title: Rite of passage

text: Rites of passage have three phases: separation, liminality, and incorporation, as van Gennep described. "I propose to call the rites of separation from a previous world, "preliminal rites", those executed during the transitional stage "liminal (or threshold) rites", and the ceremonies of incorporation into the new world "postliminal rites"."


title: Rite of passage

text: In the first phase, people withdraw from their current status and prepare to move from one place or status to another. "The first phase (of separation) comprises symbolic behavior signifying the detachment of the individual or group ... from an earlier fixed to point in the social structure." There is often a detachment or "cutting away" from the former self in this phase, which is signified in symbolic actions and rituals. For example, the cutting of the hair for a person who has just joined the army. He or she is "cutting away" the former self: the civilian.


title: Rite of passage

text: The transition (liminal) phase is the period between stages, during which one has left one place or state but has not yet entered or joined the next. "The attributes of liminality or of liminal "personae" ("threshold people") are necessarily ambiguous."


title: Rite of passage

text: In the third phase (reaggregation or incorporation) the passage is consummated [by] the ritual subject." Having completed the rite and assumed their "new" identity, one re-enters society with one's new status. Re-incorporation is characterized by elaborate rituals and ceremonies, like debutant balls and college graduation, and by outward symbols of new ties: thus "in rites of incorporation there is widespread use of the 'sacred bond', the 'sacred cord', the knot, and of analogous forms such as the belt, the ring, the bracelet and the crown."


title: Rite of passage

text: Laboratory experiments have shown that severe initiations produce cognitive dissonance. It is theorized that such dissonance heightens group attraction among initiates after the experience, arising from internal justification of the effort used. Rewards during initiations have important consequences in that initiates who feel more rewarded express stronger group identity. As well as group attraction, initiations can also produce conformity among new members. Psychology experiments have also shown that initiations increase feelings of affiliation.


title: Rite of passage

text: Aronson and Mills tested the Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance by having three groups read either embarrassing material, not very embarrassing material, or nothing at all to a group. Aronson and Mills summarized Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance as such when discussing the rationale for their study: "No matter how attractive a group is to a person it is rarely completely positive, i.e., usually there are some aspects of the group that the individual does not like. If he has undergone an unpleasant initiation to gain admission to the group, his cognition that he has gone through an unpleasant experience for the sake of membership is dissonant with his cognition that there are things about the group that he does not like. He can reduce this dissonance in two ways. He can convince himself that the initiation was not very unpleasant, or he can exaggerate the positive characteristics of the group and minimize its negative aspects. With increasing severity of initiation it becomes more and more difficult to believe that the initiation was not very bad. Thus, a person who has gone through a painful initiation to become a member of a group should tend to reduce his dissonance by over estimating the attractiveness of the group." Those who read the severely embarrassing material perceived the group as more attractive than those who read the mildly embarrassing material or nothing at all. Another study using mathematical subtraction tasks reached the opposite conclusion but research using electrical shocks supported the concept that suffering increased the degree to which participants liked the group.


title: Rite of passage

text: Initiation rites are seen as fundamental to human growth and development as well as socialization in many African communities. These rites function by ritually marking the transition of someone to full group membership. It also links individuals to the community and the community to the broader and more potent spiritual world. Initiation rites are "a natural and necessary part of a community, just as arms and legs are natural and necessary extension of the human body". These rites are linked to individual and community development. Dr. Manu Ampim identifies five stages; rite to birth, rite to adulthood, rite to marriage, rite to eldership and rite to ancestorship. In Zulu culture, entering womanhood is celebrated by the Umhlanga.


title: Rite of passage

text: Rites of passage are diverse, and are found throughout many cultures around the world. Many western societal rituals may look like rites of passage but miss some of the important structural and functional components. However, in many Native and African-American communities, traditional rites of passage programs are conducted by community-based organizations such as "Man Up Global". Typically the missing piece is the societal recognition and reincorporation phase. Adventure education programs, such as Outward Bound, have often been described as potential rites of passage. Pamela Cushing researched the rites of passage impact upon adolescent youth at the Canadian Outward Bound School and found the rite of passage impact was lessened by the missing reincorporation phase. Bell (2003) presented more evidence of this lacking third stage and described the "Contemporary Adventure Model of a Rites of Passage" as a modern and weaker version of the rites of passage typically used by outdoor adventure programs.


title: Rite of passage

text: In various tribal and developed societies, entry into an age grade—generally gender-separated—(unlike an age set) is marked by an initiation rite, which may be the crowning of a long and complex preparation, sometimes in retreat.


title: Rite of passage

text: Some academic circles such as dorms, fraternities, teams and other clubs practice hazing, ragging and fagging. "Szecskáztatás", a mild form of hazing (usually without physical and sexual abuse), is practiced in some Hungarian secondary schools. First-year junior students are publicly humiliated through embarrassing clothing and senior students branding their faces with marker pens; it is sometimes also a contest, with the winners usually earning the right to organize the next event. Fraternities and sororities, like other private societies, often have codified initiation ceremonies as ritual separating candidates from members.


