title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda managed nine players who won the NL Rookie of the Year Award. The winners came in two strings of consecutive players. From 1979 to 1982, he managed Rick Sutcliffe, Steve Howe, Fernando Valenzuela, and Steve Sax. From 1992 to 1995, he managed Eric Karros, Mike Piazza, Raúl Mondesí, and Hideo Nomo. Before retiring during the 1996 season, he had also managed that year's eventual winner, Todd Hollandsworth.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda's final game was a 4–3 victory over the Houston Astros, at Dodger Stadium, on June 23, 1996. The following day, he drove himself to the hospital complaining of abdominal pain, and in fact was having a heart attack. Former shortstop Bill Russell would take the reins of the team on an interim basis. While Lasorda would recover, the Dodger front office decided to make Russell's appointment permanent on July 29 upon Lasorda announcing formally his retirement, thus making Russell only the third man to manage the Dodgers in 43 years. His 1,599 career wins rank 22nd all-time.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda was named vice president of the Dodgers upon his retirement from managing in 1996. On June 22, 1998, he became interim General Manager upon the firing of Fred Claire. After the season, he helped find a permanent replacement for Claire and was made senior vice president of the Dodgers.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda came out of retirement to manage the U.S. national team at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia. He led the Americans to the gold medal, beating favored Cuba, which had won the gold medal at the prior two Olympics. In doing so, he became the first manager to win a World Series championship and lead a team to Olympic gold. Lasorda coached the 2001 All-Star Game as third base coach. While at the plate, Vladimir Guerrero lost his bat while swinging and it flew towards Lasorda, causing him to fall backwards. Lasorda was unharmed.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Following the sale of the Dodgers to Frank McCourt in 2004, Lasorda was appointed special advisor to the chairman, where his responsibilities included scouting, evaluating, and teaching minor league players, acting as an advisor and ambassador for the Dodgers' international affiliations, and representing the Dodgers in public appearances and speaking engagements.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: During spring training in 2008, the Dodgers were invited to play a series of exhibition games in Taiwan. Dodgers manager Joe Torre took a group of players with him for that series. The majority of the team remained behind in Florida to finish out the Grapefruit League season. Lasorda briefly came out of retirement to manage the team that remained in Florida.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: In 2011 an unnamed Dodger executive came up with the idea of having Dodger manager Don Mattingly ask Lasorda to be an honorary coach on his 84th birthday, against the San Francisco Giants.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1997 as a manager in his first year of eligibility. The Dodgers retired his uniform number (2) on August 15, 1997 and renamed a street in Dodgertown as "Tommy Lasorda Lane". In 2014, a new restaurant named "Lasorda's Trattoria" opened at Dodger Stadium.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda was famous for his colorful personality and outspoken opinions regarding players and other personnel associated with baseball. He had a number of obscenity-filled tirades, some of which were taped and became underground classics, like his explosion over Kurt Bevacqua in 1982. The most famous of these is his "Dave Kingman tirade" in 1978, in which Lasorda ranted at reporter Paul Olden, who asked him about Kingman hitting three home runs against the Dodgers that day.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: He was also known for being fiercely loyal to his players. He explained in an essay he wrote for Tim McCarver’s compilation volume "Diamond Gems" that he wanted to break a mold by ending a longstanding unspoken taboo against managers socializing with their players off the field. He felt it made players even more loyal to him if they saw him as a friend as well. He also said that he made it his business to know the names of all of his players’ wives and children and to ask about them regularly, another characteristic that endeared him to his players for many years.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: In 1996, Lasorda voiced the role of Lucky Lasorta, a Rough Collie commentating the baseball game in the film "". He made a cameo appearance in the movie "Ladybugs" (1992) alongside comedian Rodney Dangerfield. Lasorda portrayed the Dugout Wizard in the syndicated children's television show "The Baseball Bunch".<ref name="CNN/SI"></ref> His other television credits playing himself include "Silver Spoons", "Who's the Boss?", "CHiPs", "Hart to Hart", "Fantasy Island", "Police Squad!", "Hee Haw", "Simon & Simon", "Everybody Loves Raymond", and "American Restoration".


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda partially owned the food company Lasorda Foods, which was known primarily for pasta sauces that Lasorda stated were based on a family recipe passed down to his wife, Jo. In September 1989, the company became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Denver firm Discovery Capital Corp. Lasorda continued to own 10% of the restructured entity. The parent company through which Lasorda maintained his stake, Lasorda Foods Holding Corp Inc., was initially based in Fountain Valley, California, before moving to Irvine and then Paramount. A Boca Raton, Florida-based company, Modami Services, acquired Lasorda Foods Holding Corp Inc. in August 1993. Lasorda and Lasorda Foods President Steven Fox, who together owned a majority of Lasorda Foods stock, were paid in Modami shares.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: In June 2005, President George W. Bush asked Lasorda to serve as a delegate to the U.S. National Day at the World Exposition in Aichi, Japan. In 2008, the government of Japan conferred upon Lasorda the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette, which represents the fourth-highest of eight classes associated with the award. The decoration was presented in acknowledgment of his contributions to Japanese baseball.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Prior to his death, Lasorda was the oldest living Hall of Famer, attaining that distinction after the death of Red Schoendienst on June 6, 2018.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda was born and raised with four brothers. His father, Sabatino was an Italian immigrant from Tollo the region of Abruzzo (Italy). His mother was Carmella (Cavuto) Lasorda. He was second born of five sons. A practicing Roman Catholic, he and his wife Jo, a Baptist, were married in 1950. Lasorda would have a priest come to Dodger games on Sundays to offer Mass for Catholic players. The couple met in Jo's hometown of Greenville, South Carolina while Lasorda was playing there for the Greenville Spinners. They resided in Fullerton, California, for more than 50 years and had two children. They named a gymnasium and youth center in memory of their son, Tom Jr., in Yorba Linda, California on September 7, 1997. In 1991, Tom Jr. (known as "Spunky") died of complications related to AIDS. Lasorda denied that his son was gay; according to sportswriter Bill Plaschke, he insisted his son died of cancer.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: Lasorda was the godfather to Thomas Piazza, the younger brother of Major League Hall of Fame catcher Mike Piazza, both of whom are also from Lasorda's


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: hometown of Norristown, Pennsylvania. Thomas was named after Lasorda and it has been widely misstated by Steve Staats that Lasorda is Mike's godfather. Lasorda was also the godfather to Alex Avila, a catcher with the Washington Nationals. Alex's grandfather, Ralph Avila, is a former scout with the Dodgers and friend to Lasorda of over 50 years. Alex's middle name of Thomas was given for Lasorda.


title: Tommy Lasorda

text: On June 3, 2012, at age 84, Lasorda was hospitalized in New York City after suffering a heart attack. The heart attack was not considered to be very serious. On November 8, 2020, Lasorda was hospitalized for heart problems and was reported to be "in serious condition" in intensive care. The Dodgers did not make the announcement public about his hospitalization until a week later. On December 1, 2020, Lasorda was taken out of the intensive care unit as his condition continued to improve. After being released from the hospital on January 5, 2021, he entered sudden cardiac arrest at his home two days later and was rushed back to the hospital, where he was pronounced dead that night. He was 93. Numerous buildings in Los Angeles were illuminated in blue in tribute to Lasorda, including City Hall, Staples Center, and Banc of California Stadium; at Dodger Stadium, flags were flown at half-staff.


title: Hoyte van Hoytema

text: Hoyte van Hoytema (; born 4 October 1971) is a Swiss-born Dutch-Swedish cinematographer who studied at the National Film School in Łódź. His work includes "Let the Right One In" (2008), "The Fighter" (2010), "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy" (2011), "Her" (2013), the James Bond film "Spectre" (2015), "Ad Astra" (2019), and "Nope" (2022). Van Hoytema is also known for his collaborations with director Christopher Nolan, having shot "Interstellar" (2014), "Dunkirk" (2017), "Tenet" (2020), and the upcoming film Oppenheimer (2023). His work has been highly praised by film critics and audiences alike and has earned him multiple awards, including one Academy Award nomination and three BAFTA Award nominations for Best Cinematography.


title: Hoyte van Hoytema

text: Van Hoytema has shot several feature films, documentaries, and successful television series. His collaborations with directors Mikael Marcimain, Tomas Alfredson, and Christopher Nolan have won him critical acclaim and several national and international prizes.


title: Hoyte van Hoytema

text: He is a member of the American Society of Cinematographers, Swedish Society of Cinematographers, and the Netherlands Society of Cinematographers.


title: Hoyte van Hoytema

text: Van Hoytema was born to Dutch parents in Horgen, Zürich, Switzerland. Of his nationality, Hoytema stated "I'm not really affiliated with Switzerland, I'm born there, that is all. My parents were there very briefly. They are both from Holland. I'm Dutch, but it has been over 20 years since I was in Holland. What has been important for my career has taken place in Sweden. I have a Swedish wife and a Swedish daughter, and I feel adopted by Sweden. I feel most connected to Sweden."


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Edward Osborne Wilson (June 10, 1929 – December 26, 2021) was an American biologist, naturalist, entomologist and writer. According to David Attenborough, Wilson was the world's leading expert in his specialty of myrmecology, the study of ants. He was nicknamed the "ant man".


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson has been called "the father of sociobiology", "the father of biodiversity" and the "natural heir" to Charles Darwin. He has been praised for his environmental advocacy, and his secular-humanist and deist ideas pertaining to religious and ethical matters. Among his contributions to ecological theory is the theory of island biogeography (developed in collaboration with the mathematical ecologist Robert MacArthur), which served as the foundation of the field of conservation area design, as well as the unified neutral theory of biodiversity of Stephen P. Hubbell.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson was the Pellegrino University Research Professor Emeritus in Entomology for the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, a lecturer at Duke University, and a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. The Royal Swedish Academy awarded Wilson the Crafoord Prize. He was a humanist laureate of the International Academy of Humanism. He was a two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction (for "On Human Nature" in 1979, and "The Ants" in 1991) and a "New York Times" bestselling author for "The Social Conquest of Earth", "Letters to a Young Scientist", and "The Meaning of Human Existence".


