonin–dopamine antagonists (SDAs), are a group of antipsychotic drugs (antipsychotic drugs in general are also known as major tranquilizers and neuroleptics, although the latter is usually reserved for the "typical antipsychotics") largely introduced after the 1970s and used to treat psychiatric conditions. Some atypical antipsychotics have received regulatory approval (e.g. by the FDA of the US, the TGA of Australia, the MHRA of the UK) for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, irritability in autism, and as an adjunct in major depressive disorder.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Both generations of medication tend to block receptors in the brain's dopamine pathways. Atypicals are less likely than haloperidol — the most widely used typical antipsychotic — to cause extrapyramidal motor control disabilities in patients such as unsteady Parkinson's disease-type movements, body rigidity, and involuntary tremors. However, only a few of the atypicals have been demonstrated to be superior to lesser-used, low-potency first-generation antipsychotics in this regard.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: As experience with these agents has grown, several studies have questioned the utility of broadly characterizing antipsychotic drugs as "atypical/second generation" as opposed to "first generation," noting that each agent has its own efficacy and side-effect profile. It has been argued that a more nuanced view in which the needs of individual patients are matched to the properties of individual drugs is more appropriate. Although atypical antipsychotics are thought to be safer than typical antipsychotics, they still have severe side effects, including tardive dyskinesia (a serious movement disorder), neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and increased risk of stroke, sudden cardiac death, blood clots, and diabetes. Significant weight gain may occur. Critics have argued that "the time has come to abandon the terms first-generation and second-generation antipsychotics, as they do not merit this distinction."


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Atypical antipsychotics are typically used to treat schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. They are also frequently used to treat agitation associated with dementia, anxiety disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (an off-label use). In dementia, they should only be considered after other treatments have failed and if the patient is a risk to themselves and/or others.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The first-line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication, which can reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia in about 8–15 days. Antipsychotics only appear to improve secondary negative symptoms of schizophrenia in the short term and may worsen negative symptoms overall. Overall there is no good evidence that atypical antipsychotics have any therapeutic benefit for treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: There is very little evidence on which to base a risk and benefit assessment of using antipsychotics for long-term treatment.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The choice of which antipsychotic to use for a specific patient is based on benefits, risks, and costs. It is debatable whether, as a class, typical or atypical antipsychotics are better. Both have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates when typicals are used at low to moderate dosages. There is a good response in 40–50% of patients, a partial response in 30–40%, and treatment resistance (failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two of three different antipsychotics) in the remaining 20%. Clozapine is considered a first choice treatment for treatment resistant schizophrenia, especially in the short term; in the longer-terms the risks of adverse effects complicate the choice. In turn, risperidone, olanzapine, and aripiprazole have been recommended for the treatment of first-episode psychosis.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The utility of broadly grouping the antipsychotics into first generation and atypical categories has been challenged. It has been argued that a more nuanced view, matching the properties of individual drugs to the needs of specific patients is preferable. While the atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics were marketed as offering greater efficacy in reducing psychotic symptoms while reducing side effects (and extrapyramidal symptoms in particular) than typical medications, the results showing these effects often lacked robustness, and the assumption was increasingly challenged even as atypical prescriptions were soaring. In 2005 the US government body NIMH published the results of a major independent (not funded by the pharmaceutical companies) multi-site, double-blind study (the CATIE project). This study compared several atypical antipsychotics to an older, mid-potency typical antipsychotic, perphenazine, among 1,493 persons with schizophrenia. The study found that only olanzapine outperformed perphenazine in discontinuation rate (the rate at which people stopped taking it due to its effects). The authors noted an apparent superior efficacy of olanzapine to the other drugs in terms of reduction in psychopathology and rate of hospitalizations, but olanzapine was associated with relatively severe metabolic effects such as a major weight gain problem (averaging 9.4 lbs over 18 months) and increases in glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. No other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the typical perphenazine on the measures used, nor did they produce fewer adverse effects than the typical antipsychotic perphenazine (a result supported by a meta-analysis by Leucht "et al." published in "The Lancet"), although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8% vs. 2% to 4%, P=0.002). A phase 2 part of this CATIE study roughly replicated these findings. Compliance has not been shown to be different between the two types. Overall evaluations of the CATIE and other studies have led many researchers to question the first-line prescribing of atypicals over typicals, or even to question the distinction between the two classes.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: It has been suggested that there is no validity to the term "second-generation antipsychotic drugs" and that the drugs that currently occupy this category are not identical to each other in mechanism, efficacy, and side-effect profiles.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Each drug has its own mechanism, as RDr. if S. El-Mallakh, explained regarding the binding site and occupancy with a focus on the dopamine D2 receptor:In general, when an antagonist of a neurotransmitter receptor is used, it must occupy a minimum of 65% to 70% of the target receptor to be effective. This is clearly the case when the target is a postsynaptic receptor, such as the dopamine D2 receptor. Similarly, despite significant variability in antidepressant response, blockade of 65% to 80% of presynaptic transport proteins—such as the serotonin reuptake pumps when considering serotoninergic antidepressants, or the norepinephrine reuptake pumps when considering noradrenergic agents such as nortriptyline—is necessary for these medications to be effective... Depending on the level of intrinsic activity of a partial agonist and clinical goal, the clinician may aim for a different level of receptor occupancy. For example, aripiprazole will act as a dopamine agonist at lower concentrations, but blocks the receptor at higher concentrations. Unlike antagonist antipsychotics, which require only 65% to 70% D2 receptor occupancy to be effective, aripiprazole receptor binding at effective antipsychotic doses is 90% to 95%. Since aripiprazole has an intrinsic activity of approximately 30% (i.e, when it binds, it stimulates the D2 receptor to about 30% of the effect of dopamine binding to the receptor), binding to 90% of the receptors, and displacing endogenous dopamine, allows aripiprazole to replace the background or tonic tone of dopamine, which has been measured at 19% in people with schizophrenia and 9% in controls. Clinically, this still appears as the minimal effective dose achieving maximal response without significant parkinsonism despite >90% receptor occupancy.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: In bipolar disorder, SGAs are most commonly used to rapidly control acute mania and mixed episodes, often in conjunction with mood stabilizers (which tend to have a delayed onset of action in such cases) such as lithium and valproate. In milder cases of mania or mixed episodes, mood stabilizer monotherapy may be attempted first. SGAs are also used to treat other aspects of the disorder (such as acute bipolar depression or as a prophylactic treatment) as adjuncts or as a monotherapy, depending on the drug. Both quetiapine and olanzapine have demonstrated significant efficacy in all three treatment phases of bipolar disorder. Lurasidone (trade name Latuda) has demonstrated some efficacy in the acute depressive phase of bipolar disorder.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: In "non-psychotic" major depressive disorder (MDD), some SGAs have demonstrated significant efficacy as adjunctive agents; and, such agents include:


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: whereas only quetiapine has demonstrated efficacy as a monotherapy in non-psychotic MDD. Olanzapine/fluoxetine is an efficacious treatment in both "psychotic" and "non-psychotic" MDD.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Aripiprazole, brexpiprazole, olanzapine, and quetiapine have been approved as adjunct treatment for MDD by the FDA in the United States. Quetiapine and lurasidone have been approved, as monotherapies, for bipolar depression, but as of present, lurasidone has not been approved for MDD.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Between May 2007 and April 2008, Dementia and Alzheimer's together accounted for 28% of atypical antipsychotic use in patients aged 65 or older. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires that all atypical antipsychotics carry a black box warning that the medication has been associated with an increased risk of mortality in elderly patients. In 2005, the FDA issued an advisory warning of an increased risk of death when atypical antipsychotics are used in dementia. In the subsequent 5 years, the use of atypical antipsychotics to treat dementia decreased by nearly 50%.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The side effects reportedly associated with the various atypical antipsychotics vary and are medication-specific. Generally speaking, atypical antipsychotics are widely believed to have a lower likelihood for the development of tardive dyskinesia than the typical antipsychotics. However, tardive dyskinesia typically develops after long-term (possibly decades) use of antipsychotics. It is not clear if atypical antipsychotics, having been in use for a relatively short time, produce a lower incidence of tardive dyskinesia.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Among the other side effects that have been suggested is that atypical antipsychotics increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. Kabinoff et al. found that the increase in cardiovascular disease is seen regardless of the treatment received, and that it is instead caused by many different factors such as lifestyle or diet.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Sexual side effects have also been reported when taking atypical antipsychotics. In males antipsychotics reduce sexual interest, impair sexual performance with the main difficulties being failure to ejaculate. In females there may be abnormal menstrual cycles and infertility. In both males and females the breasts may become enlarged and a fluid will sometimes ooze from the nipples. Sexual adverse effects caused by some anti-psychotics are a result of an increase of prolactin. Sulpiride and Amisulpiride, as well as Risperdone and paliperidone (to a lesser extent), cause a high increase of prolactin.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: In April 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an advisory and subsequent black box warning regarding the risks of atypical antipsychotic use among elderly patients with dementia. The FDA advisory was associated with decreases in the use of atypical antipsychotics, especially among elderly patients with dementia. Subsequent research reports confirmed the mortality risks associated with the use of both conventional and atypical antipsychotics to treat patients with dementia. Consequently, in 2008 the FDA issued although a black box warning for classical neuroleptics. Data on treatment efficacies are strongest for atypical antipsychotics. Adverse effects in patients with dementia include an increased risk of mortality and cerebrovascular events, as well as metabolic effects, extrapyramidal symptoms, falls, cognitive worsening, cardiac arrhythmia, and pneumonia. Conventional antipsychotics may pose an even greater safety risk. No clear efficacy evidence exists to support the use of alternative psychotropic classes (e.g. antidepressants, anticonvulsants).