title: Blackletter

text: Blackletter (sometimes black letter), also known as Gothic script, Gothic minuscule, or Textura, was a script used throughout Western Europe from approximately 1150 until the 17th century. It continued to be commonly used for the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish languages until the 1870s, and for the German language until the 1940s, when Hitler's distaste for the supposedly "Jewish-influenced" script saw it officially discontinued in 1941. Fraktur is a notable script of this type, and sometimes the entire group of blackletter faces is incorrectly referred to as Fraktur. Blackletter is sometimes referred to as Old English, but it is not to be confused with the Old English language, which predates blackletter by many centuries and was written in the insular script or in Futhorc. Along with Italic type and Roman type, blackletter served as one of the major typefaces in the history of Western typography.


title: Blackletter

text: Carolingian minuscule was the direct ancestor of blackletter. Blackletter developed from Carolingian as an increasingly literate 12th-century Europe required new books in many different subjects. New universities were founded, each producing books for business, law, grammar, history and other pursuits, not solely religious works, for which earlier scripts typically had been used.


title: Blackletter

text: These books needed to be produced quickly to keep up with demand. Labor-intensive Carolingian, though legible, was unable to effectively keep up. Its large size consumed a lot of manuscript space in a time when writing materials were very costly. As early as the 11th century, different forms of Carolingian were already being used, and by the mid-12th century, a clearly distinguishable form, able to be written more quickly to meet the demand for new books, was being used in northeastern France and the Low Countries.


title: Blackletter

text: The term "Gothic" was first used to describe this script in 15th-century Italy, in the midst of the Renaissance, because Renaissance humanists believed this style was barbaric, and "Gothic" was a synonym for "barbaric". Flavio Biondo, in "Italia Illustrata" (1474), wrote that the Germanic Lombards invented this script after they invaded Italy in the 6th century.


title: Blackletter

text: Not only were blackletter forms called "Gothic script", but any other seemingly barbarian script, such as Visigothic, Beneventan, and Merovingian, were also labeled "Gothic". This in contrast to Carolingian minuscule, a highly legible script which the humanists called "littera antiqua" ("the ancient letter"), wrongly believing that it was the script used by the ancient Romans. It was in fact invented in the reign of Charlemagne, although only used significantly after that era, and actually formed the basis for the later development of blackletter.


title: Blackletter

text: Blackletter script should not be confused with either the ancient alphabet of the Gothic language nor with the sans-serif typefaces that are also sometimes called "Gothic".


title: Blackletter

text: "Textualis", also known as "textura" or "Gothic bookhand", was the most calligraphic form of blackletter, and today is the form most associated with "Gothic". Johannes Gutenberg carved a textualis typeface – including a large number of ligatures and common abbreviations – when he printed his 42-line Bible. However, textualis was rarely used for typefaces after this.


title: Blackletter

text: According to Dutch scholar Gerard Lieftinck, the pinnacle of blackletter use was reached in the 14th and 15th centuries. For Lieftinck, the highest form of "textualis" was "littera textualis formata", used for "de luxe" manuscripts. The usual form, simply "littera textualis", was used for literary works and university texts. Lieftinck's third form, "littera textualis currens", was the cursive form of blackletter, extremely difficult to read and used for textual glosses, and less important books.


title: Blackletter

text: "Textualis" was most widely used in France, the Low Countries, England, and Germany. Some characteristics of the script are:


title: Blackletter

text: "Schwabacher" was a blackletter form that was much used in early German print typefaces. It continued to be used occasionally until the 20th century. Characteristics of Schwabacher are:


title: Blackletter

text: "Fraktur" is a form of blackletter that became the most common German blackletter typeface by the mid-16th century. Its use was so common that often any blackletter form is called "Fraktur" in Germany. Characteristics of Fraktur are:


title: Blackletter

text: Here is the entire alphabet in Fraktur (minus the long s and the sharp s), using the AMS Euler Fraktur typeface:


title: Blackletter

text: "Cursiva" refers to a very large variety of forms of blackletter; as with modern cursive writing, there is no real standard form. It developed in the 14th century as a simplified form of "textualis", with influence from the form of "textualis" as used for writing charters. "Cursiva" developed partly because of the introduction of paper, which was smoother than parchment. It was therefore, easier to write quickly on paper in a cursive script.


title: Blackletter

text: In "cursiva", descenders are more frequent, especially in the letters and , and ascenders are curved and looped rather than vertical (seen especially in the letter ). The letters , and (at the end of a word) are very similar to their Carolingian forms. However, not all of these features are found in every example of "cursiva", which makes it difficult to determine whether or not a script may be called "cursiva" at all.


title: Blackletter

text: Lieftinck also divided "cursiva" into three styles: "littera cursiva formata" was the most legible and calligraphic style. "Littera cursiva textualis" (or "libraria") was the usual form, used for writing standard books, and it generally was written with a larger pen, leading to larger letters. "Littera cursiva currens" was used for textbooks and other unimportant books and it had very little standardization in forms.


title: Blackletter

text: "Hybrida" is also called "bastarda" (especially in France), and as its name suggests, is a hybrid form of the script. It is a mixture of "textualis" and "cursiva", developed in the early 15th century. From "textualis", it borrowed vertical ascenders, while from "cursiva", it borrowed long and , single-looped , and with an open descender (similar to Carolingian forms).


