title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: Through the 2010s, "25 or 6 to 4" continued to be a staple in Chicago's live concert set list and in Peter Cetera's solo concert set list. In 2016, the group's former drummer Danny Seraphine reunited on stage with Chicago to perform "25 or 6 to 4" and two other songs at their induction ceremony for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: The music video for the 1986 remake won an American Video Award, in the Best Cinematography category, for Bobby Byrne.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: The song has been covered by various artists, including Straitjacket, Local H, Intruder, Bruce Foxton, The Moog Cookbook, Earth, Wind & Fire, Paul Gilbert, Pacifika, Mötley Crüe lead singer Vince Neil, Umphrey's McGee, Nick Ingman, and as an instrumental on the Dave Koz collaboration album Summer Horns. Constantine Maroulis released his version of the song as a single in 2011.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: In 2005, Jonathan Coulton made "When I'm 25 or 64", a mashup of "25 or 6 to 4" with "When I'm Sixty-Four" by The Beatles.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: "25 or 6 to 4" has become a popular song for marching bands to play. In 2018 Kevin Coffey of the "Omaha World-Herald" named it as the number one "marching band song of all time". As performed by the Jackson State University marching band, the HBCU Sports website ranked it number seven of the "Top 20 Cover Songs of 2018 by HBCU Bands". In a nod to its popularity with marching bands, Chicago performed "25 or 6 to 4" and "Saturday in the Park" with the Notre Dame Marching Band on the football field during halftime on October 21, 2017.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: The song has been used in popular media as well. It appears as an on-disc track in the video game "Rock Band 3"; has been featured on the animated TV series "King of the Hill"'s season 11 episode, "Luanne Gets Lucky"; and was used in the 2017 film "I, Tonya", directed by Craig Gillespie and starring Margot Robbie and Sebastian Stan.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: Jason Newsted, former bassist of Metallica, says that this song was the first rock or metal riff he ever learned to play.


title: 25 or 6 to 4

text: Paul Gilbert, former guitarist of Racer X and Mr. Big, says that a "really primitive version" of "25 or 6 to 4" was one of the first songs he taught himself to play on the guitar, using one string.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1951 United Kingdom general election was held twenty months after the 1950 general election, which the Labour Party had won with a slim majority of just five seats. The Labour government called a snap election for Thursday 25 October 1951 in the hope of increasing its parliamentary majority. However, despite winning the popular vote and achieving both the highest-ever total vote (until it was surpassed by the Conservative Party in 1992 and again in 2019) and highest percentage vote share, Labour won fewer seats than the Conservative Party. This was mainly due to the collapse of the Liberal vote, which enabled the Conservatives to win seats by default. The election marked the return of Winston Churchill as Prime Minister, and the beginning of Labour's thirteen-year spell in opposition. This was the third and final general election to be held during the reign of King George VI, for he died the following year on 6 February and was succeeded by his daughter, Elizabeth II. It was the last election in which the Conservatives did better in Scotland than in England.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1951 election was the second one to be covered on BBC Television. On election night, the results were televised from the BBC Lime Grove Studios in London. Graham Hutton, David Butler and H. G. Nicholas headed the election night coverage from 10.15pm until 4.00am on the television service. On the following day, television coverage started at 10.00am and continued throughout the day until 5.00pm.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: King George VI was apprehensive that, given that the government had such a slim majority and that he was to leave the country to go on his planned Commonwealth tour in early 1952, there was a possibility of a change of government in his absence; Clement Attlee decided to call the election to assuage this concern. (In the event, the King became too ill to travel, and delegated the tour to his daughter Princess Elizabeth shortly before his death in February 1952). Parliament was dissolved on 5 October 1951.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: The Labour government, which by now had implemented most of its manifesto from the 1945 election, was beginning to lose cabinet ministers, such as Ernest Bevin (death) and Stafford Cripps (health issues). The Conservative Party, however, after the previous year's election, had more new MPs.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: The Labour Party entered the election weakened by the emerging schism between Gaitskellites, on the right of the party, and left-wing Bevanites. Its manifesto stated that the party "proud of its record, sure in its policies—confidently asks the electors to renew its mandate". It identified four key tasks facing the United Kingdom which it would tackle: the need to work for peace, the need to work to "maintain full employment and to increase production", the need to reduce cost of living, and the need to "build a just society". The manifesto argued that only a Labour government could achieve these tasks. It also contrasted the Britain of 1951 with that of the interwar years (when there had largely been Conservative-led governments), saying this period saw "mass-unemployment; mass fear; mass misery". It did not promise more nationalisations as it did in the previous year's election, and instead focused on offering more council housing and a pledge to "associate the workers more closely with the administration of public industries and services", although it remained opposed to full workers' control of industries.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: While Labour began to have some policy divisions during the election campaign, the Conservatives ran an efficient campaign that was well-funded and orchestrated. Their manifesto "Britain Strong and Free" stressed that safeguarding "our traditional way of life" was integral to the Conservative purpose. Significantly, they did not propose to dismantle the British welfare state or the National Health Service which the Labour government had established. The manifesto did, however, promise to "stop all further nationalisation" and to repeal the Steel Act introduced by the Labour government, which was being implemented during the election season. It also attacked Labour for ending wartime rationing and price controls too slowly, and for the rise of industrial conflicts after the end of the wartime wage freeze and Defence Regulations bans on strike actions.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: As for the Liberal Party, its poor election result in 1950 only worsened this time; unable to get the same insurance against losses of deposits that it did in the previous year, it was able to field only 109 candidates as opposed to 478 in 1950, and thus posted the worst general election result in the party's history, getting just 2.5% of the vote and winning only six seats. The Liberals' (and later the Liberal Democrats') popular vote total has not fallen so low since, though their lowest total of six seats would be matched in several future elections. The Liberal Party's growing irrelevance weakened the Labour Party, for two-thirds of potential Liberal voters supported the Conservatives.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: Four candidates were returned unopposed, all of them Ulster Unionists in Northern Ireland. This is the most recent general election in which any candidates have been returned unopposed, although there have since been unopposed by-elections.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: The subsequent Labour defeat was significant for several reasons: the party polled almost a quarter of a million votes more than the Conservative Party and its National Liberal Party ally combined; won the most votes that Labour has ever won (as of 2019); and won the most votes of any political party in any election in British political history, a number not surpassed until the Conservative Party's victory in 1992.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: Despite this, the Conservative Party formed the next government with a majority of 17 seats. It performed much better with male working-class voters than in the elections of 1945 or 1950, and was able to tip the vote away from Labour in Lancashire, the Home Counties, and East Anglia. Under the first-past-the-post electoral system, many Labour votes were 'wasted' as part of large majorities for MPs in safe seats.


title: 1951 United Kingdom general election

text: This was the fourth of five elections in the twentieth century where a party lost the popular vote, but won the most seats. The others were January 1910, December 1910, 1929 and February 1974; it also happened in the 1874 election. The 1951 and 1874 elections are the only two examples of a political force winning an overall majority while losing the popular vote.


title: Letter of intent

text: A letter of intent (LOI or LoI, or Letter of Intent) is a document outlining the understanding between two or more parties which they intend to formalize in a legally binding agreement. The concept is similar to a heads of agreement, term sheet or memorandum of understanding. Merger and acquisition agreements, joint venture agreements, real property lease agreements and several other categories of agreements often make use of a letter of intent.


title: Letter of intent

text: The capitalized form "Letter of Intent" may be used in legal writing, but only when referring to a specific document under discussion.


title: Letter of intent

text: LOIs resemble short, written contracts, often in tabular form. They are not binding on the parties in their entirety. Many LOIs, however, contain provisions that are binding, such as those governing non-disclosure, governing law, exclusivity or a covenant to negotiate in good faith. A LOI may sometimes be interpreted by a court of law as binding the parties to it if it too-closely resembles a formal contract and does not contain a clear disclaimer.


title: Letter of intent

text: A letter of intent may be presented by one party to another party and subsequently negotiated before execution (or signature). If carefully negotiated, a LOI may serve to protect both parties to a transaction. For example, a seller of a business may incorporate what is known as a non-solicitation provision, which would restrict the buyer's ability to hire an employee of the seller's business should the two parties not be able to close the transaction. On the other hand, a LOI may protect the buyer of a business by expressly conditioning its obligation to complete the transaction if it is unable to secure financing for the transaction.


title: Letter of intent

text: In the UK construction industry, it has been noted that "a significant element" within the industry appears to be "content to have their commercial and legal relationships defined on the basis of a letter of intent rather than by clear and definite contracts", as a consequence of which problems "often arise" in relation to liability.


title: Letter of intent

text: In academia, a letter of intent is part of the application process, in which it is also known as a statement of purpose or application essay. In education in the United States, letters of intent are also frequently reached between high school senior athletes and colleges/universities, for the reservation of athletic scholarships for the athletes upon graduation from high school. School administrators in secondary education often require a letter of intent before approving the formation of a student club.