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Many different types of medication can induce in patients that have never had symptoms before. A new chapter about OCD in the DSM-5 (2013) now specifically includes drug-induced OCD.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: There are reports that some atypical antipsychotics could cause drug-induced OCD in already schizophrenic patients.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: All of the atypical antipsychotics warn about the possibility of tardive dyskinesia in their package inserts and in the PDR. It is not possible to truly know the risks of tardive dyskinesia when taking atypicals, because tardive dyskinesia can take many decades to develop and the atypical antipsychotics are not old enough to have been tested over a long enough period of time to determine all of the long-term risks. One hypothesis as to why atypicals have a lower risk of tardive dyskinesia is because they are much less fat-soluble than the typical antipsychotics and because they are readily released from D2 receptor and brain tissue. The typical antipsychotics remain attached to the D2 receptors and accumulate in the brain tissue which may lead to TD.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Both typical and atypical antipsychotics can cause tardive dyskinesia. According to one study, rates are lower with the atypicals at 3.9% per year as opposed to the typicals at 5.5% per year.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Recently, metabolic concerns have been of grave concern to clinicians, patients and the FDA. In 2003, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required all manufacturers of atypical antipsychotics to change their labeling to include a warning about the risks of hyperglycemia and diabetes with atypical antipsychotics. It must also be pointed out that although all atypicals must carry the warning on their labeling, some evidence shows that atypicals are not equal in their effects on weight and insulin sensitivity. The general consensus is that clozapine and olanzapine are associated with the greatest effects on weight gain and decreased insulin sensitivity, followed by risperidone and quetiapine. Ziprasidone and aripiprazole are thought to have the smallest effects on weight and insulin resistance, but clinical experience with these newer agents is not as developed as that with the older agents. The mechanism of these adverse effects is not completely understood but it is believed to result from a complex interaction between a number of pharmacologic actions of these drugs. Their effects on weight are believed to mostly derive from their actions on the H and 5-HT receptors, while their effects on insulin sensitivity are believed to be the result of a combination of their effects on body weight (as increased body mass is known to be a risk factor for insulin resistance) and their antagonistic effects on the M receptor. Some of the newer agents, however, such as risperidone and its metabolite paliperidone, ziprasidone, lurasidone, aripiprazole, asenapine and iloperidone, have clinically insignificant effects on the M receptor and appear to carry a lower risk of insulin resistance. Whereas clozapine, olanzapine and quetiapine (indirectly via its active metabolite, norquetiapine) all antagonise the M receptor at therapeutic-relevant concentrations.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Recent evidence suggests a role of the α adrenoceptor and 5-HT receptor in the metabolic effects of atypical antipsychotics. The 5-HT receptor, however, is also believed to play a crucial role in the therapeutic advantages of atypical antipsychotics over their predecessors, the typical antipsychotics.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The two atypical antipsychotics with trials showing that had a low incidence of weight gain in large meta-analysis were lurasidone and aripiprazole. In a meta-analysis of 18 antipsychotics, olanzapine and clozapine exhibited the worst metabolic parameters and aripiprazole, brexpiprazole, cariprazine, lurasidone, and ziprasidone the most benign parameters.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: A study by Sernyak and colleagues found that the prevalence of diabetes in atypical antipsychotic treatments was statistically significantly higher than that of conventional treatment. The authors of this study suggest that it is a causal relationship the Kabinoff et al. suggest the findings only suggest a temporal association. Kabinoff et al. suggest that there is insufficient data from large studies to demonstrate a consistent or significant difference in the risk of insulin resistance during treatment with various atypical antipsychotics.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The atypical antipsychotics integrate with the serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (α, β), and dopamine (DA) receptors in order to effectively treat schizophrenia.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: D Receptor: Hyperactive dopaminergic activity on D receptors in the mesolimbic pathway is responsible for the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia). After taking an antipsychotic, antagonism of D receptors occurs throughout the entire brain, leading to a number of deleterious side effects from D receptor antagonism throughout the entire dopamine pathway system. It's not possible to affect D receptors only in the mesolimbic pathway, but 5-HT receptor antagonism reverses these side effects to some extent. Reducing D dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway also results in an anhedonic effect, reducing pleasure and motivation. In the mesocortical pathway to the DLPFC and VMPFC, endogenous D receptor dopamine activity is sometimes low in schizophrenia, resulting in cognitive, affective, and, broadly, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. D receptor antagonism further compounds these problems. In the nigrostriatal pathway, D receptor antagonism results in extrapyramidal symptoms. If this antagonism occurs long enough, symptoms of EPS may become permanent, even if antipsychotic use is discontinued. In the tuberoinfundibular pathway, D receptor antagonism results in elevated prolactin. If prolactin levels become high enough, hyperprolactinaemia may occur, resulting in sexual dysfunction, weight gain, more rapid demineralization of bones, and possibly galactorrhea and amenorrhea.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: 5-HT Receptor: When serotonin is released on to postsynaptic 5-HT receptors, the dopamine neuron is inhibited, thus acting as a brake on dopamine release. This brake is disrupted through action of a 5-HT antagonist, which disinhibits the dopamine neuron, stimulating dopamine release. The result of this is that dopamine competes with antipsychotic D antagonistic action at D receptors, thereby reducing antagonistic binding there and eliminating or lowering D antagonistic effects in several pathways of the dopamine system. In the nigrostratial pathway, it reduces EPS. In the tuberoinfundibular pathway, it reduces or eliminates prolactin elevation.Dopamine release in the mesolimbic pathway from 5-HT antagonism does not appear to be as robust as in the other pathways of the dopamine system, thereby accounting for why atypical antipsychotics still retain part of their efficacy against the positive symptoms of schizophrenia through their D antagonism. When 5-HT antagonistic agent particles occupy 5-HT receptors in the mesocortical pathway and in the prefrontal cortex, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, affective symptoms, and cognitive deficits and abnormalities are treated and reduced. Furthermore, 5-HT receptor antagonism blocks the serotonergic excitation of cortical pyramidal cells, reducing glutamate release, which in turn lowers hyperactive dopaminergic D receptor activity in the mesolimbic pathway, reducing or eliminating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Brexpiprazole, approved by the US FDA in 2015, has a similar binding profile to aripiprazole as a partial D2 agonist with moderate histamine binding, but with brexipiprazole has a higher affinity for serotonin receptor 5-HT


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Some effects of 5-HT receptor activation include decreased aggressive behavior/ideation, increased sociability, and decreased anxiety and depression. Blockade of the 5-HT receptor increases serotonin, releasing norepinephrine and dopamine within the brain. But neuronal reuptake of norepinephrine is limited sharply by some antipsychotics, e.g. ziprasidone. Increased norepinephrine can cause increased glucose(blood sugar) levels. Increased blood sugar levels by increased norepinephrine causes hunger in many humans, which is why weight gain occurs with some antipsychotics if the norepinephrine is not inhibited. Inhibition of norepinephrine stabilizes mood in humans. 5-HT receptor antagonists improve cognition, learning, and memory. The 5-HT receptor is very potent for the mitigation of bipolar conditions and also yields an antidepressant effect. The antipsychotics asenapine, lurasidone, risperidone, and aripiprazole are very potent at the 5-HT receptor. Antagonistic affinity for the H receptor also has an antidepressant effect. H antagonism blocks serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Patients with increased histamine levels have been observed to have lower serotonin levels. However, the H receptor is linked to weight gain. To have partial agonism at the 5-HT receptor can yield absence of weight gain in an antipsychotic. This is very relevant for ziprasidone, but it creates a risk for a prolonged QTc interval. On the other hand, blockade of the 5-HT receptor removes the risk for a prolonged QTc interval, but then creates a larger risk for weight gain. Relation to the 5-HT receptor increases caloric uptake and glucose, which is seen in clozapine and olanzapine. Other ways for dopamine to resolve is to have agonism at both the D receptor and 5-HT receptor, which normalizes the dopamine level in the brain. This occurs with cariprazine and aripiprazole.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Whether the anhedonic, loss of pleasure and motivation effect resulting from dopamine insufficiency or blockade at D receptors in the mesolimbic pathway, which is mediated in some part by antipsychotics (and despite dopamine release in the mesocortical pathway from 5-HT antagonism, which is seen in atypical antipsychotics), or the positive mood, mood stabilization, and cognitive improvement effect resulting from atypical antipsychotic serotonergic activity is greater for the overall quality of life effect of an atypical antipsychotic is a question that is variable between individual experience and the atypical antipsychotic(s) being used.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Inhibition. Disinhibition: The opposite process of inhibition, the turning on of a biological function. Release: Causes the appropriate neurotransmitters to be discharged in vesicles into the synapse where they attempt to bind to and activate a receptor. Downregulation and Upregulation.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: "Note: Unless otherwise specified, the drugs below serve as antagonists/inverse agonists at the receptors listed."