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Edward Osborne Wilson was born on June 10, 1929, in Birmingham, Alabama, a single child to Inez Linnette Freeman and Edward Osborne Wilson. According to his autobiography "Naturalist", he grew up in various towns in the Southern United States including Mobile, Alabama, Decatur, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. From an early age, he was interested in natural history. His father was an alcoholic who eventually committed suicide. His parents allowed him to bring home black widow spiders and keep them on the porch.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In the same year that his parents divorced, Wilson blinded himself in one eye in a fishing accident. He suffered for hours, but he continued fishing. He did not complain because he was anxious to stay outdoors. He did not seek medical treatment. Several months later, his right pupil clouded over with a cataract. He was admitted to Pensacola Hospital to have the lens removed. Wilson writes, in his autobiography, that the "surgery was a terrifying [19th] century ordeal". Wilson retained full sight in his left eye, with a vision of 20/10. The 20/10 vision prompted him to focus on "little things": "I noticed butterflies and ants more than other kids did, and took an interest in them automatically."


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Although he had lost his stereoscopic vision, he could still see fine print and the hairs on the bodies of small insects. His reduced ability to observe mammals and birds led him to concentrate on insects.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: At the age of nine, Wilson undertook his first expeditions at the Rock Creek Park in Washington, DC. He began to collect insects and he gained a passion for butterflies. He would capture them using nets made with brooms, coat hangers, and cheesecloth bags. Going on these expeditions led to Wilson's fascination with ants. He describes in his autobiography how one day he pulled the bark of a rotting tree away and discovered citronella ants underneath. The worker ants he found were "short, fat, brilliant yellow, and emitted a strong lemony odor". Wilson said the event left a "vivid and lasting impression on [him]". He also earned the Eagle Scout award and served as Nature Director of his Boy Scout summer camp. At age 18, intent on becoming an entomologist, he began by collecting flies, but the shortage of insect pins caused by World War II caused him to switch to ants, which could be stored in vials. With the encouragement of Marion R. Smith, a myrmecologist from the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, Wilson began a survey of all the ants of Alabama. This study led him to report the first colony of fire ants in the U.S., near the port of Mobile.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson was concerned that he might not be able to afford to go to a university, and tried to enlist in the United States Army, intending to earn U.S. government financial support for his education. He failed the Army medical examination due to his impaired eyesight, but was able to afford to enroll in the University of Alabama, where he earned his B.S. and M.S. degrees in biology in 1950. In 1951, Wilson transferred to Harvard University.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Appointed to the Harvard Society of Fellows, he could travel on overseas expeditions, collecting ant species of Cuba and Mexico and travel the South Pacific, including Australia, New Guinea, Fiji, New Caledonia, and Sri Lanka. In 1955, he received his Ph.D. and married Irene Kelley.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: From 1956 until 1996, Wilson was part of the faculty of Harvard. He began as an ant taxonomist and worked on understanding their microevolution, how they developed into new species by escaping environmental disadvantages and moving into new habitats. He developed a theory of the "taxon cycle".


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In collaboration with mathematician William H. Bossert, Wilson developed a classification of pheromones based on insect communication patterns. In the 1960s, he collaborated with mathematician and ecologist Robert MacArthur in developing the theory of species equilibrium. In the 1970s he and Daniel S. Simberloff tested this theory on tiny mangrove islets in the Florida Keys. They eradicated all insect species and observed the re-population by new species. Wilson and MacArthur's book "The Theory of Island Biogeography" became a standard ecology text.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In 1971, he published "The Insect Societies", which argues that insect behavior and the behavior of other animals are influenced by similar evolutionary pressures. In 1973, Wilson was appointed the curator of entomology at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1975, he published the book "" applying his theories of insect behavior to vertebrates, and in the last chapter, humans. He speculated that evolved and inherited tendencies were responsible for hierarchical social organization among humans. In 1978 he published "On Human Nature", which dealt with the role of biology in the evolution of human culture and won a Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson was named the Frank B. Baird, Jr., Professor of Science in 1976 and, after his retirement from Harvard in 1996, became the Pellegrino University Professor Emeritus.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In 1981 after collaborating with Charles Lumsden, he published "Genes, Mind and Culture", a theory of gene-culture coevolution. In 1990 he published "The Ants", co-written with Bert Hölldobler, his second Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In the 1990s, he published "The Diversity of Life" (1992), an autobiography: "Naturalist" (1994), and "Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge" (1998) about the unity of the natural and social sciences.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In 1996, Wilson officially retired from Harvard University, where he continued to hold the positions of Professor Emeritus and Honorary Curator in Entomology.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: He fully retired from Harvard in 2002 at age 73. After stepping down, he published more than a dozen books, including a digital biology textbook for the iPad.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: He founded the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation, which finances the PEN/E. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award and is an "independent foundation" at the Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University. Wilson became a special lecturer at Duke University as part of the agreement.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson and his wife, Irene, resided in Lexington, Massachusetts. He had a daughter, Catherine. He was preceded in death by his wife (on August 7, 2021) and died in nearby Burlington on December 26, 2021, at the age of 92.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson used sociobiology and evolutionary principles to explain the behavior of social insects and then to understand the social behavior of other animals, including humans, thus establishing sociobiology as a new scientific field. He argued that all animal behavior, including that of humans, is the product of heredity, environmental stimuli, and past experiences, and that free will is an illusion. He referred to the biological basis of behavior as the "genetic leash". The sociobiological view is that all animal social behavior is governed by epigenetic rules worked out by the laws of evolution. This theory and research proved to be seminal, controversial, and influential.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson argued that the unit of selection is a gene, the basic element of heredity. The "target" of selection is normally the individual who carries an ensemble of genes of certain kinds. With regard to the use of kin selection in explaining the behavior of eusocial insects, the "new view that I'm proposing is that it was group selection all along, an idea first roughly formulated by Darwin."


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Sociobiological research was at the time particularly controversial with regard to its application to humans. The theory established a scientific argument for rejecting the common doctrine of tabula rasa, which holds that human beings are born without any innate mental content and that culture functions to increase human knowledge and aid in survival and success.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: "Sociobiology" was initially met with substantial criticism. Following its publication, Wilson was accused of racism, misogyny, and sympathy to eugenics. Several of Wilson's colleagues at Harvard, such as Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, were strongly opposed to his work on sociobiology. Gould, Lewontin, and others from the Sociobiology Study Group from the Boston area, associated with the organization Science for the People, wrote "Against 'Sociobiology'" in an open letter criticizing Wilson's "deterministic view of human society and human action". Other public lectures, reading groups, and press releases were organized criticizing Wilson's work; in response, in March 1976 Wilson produced a discussion article entitled "Academic Vigilantism and the Political Significance of Sociobiology" in "BioScience".


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In February 1978, while participating in a discussion on sociobiology at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Wilson was surrounded, chanted at and doused with water by members of the International Committee Against Racism, who accused Wilson of advocating racism and genetic determinism. Steven Jay Gould, who was present at the event, and Science for the People, which had previously protested Wilson, condemned the attack.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Philosopher Mary Midgley encountered "Sociobiology" in the process of writing "Beast and Man" (1979) and significantly rewrote the book to offer a critique of Wilson's views. Midgley praised the book for the study of animal behavior, clarity, scholarship, and encyclopedic scope, but extensively critiqued Wilson for conceptual confusion, scientism, and anthropomorphism of genetics.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson wrote in his 1978 book "On Human Nature", "The evolutionary epic is probably the best myth we will ever have." Wilson's fame prompted use of the morphed phrase epic of evolution. The book won the Pulitzer Prize in 1979.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson, along with Bert Hölldobler, carried out a systematic study of ants and ant behavior, culminating in the 1990 encyclopedic work "The Ants". Because much self-sacrificing behavior on the part of individual ants can be explained on the basis of their genetic interests in the survival of the sisters, with whom they share 75% of their genes (though the actual case is some species' queens mate with multiple males and therefore some workers in a colony would only be 25% related), Wilson argued for a sociobiological explanation for all social behavior on the model of the behavior of the social insects.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson said in reference to ants "Karl Marx was right, socialism works, it is just that he had the wrong species". He asserted that individual ants and other eusocial species were able to reach higher Darwinian fitness putting the needs of the colony above their own needs as individuals because they lack reproductive independence: individual ants cannot reproduce without a queen, so they can only increase their fitness by working to enhance the fitness of the colony as a whole. Humans, however, do possess reproductive independence, and so individual humans enjoy their maximum level of Darwinian fitness by looking after their own survival and having their own offspring.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In his 1998 book "Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge", Wilson discussed methods that have been used to unite the sciences, and might be able to unite the sciences with the humanities. He argued that knowledge is a single, unified thing, not divided between science and humanistic inquiry. Wilson used the term "consilience" to describe the synthesis of knowledge from different specialized fields of human endeavor. He defined human nature as a collection of epigenetic rules, the genetic patterns of mental development. He argued that culture and rituals are products, not parts, of human nature. He said art is not part of human nature, but our appreciation of art is. He suggested that concepts such as art appreciation, fear of snakes, or the incest taboo (Westermarck effect) could be studied by scientific methods of the natural sciences and be part of interdisciplinary research.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Prior to Wilson's death, his personal correspondences were donated to the Library of Congress at the Library's request. Following his death several articles were published discussing the discrepancy between Wilson's legacy as a champion of biogeography and conservation biology, and his support of scientific racism and pseudoscientists. Specifically, the Library of Congress archive included letters defending the work of J. Philippe Rushton over several years. Rushton was a controversial psychologist at the University of Western Ontario, who later headed the Pioneer Fund.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: From the late 1980s to the early 1990s, Wilson wrote several emails to Rushton's colleagues defending Rushton's work in the face of widespread criticism of "scholarly misconduct", "misrepresenting data", and confirmation bias, all of which were tactics that were allegedly wielded by Rushton to support his personal ideas on race. Wilson also sponsored an article written by Rushton in "PNAS", and during the review process, Wilson intentionally sought out reviewers for the article who he believed would likely already agree with its premise. Wilson kept his support of Rushton's racist ideologies behind-the-scenes so as to not draw too much attention to himself or tarnish his own reputation. Wilson responded to another request from Rushton to sponsor a second PNAS article with the following: "You have my support in many ways, but for me to sponsor an article on racial differences in the PNAS would be counterproductive for both of us." Wilson also remarked that the reason Rushton's ideologies were not more widely supported is because of the "... fear of being called racist, which is virtually a death sentence in American academia if taken seriously. I admit that I myself have tended to avoid the subject of Rushton's work, out of fear."