title: Letter of intent

text: In real estate, in cases where the real property in question is not listed on a multiple listing service, there may not be an easy way to notify the owner of the property and other interested parties of intent to purchase. Often it is necessary to officially begin the process of a purchase, and allow all peripheral interested parties to begin any other processes, with a letter of intent. For example, a multimillion-dollar loan for a commercial property may require a letter of intent before a financial institution will allow personnel to spend time working on said loan necessary for the completion of the sale. The same may be followed at the time of purchase by any company. A tenant and landlord may sign a letter of intent prior to signing a lease agreement to stipulate rental rates and all regulations of the future tenancy.


title: Letter of intent

text: In the solicitation of government grants, a letter of intent is highly encouraged but it is not required or binding, and does not enter into the review of a subsequent application. The information that it contains allows agency staff to estimate the potential workload and plan the review.


title: Kalinga War

text: The Kalinga War (ended ) was fought in ancient India between the Maurya Empire under Ashoka and the state of Kalinga, an independent feudal kingdom located on the east coast, in the present-day state of Odisha and northern parts of Andhra Pradesh. It is presumed that the battle was fought on Dhauli hills in Dhauli which is situated on the banks of Daya River. The Kalinga War was one of the largest and deadliest battles in Indian history. Kalinga did not have a king as it was culturally run without one.


title: Kalinga War

text: This is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession to the throne. In fact, this war marks the close of empire-building and military conquests of ancient India that began with the Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The war cost nearly 250,000 lives.


title: Kalinga War

text: According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.


title: Kalinga War

text: The reasons for invading Kalinga were to bring peace and for power. Kalinga was a prosperous region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. The northern part of Kalinga was known as the Utkala (Uttar: North, Kal: Kalinga), they were the first from the region to use a navy and traveled offshore to southeast Asia for trade. For that reason, Kalinga was able to develop several ports and a skilled navy. The culture of Kalinga was a blend of forest tribal and Brahminism co-existing peacefully.


title: Kalinga War

text: Kalinga was under the rule of the Nanda Empire who ruled over the region from their capital in Magadha until their fall in 321 BCE. Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga but had been repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering and annexing Kalinga to the vast Maurya Empire as soon as he securely established himself as the king of Magadha. Some scholars argue that Kalinga was a strategic threat to the Mauryas. It could interrupt communications between Mauryan capital Pataliputra and possessions in the central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for trade in the Bay of Bengal.


title: Kalinga War

text: The war was completed in the eighth year of Ashoka's reign, according to his own Edicts of Ashoka, probably in 261 BCE. After a bloody battle for the throne following the death of his father, Ashoka was successful in conquering Kalinga – but the consequences of the savagery changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge to never again wage a war of conquest.


title: Kalinga War

text: According to Megasthenes, the Greek historian at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the ruler of Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.


title: Kalinga War

text: Ashoka had seen the bloodshed and felt that he was the cause of the destruction. The whole area of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Some of Ashoka's later edicts state that about 150,000 people died on the Kalinga side and an almost equal number of Ashoka's army, though legends among the Odia people – descendants of Kalinga's natives – claim that these figures were highly exaggerated by Ashoka. As per the legends, Kalinga armies caused twice the amount of destruction they suffered. However, prominent historians have rejected this claim and the edicts of Ashoka are believed to be the primary evidence. Thousands of men and women were deported from Kalinga and forced to work on clearing wastelands for future settlement.


title: Kalinga War

text: Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the Edicts of Ashoka. The Kalinga War prompted Ashoka, already a non-engaged Buddhist, to devote the rest of his life to ahimsa (non-violence) and to "dharma-Vijaya" (victory through dharma). Following the conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and began an era of more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony, and prosperity.


title: Three-strikes law

text: In the United States, habitual offender laws (commonly referred to as three-strikes laws) have been implemented since at least 1952, and are part of the United States Justice Department's Anti-Violence Strategy. These laws require a person who is convicted of an offense and who has one or two other previous serious convictions to serve a mandatory life sentence in prison, with or without parole depending on the jurisdiction. The purpose of the laws is to drastically increase the punishment of those who continue to commit offenses after being convicted of one or two serious crimes.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Twenty-eight states have some form of a "three-strikes" law. A person accused under such laws is referred to in a few states (notably Connecticut and Kansas) as a "persistent offender", while Missouri uses the unique term "prior and persistent offender". In most jurisdictions, only crimes at the felony level qualify as serious offenses. And it may turn on which felonies are defined as being serious, which may vary depending on the jurisdiction, in particular, whether a subject felony must include violence or not.


title: Three-strikes law

text: The three-strikes law significantly increases the prison sentences of persons convicted of a felony who have been previously convicted of two or more violent crimes or serious felonies, and limits the ability of these offenders to receive a punishment other than a life sentence.


title: Three-strikes law

text: The expression "Three strikes and you are out" is derived from baseball, where a batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out.


title: Three-strikes law

text: The practice of imposing longer prison sentences on repeat offenders (versus first-time offenders who commit the same crime) is present throughout most of American history, as judges often take into consideration prior offenses when sentencing. However, there is a more recent history of mandatory prison sentences for repeat offenders. For example, New York State had a long-standing "Persistent Felony Offender" law dating back to the early 20th century (partially ruled unconstitutional in 2010, but reaffirmed "en banc" shortly after). But such sentences were not compulsory in each case, and judges had much more discretion as to what term of incarceration should be imposed.


title: Three-strikes law

text: During Prohibition the state of Michigan enacted one of the harshest laws against bootlegging in the nation. The law required a life sentence for those violating liquor laws for the fourth time. In late 1928 Etta Mae Miller, a mother of four was found guilty under this law, sparking outrage.


title: Three-strikes law

text: The first true "three-strikes" law was passed in 1993, when Washington voters approved Initiative 593. California passed its own in 1994, when their voters passed Proposition 184 by an overwhelming majority, with 72% in favor and 28% against. The initiative proposed to the voters had the title of "Three Strikes and You're Out", referring to "de facto" life imprisonment after being convicted of three violent or serious felonies which are listed under California Penal Code section 1192.7.


title: Three-strikes law

text: The concept swiftly spread to other states, but none of them chose to adopt a law as sweeping as California's. By 2004, twenty-six states and the federal government had laws that satisfy the general criteria for designation as "three-strikes" statutes—namely, that a third felony conviction brings a sentence of 20 to life where 20 years must be served before becoming parole eligible. A 1997 study found that in California, "the three-strikes law did not decrease serious crime or petty theft rates below the level expected on the basis of preexisting trends."


title: Three-strikes law

text: Three-strikes laws have been cited as an example of the McDonaldization of punishment, in which the focus of criminological and penological interest has shifted away from retribution and treatment tailored to the individual offender and toward the control of high-risk groups based on aggregations and statistical averages. A three-strikes system achieves uniformity in punishment of criminals in a certain class (viz., three-time offenders) in a way that is analogous to how a fast food restaurant achieves uniformity of its product.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee are the only states in the United States to date that have "two strikes" laws for the most serious violent crimes, such as murder, rape, serious cases of robbery, etc. and they all mandate a sentence of life imprisonment without parole for a conviction of any such crimes a second time around.


title: Three-strikes law

text: The exact application of the three-strikes laws varies considerably from state to state, but the laws call for life sentences for at least 25 years on their third strike. In the state of Maryland, any person who receives their fourth strike for any crime of violence will automatically be sentenced to life imprisonment without parole.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Most states require one or more of the three felony convictions to be for violent crimes in order for the mandatory sentence to be pronounced. Crimes that fall under the category of "violent" include: murder, kidnapping, sexual abuse, rape, aggravated robbery, and aggravated assault.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Some states include additional, lesser offenses that one would not normally see as violent. For example, the list of crimes that count as serious or violent in the state of California is much longer than that of other states, and consists of many lesser offenses that include: firearm violations, burglary, simple robbery, arson, and providing hard drugs to a minor, and drug possession. As another example, Texas does not require any of the three felony convictions to be violent, but specifically excludes certain "state jail felonies" from being counted for enhancement purposes.


title: Three-strikes law

text: One application of a three-strikes law was the Leonardo Andrade case in California in 2009. In this case, Leandro Andrade attempted to rob $153 in videotapes from two San Bernardino K-Mart stores. He was charged under California's three-strikes law because of his criminal history concerning drugs and other burglaries. Because of his past criminal records, he was sentenced to 50 years in prison with no parole after this last burglary of K-Mart. Although this sentencing was disputed by Erwin Chemerinsky, who represented Andrade, as cruel and unusual punishment under the 8th Amendment, the Supreme Court ruled in support for the life sentencing.