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Atypical antipsychotics are most commonly administered orally. Antipsychotics can also be injected, but this method is not as common. They are lipid-soluble, are readily absorbed from the digestive tract, and can easily pass the blood–brain barrier and placental barriers. Once in the brain, the antipsychotics work at the synapse by binding to the receptor. Antipsychotics are completely metabolized in the body and the metabolites are excreted in urine. These drugs have relatively long half-lives. Each drug has a different half-life, but the occupancy of the D2 receptor falls off within 24 hours with atypical antipsychotics, while lasting over 24 hours for the typical antipsychotics. This may explain why relapse into psychosis happens quicker with atypical antipsychotics than with typical antipsychotics, as the drug is excreted faster and is no longer working in the brain. Physical dependence with these drugs is very rare. However, if the drug is abruptly discontinued, psychotic symptoms, movement disorders, and sleep difficulty may be observed. It is possible that withdrawal is rarely seen because the AAP are stored in body fat tissues and slowly released.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The first major tranquilizer or antipsychotic medication, chlorpromazine (Thorazine), a typical antipsychotic, was discovered in 1951 and introduced into clinical practice shortly thereafter. Clozapine (Clozaril), an atypical antipsychotic, fell out of favor due to concerns over drug-induced agranulocytosis. Following research indicating its effectiveness in treatment-resistant schizophrenia and the development of an adverse event monitoring system, clozapine re-emerged as a viable antipsychotic. According to Barker (2003), the three most-accepted atypical drugs are clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine. However, he goes on to explain that clozapine is usually the last resort when other drugs fail. Clozapine can cause agranulocytosis (a decreased number of white blood cells), requiring blood monitoring for the patient. Despite the effectiveness of clozapine for treatment-resistant schizophrenia, agents with a more favorable side-effect profile were sought for widespread use. During the 1990s, olanzapine, risperidone, and quetiapine were introduced, with ziprasidone and aripiprazole following in the early 2000s. The atypical anti-psychotic paliperidone was approved by the FDA in late 2006.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The atypical antipsychotics have found favor among clinicians and are now considered to be first-line treatments for schizophrenia and are gradually replacing the typical antipsychotics. In the past, most researchers have agreed that the defining characteristics of atypical antipsychotics are the decreased incidence of extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) and an absence of sustained prolactin elevation.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: The terminology can still be imprecise. The definition of "atypicality" was based upon the absence of extrapyramidal side effects, but there is now a clear understanding that atypical antipsychotics can still induce these effects (though to a lesser degree than typical antipsychotics). Recent literature focuses more upon specific pharmacological actions and less upon categorization of an agent as "typical" or "atypical". There is no clear dividing line between the typical and atypical antipsychotics therefore categorization based on the action is difficult.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: More recent research is questioning the notion that second-generation antipsychotics are superior to first generation typical anti-psychotics. Using a number of parameters to assess quality of life, Manchester University researchers found that typical antipsychotics were no worse than atypical antipsychotics. The research was funded by the National Health Service (NHS) of the UK. Because each medication (whether first or second generation) has its own profile of desirable and adverse effects, a neuropsychopharmacologist may recommend one of the older ("typical" or first generation) or newer ("atypical" or second generation) antipsychotics alone or in combination with other medications, based on the symptom profile, response pattern, and adverse effects history of the individual patient.