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In 2022, the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation issued a statement rejecting Wilson's support of Rushton and racism, on behalf of the board of directors and staff.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson coined the phrase "scientific humanism" as "the only worldview compatible with science's growing knowledge of the real world and the laws of nature". Wilson argued that it is best suited to improve the human condition. In 2003, he was one of the signers of the "Humanist Manifesto".


title: E. O. Wilson

text: On the question of God, Wilson described his position as "provisional deism" and explicitly denied the label of "atheist", preferring "agnostic". He explained his faith as a trajectory away from traditional beliefs: "I drifted away from the church, not definitively agnostic or atheistic, just Baptist & Christian no more." Wilson argued that belief in God and the rituals of religion are products of evolution. He argued that they should not be rejected or dismissed, but further investigated by science to better understand their significance to human nature. In his book "The Creation", Wilson wrote that scientists ought to "offer the hand of friendship" to religious leaders and build an alliance with them, stating that "Science and religion are two of the most potent forces on Earth and they should come together to save the creation."


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson made an appeal to the religious community on the lecture circuit at Midland College, Texas, for example, and that "the appeal received a 'massive reply'", that a covenant had been written and that a "partnership will work to a substantial degree as time goes on".


title: E. O. Wilson

text: In a "New Scientist" interview published on January 21, 2015, however, Wilson said that "Religion 'is dragging us down' and must be eliminated 'for the sake of human progress, and "So I would say that for the sake of human progress, the best thing we could possibly do would be to diminish, to the point of eliminating, religious faiths."


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson said that, if he could start his life over he would work in microbial ecology, when discussing the reinvigoration of his original fields of study since the 1960s. He studied the mass extinctions of the 20th century and their relationship to modern society, and identifying mass extinction as the greatest threat to Earth's future. In 1998 argued for an ecological approach at the Capitol:


title: E. O. Wilson

text: From the late 1970s Wilson was actively involved in the global conservation of biodiversity, contributing and promoting research. In 1984 he published "Biophilia", a work that explored the evolutionary and psychological basis of humanity's attraction to the natural environment. This work introduced the word biophilia which influenced the shaping of modern conservation ethics. In 1988 Wilson edited the "BioDiversity" volume, based on the proceedings of the first US national conference on the subject, which also introduced the term biodiversity into the language. This work was very influential in creating the modern field of biodiversity studies. In 2011, Wilson led scientific expeditions to the Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique and the archipelagos of Vanuatu and New Caledonia in the southwest Pacific. Wilson was part of the international conservation movement, as a consultant to Columbia University's Earth Institute, as a director of the American Museum of Natural History, Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy and the World Wildlife Fund.


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Understanding the scale of the extinction crisis led him to advocate for forest protection, including the "Act to Save America's Forests", first introduced in 1998, until 2008, but never passed. The Forests Now Declaration calls for new markets-based mechanisms to protect tropical forests. Wilson once said destroying a rainforest for economic gain was like burning a Renaissance painting to cook a meal. In 2014, Wilson called for setting aside 50% of Earth's surface for other species to thrive in as the only possible strategy to solve the extinction crisis. The idea became the basis for his book "Half-Earth" (2016) and for the Half-Earth Project of the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation. Wilson's influence regarding ecology through popular science was covered by Alan G. Gross in "The Scientific Sublime" (2018).


title: E. O. Wilson

text: Wilson was instrumental in launching the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) initiative with the goal of creating a global database to include information on the 1.9 million species recognized by science. Currently, it includes information on practically all known species. This open and searchable digital repository for organism traits, measurements, interactions and other data has more than 300 international partners and countless scientists to provide global user access to knowledge of life on Earth. For his part, Wilson discovered and described more than 400 species of ants.


title: Colt Python

text: The Colt Python is a .357 Magnum caliber revolver manufactured by Colt's Manufacturing Company of Hartford, Connecticut. It was first introduced in 1955, the same year as Smith & Wesson's M29 .44 Magnum. The Colt Python is intended for the premium revolver market segment. Some firearm collectors and writers such as Jeff Cooper, Ian V. Hogg, Chuck Hawks, Leroy Thompson, Scott Wolber, Renee Smeets and Martin Dougherty have described the Python as "the finest production revolver ever made".


title: Colt Python

text: In 2020, Colt reintroduced the Python in a 4.25″ and a 6″ barrel configuration, followed by a 3" barrel version in 2022. The reintroduced Python has been technically revised and reinforced compared to the original revolver.


title: Colt Python

text: The Colt Python is a double action handgun chambered for the .357 Magnum cartridge, built on Colt's large I-frame. Pythons have a reputation for accuracy, smooth trigger pull, and a tight cylinder lock-up. They are similar in size and function to the Colt Trooper and Colt Lawman revolvers.


title: Colt Python

text: The Colt Python was first introduced in 1955 as Colt's top-of-the-line model and was originally intended to be a large-frame .38 Special target revolver. As a result, it features precision adjustable sights, a smooth trigger, solid construction, and extra metal. Pythons have a distinct appearance due to a full barrel underlug, ventilated rib and adjustable sights. Colt originally manufactured Pythons with hollow underlugs but left them solid to work as a stabilizing barrel weight. When the revolver is at full cock, just as the trigger is pressed, the cylinder locks up for the duration of the hammer strike. Other revolvers have a hint of looseness even at full-cock. The gap between the cylinder and forcing cone is very tight, further aiding accuracy and velocity. From the 1970s each Python revolver was boresighted at the factory with a laser; the first mass-produced revolver for which this was done.


title: Colt Python

text: In October 1999, Colt announced that it would cease production of Python revolvers. In a 2000 follow-up letter to distributors, the company cited changing market conditions and the costs of defending lawsuits as the reasons to discontinue the Python line, as well as a number of other models. The Colt Custom Gun Shop continued making a limited number of Pythons on special order until 2005, when this limited production ceased.


title: Colt Python

text: The Colt Python was officially re-released by Colt in January 2020, following months of circulating rumors. The new Python is built out of stronger stainless steel than the originals and is available with a 3", 4.25" or 6" barrel. All new production Pythons are shipped with Altamont wood grips.


title: Colt Python

text: The original Python was initially available in carbon steel with two finishes, a deep blue, designated as Royal Blue; and a standard high polish nickel designated as Nickel. A 3rd finish, Colt's Electroless Nickel (also designated on some Python boxes as Royal Coltguard ) was added later in production. The Royal Coltguard electroless nickel finish was a satin nickel finish process intended to be a durable, more weather resistant finish compared to the others. This introduction was also partly a response to the fact that Colt at that time lacked a stainless steel version of the Python. Later the second material type (stainless steel) was added with the addition of stainless steel models in the 1980s. The bright nickel model and the electroless nickel Royal Coltguard versions were eventually discontinued after the introduction of the satin stainless and mirror-polished Ultimate Stainless models. The stainless steel and Royal Blue finishes were offered until 2003 by Colt on the Python "Elite" model.


title: Colt Python

text: Pythons were available with , , , and barrels. The six-inch model was the most popular generally, and the eight-inch model was intended for hunting. A three-inch barrel version is very collectible and much less common than the other barrel lengths.


title: Colt Python

text: The Python Hunter model, with eight-inch barrel and factory-installed 2X Leupold scope, was made in 1980. The Python Hunter was the first field-ready handgun hunting package made by a major handgun manufacturer. The scope was mounted on the barrel using Redfield mounts and the gun was packaged in a Haliburton case. The case also included a Colt-marked plastic ammunition box, a wood handle cleaning rod and other small items. It was discontinued by 1990 and briefly offered as a "Custom Shop" model afterward. A Python Target model was made for several years in .38 Special only, in blue and nickel finishes. Another later cased version 8-inch Python similar to the Python Hunter was the Python Silhouette, supplied in a black fitted case (not a Halliburton) with rib-mounted scope setup similar but not identical to the Hunter model.