title: Three-strikes law

text: In 1995, Sioux City, Iowa native Tommy Lee Farmer, a professional criminal who had served 43 years in prison for murder and armed robbery was the first person in the United States to be convicted under the federal three-strikes law when he was sentenced to life in prison for an attempted robbery at an eastern Iowa convenience store. He was prosecuted by Stephen J. Rapp, a US Attorney appointed by Clinton. The sentencing was considered so significant that President Bill Clinton interrupted a vacation to make a press statement about it.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Another example of the three-strikes law involves Timothy L. Tyler who, in 1992 at age 24, was sentenced to life in prison without parole when his third conviction (a federal offense) triggered the federal three-strikes law, even though his two prior convictions were not considered violent, and neither conviction resulted in any prison time served.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Analyzing the effect of the Three-Strikes legislation as a means of deterrence and incapacitation, a 2004 study found that the Three-Strikes Law did not have a very significant effect on deterrence of crime, but also that this ineffectiveness may be due to the diminishing marginal returns associated with having pre-existing repeat offender laws in place.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Another study found that arrest rates in California were up to 20% lower for the group of offenders convicted of two-strike eligible offenses, compared to those convicted of one-strike eligible offenses. The study concluded that the three-strikes policy was deterring recidivists from committing crimes. California has seen a reduction in criminal activity "Stolzenberg and D’Alessio found that serious crime in California’s 10 largest cities collectively had dropped 15% during the 3-year post-intervention period"


title: Three-strikes law

text: A study written by Robert Parker, director of the Presley Center for Crime and Justice Studies at UC Riverside, states that violent crime began falling almost two years before California's three-strikes law was enacted in 1994. The study argues that the decrease in crime is linked to lower alcohol consumption and lower rates of unemployment.


title: Three-strikes law

text: A 2007 study from the Vera Institute of Justice in New York examined the effectiveness of incapacitation under all forms of sentencing. The study estimated that if US incarceration rates were increased by 10 percent, the crime rate would decrease by at least 2%. However, this action would be extremely costly to implement.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Another study found that three-strikes laws discourage criminals from committing misdemeanors for fear of a life prison sentence. Although this deters crime and contributes to lower crime rates, the laws may possibly push previously convicted criminals to commit more serious offenses. The study's author argues that this is so because under such laws, felons realize that they could face a long jail sentence for their next crime, and therefore they have little to lose by committing serious crimes rather than minor offenses. Through these findings, the study weighs both the pros and cons for the law.


title: Three-strikes law

text: A 2015 study found that three-strikes laws were associated with a 33% increase in the risk of fatal assaults on law enforcement officers.


title: Three-strikes law

text: In 2010, New Zealand enacted a similar three-strikes law called the Sentencing and Parole Reform Act 2010. The bill was sponsored by Police and Corrections Minister Judith Collins from the ruling National Party. It was passed into law by the National and ACT parties but was opposed by the opposition Labour and Green parties, and National's support partner, the Māori Party. While the Sentencing and Parole Act was supported by conservative groups such as the Sensible Sentencing Trust, critics attacked the law for promoting penal populism and disproportionately targeting the Māori community.


title: Three-strikes law

text: In early June 2018, an attempt by the Labour-led coalition government to overturn the Sentencing and Parole Act was blocked by Labour's support partner New Zealand First and the opposition National and ACT parties. NZ First had indicated its opposition to overturning the three-strikes bill, prompting Justice Minister Andrew Little to abandon the attempt.


title: Three-strikes law

text: On 11 November 2021, the Minister of Justice Kris Faafoi announced that the Government was introducing legislation to repeal the Sentencing and Parole Reform Act. On 9 August 2022, the New Zealand Parliament passed the Three Strikes Legislation Repeal Bill, which repealed the Sentencing and Parole Reform Act. The repeal legislation was supported by the Labour, Green, and Māori parties but was opposed by the National and ACT parties, who stated that they would reinstate three-strikes legislation if re-elected in 2023.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Some criticisms of three-strikes laws are that they clog the court system with defendants taking cases to trial in an attempt to avoid life sentences, and clog jails with defendants who must be detained while waiting for these trials because the likelihood of a life sentence makes them a flight risk. Life imprisonment is also an expensive correctional option, and potentially inefficient given that many prisoners serving these sentences are elderly and therefore both costly to provide health care services to and statistically at low risk of recidivism. Dependents of prisoners serving long sentences may also become burdensome on welfare services.


title: Three-strikes law

text: Prosecutors have also sometimes evaded the three-strikes laws by processing arrests as parole violations rather than new offenses, or by bringing misdemeanor charges when a felony charge would have been legally justified. Likewise, there is potential for witnesses to refuse to testify, and juries to refuse to convict, if they want to keep a defendant from receiving a life sentence; this can introduce disparities in punishments, defeating the goal of treating third-time offenders uniformly. Three-strikes laws have also been criticized for imposing disproportionate penalties and focusing too much on street crime rather than white-collar crime.


title: Dipole antenna

text: In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used class of antenna. The dipole is any one of a class of antennas producing a radiation pattern approximating that of an elementary electric dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so energized that the current has only one node at each end. A dipole antenna commonly consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors. This contrasts with a monopole antenna, which consists of a single rod or conductor with one side of the feedline connected to it, and the other side connected to some type of ground. A common example of a dipole is the "rabbit ears" television antenna found on broadcast television sets.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The dipole is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view. Most commonly it consists of two conductors of equal length oriented end-to-end with the feedline connected between them. Dipoles are frequently used as resonant antennas. If the feedpoint of such an antenna is shorted, then it will be able to resonate at a particular frequency, just like a guitar string that is plucked. Using the antenna at around that frequency is advantageous in terms of feedpoint impedance (and thus standing wave ratio), so its length is determined by the intended wavelength (or frequency) of operation. The most commonly used is the center-fed half-wave dipole which is just under a half-wavelength long. The radiation pattern of the half-wave dipole is maximum perpendicular to the conductor, falling to zero in the axial direction, thus implementing an omnidirectional antenna if installed vertically, or (more commonly) a weakly directional antenna if horizontal.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Although they may be used as standalone low-gain antennas, dipoles are also employed as driven elements in more complex antenna designs such as the Yagi antenna and driven arrays. Dipole antennas (or such designs derived from them, including the monopole) are used to feed more elaborate directional antennas such as a horn antenna, parabolic reflector, or corner reflector. Engineers analyze vertical (or other monopole) antennas on the basis of dipole antennas of which they are one half.


title: Dipole antenna

text: German physicist Heinrich Hertz first demonstrated the existence of radio waves in 1887 using what we now know as a dipole antenna (with capacitative end-loading). On the other hand, Guglielmo Marconi empirically found that he could just ground the transmitter (or one side of a transmission line, if used) dispensing with one half of the antenna, thus realizing the "vertical" or monopole antenna. For the low frequencies Marconi employed to achieve long-distance communications, this form was more practical; when radio moved to higher frequencies (especially VHF transmissions for FM radio and TV) it was advantageous for these much smaller antennas to be entirely atop a tower thus requiring a dipole antenna or one of its variations.


title: Dipole antenna

text: In the early days of radio, the thus-named Marconi antenna (monopole) and the doublet (dipole) were seen as distinct inventions. Now, however, the "monopole" antenna is understood as a special case of a dipole which has a virtual element "underground".


title: Dipole antenna

text: A short dipole is a dipole formed by two conductors with a total length substantially less than a half wavelength (). Short dipoles are sometimes used in applications where a full half-wave dipole would be too large. They can be analyzed easily using the results obtained below for the Hertzian dipole, a fictitious entity. Being shorter than a resonant antenna (half wavelength long) its feedpoint impedance includes a large capacitive reactance requiring a loading coil or other matching network in order to be practical, especially as a transmitting antenna.


title: Dipole antenna

text: To find the far-field electric and magnetic fields generated by a short dipole we use the result shown below for the Hertzian dipole (an infinitesimal current element) at a distance from the current and at an angle to the direction of the current, as being:


title: Dipole antenna

text: where the radiator consists of a current of formula_2 over a short length and formula_3 in electronics replaces the customary mathematical symbol for the "square root of −1". is the radian frequency (formula_4) and is the wavenumber (formula_5). is the impedance of free space (formula_6), which is the ratio of a free space plane wave's electric to magnetic field strength.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The feedpoint is usually at the center of the dipole as shown in the diagram. The current along dipole arms are approximately described as proportional to formula_7 where is the distance to the end of the arm. In the case of a short dipole, that is essentially a linear drop from formula_8 at the feedpoint to zero at the end. Therefore, this is comparable to a Hertzian dipole with an "effective" current equal to the average current over the conductor, so formula_9 With that substitution, the above equations closely approximate the fields generated by a short dipole fed by current formula_10


title: Dipole antenna

text: From the fields calculated above, one can find the radiated "flux" (power per unit area) at any point as the magnitude of the real part of the Poynting vector, ', which is given by formula_11 With ' and being at right angles and in phase, there is no imaginary part and is simply equal to formula_12 with the phase factors (the exponentials) cancelling out leaving:


title: Dipole antenna

text: We have now expressed the flux in terms of the feedpoint current and the ratio of the short dipole's length to the wavelength of radiation . The radiation pattern given by formula_14 is seen to be similar to and only slightly less directional than that of the half-wave dipole.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Using the above expression for the radiation in the far field for a given feedpoint current, we can integrate over all solid angle to obtain the total radiated power.