title: Atypical antipsychotic

text: Between May 2007 and April 2008, 5.5 million Americans filled at least one prescription for an atypical antipsychotic. In patients under the age of 65, 71% of patients were prescribed an atypical antipsychotic to treat Schizophrenia or Bipolar Disorder where this dropped to 38% in patients aged 65 or above.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin Lannister is a fictional character in the fantasy series "A Song of Ice and Fire" by American novelist George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones". He is introduced in "A Game of Thrones" (1996) and subsequently appears in "A Clash of Kings" (1998) and "A Storm of Swords" (2000). Tywin was portrayed by British actor Charles Dance in the HBO series, to critical acclaim.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin is the ruthless patriarch of House Lannister of Casterly Rock, and father to twins Cersei and Jaime, and Tyrion. He is the Warden of the West and the Lord Paramount of the Westerlands, and was twice the Hand of the King, making him one of the most powerful political figures in Westerosi history. His cruelty towards his youngest son Tyrion, whom Tywin has despised since Tyrion's childhood for being a dwarf and killing his wife in childbirth, is a primary influence on Tyrion's character arc in both the novels and television show. Edward I served as an inspiration for Tywin.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin is Lord of Casterly Rock, Shield of Lannisport, and Warden of the West. Born heir apparent to Lord Tytos Lannister, who was perceived as a weak and ineffectual leader and often ridiculed by his bannermen, and was known as "The toothless lion", Tywin developed an early distrust of mockery and laughter. When the Lannister bannermen of Houses Reyne and Tarbeck eventually revolted against the Lannisters' rule, the 19-year-old Tywin led the Lannister army in defeating the rebellious vassals by exterminating their Houses. The song The Rains of Castamere was written as a tribute to the event.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin eventually married his first cousin Joanna. When she died giving birth to their dwarf son Tyrion, it is said that "the best part of Tywin died with her". He never remarried. Tywin strongly resents Tyrion for Joanna's death. When Tywin discovered that the young Tyrion had secretly eloped and married Tysha, a peasant's daughter, he had Tyrion's marriage forcefully annulled, telling him that the entire love affair was a plot by Jaime to get Tyrion to lose his virginity, his love being nothing more than a hired prostitute. Tywin then had his guards gang-rape Tysha in front of Tyrion and forced Tyrion to rape her last.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: When Aerys II Targaryen became King of Westeros, he appointed Tywin Hand of the King, a position regarded as deputy and second-in-command to the King, making Tywin the second-most powerful man in the realm. Over the years, as Aerys became increasingly paranoid, he stopped trusting in Tywin, believing him to have become too powerful and appointed Tywin's eldest son Jaime to the kingsguard, robbing Tywin of his preferred heir. Thereafter, Tywin resigned as Hand of the King and returned to Casterly Rock.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: During Robert Baratheon's rebellion, Tywin remained neutral until Robert had all but won the war. He then captured King's Landing through treachery and ordered the murder of the royal family before Ned Stark could capture the city. Fearing Tywin's wrath, The Mad King ordered Jaime to kill his father. Instead, Jaime murdered Aerys, thereby betraying his vow to protect the king.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Following the war, Tywin agreed to a marriage between his daughter Cersei and the new King Robert Baratheon, who pardoned Jaime and allowed him to continue his service as a member of the Kingsguard. Tywin returned to Casterly Rock to rule the Westerlands. At the beginning of the series, Tywin is described as a broad-shouldered man in his fifties with thin but muscled arms. After he had started going bald, he began shaving his head but grew out bushy golden side-whiskers. He is said to have pale-green eyes flecked with gold.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin Lannister is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted mainly through the eyes of his estranged dwarf son Tyrion Lannister.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin Lannister's background remains largely the same in the television adaptation of the book series, with some minor changes. In the show, he is given the new title "Lord Paramount of the Westerlands," which was not present in any of the "A Song of Ice and Fire" novels. Tywin's role in the series, however, is much more prominent compared to the books.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Charles Dance was cast as Tywin in the first season of HBO's "Game of Thrones", and portrayed the character in the first four seasons. He was cast for the role based on his performance in "Alien 3".


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tyrion is arrested by Catelyn Stark, who suspects him of attempting to assassinate her son Bran. Despite his contempt for Tyrion, Tywin views his kidnapping as a slight against his family and sends Gregor Clegane to raid Catelyn's homeland, the Riverlands. He raises a host of almost 40,000 men, half of whom are given to Jaime to besiege the Riverlands' capital Riverrun. Tywin's half of the force battle a Northern host led by Roose Bolton at the Battle of the Green Fork, but in the meantime Robb Stark's men rout Jaime's army and take him prisoner. Tywin is named Hand of the King by the new king, his grandson Joffrey Baratheon, but Tywin decides to remain in the Riverlands to continue the campaign against the Starks, sending Tyrion to King's Landing as acting Hand in his stead.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin's at Harrenhal, using it as a base for the war in the Riverlands. When Joffrey's uncle and rival claimant Renly Baratheon is killed and Joffrey's other uncle Stannis Baratheon besieges Storm's End, Tywin decides to use the distraction to march west in pursuit of Robb's army. Robb intends for Tywin's army to be gradually dismantled by the long march, but Robb's uncle Ser Edmure Tully, unaware of the plan, confronts Tywin's forces at the Battle of the Fords. Although Tywin suffers heavy losses, the delay in his march allows him to receive word that Stannis is now marching on King's Landing. Tywin quickly leads the army on King's Landing, joining forces with Renly's former bannermen House Tyrell along the way, and arrives at King's Landing in time to force Stannis to retreat. Joffrey subsequently names Tywin Hand of the King, for the second time, and declares him "Savior of the City".


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin assumes his role as Hand of the King, demoting Tyrion to Master of Coin. He forces Tyrion to marry Sansa Stark, though his efforts to have Cersei wed to Willas Tyrell are rebuffed. Having learned that Robb has invalidated a marriage proposal to House Frey by marrying Jeyne Westerling, Tywin enters into communications with Lord Walder Frey and Roose Bolton (who has lost faith in Robb after Theon Greyjoy's capture of Robb's castle Winterfell). The three conspire to have Robb and his army slaughtered while camped at The Twins for Edmure Tully's wedding, and the War of Five Kings results in victory for House Lannister. However, Joffrey is poisoned soon after during his own wedding. Tyrion is accused of the murder, ultimately being found guilty and sentenced to death. Jaime and Varys release Tyrion from his cell, Jaime confessing that he felt compelled to do so for lying about Tysha, Tyrion's first wife, who had been wrongly stated by Tywin to be a prostitute and gang-raped by Tywin's guards. Enraged, Tyrion enters Tywin's quarters through a secret tunnel, only to find his former mistress Shae in Tywin's bed. He strangles her with the Hand's necklace, then confronts Tywin with a crossbow while he is on the privy, demanding to know what happened to Tysha. When Tywin repeatedly and scornfully dismisses Tysha as a "whore," Tyrion fatally shoots him with the crossbow and leaves him dead. As Tywin's bowels loosens upon death, Tyrion remarks to himself that the claim that his father shits gold is, after all, a myth.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin's poorly embalmed corpse lies in state for seven days at the Great Sept of Baelor, before being returned to the Westerlands (it is unclear whether the botched embalming was deliberate or accidental).