title: Colt Python

text: Two Colt revolver variants using Python barrels but not Python frames or internals were made in small numbers by Colt. The first was the Colt Boa of 1985, a limited production .357 Magnum revolver, made for the Lew Horton Distributing Company in Massachusetts. It uses a Python barrel mated to a Trooper Mk V frame. Six-hundred 6-inch revolvers and six-hundred 4-inch revolvers were made, of which one-hundred were matched sets. Though it resembles a Python visually, it is substantially different internally. The second was the stainless steel Colt Grizzly of 1994, another limited-production .357 Magnum revolver. It uses a Python barrel mated to a Colt King Cobra frame. Five hundred of these revolvers were manufactured, with six-inch Magna-ported barrels and smooth, unfluted cylinders. The ported barrel includes a bear footprint. Similar to the Grizzly was the Colt Kodiak, which was a Colt Anaconda with a Magna-ported barrel and an unfluted cylinder. Approximately 2000 Kodiaks were manufactured. All original Colt Pythons use the original Colt E/I frame type mechanics with a leaf hammer spring design in common with earlier Colt models, including the postwar Colt .357 Magnum model and the pre-war Colt Official Police and Army Special models. As described above, the Boa and Grizzly are structurally part of the Mk.III/Mk.V revolver product lines which use the much later J and V designated frames. While these various hybrids are very collectible due to low production quantities, because they are a completely different revolver action based upon the later coil-mainspring Colt products, they may not be considered Pythons.


title: Colt Python

text: According to Colt historian, R. L. Wilson, Colt Pythons have been collected by Elvis Presley and various kings in the traditional sense: "H.M. (His Majesty) Hussein I of Jordan ordered a limited number of Pythons with 4-inch and 6-inch barrels, as gifts to his selected friends. Casing and barrel were embossed with His Majesty's crest. The Python for King Juan Carlos of Spain bore his name in flush gold on the sideplate. Among other celebrated recipients: King Khalid and Prince Fahd (Saudi Arabia), King Hassan (Morocco), Sheik Zayed (United Arab Emirates), President Anwar Sadat (Egypt) and President Hafez Assad (Syria)."


title: Colt Python

text: The Python immediately made inroads into the law enforcement market when introduced, with the 6-inch barrel being popular with uniformed officers and the 4-inch barrel considered optimum for plainclothes use. However, it has since fallen out of common use (along with all other revolvers) due to changing law enforcement needs that favor semi-automatic pistols. When law-enforcement agencies realized that the 9 mm semi-automatic pistols fire a round with similar characteristics to the .38 Special with higher capacity, they began a migration to these, and other, semi-automatic pistol cartridges. The move away from the Python is also being driven by the increasing number of law enforcement agencies which require officers to carry department-issue weapons (as a way to reduce liability).


title: Colt Python

text: The Colorado State Patrol issued 4-inch blue Pythons until their switch to the S&W .40 caliber autoloader. Georgia State Patrol and Florida Highway Patrol issued Pythons to their officers.


title: Colt Python

text: A Python, loaded with .357 Magnum semiwadcutter bullets, was used to murder Irish crime reporter Veronica Guerin in 1996, an act which resulted in the creation of the Criminal Assets Bureau.


title: Colt Python

text: Official Colt historian R.L. Wilson described the Colt Python as "the Rolls-Royce of Colt revolvers", and firearms historian Ian V. Hogg referred to it as the "best revolver in the world". However, the revolver is not without its detractors. Some view a downside to the Colt Python's precision as a tendency to go "out of time" with continued heavy shooting. Mis-timing on a revolver is a condition in which the hand does not move each and every cylinder chamber to the exact correct rotation with respect to the forcing cone, so a shooter (or more likely someone nearby at right angles to the barrel) may notice some spray from burning propellant when the gun is fired, or—only in an extreme case—the gun may not fire when used as a double-action. However some gas leakage escapes from the cylinder to barrel gap on all revolvers and this normal phenomenon should not be confused with an out-of-time action. Furthermore, any revolver used for many thousands of rounds may eventually require the same timing adjustments. In any case the first and most common symptom of typical timing issues will be only a slight loss of accuracy, which on a Python may not even be noticeable to many shooters.


title: Colt Python

text: It is also useful to note that with the re-introduction of the new 21st-century Colt Python version, whenever examining criticisms of a Colt Python it is necessary to first determine whether the inquiry is in regards to an original Python model (1955 to c. 2003) or the new re-designed Python. This is for many reasons including the fact that a period approaching twenty years passed between the final high-volume manufacture of the last original Pythons and the redesign and introduction of the new Python.


title: Colt Python

text: Author Martin Dougherty notes the weight of the Python as a drawback, as it is quite heavy for a handgun of its caliber, ranging from 2.4 lbs (1.1 kg) to 2.6 lbs (1.2 kg). This makes the Python comparable to Smith & Wesson's premier .357, the M27, which weighs 2.6 lbs (42 ounces) with a 4-inch barrel. Both revolvers are 6 to 9 ounces lighter than Smith and Wesson's more powerful M29 .44 Magnum, which weighs 3.0 lbs in -inch barrel configuration (1.36 kg).


title: Linear equation

text: formula_1 where formula_2 are the variables (or unknowns), and formula_3 are the coefficients, which are often real numbers. The coefficients may be considered as parameters of the equation, and may be arbitrary expressions, provided they do not contain any of the variables. To yield a meaningful equation, the coefficients formula_4 are required to not all be zero.


title: Linear equation

text: Alternatively, a linear equation can be obtained by equating to zero a linear polynomial over some field, from which the coefficients are taken.


title: Linear equation

text: The solutions of such an equation are the values that, when substituted for the unknowns, make the equality true.


title: Linear equation

text: In the case of just one variable, there is exactly one solution (provided that formula_5). Often, the term "linear equation" refers implicitly to this particular case, in which the variable is sensibly called the "unknown".


title: Linear equation

text: In the case of two variables, each solution may be interpreted as the Cartesian coordinates of a point of the Euclidean plane. The solutions of a linear equation form a line in the Euclidean plane, and, conversely, every line can be viewed as the set of all solutions of a linear equation in two variables. This is the origin of the term "linear" for describing this type of equations. More generally, the solutions of a linear equation in variables form a hyperplane (a subspace of dimension ) in the Euclidean space of dimension .


title: Linear equation

text: Linear equations occur frequently in all mathematics and their applications in physics and engineering, partly because non-linear systems are often well approximated by linear equations.


title: Linear equation

text: This article considers the case of a single equation with coefficients from the field of real numbers, for which one studies the real solutions. All of its content applies to complex solutions and, more generally, for linear equations with coefficients and solutions in any field. For the case of several simultaneous linear equations, see system of linear equations.


title: Linear equation

text: A linear equation in two variables and is of the form formula_9 where , and are real numbers such that formula_10.


title: Linear equation

text: is a linear equation in the single variable for every value of . It has therefore a unique solution for , which is given by


title: Linear equation

text: This defines a function. The graph of this function is a line with slope formula_13 and -intercept formula_14 The functions whose graph is a line are generally called "linear functions" in the context of calculus. However, in linear algebra, a linear function is a function that maps a sum to the sum of the images of the summands. So, for this definition, the above function is linear only when , that is when the line passes through the origin. For avoiding confusion, the functions whose graph is an arbitrary line are often called "affine functions".


title: Linear equation

text: may be viewed as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the Euclidean plane. With this interpretation, all solutions of the equation form a line, provided that and are not both zero. Conversely, every line is the set of all solutions of a linear equation.


title: Linear equation

text: The phrase "linear equation" takes its origin in this correspondence between lines and equations: a "linear equation" in two variables is an equation whose solutions form a line.


title: Linear equation

text: If , the line is the graph of the function of that has been defined in the preceding section. If , the line is a "vertical line" (that is a line parallel to the -axis) of equation formula_16 which is not the graph of a function of .


title: Linear equation

text: Similarly, if , the line is the graph of a function of , and, if , one has a horizontal line of equation formula_17


title: Linear equation

text: There are various ways of defining a line. In the following subsections, a linear equation of the line is given in each case.


title: Linear equation

text: A non-vertical line can be defined by its slope , and its -intercept (the coordinate of its intersection with the -axis). In this case its "linear equation" can be written


title: Linear equation

text: If, moreover, the line is not horizontal, it can be defined by its slope and its -intercept . In this case, its equation can be written


title: Linear equation

text: These forms rely on the habit of considering a non vertical line as the graph of a function. For a line given by an equation


title: Linear equation

text: A non-vertical line can be defined by its slope , and the coordinates formula_23 of any point of the line. In this case, a linear equation of the line is


title: Linear equation

text: A line that is not parallel to an axis and does not pass through the origin cuts the axes in two different points. The intercept values and of these two points are nonzero, and an equation of the line is


title: Linear equation

text: Given two different points and , there is exactly one line that passes through them. There are several ways to write a linear equation of this line.


title: Linear equation

text: which is valid also when (for verifying this, it suffices to verify that the two given points satisfy the equation).


title: Linear equation

text: This form is not symmetric in the two given points, but a symmetric form can be obtained by regrouping the constant terms:


title: Linear equation

text: The two-point form of the equation of a line can be expressed simply in terms of a determinant. There are two common ways for that.


title: Linear equation

text: The equation formula_34 can be obtained be expanding with respect to its first row the determinant in the equation


title: Linear equation

text: Beside being very simple and mnemonic, this form has the advantage of being a special case of the more general equation of a hyperplane passing through points in a space of dimension . These equations rely on the condition of linear dependence of points in a projective space.


title: Linear equation

text: The coefficient , often denoted is called the "constant term" (sometimes the "absolute term" in old books). Depending on the context, the term "coefficient" can be reserved for the with .


title: Linear equation

text: When dealing with formula_37 variables, it is common to use formula_38 and formula_39 instead of indexed variables.


title: Linear equation

text: A solution of such an equation is a -tuples such that substituting each element of the tuple for the corresponding variable transforms the equation into a true equality.


title: Linear equation

text: For an equation to be meaningful, the coefficient of at least one variable must be non-zero. In fact, if every variable has a zero coefficient, then, as mentioned for one variable, the equation is either "inconsistent" (for ) as having no solution, or all are solutions.


title: Linear equation

text: The -tuples that are solutions of a linear equation in are the Cartesian coordinates of the points of an -dimensional hyperplane in an Euclidean space (or affine space if the coefficients are complex numbers or belong to any field). In the case of three variable, this hyperplane is a plane.