title: Dipole antenna

text: From that, it is possible to infer the radiation resistance, equal to the resistive (real) part of the feedpoint impedance, neglecting a component due to ohmic losses. By setting to the power supplied at the feedpoint formula_16 we find:


title: Dipole antenna

text: Again, these become exact for Setting despite its use not quite being valid for so large a fraction of the wavelength, the formula would predict a radiation resistance of 49 Ω, instead of the actual value of 73 Ω produced by a half-wave dipole when more correct quarter-wave sinusoidal currents are used.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The fundamental resonance of a thin linear conductor occurs at a frequency whose free-space wavelength is "twice" the wire's length; i.e. where the conductor is 1/2 wavelength long. Dipole antennas are frequently used at around that frequency and thus termed "half-wave dipole" antennas. This important case is dealt with in the next section.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Thin linear conductors of length "l" are in fact resonant at any integer multiple of a half-wavelength:


title: Dipole antenna

text: where "λ" = "c"/"f" is the wavelength and "n" is an integer. For a center-fed dipole, however, there is a great dissimilarity between "n" being odd or being even. Dipoles which are an "odd" number of half-wavelengths in length have reasonably low driving point impedances (which are purely resistive at that resonant frequency). However ones which are an "even" number of half-wavelengths in length, that is, an integer number of wavelengths in length, have a "high" driving point impedance (albeit purely resistive at that resonant frequency).


title: Dipole antenna

text: For instance, a full-wave dipole antenna can be made with two half-wavelength conductors placed end to end for a total length of approximately "L" = λ. This results in an additional gain over a half-wave dipole of about 2 dB. Full wave dipoles can be used in short wave broadcasting only by making the effective diameter very large and feeding from a high impedance balanced line. Cage dipoles are often used to get the large diameter.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A 5/4-wave dipole antenna has a much lower but not purely resistive feedpoint impedance, which requires a matching network to the impedance of the transmission line. Its gain is about 3 dB greater than a half-wave dipole, the highest gain of any dipole of any similar length.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Other reasonable lengths of dipole do not offer advantages and are seldom used. However the overtone resonances of a half-wave dipole antenna at odd multiples of its fundamental frequency are sometimes exploited. For instance, amateur radio antennas designed as half-wave dipoles at 7 MHz can also be used as 3/2-wave dipoles at 21 MHz; likewise VHF television antennas resonant at the low VHF television band (centered around 65 MHz) are also resonant at the high VHF television band (around 195 MHz).


title: Dipole antenna

text: A half-wave dipole antenna consists of two quarter-wavelength conductors placed end to end for a total length of approximately "L" = λ/2. The current distribution is that of a standing wave, approximately sinusoidal along the length of the dipole, with a node at each end and an antinode (peak current) at the center (feedpoint):


title: Dipole antenna

text: The directional factor cos[("π"/2)cos "θ"]/sin "θ" is barely different from sin "θ" applying to the short dipole, resulting in a very similar radiation pattern as noted above.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A numerical integration of the radiated power formula_21 over all solid angle, as we did for the short dipole, obtains a value for the total power P radiated by the dipole with a current having a peak value of "I" as in the form specified above. Dividing "P" by 4π"R" supplies the flux at a distance "R" "averaged" over all directions. Dividing the flux in the direction (where it is at its peak) at distance R by that average flux, we find the directive gain to be 1.64. This can also be directly computed using the cosine integral:


title: Dipole antenna

text: Using the induced EMF method, the real part of the driving point impedance can also be written in terms of the cosine integral, obtaining the same result:


title: Dipole antenna

text: If a half-wave dipole is driven at a point other the center, then the feed point resistance will be higher. The radiation resistance is "usually" expressed relative to the maximum current present along an antenna element, which for the half-wave dipole (and most other antennas) is also the current at the feedpoint. However, if the dipole is fed at a different point at a distance "x" from a current maximum (the center in the case of a half-wave dipole), then the current there is not "I" but only "I" cos("kx"). In order to supply the same power, the voltage at the feedpoint has to be similarly "increased" by the factor 1/cos("kx"). Consequently, the resistive part of the feedpoint impedance Re("V"/"I") is increased by the factor 1/cos("kx"):


title: Dipole antenna

text: This equation can also be used for dipole antennas of other lengths, provided that "R" has been computed relative to the current maximum, which is "not" generally the same as the feedpoint current for dipoles longer than half-wave. Note that this equation breaks down when feeding an antenna near a current node, where cos(kx) approaches zero. Indeed, the driving point impedance rises greatly, but is nevertheless limited due to quadrature components of the elements' current which is ignored in the above model for the current distribution.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A folded dipole is a half-wave dipole with an additional parallel wire connecting its two ends. If the additional wire has the same diameter and cross-section as the dipole, two nearly identical radiating currents are generated. The resulting far-field emission pattern is nearly identical to the one for the single-wire dipole described above, but at resonance its feedpoint impedance formula_27 is four times the radiation resistance of a single-wire dipole.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A folded "dipole" is, technically, a folded full-wave loop antenna, where the loop has been bent at opposing ends and squashed into two parallel wires in a flat line. Although the broad bandwidth, high feedpoint impedance, and high efficiency are characteristics more similar to a full loop antenna, the folded dipole's radiation pattern is more like an ordinary dipole. Since the operation of a single halfwave dipole is easier to understand, both full loops and folded dipoles are often described as two halfwave dipoles in parallel, connected at the ends.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The high feedpoint impedance formula_27 at resonance is because for a fixed amount of power, the total radiating current formula_29 is equal to twice the current in each wire separately and thus equal to twice the current at the feed point. We equate the average radiated power to the average power delivered at the feedpoint, we may write


title: Dipole antenna

text: The folded dipole is therefore well matched to 300 ohm balanced transmission lines, such as twin-feed ribbon cable. The folded dipole has a wider bandwidth than a single dipole. They can be used for transforming the value of input impedance of the dipole over a broad range of step-up ratios by changing the thicknesses of the wire conductors for the fed- and folded-sides. Instead of altering thickness or spacing, one can add a third parallel wire to increase the antenna impedance to 9 times that of a single-wire dipole, raising the impedance to 658 Ω, making a good match for open wire feed cable, and further broadening the resonant frequency band of the antenna.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Half-wave folded dipoles are often used for FM radio antennas; versions made with twin lead which can be hung on an inside wall often come with FM tuners. The T2FD antenna is a folded dipole. They are also widely used as driven elements for rooftop Yagi television antennas.


title: Dipole antenna

text: There are numerous modifications to the shape of a dipole antenna which are useful in one way or another but result in similar radiation characteristics (low gain). This is not to mention the many directional antennas which include one or more dipole elements in their design as driven elements, many of which are linked to in the information box at the bottom of this page.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The "vertical", "Marconi", or monopole antenna is a single-element antenna usually fed at the bottom (with the shield side of its unbalanced transmission line connected to ground). It behaves essentially as a dipole antenna. The ground (or ground plane) is considered to be a conductive surface which works as a reflector (see effect of ground). Vertical currents in the reflected image have the same direction (thus are "not" reflected about the ground) and phase as the current in the real antenna. The conductor and its image together act as a dipole in the upper half of space. Like a dipole, in order to achieve resonance (resistive feedpoint impedance) the conductor must be close to a quarter wavelength in height (like each conductor in a half-wave dipole).


title: Dipole antenna

text: In this upper side of space, the emitted field has the same amplitude of the field radiated by a similar dipole fed with the same current. Therefore, the total emitted power is half the emitted power of a dipole fed with the same current. As the current is the same, the radiation resistance (real part of series impedance) will be half of the series impedance of the comparable dipole. A quarter-wave monopole, then, has an impedance of formula_33 Ω. Another way of seeing this, is that a true dipole receiving a current I has voltages on its terminals of +V and −V, for an impedance across the terminals of 2V/I, whereas the comparable vertical antenna has the current I but an applied voltage of only V.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Since the fields above ground are the same as for the dipole, but only half the power is applied, the gain is doubled to 5.14 dBi. This is not an actual performance advantage per se, since in practice a dipole also reflects half of its power off the ground which (depending on the antenna height and sky angle) can augment (or cancel!) the direct signal. The vertical polarization of the monopole (as for a vertically oriented dipole) is advantageous at low elevation angles where the ground reflection combines with the direct wave approximately in phase.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The earth acts as a ground plane, but it can be a poor conductor leading to losses. Its conductivity can be improved (at cost) by laying a copper mesh. When an actual ground is not available (such as in a vehicle) other metallic surfaces can serve as a ground plane (typically the vehicle's roof). Alternatively, radial wires placed at the base of the antenna can form a ground plane. For VHF and UHF bands, the radiating and ground plane elements can be constructed from rigid rods or tubes. Using such an artificial ground plane allows for the entire antenna and "ground" to be mounted at an arbitrary height. One common modification has the radials forming the ground plane sloped down, which has the effect of raising the feedpoint impedance to around 50 Ω, matching common coaxial cable. No longer being a true ground, a balun (such as a simple choke balun) is then recommended.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The feedpoint impedance of a dipole antenna is sensitive to its electrical length and feedpoint position. Therefore, a dipole will generally only perform optimally over a rather narrow bandwidth, beyond which its impedance will become a poor match for the transmitter or receiver (and transmission line). The real (resistive) and imaginary (reactive) components of that impedance, as a function of electrical length, are shown in the accompanying graph. The detailed calculation of these numbers are described below. Note that the value of the reactance is highly dependent on the diameter of the conductors; this plot is for conductors with a diameter of 0.001 wavelengths.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Dipoles that are much smaller than one half the wavelength of the signal are called "short dipoles". These have a very low radiation resistance (and a high capacitive reactance) making them inefficient antennas. More of a transmitter's current is dissipated as heat due to the finite resistance of the conductors which is greater than the radiation resistance. However they can nevertheless be practical receiving antennas for longer wavelengths.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Dipoles whose length is approximately half the wavelength of the signal are called "half-wave dipoles" and are widely used as such or as the basis for derivative antenna designs. These have a radiation resistance which is much greater, closer to the characteristic impedances of available transmission lines, and normally much larger than the resistance of the conductors, so that their efficiency approaches 100%. In general radio engineering, the term "dipole", if not further qualified, is taken to mean a center-fed half-wave dipole.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A true half-wave dipole is one half of the wavelength λ in length, where in free space. Such a dipole has a feedpoint impedance consisting of 73Ω resistance and +43Ω reactance, thus presenting a slightly inductive reactance. To cancel that reactance, and present a pure resistance to the feedline, the element is shortened by the factor "k" for a net length "formula_34" of:


title: Dipole antenna

text: where "λ" is the free-space wavelength, "c" is the speed of light in free space, and "f" is the frequency. The adjustment factor "k" which causes feedpoint reactance to be eliminated, depends on the diameter of the conductor, as is plotted in the accompanying graph. "k" ranges from about 0.98 for thin wires (diameter, 0.00001 wavelengths) to about 0.94 for thick conductors (diameter, 0.008 wavelengths). This is because the effect of antenna length on reactance (upper graph) is much greater for thinner conductors, so that a smaller deviation from the exact half wavelength is required in order to cancel the 43 Ω inductive reactance it has when exactly λ/2. For the same reason, antennas with thicker conductors have a wider operating bandwidth over which they attain a practical standing wave ratio which is degraded by any remaining reactance.


title: Dipole antenna

text: For a typical "k" of about 0.95, the above formula for the corrected antenna length can be written, for a length in metres as 143/"f", or a length in feet as 468/"f" where "f" is the frequency in megahertz.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Dipole antennas of lengths approximately equal to any "odd" multiple of  λ are also resonant, presenting a small reactance (which can be cancelled by a small length adjustment). However these are rarely used. One size that is more practical though is a dipole with a length of wavelengths. Not being close to wavelengths, this antenna's impedance has a large (negative) reactance and can only be used with an impedance matching network (a so-called antenna tuner). It is a desirable length because such an antenna has the highest gain for any dipole which isn't a great deal longer.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A dipole is omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the wire axis, with the radiation falling to zero on the axis (off the ends of the antenna). In a half-wave dipole the radiation is maximum perpendicular to the antenna, declining as formula_36 to zero on the axis. Its radiation pattern in three dimensions (see figure) would be plotted approximately as a toroid (doughnut shape) symmetric about the conductor. When mounted vertically this results in maximum radiation in horizontal directions. When mounted horizontally, the radiation peaks at right angles (90°) to the conductor, with nulls in the direction of the dipole.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Neglecting electrical inefficiency, the antenna gain is equal to the directive gain, which is 1.5 (1.76 dBi) for a short dipole, increasing to 1.64 (2.15 dBi) for a half-wave dipole. For a 5/4 wave dipole the gain further increases to about 5.2 dBi, making this length desirable for that reason even though the antenna is then off-resonance. Longer dipoles than that have radiation patterns that are multi-lobed, with poorer gain (unless they are "much" longer) even along the strongest lobe. Other enhancements to the dipole (such as including a corner reflector or an array of dipoles) can be considered when more substantial directivity is desired. Such antenna designs, although based on the half-wave dipole, generally acquire their own names.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Ideally, a half-wave dipole should be fed using a balanced transmission line matching its typical 65–70 Ω input impedance. Twin lead with a similar impedance is available but seldom used and does not match the balanced antenna terminals of most radio and television receivers. Much more common is the use of common 300 Ω twin lead in conjunction with a "folded dipole". The driving point impedance of a half-wave folded dipole is 4 times that of a simple half-wave dipole, thus closely matching that 300 Ω characteristic impedance. Most FM broadcast band tuners and older analog televisions include balanced 300 Ω antenna input terminals. However twin lead has the drawback that it is electrically disturbed by any other nearby conductor (including earth); when used for transmitting, care must be taken not to place it near other conductors.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Many types of coaxial cable (or "coax") have a characteristic impedance of 75 Ω, which would otherwise be a good match for a half-wave dipole. However coax is a single-ended line whereas a center-fed dipole expects a balanced line (such as twin lead). By symmetry, one can see that the dipole's terminals have an equal but opposite voltage, whereas coax has one conductor grounded. Using coax regardless results in an unbalanced line, in which the currents along the two conductors of the transmission line are no longer equal and opposite. Since you then have a "net current" along the transmission line, the transmission line becomes an antenna itself, with unpredictable results (since it depends on the path of the transmission line). This will generally alter the antenna's intended radiation pattern, and change the impedance seen at the transmitter or receiver.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A balun is required to use coaxial cable with a dipole antenna. The balun transfers power between the single-ended coax and the balanced antenna, sometimes with an additional change in impedance. A balun can be implemented as a transformer which also allows for an impedance transformation. This is usually wound on a ferrite toroidal core. The toroid core material must be suitable for the frequency of use, and in a transmitting antenna it must be of sufficient size to avoid saturation. Other balun designs are mentioned below.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A so-called current balun uses a transformer wound on a toroid or rod of magnetic material such as ferrite. All of the current seen at the input goes into one terminal of the balanced antenna. It forms a balun by choking common-mode current. The material isn't critical for 1:1 because there is no transformer action applied to the desired differential current. A related design involves "two" transformers and includes a 1:4 impedance transformation.


title: Dipole antenna

text: A coax balun is a cost-effective method of eliminating feeder radiation, but is limited to a narrow set of operating frequencies.


title: Dipole antenna

text: One easy way to make a balun is to use a length of coaxial cable equal to half a wavelength. The inner core of the cable is linked at each end to one of the balanced connections for a feeder or dipole. One of these terminals should be connected to the inner core of the coaxial feeder. All three braids should be connected together. This then forms a 4:1 balun, which works correctly at only a narrow band of frequencies.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Another narrow-band design is to use a "λ"/4 length of metal pipe. The coaxial cable is placed inside the pipe; at one end the braid is wired to the pipe while at the other end no connection is made to the pipe. The balanced end of this balun is at the end where no connection is made to the pipe. The "λ"/4 conductor acts as a transformer, converting the zero impedance at the short to the braid into an infinite impedance at the open end. This infinite impedance at the open end of the pipe prevents current flowing into the outer coax formed by the outside of the inner coax shield and the pipe, forcing the current to remain in the inside coax. This balun design is impractical for low frequencies because of the long length of pipe that will be needed.


title: Dipole antenna

text: One of the most common applications of the dipole antenna is the "rabbit ears" or "bunny ears" television antenna, found atop broadcast television receivers. It is used to receive the VHF terrestrial television bands, consisting in the US of 54 to 88 MHz (band I) and 174 to 216 MHz (band III), with wavelengths of 5.5 to 1.4 m. Since this frequency range is much wider than a single fixed dipole antenna can cover, it is made with several degrees of adjustment. It is constructed of two telescoping rods that can each be extended out to about 1 m length (one quarter wavelength at 75 MHz). With control over the segments' length, angle with respect to vertical, and compass angle, one has much more flexibility in optimizing reception than available with a rooftop antenna even if equipped with an antenna rotor.


title: Dipole antenna

text: In contrast to the wide television frequency bands, the FM broadcast band (88-108 MHz) is narrow enough that a dipole antenna can cover it. For fixed use in homes, hi-fi tuners are typically supplied with simple folded dipoles resonant near the center of that band. The feedpoint impedance of a folded dipole, which is quadruple the impedance of a simple dipole, is a good match for 300Ω twin lead, so that is usually used for the transmission line to the tuner. A common construction is to make the arms of the folded dipole out of twin lead also, shorted at their ends. This flexible antenna can be conveniently taped or nailed to walls, following the contours of mouldings.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Horizontal wire dipole antennas are popular for use on the HF shortwave bands, both for transmitting and shortwave listening. They are usually constructed of two lengths of wire joined by a strain insulator in the center, which is the feedpoint. The ends can be attached to existing buildings, structures, or trees, taking advantage of their heights. If used for transmitting, it is essential that the ends of the antenna be attached to supports through strain insulators with a sufficiently high flashover voltage, since the antenna's high-voltage antinodes occur there. Being a balanced antenna, they are best fed with a balun between the (coax) transmission line and the feedpoint.


title: Dipole antenna

text: These are simple to put up for temporary or field use. But they are also widely used by radio amateurs and short wave listeners in fixed locations due to their simple (and inexpensive) construction, while still realizing a resonant antenna at frequencies where resonant antenna elements need to be of quite some size. They are an attractive solution for these frequencies when significant directionality is not desired, and the cost of several such resonant antennas for different frequency bands, built at home, may still be much less than a single commercially produced antenna.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Antennas for MF and LF radio stations are usually constructed as mast radiators, in which the vertical mast itself forms the antenna. Although mast radiators are most commonly monopoles, some are dipoles. The metal structure of the mast is divided at its midpoint into two insulated sections to make a vertical dipole, which is driven at the midpoint.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Many types of array antennas are constructed using multiple dipoles, usually half-wave dipoles. The purpose of using multiple dipoles is to increase the directional gain of the antenna over the gain of a single dipole; the radiation of the separate dipoles interferes to enhance power radiated in desired directions. In arrays with multiple dipole driven elements, the feedline is split using an electrical network in order to provide power to the elements, with careful attention paid to the relative phase delays due to transmission between the common point and each element.