title: Blackletter

text: The "Donatus-Kalender" (also known as Donatus-und-Kalender or D-K) is the name for the metal type design that Gutenberg used in his earliest surviving printed works, dating from the early 1450s. The name is taken from two works: the Ars grammatica of Aelius Donatus, a Latin grammar, and the Kalender (calendar). It is a form of textura.


title: Blackletter

text: While an antiqua typeface is usually a compound of roman types and italic types since the 16th-century French typographers, the blackletter typefaces never developed a similar distinction. Instead, they use letterspacing (German "Sperrung") for emphasis. When using that method, blackletter ligatures like , , or remain together without additional letterspacing ( is dissolved, though). The use of bold text for emphasis is also alien to blackletter typefaces.


title: Blackletter

text: Words from other languages, especially from Romance languages including Latin, are usually typeset in antiqua instead of blackletter. Like that, single antiqua words or phrases may occur within a blackletter text. This does not apply, however, to loanwords that have been incorporated into the language.


title: Blackletter

text: English blackletter developed from the form of Carolingian minuscule used there after the Norman Conquest, sometimes called "Romanesque minuscule". "Textualis" forms developed after 1190 and were used most often until approximately 1300, after which it became used mainly for "de luxe" manuscripts. English forms of blackletter have been studied extensively and may be divided into many categories. "Textualis formata" ("Old English" or "blackletter"), "textualis prescissa" (or "textualis sine pedibus", as it generally lacks feet on its minims), "textualis quadrata" (or "psalterialis") and "semi-quadrata", and "textualis rotunda" are various forms of high-grade "formata" styles of blackletter.


title: Blackletter

text: The University of Oxford borrowed the "littera parisiensis" in the 13th century and early 14th century, and the "littera oxoniensis" form is almost indistinguishable from its Parisian counterpart; however, there are a few differences, such as the round final forms, resembling the number , rather than the long used in the final position in the Paris script.


title: Blackletter

text: Printers of the late 15th and early 16th centuries commonly used blackletter typefaces, but under the influence of Renaissance tastes, Roman typefaces grew in popularity, until by about 1590 most presses had converted to them. However, blackletter was considered to be more readily legible (especially by the less literate classes of society), and it therefore remained in use throughout the 17th century and into the 18th for documents intended for widespread dissemination, such as proclamations and Acts of Parliament, and for literature aimed at the common people, such as ballads, chivalric romances, and jokebooks.


title: Blackletter

text: Chaucer's works had been printed in blackletter in the late 15th century, but were subsequently more usually printed in Roman type. Horace Walpole wrote in 1781 that "I am too, though a Goth, so modern a Goth that I hate the black letter, and I love Chaucer better in Dryden and Baskerville than in his own language and dress."


title: Blackletter

text: English "cursiva" began to be used in the 13th century, and soon replaced "littera oxoniensis" as the standard university script. The earliest cursive blackletter form is "Anglicana", a very round and looped script, which also had a squarer and angular counterpart, "Anglicana formata". The "formata" form was used until the 15th century and also was used to write vernacular texts. An "Anglicana bastarda" form developed from a mixture of "Anglicana" and "textualis", but by the 16th century, the principal cursive blackletter used in England was the Secretary script, which originated in Italy and came to England by way of France. Secretary script has a somewhat haphazard appearance, and its forms of the letters , , and are unique, unlike any forms in any other English script.


title: Blackletter

text: French "textualis" was tall and narrow compared to other national forms, and was most fully developed in the late 13th century in Paris. In the 13th century there also was an extremely small version of textualis used to write miniature Bibles, known as "pearl script". Another form of French textualis in this century was the script developed at the University of Paris, "littera parisiensis", which also is small in size and designed to be written quickly, not calligraphically.


title: Blackletter

text: French "cursiva" was used from the 13th to the 16th century, when it became highly looped, messy, and slanted. "Bastarda", the "hybrid" mixture of "cursiva" and "textualis", developed in the 15th century and was used for vernacular texts as well as Latin. A more angular form of "bastarda" was used in Burgundy, the "lettre de forme" or "lettre bourgouignonne", for books of hours such as the Très Riches Heures of John, Duke of Berry.


title: Blackletter

text: Despite the frequent association of blackletter with German, the script was actually very slow to develop in German-speaking areas. It developed first in those areas closest to France and then spread to the east and south in the 13th century. The German-speaking areas are, however, where blackletter remained in use the longest.


title: Blackletter

text: Schwabacher typefaces dominated in Germany from about 1480 to 1530, and the style continued in use occasionally until the 20th century. Most importantly, all of the works of Martin Luther, leading to the Protestant Reformation, as well as the Apocalypse of Albrecht Dürer (1498), used this typeface. Johann Bämler, a printer from Augsburg, probably first used it as early as 1472. The origins of the name remain unclear; some assume that a typeface-carver from the village of Schwabach—one who worked externally and who thus became known as the "Schwabacher"—designed the typeface.