title: Tywin Lannister

text: After Tyrion Lannister's arrest by Catelyn Stark, Tywin sends his bannerman Gregor Clegane to raid Catelyn's homeland, the Riverlands.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Later on, Jaime is seen in Tywin's camp reading a royal command issued by Ned Stark on behalf of the Crown summoning Tywin to appear before the court to answer for an attack on the Riverlands by Gregor Clegane. Tywin chastises Jaime for openly attacking Ned when Jaime states he did so on hearing of Tyrion's arrest. He gives half of his men (30,000) to Jaime to besiege House Tully's ancestral home of Riverrun. Jaime is surprised that Tywin places such a high value on Tyrion's life, but Tywin states that he is merely doing this to protect his family's honor, as allowing another house to keep a member of the Lannister family prisoner would weaken their family's position.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin is tricked by Robb Stark into taking his men to the Trident where he believes Robb intends to fight his army. Instead, Robb leads his forces to Riverrun, where he defeats the Lannister forces and captures Jaime.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: When Joffrey Baratheon ascends as king, he executes King Robert's Hand, Ned Stark, who openly questioned Joffrey's paternity and claim as Robert's heir, names Tywin as his Hand. Tywin who currently has only half of his army is now engaged in multiple conflicts, with Robb in the North and Stannis Baratheon & Renly Baratheon in the South.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin cannot make peace with the Baratheon brothers as they are staking a claim of Kingship of the Seven Kingdoms. Ned's execution by Joffery on the other hand has prevented Tywin from what would have been the best option of suing for peace with the Northern Lord and Riverrun. Realizing this Tywin sends Tyrion to King's Landing as acting Hand, while he decides to regroup at Harrenhal with all his forces and continue the campaign in the Riverlands against Robb who now holds his son captive.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin and the Westermen regroup at Harrenhal and start establishing order. Unaware of Arya Stark's true identity, he takes her as his cupbearer and is impressed by her quick wit. Arya, on the other hand, is seen to be contemplating to kill Tywin, but does not proceed due to lack of opportunity. She is able to gather information on the plan of his council members on their next course of action.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: On Petyr Baelish's suggestion, Tywin establishes an alliance with House Tyrell as they have the required army and the largest supply of grain and livestock. His council members advise that his grandson King Joffrey and Joffrey's mother Cersei flee the capital as Stannis Baratheon and his forces will be attacking. Tywin overrules his council members, stating that Joffery needs to hold his ground as no one will respect a king who runs away. He then quickly, either changing his mind upon news of Stannis' landing or completing an elaborate ruse, march quickly to join with the Tyrell forces and then towards the capital.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin leads his forces along with their new allies of House Tyrell on the city and arrives just in time to defeat Stannis' forces. After the battle, Tywin is once again named Hand of the King in his own right, as well as given the honorific "Savior of the City", but not before his horse visibly defecates on the floor before the throne room.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin harshly denies Tyrion his request to be named as heir to Casterly Rock, but does acquiesce to naming him Master of Coin. When he learns of Olenna Tyrell's plot to have Loras Tyrell wed Sansa Stark, he arranges to have Tyrion and Cersei marry Sansa and Loras respectively — though only succeeds with establishing Tyrion's marriage to Sansa. Later on, Tywin lectures Joffrey about how to rule as king when his grandson demands a report on his council meetings. Soon after Tyrion and Sansa's wedding, Tywin forms an alliance with Robb Starks' dissatisfied bannermen — Walder Frey and Roose Bolton — to finish the Stark forces and claim at "The Red Wedding" massacre. Roose executes Robb while taunting "the Lannisters send their regards", Robb's mother Catelyn and wife Talisa are brutally killed as well. When news of Robb's death reaches the Lannisters, Tyrion quickly deduces that his father masterminded the event. Tywin confirms this and shrewdly observes that this means the Freys will get all the credit but also all the blame — since the Northerners will never forget nor forgive such a terrible crime. Tywin senses that his son finds the action dishonorable but insists it was done to protect the family and end the war.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: He is forced to contend with an increasingly belligerent Joffrey, who insists that his father Robert (refusing to believe the claim regarding his parentage) won the war by his sword, while chiding his grandfather as a coward who "hid under Casterly Rock". Tywin sends his grandson to bed and promises to teach him the realities of ruling, before reminding Tyrion of Joffrey's limited power and of his husbandly duty to impregnate Sansa and again insists that a man who puts family first will always triumph. When Tyrion asks his father whether he has ever put the family's interests ahead of his own, Tywin retorts by stating his desire to euthanise Tyrion at birth out of rage and grief but instead let Tyrion live and ended up raising him "as my son", showing that he has disowned his parentage of Tyrion as well.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin has the Stark ancestral sword Ice melted down into two swords, one of which he gives to Jaime, though he disowns him after Jaime refuses to resign from the Kingsguard to become Tywin's heir. When Tyrion is accused of poisoning Joffrey, Tywin asks Oberyn Martell to serve as one of the judges in Tyrion's trial. Though Oberyn despises Tywin for ordering the death of his sister, niece and nephew during the sack of King's Landing, he agrees when Tywin offers him justice against their murderer, Gregor Clegane. Tywin also presses Cersei to wed Loras Tyrell to use House Tyrell's wealth to pay off the Crown's debts to the Iron Bank of Braavos but is forced to back down when Cersei threatens to reveal her incestuous affair with Jaime. Tywin has an affair with Shae, Tyrion's former mistress. Tyrion discovers this during his escape from King's Landing and strangles Shae before confronting Tywin on the privy. When Tyrion admits that he loved Shae, Tywin repeatedly dismisses her as a whore, prompting Tyrion to shoot him with a crossbow, killing him.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Tywin's body lies in state in the Great Sept of Baelor before his burial, with Jaime and Cersei the first to pay their respects. Tywin's death upsets the balance of power in King's Landing, namely by allowing the rise to power of the High Sparrow and the Faith Militant.


title: Tywin Lannister

text: Charles Dance, who played Tywin Lannister in the first fours seasons of the television adaptation, received positive reviews and acclaim for his role. Clive James described his portrayal as "not only the best role of its kind that Dance has ever had; it is the best role of its kind that anyone has ever had".