title: Dipole antenna

text: In order to increase antenna gain in horizontal directions (at the expense of radiation towards the sky or towards the ground) one can stack antennas in the vertical direction in a broadside array where the antennas are fed in phase. Doing so with horizontal dipole antennas retains those dipoles' directionality and null in the direction of their elements. However, if each dipole is vertically oriented, in a so-called collinear antenna array (see graphic), that null direction becomes vertical and the array acquires an omnidirectional radiation pattern (in the horizontal plane) as is typically desired. Vertical collinear arrays are used in the VHF and UHF frequency bands at which wavelengths the size of the elements are small enough to practically stack several on a mast. They are a higher-gain alternative to quarter-wave ground plane antennas used in fixed base stations for mobile two-way radios, such as police, fire, and taxi dispatchers.


title: Dipole antenna

text: On the other hand, for a rotating antenna (or one used only towards a particular direction) one may desire increased gain and directivity in a particular horizontal direction. If the broadside array discussed above (whether collinear or not) is turned horizontal, then the one obtains a greater gain in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the antennas, at the expense of most other directions. Unfortunately that also means that the direction "opposite" the desired direction also has a high gain, whereas high gain is usually desired in one single direction. The power which is wasted in the reverse direction, however, can be redirected, for instance by using a large planar reflector, as is accomplished in the reflective array antenna, increasing the gain in the desired direction by another 3 dB


title: Dipole antenna

text: An alternative realization of a uni-directional antenna is the "end-fire array". In this case the dipoles are again side by side (but not collinear), but fed in progressing phases, arranged so that their waves add coherently in one direction but cancel in the opposite direction. So now, rather than being perpendicular to the array direction as in a broadside array, the directivity is "in" the array direction (i.e. the direction of the line connecting their feedpoints) but with one of the opposite directions suppressed.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The above described antennas with multiple driven elements require a complex feed system of signal splitting, phasing, distribution to the elements, and impedance matching. A different sort of end-fire array which is much more often used is based on the use of so-called "parasitic elements". In the popular high-gain Yagi antenna, only one of the dipoles is actually connected electrically, but the others receive and reradiate power supplied by the driven element. This time, the phasing is accomplished by careful choice of the lengths as well as positions of the parasitic elements, in order to concentrate gain in one direction and largely cancel radiation in the opposite direction (as well as all other directions). Although the realized gain is less than a driven array with the same number of elements, the simplicity of the electrical connections makes the Yagi more practical for consumer applications.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Antenna gain is frequently measured as decibels relative to a half-wave dipole. One reason is that practical antenna measurements need a reference strength to compare the field strength of an antenna under test at a particular distance to. Of course there is no such thing as an isotropic radiator, but the half-wave dipole is well understood and behaved, and can be constructed to be nearly 100% efficient. It is also a fairer comparison, since the gain obtained by the dipole itself is essentially "free," given that almost no antenna design has a smaller directive gain.


title: Dipole antenna

text: For a gain measured relative to a dipole, one says the antenna has a gain of ""x" dBd" (see decibel). More often, gains are expressed relative to an isotropic radiator, often for advertising reasons as this makes the gain appear higher. In consideration of the known gain of a half-wave dipole, 0 dBd is defined as 2.15 dBi; all gains in dBi are 2.15 higher than gains in dBd.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The "Hertzian dipole" or "elementary doublet" refers to a theoretical construction, rather than a physical antenna design: It is an idealized tiny segment of conductor carrying a RF current with constant amplitude and direction along its entire (short) length; a real antenna can be modeled as the combination of many Hertzian dipoles laid end-to-end.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The Hertzian dipole may be defined as a finite oscillating current (in a specified direction) of formula_37 over a tiny or infinitesimal length formula_38 at a specified position. The solution of the fields from a Hertzian dipole can be used as the basis for analytical or numerical calculation of the radiation from more complex antenna geometries (such as practical dipoles) by forming the superposition of fields from a large number of Hertzian dipoles comprising the current pattern of the actual antenna. As a function of position, taking the elementary current elements multiplied by infinitesimal lengths formula_39, the resulting field pattern then reduces to an integral over the path of an antenna conductor (modeled as a thin wire).


title: Dipole antenna

text: For the following derivation we shall take the current to be in the formula_40 direction centered at the origin where formula_41, with the sinusoidal time dependence formula_42 for all quantities being understood. The simplest approach is to use the calculation of the vector potential formula_43 using the formula for the retarded potential. Although the value of formula_44 is not unique, we shall constrain it according to the Lorenz gauge, and assuming sinusoidal current at radian frequency formula_45 the retardation of the field is converted just into a phase factor formula_46, where the wavenumber formula_47 in free space and formula_48 is the distance between the point being considered to the origin (where we assumed the current source to be), thus formula_49. This results in a vector potential formula_44 at position formula_51 due to that current element only, which we find is purely in the formula_40 direction (the direction of the current):


title: Dipole antenna

text: we can solve for the magnetic field formula_56, and from that (dependent on us having chosen the Lorenz gauge) the electric field formula_57 using


title: Dipole antenna

text: In spherical coordinates we find that the magnetic field formula_56 has only a component in the formula_60 direction:


title: Dipole antenna

text: This solution includes near field terms which are very strong near the source but which are "not" radiated. As seen in the accompanying animation, the formula_57 and formula_56 fields very close to the source are almost 90° out of phase, thus contributing very little to the Poynting vector by which radiated flux is computed. The near field solution for an antenna element (from the integral using this formula over the length of that element) is the field that can be used to compute the mutual impedance between it and another nearby element.


title: Dipole antenna

text: For computation of the far field radiation pattern, the above equations are simplified as only the formula_68 terms remain significant:


title: Dipole antenna

text: The far field pattern is thus seen to consist of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave, with electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and at right angles to the direction of propagation (the direction of formula_51, as we assumed the source to be at the origin). The electric polarization, in the formula_62 direction, is coplanar with the source current (in the formula_40 direction), while the magnetic field is at right angles to that, in the formula_60 direction. It can be seen from these equations, and also in the animation, that the fields at these distances are exactly "in phase". Both fields fall according to formula_68, with the power thus falling according to formula_75 as dictated by the inverse square law.


title: Dipole antenna

text: If one knows the far field radiation pattern due to a given antenna current, then it is possible to compute the radiation resistance directly. For the above fields due to the Hertzian dipole, we can compute the power flux according to the Poynting vector, resulting in a power (as averaged over one cycle) of:


title: Dipole antenna

text: Although not required, it is simplest to do the following exercise at a large formula_48 where the far field expressions for formula_57 and formula_56 apply. Consider a large sphere surrounding the source with a radius formula_48. We find the power per unit area crossing the surface of that sphere to be in the formula_81 direction according to:


title: Dipole antenna

text: where formula_84 is the free space wavelength corresponding to the radian frequency formula_45. By definition, the radiation resistance formula_86 times the average of the square of the current formula_87 is the net power radiated due to that current, so equating the above to formula_88 we find:


title: Dipole antenna

text: This method can be used to compute the radiation resistance for any antenna whose far field radiation pattern has been found in terms of a specific antenna current. If ohmic losses in the conductors are neglected, the radiation resistance (considered relative to the feedpoint) is identical to the resistive (real) component of the feedpoint impedance. Unfortunately this exercise tells us nothing about the reactive (imaginary) component of feedpoint impedance, whose calculation is considered below.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Using the above expression for the radiated flux given by the Poynting vector, it is also possible to compute the directive gain of the Hertzian dipole. Dividing the total power computed above by formula_90 we can find the flux averaged over all directions formula_91 as


title: Dipole antenna

text: Dividing the flux radiated in a "particular" direction by formula_91 we obtain the directive gain formula_94:


title: Dipole antenna

text: The commonly quoted antenna "gain", meaning the peak value of the gain pattern (radiation pattern), is found to be 1.5 to 1.76 dBi, lower than practically any other antenna configuration.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The Hertzian dipole is "similar to" but differs from the short dipole, discussed above. In both cases the conductor is very short compared to a wavelength, so the standing wave pattern present on a half-wave dipole (for instance) is absent. However, with the Hertzian dipole we specified that the current along that conductor is "constant" over its short length. This makes the Hertzian dipole useful for analysis of more complex antenna configurations, where every infinitesimal section of that "real" antenna's conductor can be modelled as a Hertzian dipole with the current found to be flowing in that real antenna.