title: Blackletter

text: German "Textualis" is usually very heavy and angular, and there are few characteristic features that are common to all occurrences of the script. One common feature is the use of the letter for Latin or . "Textualis" was first used in the 13th and 14th centuries, and subsequently become more elaborate and decorated, as well as being reserved used for liturgical works only.


title: Blackletter

text: Johann Gutenberg used a "textualis" typeface for his famous Gutenberg Bible in 1455. Schwabacher, a blackletter with more rounded letters, soon became the usual printed typeface, but it was replaced by Fraktur in the early 17th century.


title: Blackletter

text: Fraktur came into use when Emperor Maximilian I (1493–1519) established a series of books and had a new typeface created specifically for this purpose. In the 19th century, the use of antiqua alongside Fraktur increased, leading to the Antiqua-Fraktur dispute, which lasted until the Nazis abandoned Fraktur in 1941. Since it was so common, all kinds of blackletter tend to be called "Fraktur" in German.


title: Blackletter

text: German "cursiva" is similar to the cursive scripts in other areas, but forms of , and other letters are more varied; here too, the letter is often used. A "hybrida" form, which was basically "cursiva" with fewer looped letters and with similar square proportions as "textualis", was used in the 15th and 16th centuries.


title: Blackletter

text: In the 18th century, the pointed quill was adopted for blackletter handwriting. In the early 20th century, the Sütterlin script was introduced in the schools.


title: Blackletter

text: Italian blackletter also is known as rotunda, as it was less angular than those produced by northern printing centers. The most common form of Italian "rotunda" was "littera bononiensis", used at the University of Bologna in the 13th century. Biting is a common feature in "rotunda", but breaking is not.


title: Blackletter

text: Italian "Rotunda" also is characterized by unique abbreviations, such as with a line beneath the bow signifying "qui", and unusual spellings, such as for ("milex" rather than "miles").


title: Blackletter

text: Italian cursive developed in the 13th century from scripts used by notaries. The more calligraphic form is known as "minuscola cancelleresca italiana" (or simply "cancelleresca", chancery hand), which developed into a book hand, a script used for writing books rather than charters, in the 14th century. "Cancelleresca" influenced the development of "bastarda" in France and secretary hand in England.


title: Blackletter

text: A "textualis" form, commonly known as "Gotisch" or "Gothic script", was used for general publications from the fifteenth century on, but became restricted to official documents and religious publications during the seventeenth century. Its use persisted into the nineteenth century for editions of the State Translation of the Bible, but otherwise became obsolete.


title: Blackletter

text: Mathematical blackletter characters are separately encoded in Unicode in the Mathematical alphanumeric symbols range at U+1D504-1D537 and U+1D56C-1D59F (bold), except for individual letters already encoded in the Letterlike Symbols range (plus long s at U+017F).


title: Blackletter

text: This block of characters should be used only for setting mathematical text, as mathematical texts use blackletter symbols contrastively to other letter styles. For stylized blackletter prose, the normal Latin letters should be used, with font choice or other markup used to indicate blackletter styling. The character names use "Fraktur" for the mathematical alphanumeric symbols, while "blackletter" is used for those symbol characters in the letterlike symbols range.


title: Blackletter

text: For normal text writing, the ordinary Latin code points are used. The blackletter style is then determined by a font with blackletter glyphs.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: Shapoorji Pallonji & Company Private Limited, trading as Shapoorji Pallonji Group, is an Indian conglomerate company, headquartered in Mumbai. It operates in construction, real estate, textiles, engineered goods, home appliances, shipping, publications, power, and biotechnology. The company was headed by a grandson of founder Pallonji Mistry, also named Pallonji Mistry, until 2012, when he announced his retirement and the succession of his son, Shapoor Mistry.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: Shapoorji Pallonji is regarded as ""one of India's most valuable private enterprises."" The US$2.5 billion Shapoorji Pallonji Group have two listed companies, Forbes & Company Ltd. and Gokak Textiles. Forbes was already listed when bought by Shapoorji Pallonji, though there was speculation in 2006 that group company Afcons Infrastructure would go public via an IPO.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: The company is known for building some of Mumbai's landmarks around the Fort area, including the Hong Kong Bank, Grindlays Bank, Standard Chartered Bank and Reserve Bank of India building, Bombay Stock Exchange building and Taj Intercontinental. Apart from these, the company has built a stone palace for the Sultan of Oman in 1971. After the 2008 Mumbai Attacks, the company was involved in the repairs and renovation of Taj Mahal Palace & Tower which was severely damaged by the attack. Other notable projects include The Imperial in Mumbai, Jumeirah Lake Towers in Dubai and Ebene Cyber City in Mauritius.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: In 2012, Shapoor Mistry announced that the Group had plans to invest in a deep-sea port, an IT park, hydro electricity and construction of roads and night shelters for the poor in West Bengal.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: The company was founded as a partnership firm "Littlewood Pallonji", in 1865. The first project was the construction of a pavement on the Girgaum Chowpatty, followed by being part of the construction of a reservoir on Malabar Hill which supplied water to Mumbai for over 100 years. The company also built the Brabourne stadium in Mumbai and the Jawaharlal Nehru stadium in Delhi. The Mumbai Central Railway station, was also built by them at a cost of 1.6 crore. The company was commended by the then Governor of Bombay for completing the work within 21 months. In recent years, it has built the Barakhamba Underground Station in Delhi and Providence Stadium in Guyana. In 2010, it built India's tallest building of the time, The Imperial, a residential tower in Mumbai.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: The Shapoorji Pallonji has also had a brief involvement with Bollywood. Released in 1960, K. Asif's magnum opus, and one of the most popular and critically acclaimed Bollywood films of all time, "Mughal-e-Azam", was funded by the group with a budget of 1.5 crore, which made it the most expensive Bollywood film till then and a record it held for many years. More than four decades later, the group funded a digital remastering of the film at a budget of 5 crore, which was released on 12 November 2004. Shapoor Mistry, grandson of Shapoorji Pallonji Mistry, thought it a fitting tribute to complete his grandfather's unfinished dream of colourising the film, especially as the original was produced by his grandfather. In 2016, Shapoorji Pallonji Group, in association with the National Centre for the Performing Arts (India), co-produced "Mughal-e-Azam", a Broadway-style musical directed by Feroz Abbas Khan, and based on the 1960 Bollywood film "Mughal-e-Azam".