title: The Problem We All Live With

text: The Problem We All Live With is a painting by Norman Rockwell that is considered an iconic image of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. It depicts Ruby Bridges, a six-year-old African-American girl, on her way to William Frantz Elementary School, an all-white public school, on November 14, 1960, during the New Orleans school desegregation crisis. Because of threats of violence against her, she is escorted by four deputy U.S. marshals; the painting is framed so that the marshals' heads are cropped at the shoulders. On the wall behind her are written the racial slur "nigger" and the letters "KKK"; a smashed and splattered tomato thrown against the wall is also visible. The white protesters are not visible, as the viewer is looking at the scene from their point of view. The painting is oil on canvas and measures high by wide.


title: The Problem We All Live With

text: The painting was originally published as a centerfold in the January 14, 1964, issue of "Look". Rockwell had ended his contract with the "Saturday Evening Post" the previous year due to frustration with the limits the magazine placed on his expression of political themes, and "Look" offered him a forum for his social interests, including civil rights and racial integration. Rockwell explored similar themes in Southern Justice (Murder in Mississippi) and "New Kids in the Neighborhood"; unlike his previous works for the "Post", "The Problem We All Live With" and these others place black people as sole protagonists, instead of as observers, part of group scenes, or in servile roles. Like "New Kids in the Neighborhood", "The Problem We All Live With" depicts a black child protagonist; like "Southern Justice", it uses strong light-dark contrasts to further its racial theme.


title: The Problem We All Live With

text: While the subject of the painting was inspired by Ruby Bridges, Rockwell used a local girl, Lynda Gunn, as the model for his painting; her cousin, Anita Gunn, was also used. One of the marshals was modelled by William Obanhein.


title: The Problem We All Live With

text: After the work was published, Rockwell received "sacks of disapproving mail", one example accusing him of being a race traitor.


title: The Problem We All Live With

text: At Bridges' suggestion, President Barack Obama had the painting installed in the White House, in a hallway outside the Oval Office, from July to October 2011. Art historian William Kloss stated, "The N-word there – it sure stops you. There's a realistic reason for having the graffiti as a slur, [but] it's also right in the middle of the painting. It's a painting that could not be hung even for a brief time in the public spaces [of the White House]. I'm pretty sure of that." Bridges and Obama viewed the painting together on July 15, 2011, and he told her, "I think it's fair to say that if it hadn't been for you guys, I might not be here and we wouldn't be looking at this together".


title: The Problem We All Live With

text: A copy of the painting was used to "dress" O. J. Simpson's house during his 1995 murder trial by defense attorney Johnnie Cochran. Cochran hoped to evoke the sympathy of visiting jurors, who were mostly black, by including "something depicting African-American history."


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) T-45 Goshawk is a highly modified version of the British BAE Systems Hawk land-based training jet aircraft. Manufactured by McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) and British Aerospace (now BAE Systems), the T-45 is used by the United States Navy as an aircraft carrier-capable trainer.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The T-45 Goshawk has its origins in the mid-1970s, during which time the U.S. Navy formally commenced its search for a new jet trainer aircraft to serve as a single replacement for both its T-2 Buckeye and A-4 Skyhawk trainers. During 1978, the VTXTS advanced trainer program to meet this need was formally launched by the U.S. Navy. An Anglo-American team, comprising British aviation manufacturer British Aerospace (BAe) and American aircraft company McDonnell Douglas (MDC), decided to submit their proposal for a navalised version of BAe's land-based Hawk trainer. Other manufacturers also submitted bids, such as a rival team of French aircraft company Dassault Aviation, German manufacturer Dornier and American aerospace company Lockheed, who offered their Alpha Jet to fulfil the requirement.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The VTX-TS competition was not simply for the procurement of an aircraft in isolation; it comprised five core areas: the aircraft itself, capable flight simulators, matured academic training aids, integrated logistic support, and program management. For their proposal, MDC was the prime contractor and systems integrator, BAe functioned as the principal subcontractor and partner for the aircraft element, Rolls-Royce provided the Adour engine to power the aircraft, and Sperry is the principal subcontractor for the simulator system. During November 1981, the U.S. Navy announced that it had selected the Hawk as the winner of the VTX-TS competition. Reportedly, approximately 60 per cent of the work on the T-45 program was undertaken overseas in Britain. During September 1982, a Full Scale Engineering Development contract was awarded to the MDC team to fully develop and produce the proposed aircraft, which had been designated "T-45 Goshawk". On 16 April 1988, the first T-45A Goshawk conducted its maiden flight.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: Work on the production of the Goshawk was divided between the two primary partner companies. BAE Systems (BAe's successor following its merger with Marconi Electronic Systems during 1999) was responsible for manufacturing the fuselage aft of the cockpit, along with the air inlets, and the vertical stabilizer of the T-45 at their Samlesbury facility, while the wings were produced at the company's plant at Brough, England. Boeing (which had merged with McDonnell Douglas during 1997) performed the manufacture of the remaining elements of the Goshawk, as well as conducting assembly of the type at a production line at St. Louis, Missouri, after having transferred work on the program from the company's facility in Long Beach, California.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The Goshawk retained the typical powerplant used by the Hawk, the Rolls-Royce Adour turbofan jet engine. During the mid-1990s, Rolls-Royce worked on establishing a US-based production line for the Adour engine, which was to be operated by the former Allison Engine Company (which had been recently acquired by Rolls-Royce in 1995); however, during September 1997, the U.S. Navy chose to terminate the partially-finished engine effort. Around this time, the U.S. Navy was greatly interested in potentially adopting another powerplant, the International Turbine Engine Company's F124 turbofan engine, for the Goshawk. On 7 October 1996, a T-45A test aircraft flew, powered by the rival F124 engine.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: Early production aircraft were designated "T-45A". From December 1997 onwards, later-built production Goshawks were constructed with enhanced avionics systems, which included the adoption of a glass cockpit and head-up display (HUD); as such, they were designated "T-45C". From 2003 onwards, all of the extant T-45A trainer aircraft were eventually converted to the more modern T-45C configuration under the T-45 Required Avionics Modernization Program. This program brought the U.S. Navy's trainers to an identical "Cockpit 21" standard, which incorporated both the HUD and the glass cockpit, which had the benefit of making the trainers more similar to the U.S. Navy's frontline fighter aircraft. On 16 March 2007, it was announced that the 200th Goshawk had been delivered to the U.S. Navy. During November 2009, the 221st aircraft, the final aircraft to be produced, was delivered.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: During early 2008, it was announced by the US Navy that several of its T-45C Goshawks would be outfitted with a synthetic radar capability to allow them to support rear crew training requirements, and that it was considering a possible requirement for a follow-on order for such equipped models of the type. An initial batch of 19 T-45Cs equipped with this virtual mission training system (VMTS), which simulates the capabilities of the US Navy's Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet's Raytheon APG-73 radar (including ground mapping, air-to-ground and air-to-air targeting modes, along with an electronic warfare training capability) were delivered to the Navy's Undergraduate Military Flight Officer training school at Pensacola, Florida. The type was used to prepare weapon system and electronic warfare operators for the Super Hornet and the Boeing EA-18G Growler.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: Both McDonnell Douglas and Boeing have made multiple approaches to potential overseas customers, typically offering the Goshawk in the trainer role. During the mid-1990s, McDonnell Douglas teamed up with Rockwell International to jointly bid the T-45 as a replacement for the Royal Australian Air Force's jet trainer fleet in competition against, amongst others, the Hawk that the type had been derived from. Marketing efforts to acquire export customers were intensified following a cut in the procurement rate by the U.S. Navy during 2003; according to Lon Nordeen, T-45 business development manager, Israel had been identified as having a potential requirement for the type. During late 2006, the company promoted the concept of an advanced variant of the T-45C Goshawk to Greece, emphasising its close compatibility with the Beechcraft T-6A Texan II trainer already operated by the country. During early 2007, Boeing VP Mark Kronenberg stated that the company had held discussions with the Indian Navy, which had an anticipated requirement for naval training aircraft.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: Starting in 2003, the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) of the United States Air Force (USAF) worked on the requirements for replacing the 1960s-era Northrop T-38 Talon jet trainer. By 2010, the US Navy was reportedly involved in the evaluations for the initiative, known as the T-X program and had been considering the merits of adopting the same airframe to meet its long-term requirements to eventually replace the Goshawk as well. Reportedly, BAE Systems, later in partnership with American defense company Northrop Grumman, has repeatedly held discussions with the USAF on the development of a new potential derivative of the Hawk conforming to their specific trainer needs, similar in fashion to the Goshawk for the US Navy.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The T-45 Goshawk is a carrier-qualified version of the British Aerospace Hawk Mk.60. It was redesigned as a trainer for the United States Navy (USN) and United States Marine Corps (USMC). Changes were made to the Hawk in two stages. The Hawk was redesigned for carrier operations and submitted to the Navy for flight evaluation. The development flight trials resulted in further modifications.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The initial redesign included stronger landing gear and airframe to withstand the loads imposed by catapult launches and high sink-rate (14 ft/sec) landings. A catapult tow bar attachment was added to the oleo strut of the new two-wheel nose gear . Other additions were an arresting hook, an increased span tailplane, side-mounted airbrakes, and the addition of stabilator vanes, known as 'Side Mounted Upper Rear Fuselage Strakes' (SMURFS - USN), to stabilize flow over the stabilator with speed brakes extended.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: Navy test pilots found deficiences which had to be corrected. Some required further external changes: a single ventral fin in front of the arrestor hook, a 6-inch (0.152 m) extension to the tail fin, squared-off wing tips and leading-edge slats.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: At the time of the Goshawk's selection, the World War II-era USS "Lexington" was the U.S. Navy's training carrier. "Lexington", which featured a 910 ft-long and 192 ft-wide angled flight deck, complete with a pair of relatively short-stroke steam catapults and similarly short, undamped arrester gear, was a major driving factor for the design of the T-45 in order to suit such operations. The aerodynamic changes of the aircraft, which were developed by BAe at their existing facilities in the United Kingdom, included improvements to the low-speed handling characteristics and a reduction in the approach speed. During flight testing of the Goshawk, it was revealed that the aircraft had retained relatively favourable flight characteristics, even when flown within stall conditions at the required low approach speed.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The T-45 has been used for intermediate and advanced portions of the Navy/Marine Corps Student Naval Aviator strike pilot training program with Training Air Wing One at Naval Air Station Meridian, Mississippi, and Training Air Wing Two at Naval Air Station Kingsville, Texas. The T-45 replaced the T-2C Buckeye intermediate jet trainer and the TA-4J Skyhawk II advanced jet trainer with an integrated training system that includes the T-45 Goshawk aircraft, operational and instrument flight simulators, academics, and training integration system support. In 2008, the T-45C also began operation in the advanced portion of Navy/Marine Corps Student Naval Flight Officer training track for strike aircraft with Training Air Wing Six at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. A small number of the aircraft is also operated by the Naval Air Systems Command at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: The original T-45A, which became operational in 1991, contained an analog cockpit design, while the newer T-45C, which was first delivered in December 1997, features a new digital "glass cockpit" design. All T-45A aircraft currently in operational use are upgraded to T-45C standard. The T-45 is to remain in service until 2035 or later.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: In 2017, the USN grounded the T-45 fleet for a three-day "safety pause" after more than 100 instructor pilots refused to fly the aircraft. The pilots cited concerns about incidents of hypoxia that they believed to have resulted from faulty onboard oxygen-generation systems. Over the past five years physiological episodes linked to problems with the T-45's oxygen system have nearly quadrupled, according to testimony from senior naval aviators in April 2017. The grounding order was first extended, but then lifted to allow flights up to a ceiling of 10,000 feet where the Onboard Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS) would not be needed, and to allow instructors to conduct flights above 10,000 feet. The grounding order was fully lifted, along with all restrictions on flight ceiling and student pilots, in August 2017. The T-45 fleet was thereafter upgraded with new sensors to monitor the onboard oxygen systems, as well as a new water separation system, in hopes of reducing hypoxia events and determining the root cause of the problems. Though the underlying causes have yet to be definitively determined, by the first quarter of 2018, hypoxia events had returned to nominal levels after peaking in 2016 and 2017. Work continues on ensuring further physiological events are kept to a minimum - backup oxygen systems are being developed and are planned to be installed by the second half of 2019. In recent years, similar issues have also affected the Navy's F/A-18s and the Air Force's T-6s, F-22s, and F-35s, some within the same or similar time frames, and the Department of Defense has established a joint command to investigate the issue.