title: Dipole antenna

text: However a short conductor fed with a RF voltage will "not" have a uniform current even along that short range. Rather, a short dipole in real life has a current equal to the feedpoint current at the feedpoint but falling linearly to zero over the length of that short conductor. By placing a "capacitive hat", such as a metallic ball, at the end of the conductor, it is possible for its self capacitance to absorb the current from the conductor and better approximate the constant current assumed for the Hertzian dipole. But again, the Hertzian dipole is meant only as a theoretical construct for antenna analysis.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The short dipole, with a feedpoint current of formula_29, has an "average" current over each conductor of only formula_97. The above field equations for the Hertzian dipole of length formula_38 would then predict the "actual" fields for a short dipole using that effective current formula_99. This would result in a power measured in the far field of "one quarter" that given by the above equation for the Poynting vector formula_100 if we had assumed an element current of formula_29. Consequently, it can be seen that the radiation resistance computed for the short dipole is one quarter of that computed above for the Hertzian dipole. But their radiation patterns (and gains) are identical.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The impedance seen at the feedpoint of a dipole of various lengths has been plotted above, in terms of the real (resistive) component "R" and the imaginary (reactive) component "jX" of that impedance. For the case of an antenna with perfect conductors (no ohmic loss), "R" is identical to the radiation resistance, which can more easily be computed from the total power in the far-field radiation pattern for a given applied current as we showed for the short dipole. The calculation of "X" is more difficult.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Using the "induced EMF method" closed form expressions are obtained for both components of the feedpoint impedance; such results are plotted above. The solution depends on an assumption for the form of the current distribution along the antenna conductors. For wavelength to element diameter ratios greater than about 60, the current distribution along each antenna element of length is very well approximated as having the form of the sine function at points along the antenna , with the current reaching zero at the elements' ends, where as follows:


title: Dipole antenna

text: where is the wavenumber given by and the amplitude is set to match a specified driving point current at


title: Dipole antenna

text: In cases where an approximately sinusoidal current distribution can be assumed, this method solves for the driving point impedance in closed form using the cosine and sine integral functions and . For a dipole of total length , the resistive and reactive components of the driving point impedance can be expressed as:


title: Dipole antenna

text: where is the radius of the conductors, is again the wavenumber as defined above, is the impedance of free space: and formula_104 is Euler's constant.


title: Dipole antenna

text: The induced EMF method is dependent on the assumption of a sinusoidal current distribution, delivering an accuracy better than about 10% as long as the wavelength to element diameter ratio is greater than about 60. However, for yet larger conductors numerical solutions are required which solve for the conductor's current distribution (rather than "assuming" a sinusoidal pattern). This can be based on approximating solutions for either "Pocklington's integrodifferential equation" or the "Hallén integral equation". These approaches also have greater generality, not being limited to linear conductors.


title: Dipole antenna

text: Numerical solution of either is performed using the "moment method solution" which requires expansion of that current into a set of basis functions; one simple (but not the best) choice, for instance, is to break up the conductor into "N" segments with a constant current assumed along each. After setting an appropriate weighting function the cost may be minimized through the inversion of a "N"×"N" matrix. Determination of each matrix element requires at least one double integration involving the weighting functions, which may become computationally intensive. These are simplified if the weighting functions are simply delta functions, which corresponds to fitting the boundary conditions for the current along the conductor at only "N" discrete points. Then the "N"×"N" matrix must be inverted, which is also computationally intensive as "N" increases. In one simple example, Balanis (2011) performs this computation to find the antenna impedance with different "N" using Pocklington's method, and finds that with "N" > 60 the solutions approach their limiting values to within a few percent.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nandan Mohanrao Nilekani (born 2 June 1955) is an Indian entrepreneur. He co-founded Infosys and is the non-executive chairman of Infosys replacing R Seshasayee and Ravi Venkatesan, who were the co-chairs of the board, on 24 August 2017. After the exit of Vishal Sikka, Nilekani was appointed as non-executive chairman of the board effective 24 August 2017.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: He was the chairman of the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI). After a successful career at Infosys, he headed the Government of India's technology committee, TAGUP. He is a member of Indian National Congress but not active in politics as of 2019.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nandan Nilekani was born on 2 June 1955 at Bangalore, Karnataka. His parents Durga and Mohan Rao Nilekani are from Konkani brahmin community originally from Sirsi Karnataka. His father worked as a general manager of Mysore and Minerva Mills and subscribed to Fabian Socialist ideals that influenced Nilekani in his early years. Nilekani's elder brother, Vijay, works in the Nuclear Energy Institute in the USA.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani studied at the Bishop Cotton Boys' School and St. Joseph's High School Dharwad, Karnataka PU College Dharwad and received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: In 1978 he started his career at the Mumbai-based Patni Computer Systems, where he met and was interviewed by N.R. Narayana Murthy. In 1981, Nilekani, Murthy, and five others left Patni to start their own company, Infosys. Nilekani became the chief executive officer of Infosys in March 2002 and served as CEO of the company through April 2007, when he relinquished his position to his colleague Kris Gopalakrishnan and became co-chairman of the board of directors. Before assuming leadership as CEO in 2002, Nilekani held various posts, including managing director, president, and chief operating officer. He served as its CEO from March 2002 to April 2007. During his five-year tenure as CEO, Infosys' topline grew sixfold to $3 billion.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: In 2017 he returned to Infosys after the exit of CEO Vishal Sikka to become a chairman. Upon his return he changed power centre from California back to its Bengaluru headquarters.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Also, such people as R. Seshasayee (a chairman and board director), Ravi Venkatesan (a co-chairman), Sikka (executive vice chairman and director), and Jeffrey Lehman and John Etchemendy (directors) resigned from their posts.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani left Infosys in July 2009 to serve as the chairman of the Unique Identification Authority of India, a cabinet-ranking position that he entered under the invitation of Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. As chair of the UIDAI he was responsible for implementing the envisioned Multipurpose National Identity Card, or Unique Identity card (UID Card) project in India. This initiative aims to provide a unique identification number for all residents of India and will be used primarily as the basis for efficient delivery of welfare services. The identification method will be biometric, and the drive to create this government database of the entire population of India has been called "the biggest social project on the planet."


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: They developed Aadhaar, which is an Indian biometric ID system, a database, which contains demographic information, home addresses of Indians. In April 2017 1.14 billion Indian people got their ID number. In 2016, World Bank Chief Economist Paul Romer called Aadhaar “the most sophisticated ID programme in the world.” This program is criticized for violating people's privacy and exposing personal information. Despite belonging to a different political ideology, he was continued as UIDA chairman by BJP Government led by Modi. The Aadhaar however was fully developed under direction of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and is now the most widely used identification document in India. UIDA project also helped create Aadhaar based UPI digital payment gateway in India, which is currently among the globally most used digital payment gateway.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: He is a member of the board of governors of the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) and the president of NCAER. He also sits on several advisory boards, including those of the World Economic Forum Foundation and the Bombay Heritage Fund.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani has appeared on "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart" to promote his book "Imagining India: The Idea of a Renewed Nation" and spoke at a TED conference in 2009 on his ideas for India's future.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani joined Indian National Congress in March 2014 and contested from the Bangalore South constituency where he lost by votes to BJP candidate Ananth Kumar in the 2014 Lok Sabha election.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: In December 2016, he joined a committee to investigate how people in India could use digital payments to a greater extent.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: According to news reports, he was the richest candidate for the 2014 Lok Sabha elections with declared assets worth Rs 7,710 crore in his affidavit filed before the Election Commission.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani is chairman of EkStep, a non-profit literacy and numeracy platform. Set up by the Nilekanis with an initial commitment of $10 million (about Rs 65 crore), EkStep looks at solving the 'learning problem' by creating a technology-led platform to help children in improving their 'learning outcomes' quite early in their life. EkStep intends to do it using gamified apps, hosted in the Google Play Store.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani is president of the governing body of the New Delhi-based National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), India’s largest and oldest non-profit economic research think tank. NCAER, established in 1956, does grant-funded independent economic policy research and sponsored research studies for governments and industry. Its work covers almost all branches of economics, from economic forecasting to poverty analysis. NCAER is among a handful of think tanks globally that collect primary survey data on a scientific, national basis covering households, enterprises, consumers, and individuals. NCAER’s economic and social data sets are used widely for research and analysis on India.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani is also a serial investor and he has invested in around 12 start-ups till date which includes: ShopX, Juggernaut, Mubble Networks, Fortigo, P2SME, RailYatri, Axiom Consulting, Systemantics India, Sedemac Mechatronics, Disha Medical Services, Tracxn, LetsVenture and TravelTriangle.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: In 2017 Nandan and wife Rohini decided to donate 50 percent of their wealth to "Giving Pledge", which is a movement organized by Bill Gates. The reason why they joined this movement was as following: ""We see inequality is increasing sharply in most countries. We see the young and the restless in this interconnected globe, unsure of their future, wanting more but anticipating less.""