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: In 1936, Shapoorji Pallonji bought "F.E. Dinshaw and Co." after the death of its promoter. F.E. Dinshaw and Co. was an established finance firm that had high-profile dealings such as arranging a loan from the Maharaja of Gwalior for Tata Steel (then "TISCO") in 1924 and merging local cement companies to form ACC Cement in 1936. F.E. Dinshaw and Co. also had a 12.5% stake in Tata Sons, which came to Shapoorji Pallonji.


title: Shapoorji Pallonji Group

text: In 2001-02, Shapoorji Pallonji took over "Forbes Gokak" (now "Forbes and Company") from the Tata group after winning a takeover battle with the "Pawankumar Sanwarmal Group". The company was already listed on the BSE when it was taken over and remains the group's only listed entity as of 2011.


title: Apharan (web series)

text: Apharan is a 2018 Indian Hindi-language action thriller web series directed and co-produced by Sidharth Sengupta for video on demand platform ALTBalaji. The series stars Arunoday Singh. The series is set in current times and revolves around kidnapping, suspense, mystery and never ending action.


title: Apharan (web series)

text: The series is available for streaming on the ALT Balaji App and its associated websites since its release date. Season 2 was released on 18 March 2022.


title: Apharan (web series)

text: Rudra Srivastava (Arunoday Singh), a senior inspector of Uttarakhand Police is lured into kidnapping a young girl named Anusha (Monica Chaudhary), at her step-mother (Mahie Gill)'s request. The plot begins as a simple plan to extort money in exchange for Anusha.


title: Apharan (web series)

text: Apharan is based on the 70s era with the feeling of nostalgia and great suspense and mystery. The story follows a cop 'Rudra' who was falsely accused and ends up in jail for 3 years. The plot is all about the mystery of the murder of a kidnapped girl.


title: Apharan (web series)

text: Season 2 revolves around Rudra navigating his professional duties with his personal life at stake. To find a cure for his wife's addiction, the RAW sends the formidable cop to Serbia to track down and capture Bikram Bahadur Singh, or BBS, a wanted criminal responsible for the death of 9 Indian RAW agents in one month.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Cheyne–Stokes respiration is an abnormal pattern of breathing characterized by progressively deeper, and sometimes faster, breathing followed by a gradual decrease that results in a temporary stop in breathing called an apnea. The pattern repeats, with each cycle usually taking 30 seconds to 2 minutes. It is an oscillation of ventilation between apnea and hyperpnea with a crescendo-diminuendo pattern, and is associated with changing serum partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Cheyne–Stokes respiration and periodic breathing are the two regions on a spectrum of severity of oscillatory tidal volume. The distinction lies in what is observed at the trough of ventilation: Cheyne–Stokes respiration involves apnea (since apnea is a prominent feature in their original description) while periodic breathing involves hypopnea (abnormally small but not absent breaths).


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: These phenomena can occur during wakefulness or during sleep, where they are called the central sleep apnea syndrome (CSAS).


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: It may be caused by damage to respiratory centers, or by physiological abnormalities in congestive heart failure, and is also seen in newborns with immature respiratory systems and in visitors new to high altitudes. One example is the breathing pattern in Joubert syndrome and related disorders.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Causes may include heart failure, kidney failure, narcotic poisoning, and raised intracranial pressure. The pathophysiology of Cheyne–Stokes breathing can be summarized as apnea leading to increased CO which causes excessive compensatory hyperventilation, in turn causing decreased CO which causes apnea, restarting the cycle.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: In heart failure, the mechanism of the oscillation is unstable feedback in the respiratory control system. In normal respiratory control, negative feedback allows a steady level of alveolar gas concentrations to be maintained, and therefore stable tissue levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO). At the steady state, the rate of production of CO equals the net rate at which it is exhaled from the body, which (assuming no CO in the ambient air) is the product of the alveolar ventilation and the end-tidal CO concentration. Because of this interrelationship, the set of possible steady states forms a hyperbola:


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: In the figure below, this relationship is the curve falling from the top left to the bottom right. Only positions along this curve permit the body's CO production to be exactly compensated for by exhalation of CO. Meanwhile, there is another curve, shown in the figure for simplicity as a straight line from bottom left to top right, which is the body's ventilatory response to different levels of CO. Where the curves cross is the potential steady state (S).