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: The Souvenir Part II is a 2021 drama film, written and directed by Joanna Hogg. It is a sequel to "The Souvenir" (2019). It stars Honor Swinton Byrne, Jaygann Ayeh, Richard Ayoade, James Spencer Ashworth, Harris Dickinson, Charlie Heaton, Joe Alwyn, and Tilda Swinton.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: The film had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on July 8, 2021. It was released in the United States on October 29, 2021, by A24, and was released in the United Kingdom on February 4, 2022, by Picturehouse Entertainment. The film received critical acclaim.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: Julie, still reeling over the fatal overdose of her lover Anthony, stays with her parents for a few days, where she informs her mother that her period is late. She soon returns to her flat and to film school. She later visits Anthony’s parents, James and Barbara to return some of his belongings while also learning from them what kind of person Anthony was, though his parents disclose that they knew very little about their son.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: While at a film studio where her friends Marland and Garance are working on their final student films, Julie meets Jim, one of the actors of Marland’s film. They have sex that night, and Julie gets her period as Jim performs cunnilingus on her. She then visits Anthony’s addict friends, including the one she found in her flat, to learn about his whereabouts in his final hours, though Suzie, one of the addicts, doesn’t say.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: Julie presents a new reel and script for her final student film to the school board, but they are harshly critical of it, citing the lack of clear narrative and improperly-formatted script, and inform her that they will not back her film if she continues on with it. She spends more time with her parents, during which she probes Rosalind for her thoughts about Anthony and information about the last time she saw him. Rosalind states that their last encounter was mostly uneventful, but pleasant. She also says she was fond of him and that she was deeply upset for Julie when she learned of his passing.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: In secret from the school and using their studio and equipment, Julie decides to move forward with her film, which is a semi-autobiographical account of her relationship with Anthony. Garance convinces Julie to cast Pete, a young, talented stage actor, as “Alfie” while Julie requests Garance play “Julie.” Julie’s direction quickly becomes a point of consternation for the cast and crew, with Julie not properly communicating her ideas to the actors and having no consistent lighting plot. Pete tells Julie that he suspects that she’s unable to reconcile the person that Anthony was with the person that Julie saw Anthony as.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: While meeting with her editor, Max, he gleans more information about Anthony from her, where she discusses the relationship between her and Anthony’s parents and how they’ve each grieved over him, and Max advises her not to shoulder the burden for their individual losses. Later, Julie receives a call from Barbara, who informs her that James was hospitalized from a stroke. Speaking with her therapist, she grapples with whether she actually loved Anthony or if she just craved companionship from someone outside her circle of friends and family, and the therapist tells her that she must live her life and continue finding that level of companionship.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: Eventually, Julie premieres her film, entitled The Souvenir, to her class and the school board, during which she envisions a dreamlike sequence in which she metaphorically confronts Anthony’s wrongs against her and receives help from her friends and family in letting him go.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: Years later, Julie, now a director of music videos, celebrates her 30th birthday at her flat with friends from film school. The scene is then shown to be set inside the film school studio with a crew surrounding the set where the party is taking place. A voice calls, “Cut,” as the film ends.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: In May 2017, it was announced Honor Swinton Byrne, Robert Pattinson, Tilda Swinton, Richard Ayoade and Ariane Labed had joined the cast of the film, with Joanna Hogg directing from a screenplay she wrote. Luke Schiller, Ed Guiney, Rose Garnett, Lizzie Francke, Emma Norton, Andrew Lowe, Martin Scorsese, and Emma Tillinger Koskoff will serve as producers on the film under their Element Pictures, BBC Films and Sikelia Productions banners, respectively.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: In January 2019, A24 acquired distribution rights to the film. In June 2019, Pattinson dropped out of the film due to scheduling conflicts with "The Batman". In August 2019, it was announced Charlie Heaton, Harris Dickinson and Joe Alwyn had joined the cast of the film, with Heaton and Dickinson replacing Pattinson.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: In March 2021, Picturehouse Entertainment acquired UK and Ireland distribution rights to the film. It had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival in the Directors Fortnight section on July 8, 2021. It was released in the United States on October 29, 2021. It was released in the United Kingdom on February 4, 2022.


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: The film received widespread critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 92% based on 130 critical reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Drawing on another terrific performance from Honor Swinton Byrne, The Souvenir Part II continues its story with profound emotional complexity and elegant storytelling." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 90 based on 39 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim."


title: The Souvenir Part II

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" described the film as an "amazingly luminous self-portrait of the film-maker as a young woman" and gave it the full five stars. The film received similar praise from Guy Lodge of "Variety", who described Hogg's film as "a dazzling, fragile follow-up to her semi-autobiographical coming-of-age stunner from 2019".


title: Leopard gecko

text: The leopard gecko or common leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) is a ground-dwelling lizard native to the rocky dry grassland and desert regions of Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, India, and Nepal. The leopard gecko has become a popular pet, and due to extensive captive breeding it is sometimes referred to as the first domesticated species of lizard.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos were first described as a species by zoologist Edward Blyth in 1854 as "Eublepharis macularius". The generic name "Eublepharis" is a combination of the Greek words "eu" (good) and "blepharos" (eyelid), as having eyelids is the primary characteristic that distinguishes members of this subfamily from other geckos, along with a lack of lamellae. The specific name "macularius" derives from the Latin word "macula" meaning "spot" or "blemish", referring to the animal's natural spotted markings.


title: Leopard gecko

text: The native habitat of the leopard gecko includes the rocky, dry grassland, and desert regions of south-Asian Afghanistan, Pakistan, north-west India, western Nepal, and some parts of Iran. Leopard geckos inhabit arid and semi-arid areas with sparse vegetation and clay or sandy soils, as well as rocky habitat where crevices can be used as shelter. They reportedly avoid areas where the primary substrate is sand. Leopard geckos may also be found in arid forests of Nepal and Pakistan, and are reported to shelter under loose bark of trees in these environments. Winter temperatures within the range of the leopard gecko can be quite low, below , forcing the animals underground into semi-hibernation, called "brumation", living on fat reserves.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Wild leopard geckos are generally considered to be nocturnal by field biology sources, academic herpetology sources, and some animal husbandry guides. During the day they retreat to burrows and sheltered hiding spots, becoming active at dusk when the temperature is favorable. Naturalist David Attenborough asserts in the wildlife documentary series "Life in Cold Blood": "A leopard gecko—like most geckos—is nocturnal, and it manages to get all the heat it needs from rocks, which retain something of their warmth for several hours after the sun has set." Similarly, Nepalese biologist Yam Rawat writes: "Leopard Geckos remained undetected in Nepal until [2016]. This could be attributable to the secretive nocturnal nature of the species." In contrast, some sources focused on husbandry of captive leopard geckos have asserted leopard geckos are crepuscular or even cathemeral reptiles. This assertion has been used to explain the ability of leopard geckos to use UVB exposure to synthesize vitamin D3 in captivity, and as a rationale for providing captive leopard geckos with access to UVB lighting. John Courtney Smith, the brand manager for UVB light manufacturing company Arcadia Reptile, asserts in "Bio-activity and the Theory of Wild Re-Creation": "The leopard gecko is quite crepuscular in its home range ... there are many reports of them being seen even in full daytime desert sunlight openly basking".