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: In 2008 he also set up the Indian Institute for Human Settlements to help to solve urban challenges for India.


title: Nandan Nilekani

text: Nilekani is married to Rohini Nilekani (née Soman), whom he met at a quizzing event at IIT. They have two children, Nihar and Janhavi, each of whom has received an undergraduate degree from Yale University. His first language is Konkani. In addition to Konkani, he speaks Kannada fluently along with English, Marathi, and Hindi. The Nilekani family has a 2.31 percent stake in Infosys as per the quarter ended March 2018.


title: Amrit Kaur (actress)

text: Amrit Kaur (born June 4, 1993) is a Canadian actress, producer, and writer, best known for her role as Bela Malhotra on the 2021 HBO Max series, "The Sex Lives of College Girls."


title: Amrit Kaur (actress)

text: Amrit Kaur grew up in a Sikh family in Markham, Ontario. Her parents emigrated from India to Canada before she was born.


title: Amrit Kaur (actress)

text: She began acting as an extracurricular in high school, serving as the senior captain of her school's improv team. She earned her BFA in theatre from the School of the Arts, Media, Performance & Design at York University in Toronto.


title: Amrit Kaur (actress)

text: At the age of 18, Kaur was a participant in the 2014 Miss World Canada beauty pageant. She has acted in various American and Canadian television shows, including "American Gothic", "Kim's Convenience, Hudson & Rex, Nurses," and "The D Cut." Kaur also played Pasha in the 2017 Canadian film "Brown Girl Begins" and had appeared as Jessie in the 2018 romantic comedy film "Little Italy."


title: Amrit Kaur (actress)

text: Kaur was cast as freshman Bela Malhotra on Mindy Kaling's television series, "The Sex Lives of College Girls," which premiered on HBO Max in November 2021 and was renewed for a second season the following month. She auditioned for the role despite not having the required O-1 Visa, which allows "individuals with extraordinary ability to achievement" to work in the United States for up to three years. Because the producers discovered that she didn't have the visa, they canceled her callback but later gave her another chance. She then advanced to the final round of auditions but her O-1 Visa application was rejected. However, all of the producers on the show – including Kaling – wrote letters urging the U.S. government to accept her visa, which was later approved.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: English, in various dialects, is the most widely spoken language of the United Kingdom, but a number of regional languages are also spoken. These are Scots and Ulster Scots and the Celtic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and, as a revived language with few speakers, Cornish. British Sign Language is also used. There are also many languages spoken by immigrants who arrived recently to the United Kingdom, mainly within inner city areas; these languages are mainly from continental Europe and South Asia.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The "de facto" official language of the United Kingdom is English. Additionally, Welsh is a "de jure" official language in Wales. Welsh is spoken by 538,300 people in Wales according to the 2021 census. Approximately 124,000 people speak Irish in Northern Ireland, which is an official language in Northern Ireland alongside English.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The table below outlines living indigenous languages of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). The languages of the Crown Dependencies (the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man) are not included here.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: English is a West Germanic language brought around the 5th century CE to the east coast of what is now England by Germanic-speaking immigrants from around present-day northern Germany, who came to be known as the Anglo-Saxons. The fusion of these settlers' dialects became what is now termed Old English: the word "English" is derived from the name of the Angles. English soon displaced the previously predominant British Celtic and British Latin throughout most of England. It spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, via the British Empire, and of the United States since the mid-20th century, it has been widely dispersed around the world, and become the leading language of international discourse. Many English words are based on roots from Latin, because Latin in some form was the lingua franca of the Christian Church and of European intellectual life. The language was further influenced by the Old Norse language, with Viking invasions in the 8th and 9th centuries. The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century gave rise to heavy borrowings from Norman French, and vocabulary and spelling conventions began to give what had now become Middle English the superficial appearance of a close relationship with Romance languages. The Great Vowel Shift that began in the south of England in the 15th century is one of the historical events marking the separation of Middle and Modern English.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: Welsh () emerged in the 6th century from Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish, and the extinct language known as Cumbric. Welsh is thus a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages, and is spoken natively in Wales. There are also Welsh speakers in (The Colony), a Welsh settlement in Argentina, which began in 1865 and is situated mainly along the coast of Chubut Province in the south of Patagonia. Chubut estimates the number of Patagonian Welsh speakers to be about 1,500.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: Both the English and Welsh languages have official, but not always equal, status in Wales. English has de facto official status everywhere, whereas Welsh has limited, but still considerable, official, de jure, status in only the public service, the judiciary, and elsewhere as prescribed in legislation. The Welsh language is protected by the Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998, and since 1998 it has been common, for example, for almost all British Government Departments to provide both printed documentation and official websites in both English and Welsh. On 7 December 2010, the National Assembly for Wales unanimously approved a set of measures to develop the use of the Welsh language within Wales. On 9 February 2011, this measure received Royal Assent and was passed, thus making the Welsh language an officially recognised language within Wales.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The Welsh Language Board indicated in 2004 that 553,000 people (19.7% of the population of Wales in households or communal establishments) were able to speak Welsh. Based on an alternative definition, there has been a 0.9 percentage point increase when compared with the 2001 census, and an increase of approximately 35,000 in absolute numbers within Wales. Welsh is therefore a growing language within Wales. Of those 553,000 Welsh speakers, 57% (315,000) were considered by others to be fluent, and 477,000 people consider themselves fluent or "fair" speakers. 62% of speakers (340,000) claimed to speak the language daily, including 88% of fluent speakers.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: However, there is some controversy over the actual number who speak Welsh: some statistics include people who have studied Welsh to GCSE standard, many of whom could not be regarded as fluent speakers of the language. Conversely, some first-language speakers may choose not to report themselves as such. These phenomena, also seen with other minority languages outside the UK, make it harder to establish an accurate and unbiased figure for how many people speak it fluently. Furthermore, no question about Welsh language ability was asked in the 2001 census outside Wales, thereby ignoring a considerable population of Welsh speakers – particularly concentrated in neighbouring English counties and in London and other large cities. It is estimated that 110,000 to 150,000 people in England speak Welsh.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: Nevertheless, the 2011 census recorded an overall reduction in Welsh speakers, from 582,000 in 2001 to 562,000 in 2011, despite an increase in the size of the population—a 2% drop (from 21% to 19%) in the proportion of Welsh speakers.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: Scottish Gaelic is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish, and thus descends ultimately from Primitive Irish. Outside Scotland, a dialect of the language known as Canadian Gaelic exists in Canada on Cape Breton Island and isolated areas of the Nova Scotia mainland. This variety has around 2000 speakers, amounting to 1.3% of the population of Cape Breton Island.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people (1.1% of the Scottish population aged over three years old) in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, with the Outer Hebrides being the main stronghold of the language. The census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, a decline of 6,226. Despite this decline, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The Gaelic language was given official recognition for the first time in Scotland in 2005, by the Scottish Parliament's "Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005", which aims to promote the Gaelic language to a status "commanding equal respect" with English. However, this wording has no clear meaning in law, and was chosen to prevent the assumption that the Gaelic language is in any way considered to have "equal validity or parity of esteem with English". A major limitation of the act, though, is that it does not constitute any form of recognition for the Gaelic language by the UK government, and UK public bodies operating in Scotland, as reserved bodies, are explicitly exempted from its provisions.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The Scots language originated from Northumbrian Old English. The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria stretched from south Yorkshire to the Firth of Forth from where the Scottish elite continued the language shift northwards. Since there are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing languages from dialects, scholars and other interested parties often disagree about the linguistic, historical and social status of Scots. Although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do exist, these often render contradictory results. Focused broad Scots is at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum, with Scottish Standard English at the other. Consequently, Scots is often regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, but with its own distinct dialects. Alternatively Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: The 2011 UK census was the first to ask residents of Scotland about Scots. A campaign called Aye Can was set up to help individuals answer the question. The specific wording used was "Which of these can you do? Tick all that apply" with options for 'Understand', 'Speak', 'Read' and 'Write' in three columns: English, Scottish Gaelic and Scots. Of approximately 5.1 million respondents, about 1.2 million (24%) could speak, read and write Scots, 3.2 million (62%) had no skills in Scots and the remainder had some degree of skill, such as understanding Scots (0.27 million, 5.2%) or being able to speak it but not read or write it (0.18 million, 3.5%). There were also small numbers of Scots speakers recorded in England and Wales on the 2011 Census, with the largest numbers being either in bordering areas (e.g. Carlisle) or in areas that had recruited large numbers of Scottish workers in the past (e.g. Corby or the former mining areas of Kent).


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: 2% speak Ulster Scots, seen by some as a language distinct from English and by some as a dialect of English, according to the 1999 Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey (around 30,000 speakers). Some definitions of Ulster Scots may also include Standard English spoken with an Ulster Scots accent. The language was brought to Ireland by Scottish planters from the 16th Century.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: Irish was the predominant language of the Irish people for most of their recorded history, and they brought their Gaelic speech with them to other countries, notably Scotland and the Isle of Man where it gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Ireland's population. In the 2011 census, 11% of the population of Northern Ireland claimed "some knowledge of Irish" and 3.7% reported being able to "speak, read, write and understand" Irish. In another survey, from 1999, 1% of respondents said they spoke it as their main language at home.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: Cornish, a Brythonic Celtic language related to Welsh, was spoken in Cornwall throughout the Middle Ages. Its use began to decline from the 14th century, especially after the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549. The language continued to function as a first language in Penwith in the far west of Cornwall until the late 18th century, with the last native speaker thought to have died in 1777.


title: Languages of the United Kingdom

text: A revival initiated by Henry Jenner began in 1903. In 2002, the Cornish language was named as a historical regional language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The UN classes it as a critically endangered language.