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Through respiratory control reflexes, any small transient fall in ventilation (A) leads to a corresponding small rise (A') in alveolar CO concentration which is sensed by the respiratory control system so that there is a subsequent small compensatory rise in ventilation (B) above its steady state level (S) that helps restore CO back to its steady state value. In general, transient or persistent disturbances in ventilation, CO or oxygen levels can be counteracted by the respiratory control system in this way.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: However, in some pathological states, the feedback is more powerful than is necessary to simply return the system towards its steady state. Instead, ventilation overshoots and can generate an opposite disturbance to the original disturbance. If this secondary disturbance is larger than the original, the next response will be even larger, and so on, until very large oscillations have developed, as shown in the figure below.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: The cycle of enlargement of disturbances reaches a limit when successive disturbances are no longer larger, which occurs when physiological responses no longer increase linearly in relation to the size of the stimulus. The most obvious example of this is when ventilation falls to zero: it cannot be any lower. Thus Cheyne–Stokes respiration can be maintained over periods of many minutes or hours with a repetitive pattern of apneas and hyperpneas.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: The end of the linear decrease in ventilation in response to falls in CO is not, however, at apnea. It occurs when ventilation is so small that air being breathed in never reaches the alveolar space, because the inspired tidal volume is no larger than the volume of the large airways such as the trachea. Consequently, at the nadir of periodic breathing, ventilation of the alveolar space may be effectively zero; the easily observable counterpart of this is failure at that time point of the end-tidal gas concentrations to resemble realistic alveolar concentrations.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Many potential contributory factors have been identified by clinical observation, but unfortunately they are all interlinked and co-vary extensively. Widely accepted risk factors are hyperventilation, prolonged circulation time, and reduced blood gas buffering capacity.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: They are physiologically interlinked in that (for any given patient) circulation time decreases as cardiac output increases. Likewise, for any given total body CO production rate, alveolar ventilation is inversely proportional to end-tidal CO concentration (since their mutual product must equal total body CO production rate). Chemoreflex sensitivity is closely linked to the position of the steady state, because if chemoreflex sensitivity increases (other things being equal) the steady-state ventilation will rise and the steady-state CO will fall. Because ventilation and CO are easy to observe, and because they are commonly measured clinical variables which do not require any particular experiment to be conducted in order to observe them, abnormalities in these variables are more likely to be reported in the literature. However, other variables, such as chemoreflex sensitivity can only be measured by specific experiment, and therefore abnormalities in them will not be found in routine clinical data. When measured in patients with Cheyne–Stokes respiration, hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness may be elevated by 100% or more. When not measured, its consequences—such as a low mean Pa and elevated mean ventilation—may sometimes appear to be the most prominent feature.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: This abnormal pattern of breathing, in which breathing is absent for a period and then rapid for a period, can be seen in patients with heart failure, strokes, hyponatremia, traumatic brain injuries, and brain tumors. In some instances, it can occur in otherwise healthy people during sleep at high altitudes. It can occur in all forms of toxic metabolic encephalopathy. It is a symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning, along with syncope or coma. This type of respiration is different from respiratory depression, often seen after morphine administration.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Hospices sometimes document the presence of Cheyne–Stokes breathing as a patient nears death, and report that patients able to speak after such episodes do not report any distress associated with the breathing, although it is sometimes disturbing to the family.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: Cheyne–Stokes respirations are not the same as Biot's respirations ("cluster breathing"), in which groups of breaths tend to be similar in size.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: They differ from Kussmaul respirations in that the Kussmaul pattern is one of consistent very deep breathing at a normal or increased rate.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: The condition was named after John Cheyne and William Stokes, the physicians who first described it in the 19th century.