title: McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk

text: As of August 2022, about 33 T-45 Goshawks have been destroyed in accidents, or about 15% of the inventory, at a rate of about 1 per year.


title: Judge

text: A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. A judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the barristers or solicitors of the case, assesses the credibility and arguments of the parties, and then issues a ruling in the case based on their interpretation of the law and their own personal judgment. A judge is expected to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court.


title: Judge

text: The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, the judge's powers may be shared with a jury. In inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. The presiding judge ensures that all court proceedings are lawful and orderly.


title: Judge

text: The ultimate task of a judge is to settle a legal dispute in a final and publicly lawful manner in agreement with substantial partialities. Judges exercise significant governmental power. They can order police, military or judicial officials to execute searches, arrests, imprisonments, garnishments, detrainment, seizures, deportations and similar actions. However, judges also supervise that trial procedures are followed, in order to ensure consistency and impartiality and avoid arbitrariness. The powers of a judge are checked by higher courts such as appeals courts and supreme courts.


title: Judge

text: The court usually has three main legally trained court officials: the judge, the prosecutor and the defence attorney. The role of a judge varies between legal systems. In an adversarial system (common law), as in effect in the U.S. and England, the judge functions as an impartial referee, mainly ensuring correct procedure, while the prosecution and the defense present their case to a jury, often selected from common citizens. The main factfinder is the jury, and the judge will then finalize sentencing. Nevertheless, in smaller cases judges can issue summary judgments without proceeding to a jury trial. In an inquisitorial system (civil law), as in effect in continental Europe, there is no jury and the main factfinder is the judge, who will do the presiding, judging and sentencing on his own. As such, the judge is expected to apply the law directly, as in the French expression "Le juge est la bouche de la loi" ("The judge is the mouth of the law"). Furthermore, in some systems even investigations may be conducted by the judge, functioning as an examining magistrate.


title: Judge

text: Judges may work alone in smaller cases, but in criminal, family and other significant cases, they work in a panel. In some civil law systems, this panel may include lay judges. Unlike professional judges, lay judges are not legally trained, but unlike jurors, lay judges are usually volunteers and may be politically appointed. Judges are often assisted by law clerks, referendaries and notaries in legal cases and by bailiffs or similar with security.


title: Judge

text: There are both volunteer and professional judges. A volunteer judge, such as an English magistrate, is not required to have legal training and is unpaid. Whereas, a professional judge is required to be legally educated; in the U.S., this generally requires a degree of Juris Doctor. Furthermore, significant professional experience is often required; for example, in the U.S., judges are often appointed from experienced attorneys. Judges are often appointed by the head of state. In some U.S. jurisdictions, however, judges are elected in a political election.


title: Judge

text: Impartiality is often considered important for rule of law. Thus, in many jurisdictions judges may be appointed for life, so that they cannot be removed by the executive. However, in non-democratic systems, the appointment of judges may be highly politicized and they often receive instructions on how to judge, and may be removed if their conduct does not please the political leadership.


title: Judge

text: Judges must be able to research and process extensive lengths of documents, witness testimonies, and other case material, understand complex cases and possess a thorough understanding of the law and legal procedure, which requires excellent skills in logical reasoning, analysis and decision-making. Excellent writing skills are also a necessity, given the finality and authority of the documents written. Judges work with people all the time; by the nature of the job, good dispute resolution and interpersonal skills are a necessity. Judges are required to have good moral character, i.e. there must be no history of crime. Professional judges often enjoy a high salary, in the U.S. the median salary of judges is $101,690 per annum, and federal judges earn $208,000–$267,000 per annum.


title: Judge

text: A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation. Gavels (a ceremonial hammer) are used by judges in many countries, to the point that the gavel has become a symbol of a judge. In many parts of the world, judges wear long robes (often in black or red) and sit on an elevated platform during trials (known as the bench).


title: Judge

text: American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial gavels, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs and "contempt of court" power as their main devices to maintain decorum in the courtroom. However, in some of the Western United States, like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of state supreme courts, such as the Maryland Court of Appeals wear distinct dress. In Italy and Portugal, both judges and lawyers wear particular black robes.


title: Judge

text: In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, judges wear wigs. The long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to a barrister's wig (a Bench Wig) would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts.


title: Judge

text: In Portugal and in the former Portuguese Empire, the judges used to carry a staff that was red for ordinary judges and white for the judges from the outside.


title: Judge

text: In Hong Kong, court proceedings are conducted in either English or Hong Kong Cantonese (a dialect of Yue Chinese). Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials.


title: Judge

text: In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as "Your worship", and district court judges as "Your Honour".


title: Judge

text: In the superior courts of record, namely the Court of Final Appeal and the High Court (which consists of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance), judges are addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady" and referred to as "Your Lordship" or "Your Ladyship", following the English tradition.


title: Judge

text: In writing, the post-nominal letters "PJ" is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and "NPJ" to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation "JA" is used to denote a justice of appeal, and the letter "J" refers to a judge of the Court of First Instance.


title: Judge

text: When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as "Fat Goon Dai Yan" () before the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as "Fat Goon Gok Ha" () since 1997. "Fat Goon" () means the word "judge".


title: Judge

text: In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as "Your Lordship" or "My Lord" and "Your Ladyship" or "My Lady", a tradition directly attributable to England. The Bar Council of India had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49(1)(j) in the Advocates Act. As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as "Your Honour" and refer to it as "Honourable Court". If it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as "sir" or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the words such as "My Lord" and "Your Lordship" were "relics of the colonial past". The resolution has since been circulated to all state councils and the Supreme Court for adoption but over five years now, the resolution largely remained on paper.


title: Judge

text: However, in an unprecedented move in October 2009, one of the judges of Madras HC, Justice K Chandru had banned lawyers from addressing his court as "My Lord" and "Your Lordship".


title: Judge

text: In Israel, the judges () of all courts are addressed as "Sir", "Madam" () or "Your Honor" (). Typically after every naming you will hear "haShofét", meaning "the judge" after the respective address. For example, "Your Honor the Judge" would be ("kevod haShofét").


title: Judge

text: In Malaysia, judges of the subordinate courts are addressed as "Tuan" or "Puan" ("Sir", "Madam"), or "Your Honour". Judges of the superior courts are addressed as "Yang Arif" () or "My Lord", "My Lady", etc.; and "Your Lordship" or "My Ladyship" if the proceedings, as they generally are in the superior courts, are in English.


title: Judge

text: In Pakistan, judges of the Supreme Court and the high courts are addressed as "Your Lordship" or "My Lord" or "Lordship" and "Your Ladyship" or "My Lady", a tradition directly attributable to England. There is some resistance to this on religious grounds but more or less continues till this day. In lower courts, judges are addressed as "sir", "madam" or the Urdu equivalent "Janab" or "Judge Sahab".


title: Judge

text: In Sri Lanka, judges of most courts are addressed as "Your Honour", however the Chief Justice is addressed as "Your Lordship". Judges of the Supreme Court and the Appeal Court receives the title "The Honourable".