title: Leopard gecko

text: There is also debate as to the degree that leopard geckos interact with conspecifics in the wild. Academic sources have asserted that leopard geckos live in loose colonies in the wild. Pet keeping guides often claim these geckos are solitary and do not usually live with other animals. Acknowledging the latter as a myth propagated by pet keepers, Philippe de Vosjoli—a prominent leopard gecko breeder and author of dozens of books on reptile husbandry—has asserted that "The claims of some internet 'experts' that leopard geckos in the wild live singly... is not supported by facts".


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos are opportunistic predators that eat a variety of prey items. Invertebrates are presumed to make up the majority of wild geckos' diets, but in captivity they will also eat small vertebrate prey if given the opportunity, including mouse pups and even hatchling leopard geckos. Breeders of captive leopard geckos report that sufficiently fed leopard geckos will not cannibalize young, and that the cannibalistic behavior appears to take place only in poorly fed animals.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos are small lizards that derive their name from their spotted coloration. Hatchlings are on average in length and weigh about 2 to 5 grams. Adult females are about in length and weigh about 50 to 70 grams, while adult male geckos are about in length and weigh about 60 to 80 grams.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Unlike many other geckos, but like other Eublepharids, their toes do not have adhesive lamellae, so they cannot climb smooth vertical walls.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos are polyphyodonts and able to replace each of their 100 teeth every 3 to 4 months. Next to the full grown tooth there is a small replacement tooth developing from the odontogenic stem cell in the dental lamina.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos have distinctly thick tails that store fat; similar to the way in which camels' humps serve as reservoirs of fatty tissue, the fat stored in the tails of leopard geckos acts as an energy reserve that the geckos can use as nourishment if there is not an available food supply. When hunting, a leopard gecko may lift its tail in a twitching or wagging motion as it approaches its prey; after the gecko eats its prey, the tail will then return to a relaxed position.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Like most geckos, leopard geckos have an ability called autotomy: their tails can regenerate when lost; however, the regenerated tails appear stumpy and never have the same appearance as the original tail.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Wild leopard geckos’ primary defense against predators is to avoid detection. This is accomplished with cryptic coloration serving as camouflage. They also remain hidden during daytime, to avoid heat and the risk of being spotted and captured by diurnal predators. If a leopard gecko is confronted by a potential predator, it may vocalize in an attempt to ward off this predator.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos also possess caudal autotomy; this is the ability to voluntarily detach their tail when attacked. After detachment the tail can continue to twitch for as long as 30 minutes, providing a distraction to buy time for the gecko to escape from its predator. The tail is large and at least in one related species ("Christinus marmoratus") it has been reported that the tail-less fleeing gecko makes for a quicker getaway. Fractures in the tailbone allow the tail to separate easily and rapid vasoconstriction allows the gecko to suffer minimal blood loss. This detaching of the tail causes a high level of stress on the gecko due to the loss of the valuable storage of fat it once had. It will start to regenerate its tail immediately after detachment. Regenerated tails often retain similar colors to the original tail. However, they are often smooth and generally shorter and wider than the original tail.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos range in color from a yellow to brownish-orange base with spots covering all or mostly half of the dorsal region of the body. Their color is derived from pigment-containing cells known as chromatophores. These cells are responsible for an array of coloration seen in all reptiles, amphibians, birds and some species of insects. Chromatophores come in a variety of types based on the color they correspond to. Chromatophore types include xanthophores (responsible for yellow coloration), erythrophores (responsible for red coloration), iridophores (responsible for iridescence), leucophores (responsible for white coloration), melanophores (responsible for black coloration), and cyanophores (responsible for blue coloration). The skin of wild leopard geckos contains xanthophores (yellow) and melanophores (black spots). Designer leopard geckos may possess erythrophores and leucophores since commercial breeding and artificial selection have allowed novel coloration to arise.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Sexual dimorphism is defined as a phenotypic difference between males and females of a species. It can be commonly found in animals, such as the leopard gecko and other reptiles. It exists in adult males and females, but can be difficult to determine in young geckos. The underside of a gecko truly determines the sex of the gecko. Males have pre-anal pores and hemipenal bulges while females have smaller pores and do not have external bulges.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Males can determine the sex of other leopard geckos by smelling pheromones on their skin. Males respond to males with aggressive behavior while they demonstrate courtship behavior towards females. Towards other males, the male would raise itself up from the ground, extend his limbs, and arch his back with the swelling of the tongue in aggression. He will then make short dashes and quick, vigorous bites, which frequently lacerate the skin and sometimes severely injure his opponent. Males behave the same way towards females while they are shedding their skin. Before and after the shedding of the skin, the males still express courtship behavior towards the females.


title: Leopard gecko

text: Leopard geckos typically breed in the summer. Females can store sperm over the course of their breeding season, and produce up to three clutches from one or two copulations. Females can lay about six to eight clutches of two eggs; eggs are laid approximately 21 to 28 days after mating. The average amount of time it takes for a newborn to hatch is anywhere between 35 and 89 days, although it is usually closer to the latter. Baby leopard geckos will have an "egg tooth", a calcareous tip at the end of its snout to help break their egg shell. Their "egg tooth" will fall off within one to two days. In addition to this, their skin will usually shed within 24 hours of hatching. The leopard gecko hatchling will not be able to eat until after the first shedding.