title: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: The term became widely known and used in the Soviet Union after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, because the Soviet press announced that the ailing Stalin had Cheyne–Stokes respiration.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The 1996 NBA Finals was the championship series of the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s 1995–96 season, and the culmination of the season's playoffs. The Western Conference champion Seattle SuperSonics (64–18) played the Eastern Conference champion Chicago Bulls (72–10), with the Bulls holding home court advantage. The teams' 136 combined regular season wins shattered the previous record of 125, set in 1985 between the Los Angeles Lakers who won 62 games and the Boston Celtics who won 63 games in the past regular season. The series, the 50th NBA finals in league history, was played under a best-of-seven format. This was the first championship in the Chicago Bulls' second three-peat.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Chicago won the series 4 games to 2. Michael Jordan was named NBA Finals MVP, his fourth time winning the award.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls were coming off a season where they lost in the second round of the playoffs to the Orlando Magic. Heading into the upcoming season, Chicago was no longer the same team as they were in their most recent championship season of , having lost key members of their first three-peat core in John Paxson who retired, while Bill Cartwright, Horace Grant, B. J. Armstrong, Stacey King, Will Perdue, and Scott Williams left via free agency.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: In their place was a new core of players such as Luc Longley, Toni Kukoč, Steve Kerr, Ron Harper, Jud Buechler, Bill Wennington and Randy Brown. But perhaps their biggest addition to the team was Dennis Rodman, a nine-year veteran who had been a rebounding champion for four straight years, and whose controversial lifestyle has been well-documented.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The result of this ensemble was perhaps the greatest regular season of any team in NBA history at the time, as the Bulls won a record-high 72 games, which would be broken by the Golden State Warriors in the 2015–16 season. They continued to gain momentum in the playoffs, beginning with a sweep of the Miami Heat in the first round, followed by a five-game defeat of the New York Knicks in the second round. The conference finals was a rematch of the previous season's series with the Orlando Magic, but it was a no-contest, as the Bulls swept the Magic to gain entry into the Finals.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The SuperSonics were led by Gary Payton and Shawn Kemp, with George Karl as head coach. The team was considered a perennial title contender throughout the mid-1990s, but the closest they came to reaching the finals was in 1993, when they lost to the Phoenix Suns in seven games in the Western Conference Finals.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Two straight first-round exits followed, including the stunning 1994 loss to the eighth-seeded Denver Nuggets (the Sonics were the first seed in that playoffs). Motivated by a successive string of early playoff losses, Seattle finished the 1996 regular season with a franchise-record 64 wins.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Seattle began its playoff run with a four-game win over the Sacramento Kings, followed by a dominant sweep of the defending champion Houston Rockets, headed by a 33 point win in Game 1 where they held Hakeem Olajuwon to 5 points. They then beat the Utah Jazz in seven games in the western finals to advance to its first NBA championship round since .


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Although Chicago was not playing well offensively, they were able to compensate with superb defense. Frustration set in for Seattle when Frank Brickowski was ejected after committing a flagrant foul against Dennis Rodman, then promptly getting charged with two consecutive technical fouls. Chicago was leading by only 2 at the end of the third quarter, but in the final quarter, shots by Toni Kukoč and 2 key steals by Ron Harper clinched the Bulls' Game 1 win. Shawn Kemp was a bright spot for Seattle, scoring 32 points, but ended up fouling out midway through the fourth quarter. Michael Jordan led the way for the Bulls with 28 points, while Scottie Pippen chipped in with 21 points. Seattle captain Nate McMillan ended up leaving the game due to a debilitating back injury in the 2nd quarter. Dennis Rodman pulled down 13 rebounds for the Bulls, while Toni Kukoč chipped in off the bench with 18 points.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Game 2 started well for Seattle with a 27–23 first quarter lead. However, Seattle would once again lose the lead before halftime. Despite Shawn Kemp's 29 points and 13 rebounds, Chicago triumphed with a final score of 92 to 88. In the victory, Dennis Rodman tied an NBA Finals record with 11 offensive rebounds and made a clutch free throw near the end of the game to seal the Bulls victory. Michael Jordan once again led the Bulls with 29 points, while Shawn Kemp continued his strong play by scoring 29 points for Seattle.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The Sonics, owners of a 44–5 home record (including playoffs), suffered a 22-point blow-out in their return to Seattle, giving the Bulls a seemingly insurmountable 3–0 series lead. Frustration would once again set in for the Sonics, as Frank Brickowski was ejected for committing a flagrant foul on Dennis Rodman. Michael Jordan led the way for the Bulls with 36 points.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Seattle did not want to suffer the ignominy of a sweep. In an attempt to spark his team, Coach George Karl gave Jordan's defensive assignment to Gary Payton, a move which showed immediate results. Seattle succeeded with a 107–86 win over the Bulls, and Sonics fans taunted the Bulls players with homemade signs reading ""Sweepless in Seattle"." The Sonics were helped by the return of team captain Nate McMillan whose presence entering the game brought the KeyArena crowd to its feet.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Seattle's victory prevented the NBA Finals from being swept in two consecutive years (something which, as of 2022, has never occurred).


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Seattle would once again deny the Bulls the championship, stretching the series to six games. Payton had this to say: "We feel great. We knew we could play with this team. It just took too long. We should have come with this a little earlier." Shawn Kemp's performance in this game was considered by many to be his best in a Seattle uniform.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Chicago won the series 4 games to 2 on Father's Day, in what would be the last time the Sonics played a Finals game before relocating to Oklahoma City and becoming known as the Thunder. The Bulls' victory was partly due to the stellar performance of power forward Dennis Rodman, who delivered a repeat of his Game 2 performance with 19 rebounds, tying his own NBA Finals record. Bulls star Michael Jordan finished the game with 22 points and collected his fourth Finals MVP.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: As of 2022, no NBA team has ever overcome a 3-0 playoff series deficit, and only three teams have forced a Game 7 after dropping the first three contests: the New York Knicks (1951), the Denver Nuggets (1994), and the Portland Trail Blazers (2003).