title: Judge

text: In Bulgaria before 1989 during the communist regime, judges were addressed as "drugarju" (). After 1989, "gospodín sŭdiya" () or "gospožo sŭdiya" ().


title: Judge

text: There is no special form of address; ordinary politeness is sufficient and the procedure lacks arcane rituals. Accordingly, the chairman of the panel is addressed as "herra/rouva puheenjohtaja" ("Mr./Ms. Chairman"). Finnish judges use gavels, but there are no robes or cloaks used in any Finnish courts.


title: Judge

text: In a district court ("käräjäoikeus"), ordinary judges work with the title "käräjätuomari" and the chairman is "laamanni" (lawspeaker). They are assisted by notaries ("notaari"), assessors ("asessori") and referendaries ("viskaali") who may sometimes even chair sessions. In appeals courts ("hovioikeus") an ordinary judge has the title "hovioikeudenneuvos", the chairman of a section is "hovioikeudenlaamanni" and the court is led by a "presidentti". In the Supreme Court, judges are titled "oikeusneuvos" and the court is led by a "presidentti".


title: Judge

text: In France, the presiding judge of a court is addressed as "Monsieur le président" or "Madame le président", whilst associated judges are addressed as "Monsieur l'Assesseur" or "Madame l'Assesseur". Out of the courtroom, judges are referred to as "Monsieur le juge" or "Madame le juge".


title: Judge

text: In Germany, judges are addressed as "Herr Vorsitzender" or "Frau Vorsitzende", which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman", or as "Hohes Gericht", which translates as "High Court".


title: Judge

text: The male presiding judge of a court is addressed as "tisztelt bíró úr", which means "Honourable Mister Judge" and a female presiding judge is addressed as "tisztelt bírónő", which means "Honourable Madam Judge". The court as a body can be addressed as "tisztelt bíróság", which means "Honourable Court".


title: Judge

text: Judges of the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, or High Court are officially titled "The Honourable Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname" (), and informally referred to for short as "Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname". In court, they are addressed either by their respective titles or styles, as "The Court" ("An Chúirt"), or simply "Judge" ("A Bhreithimh"). In law reports, the Chief Justice of Ireland has the postnominal "CJ", the Presidents of the other Courts have the postnominal "P", and all other judges "J", e.g. "Smith J".


title: Judge

text: Judges of the Circuit Court are titled "His/Her Honour Judge Surname" and are addressed in Court as "Judge". Before 2006, they were addressed as "My Lord" ("A thiarna") .


title: Judge

text: Judges of the District Court are titled "Judge Surname" and addressed in Court as "Judge". Before 1991 these judges were known as District Justices and addressed as "Your Worship" ("d'Onóra").


title: Judge

text: In the Netherlands, presiding judges of either sex are, in writing only, addressed "edelachtbare" ("Your Honour") for judges in the Court of First Instance, "edelgrootachtbare" ("Your Great Honour") for justices in the Court of Appeal and "edelhoogachtbare" ("Your High Honour") for justices in the High Council of the Netherlands (Supreme Court).


title: Judge

text: In Portugal, presiding judges during trial are addressed as "Meretíssimo Juiz" when a man or "Meretíssima Juíza" when a woman (meaning "Most Worthy Judge") or as "Vossa Excelência" ("Your Excellency") when not specifying gender.


title: Judge

text: In Russia, "Vasha Chest" () is used for criminal cases only with the one judge presiding. For civil, commercial and criminal cases presided over by a panel of judges the right address is "Honorable Court".


title: Judge

text: In Spain, magistrates of the Supreme Court, magistrates and judges are addressed to as "Your Lordship" ("Su Señoría"); however, in formal occasions, magistrates of the Supreme Court are addressed to as "Your Most Excellent Lordship" ("Vuestra Señoría Excelentísima" or "Excelentísimo Señor"/"Excelentísima Señora"); in those solemn occasions, magistrates of lower Courts are addressed as "Your Most Illustrious Lordship" ("Vuestra Señoría Ilustrísima" or "Ilustrísimo Señor"/"Ilustrísima Señora"); simple judges are always called "Your Lordship".


title: Judge

text: In Sweden, the presiding judge of a court is traditionally addressed as "Herr Ordförande" or "Fru Ordförande", which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman".


title: Judge

text: In the Courts of England and Wales, Supreme Court judges are called Justices of the Supreme Court. Justices of the Supreme Court who do not hold life peerages are now given the courtesy style "Lord" or "Lady". Justices of the Supreme Court are addressed as "My Lord/Lady" in court. In the law reports, the Justices of the Supreme Court are usually referred to as "Lord/Lady N", although the Weekly Law Reports appends the post-nominal letters "JSC" (e.g. "Lady Smith JSC"). The President and Deputy President of the Court are afforded the post-nominal letters PSC and DPSC respectively. Only experienced barristers or solicitors are usually appointed as judges.


title: Judge

text: Judges of the High Court and Court of Appeal are addressed (when sitting in those courts) as "My Lord" or "My Lady" and referred to as "Your Lordship" or "Your Ladyship".


title: Judge

text: Judges of the Court of Appeal, also called Lords Justice of Appeal, are referred to as "Lord Justice N" or "Lady Justice N". In legal writing, Lords Justices of Appeal are afforded the post nominal letters "LJ": for example, Smith LJ.


title: Judge

text: When a Justice of the High Court who is not present is being referred to they are described as "Mr./Mrs./Ms. Justice "N."" In legal writing, the post-nominal letter "J" is used to denote a Justice (male or female) of the High Court: for example, Smith J. Masters of the High Court are addressed as "Master". Insolvency and Companies Court judges in the High Court are addressed as "Judge".


title: Judge

text: Circuit judges and recorders are addressed as "Your Honour". Circuit judges are referred to as "His/Her Honour Judge N". In writing, this title is occasionally abbreviated as "HHJ" or "HH Judge N", but not in legal writing. District judges and tribunal judges are addressed as "Sir/Madam".


title: Judge

text: Magistrates are usually still addressed as "Your Worship" in much of England. Magistrates are also addressed as "Sir/Madam".


title: Judge

text: In the Courts of Scotland judges in the Court of Session, High Court of Justiciary and the sheriff courts are all addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady" and referred to as "Your Lordship" or "Your Ladyship".


title: Judge

text: The judicial system of Northern Ireland is very similar to that of England and Wales, and superior court judges are addressed the same way as those in England and Wales. However, there are a few differences at the lower levels.


title: Judge

text: In Northern Ireland, the equivalent to a circuit judge is a county court judge, and they are addressed and titled the same way as a circuit judge is in England and Wales. The senior county court judges assigned to the county court divisions of Belfast and Derry have the titles of Recorder of Belfast and Recorder of Londonderry (or Derry) respectively, but are addressed the same as other county court judges. A district judge sitting in the County Court is addressed as "Your Honour".


title: Judge

text: A district judge (magistrates' court) is addressed as "Your Worship". A lay magistrate, in cases where they are present, is also addressed as "Your Worship", and may use the post-nominals "LM", e.g. "John Smith LM".


title: Judge

text: In general, Canadian judges may be addressed directly, depending on the province, as "My Lord", "My Lady", "Your Honour" or "Justice" and are formally referred to in the third person as "The Honourable Mr. (or Madam) Justice 'Forename Surname'". Less formally, judges of a Superior Court are referred to as "Justice 'Surname'", not as "Judge 'Surname.'" When referred to in a decision of a court, judges' titles are often abbreviated to the suffix "J.", so that Justice Smith will be referred to as Smith J. Judges in some superior courts are addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". In Ontario, judges are rarely referred to as "My Lord" or "My Lady", but only as "Your Honour" at the Ontario Superior Court of Justice. Formerly, translations of these titles such as "Votre Honneur" ("your honour") or "Votre Seigneurie" ("your lordship") were used in French; today, only "Monsieur le juge" and "Madame la juge" are officially used. Both the titles "judge" and "justice" are translated "juge".


title: Judge

text: Generally, it is only appropriate to use the term "judge" when speaking of an anonymous or general position, such as "the trial judge", or when referring to a member of an inferior or provincial court such as the Ontario Court of Justice. The exception is Citizenship Judges who are referred to only as "Judge 'Surname'" in accordance with their appointment as independent decision makers of the Citizenship Commission.


title: Judge

text: Like other members of the Commonwealth, a justice of the peace is addressed as "Your Worship", and a Master of a Superior Court is referred to as "Master". As of December 7, 2018, Ontario Court Masters are addressed in English as "Your Honour" and in French as "Votre Honneur" and no longer as "Master".


title: Judge

text: In many states throughout the United States, a judge is addressed as "Your Honor" or "Judge" when presiding over the court. "Judge" may be more commonly used by attorneys and staff, while either may be commonly used by the plaintiff or defendant. Notably, the Superior Court of Los Angeles County, the largest unified trial court in the United States, has a rule that the judge shall be addressed only as "Your Honor" while in court, and never as "Judge", "Judge (name)", "ma'am", or "sir". This is somewhat unusual as "Judge" and "Judge (name)" or similar forms of address are considered appropriate and respectful in many other courts.


title: Judge

text: The judges of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the judges of the supreme courts of several US states and other countries are called "justices". Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States and Justices of other courts are addressed as "Justice (name)". The Chief Justice of the United States is formally addressed as "Mr. or Madam Chief Justice" but also may be identified and addressed as "Chief Justice (name)".


title: Judge

text: The justices of the supreme courts usually hold higher offices than any other judges in a jurisdiction, including a justice of the peace, a judge who holds police court in some jurisdictions and who may also try small claims and misdemeanors. However, the State of New York inverts this usual order. The initial trial court in this state is called the Supreme Court of New York, and its judges are called "justices". The next highest appellate court is the Supreme Court, Appellate Division, whose judges are also called "justices". However, the highest court in New York is called the New York Court of Appeals, whose members are called "judges".


title: Judge

text: Judges in certain jurisdictions, such as New York and New Jersey, who deal with guardianships, trusts and estates are known as "surrogates".


title: Judge

text: A "senior judge", in US practice, is a retired judge who handles selected cases for a governmental entity while in retirement, on a part-time basis.


title: Judge

text: Subordinate or inferior jurisdiction judges in US legal practice are sometimes called magistrates, although in the federal court of the United States, they are called magistrate judges. Subordinate judges in US legal practice who are appointed on a case-by-case basis, particularly in cases where a great deal of detailed and tedious evidence must be reviewed, are often called "masters" or "special masters" and have authority in a particular case often determined on a case-by-case basis.


title: Judge

text: Judges of courts of specialized jurisdiction (such as bankruptcy courts or juvenile courts) were sometimes known officially as "referees", but the use of this title is in decline. Judges sitting in courts of equity in common law systems (such as judges in the equity courts of Delaware) are called "chancellors".


title: Judge

text: Individuals with judicial responsibilities who report to an executive branch official, rather than being a part of the judiciary, are often called "administrative law judges" in US practice. They were previously known as hearing examiners. They commonly make initial determinations regarding matters such as workers' compensation, eligibility for government benefits, regulatory matters, and immigration determinations.


title: Judge

text: Judges who derive their authority from a contractual agreement of the parties to a dispute, rather than a governmental body, are called arbitrators. They typically do not receive the honorific forms of address nor do they bear the symbolic trappings of a publicly appointed judge. However, it is now common for many retired judges to serve as arbitrators, and they will often write their names as if they were still judges, with the parenthetical "(Ret.)" for "Retired".


title: Judge

text: Unlike many civil law countries which have some courts on which panels of judges with nearly equal status composed of both legally trained professional judges and lay judges who lack legal training and are not career judges, the United States legal system (like most Anglo-American legal systems) makes a clear distinction between professional judges and laypeople involved in deciding a case who are jurors who are part of a jury. Most but not all US judges have professional credentials as lawyers. Non-lawyer judges in the United States are often elected, and are typically either justices of the peace or part-time judges in rural limited jurisdiction courts. A non-lawyer judge typically has the same rights and responsibilities as a lawyer who is a judge holding the same office and is addressed in the same manner.


title: Judge

text: In Australia judges and, since 2007, magistrates, of all jurisdictions including the High Court of Australia are now addressed as "Your Honour". In legal contexts, they are referred to as "His/Her Honour" and "the Honourable Justice Surname" (for judges of superior courts) or "his/her Honour Judge Surname" (for inferior courts). Outside legal contexts, the formal terms of address are "Judge" (for puisne justices) or "Chief Justice" (for chief justices).


title: Judge

text: The title for most puisne judges is "Justice", which is abbreviated in law reports to a postnominal "J", in the form "Surname J". Chief Justices of the High Court and of state Supreme Courts are titled "Chief Justice", which is abbreviated in law reports to a postnomial "CJ". Judges in State Supreme Courts with a separate Court of Appeal division (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia) are referred to as Justices/Judges of the Appeal (abbreviated "Surname JA"), while the President of the Court of Appeal is referred to as "President" (abbreviated "Surname P").


title: Judge

text: In New Zealand, judges of the District Court of New Zealand generally referred to as "His/Her Honour" or "Sir/Madame". Judges from the High Court, Appeals Court, and Supreme Court are referred to as "Justice [Surname]". In social settings, it is appropriate to use "Judge" in all cases.


title: Judge

text: In Brazil, judges are simply called "Juiz" or "Juíza" (male and female forms of "judge") and traditionally addressed to as "Vossa Excelência" (, translated as ‘Your Honor’) or "Meritíssimo" (‘Honorable’, but it is used as a pronoun also translated as ‘Your Honor’). Judges that are part of a panel in a State Court, or Federal Court are called "desembargadores". Judges sitting in the higher courts (Supremo Tribunal Federal, Superior Tribunal de Justiça, Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, Superior Tribunal Militar and Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) are called "ministro" or "ministra" (male and female forms of "minister") and also referred to as "Vossa Excelência".


title: Judge

text: At the International Court of Justice, judges may be addressed by the titles they received in their countries of origin.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: Harvest is the fourth studio album by Canadian-American musician Neil Young, released on February 1, 1972, by Reprise Records, catalogue number MS 2032. It featured the London Symphony Orchestra on two tracks and vocals by noted guests David Crosby, Graham Nash, Linda Ronstadt, Stephen Stills, and James Taylor. It topped the "Billboard" 200 album chart for two weeks, and spawned two hit singles, "Old Man", which peaked at No. 31 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, and "Heart of Gold", which reached No. 1. It was the best-selling album of 1972 in the United States. The album has since remained Neil Young's signature album as well as his best selling.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: After the members of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young went their separate ways in 1970, Young recruited a group of country session musicians (which he christened The Stray Gators) and recorded a country rock record, "Harvest". The record was a massive hit, producing a US number one single in "Heart of Gold". Other songs returned to some usual Young themes: "The Needle and the Damage Done" was a lament for great artists who had been addicted to heroin, including Crazy Horse bandmate Danny Whitten; "Alabama" was "an unblushing rehash of 'Southern Man'"; to which American southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd wrote their 1973 hit "Sweet Home Alabama" in reply, stating "I hope Neil Young will remember, a Southern Man don't need him around, anyhow". Young later wrote of "Alabama" in his autobiography "Waging Heavy Peace", saying it "richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record. I don't like my words when I listen to it. They are accusatory and condescending, not fully thought out, and too easy to misconstrue." "Words (Between the Lines of Age)", the last song on the album, featured a lengthy guitar workout with the band.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: The album's success caught Young off guard and his first instinct was to back away from stardom. He would later write that the record "put me in the middle of the road. Traveling there soon became a bore so I headed for the ditch. A rougher ride but I saw more interesting people there."


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: According to a note posted on Young's official website on May 1, 2019, much of "Harvest" "was written about or for Carrie Snodgress, a wonderful actress and person and Zeke Young’s mother."


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: The recording of the remainder of "Harvest" was notable for the spontaneous and serendipitous way it came together. The story is told in an article in "Acoustic Guitar Magazine", which includes interviews with the producer, Elliot Mazer, among others.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: Young arrived in Nashville in early February 1971 to perform on a broadcast of the "Johnny Cash Show" where Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor would also appear. Mazer had opened Quadrafonic Sound Studios in Nashville, and invited Young to dinner (or breakfast according to another Mazer interview) on Saturday, 6 February, to convince him to record his next project at the studio. Young admired the work of the local studio musicians known as Area Code 615 who had recorded there and was interested. Young had a batch of new songs that he had been performing on the road, as seen by the repertoire on "Live at Massey Hall 1971", and told Mazer that all he needed was a bass player, drummer, and pedal steel guitarist. Young made the decision to start recording that evening.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: Since many of the Area Code 615 musicians were typically working on a Saturday night in Nashville, Mazer scrambled to find drummer Kenny Buttrey, bassist Tim Drummond (who was just walking down the street), and steel-guitarist Ben Keith. That night, they laid down the basic tracks for "Old Man", "Bad Fog of Loneliness", and "Dance Dance Dance". This version of "Bad Fog" was unreleased until its appearance on "The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972". "Dance Dance Dance" was also left off the album but had already appeared on the debut "Crazy Horse" album.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: According to liner notes in "Archives Volume 1", "Heart of Gold" was not recorded until Monday, 8 February. However, other sources reported that after taping the Johnny Cash Show on the evening of Sunday 7 February, Young invited Ronstadt and Taylor to come back to the studio with him. The three sat on a couch and recorded the background vocals for "Heart of Gold" and "Old Man." Taylor overdubbed a part for the latter song on Young's banjo guitar (a six-string banjo tuned like a guitar).


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: "A Man Needs a Maid" and "There's a World" were recorded by Jack Nitzsche with the London Symphony Orchestra in early March at Barking Assembly Hall (credited as Barking Town Hall on the album notes and now the Broadway Theatre) in the wake of Young's appearance on the BBC and concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: "Out on the Weekend", "Harvest" and "Journey Through the Past", along with overdubs by the session musicians James McMahon (piano on "Old Man"), John Harris (piano on "Harvest"), and Teddy Irwin (second acoustic guitar on "Heart of Gold"), were recorded in another session at Quadrafonic in April.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: The electric-based songs were recorded in a barn at Young's ranch in California in September. Using a remote recording system, Mazer set up PA speakers in the barn for monitors rather than have the players wear headphones. This resulted in a lot of "leakage" as each microphone picked up sound from other instruments, but Young and Mazer liked the resulting sound. "Are You Ready for the Country", "Alabama", and "Words" were recorded in these sessions with Buttrey, Drummond, Keith, along with Nitzsche on piano and lap steel. Young named this band, which would accompany him on his tour in the winter of 1973, The Stray Gators.


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: Mixing was done both at Quadrafonic and at Young's house. During playback at the ranch, Mazer ran the left channel into the PA speakers still in the barn and the right channel into speakers in the house. Young sat outside with Crosby and Nash sitting beside him listening to the mix (or Nash and Young were sitting in a rowboat on the lake—see notes). When asked about the stereo balance, he called out, "More barn."


title: Harvest (Neil Young album)

text: According to a "Rolling Stone" interview, Young had wanted the album sleeve to biodegrade after the shrink-wrap was broken, but was overruled by the record company on the basis of expense and the possible product loss due to shipping accidents. Mo Ostin mentioned this request at the 22nd annual ASCAP pop music awards.