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The Finals was aired in the United States on NBC. Bob Costas hosted the pre-game, halftime and post-game show with analysts Julius Erving and Peter Vecsey. Games were called by Marv Albert, Matt Guokas and Bill Walton, while Ahmad Rashad and Hannah Storm served as sideline reporters.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The 1996 NBA Finals would be the last Finals appearance of the Seattle SuperSonics. The Sonics would win the Pacific Division again in 1997 and 1998, but fell to the second round of the playoffs each time. The series was George Karl's only Finals appearance in his coaching career to date. In 2008, the Sonics franchise moved to Oklahoma City and became the Thunder. They would make the finals four years later after the move, losing to the Miami Heat.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: This was also the last time a Seattle-based team played for a major professional sports championship until Super Bowl XL in 2006, when the Seattle Seahawks lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Seahawks would go on to handily defeat Denver in Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014 and lose to the New England Patriots the following year in Super Bowl XLIX. In terms of overall sports leagues, the city would later enjoy six additional championships: the WNBA's Seattle Storm, a one-time SuperSonics sister team, won the 2004, the 2010, the 2018, and the 2020 WNBA Finals, and the MLS's Seattle Sounders FC won 2016 MLS Cup and 2019 MLS Cup.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: Teams from Chicago and Seattle would meet three more times in postseason competition among the "Big Four" leagues. The only time Seattle won over Chicago was in the 2000 American League Division Series, when the Seattle Mariners swept the Chicago White Sox 3–0. Meanwhile, the Seahawks lost to the Chicago Bears in the divisional round of both the and NFL playoffs.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls came close to winning 70 games for the second straight year, instead settling for a 69-win campaign in 1997. They won their second straight title over the Utah Jazz in six games of the 1997 NBA Finals. In the off-season that preceded Scottie Pippen became the first person to win NBA championship and Olympic gold medal in the same year twice, playing for Team USA at the Atlanta Olympics. The Bulls would also defeat the Utah Jazz in six games in the 1998 NBA Finals.


title: 1996 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls' combined 87 wins in the regular season and postseason would stand as an NBA record until the 2015-16 Golden State Warriors, coached by former Bull Steve Kerr, broke it with 88 total wins (thanks to the first round using a best-of-7 format instead of the best-of-5 in 1996), including a 73-9 regular season mark. However, the Warriors lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers in the 2016 NBA Finals, failing to repeat as champions after beating the same Cavaliers in the previous Finals.


title: Exmor

text: Exmor is the name of a technology Sony implemented on some of their CMOS image sensors. It performs on-chip analog/digital signal conversion and two-step noise reduction in parallel on each column of the CMOS sensor.


title: Exmor

text: Exmor RS is the world's first stacked CMOS image sensor and was announced by Sony on 20 August 2012. Subsequently, Sony announced the first 3-layer stacked CMOS sensor, which added DRAM cell array in the middle.


title: Exmor

text: In October 2015, Sony Semiconductor Solutions was established as a wholly owned group company to reinforce the CMOS image sensor business and integrate the semiconductor-related business operations of Sony Group. Following the incorporation, all the Exmor sensors are designed and manufactured by the company.


title: Exmor

text: On May 14, 2020, the Intelligent Vision Sensor was announced with an introduction that reads: "the first image sensor in the world to be equipped with AI processing functionality". The new sensor distinguishes itself from the previous Exmor RS sensors by an AI processor and a memory storing the AI models, included in a stacked logic layer for the real-time image analysis and instant extraction of metadata from a raw image. In the release, only model numbers were identified and it was not confirmed whether the sensor bears a different name.


title: Exmor

text: Exmor R is a back-illuminated version of Sony's CMOS image sensor. Exmor R was announced by Sony on 11 June 2008 and was the world's first mass-produced implementation of the back-illuminated sensor technology. Sony claims that Exmor R is approximately twice as sensitive as a normal front illuminated sensor.


title: Exmor

text: This active pixel sensor is found in several Sony mobile phones and cameras as well as Apple's iPhone 4s and 5. Originally, Exmor R was limited to smaller sensors for camcorders, compact cameras and mobile phones, but the Sony ILCE-7RM2 full-frame camera introduced on the 10 June 2015 features an Exmor R sensor as well.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans is a 2021 American computer-animated science fantasy film directed by Johane Matte, Francisco Ruiz Velasco, and Andrew Schmidt, and written by Guillermo del Toro, Marc Guggenheim and Dan and Kevin Hageman (who also produced the film). It is the finale of the "Tales of Arcadia" franchise by Guillermo del Toro, which features the television series "", "" and "". Following a year after the events of "Wizards", the Guardians of Arcadia reunite for the final time as they battle the nefarious Arcane Order, who have reawakened the primordial Titans.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: It was released on Netflix on July 21, 2021, and it received generally positive reviews from critics but a mixed response from audiences and fans with praise given to the animation and voice performances but criticism for its ending.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: Following the events of "", master wizard Hisirdoux "Douxie" Casperan and former Arcane Order member Nari lure their pursuers Belloc and Skrael onto a moving subway train where they launch a surprise attack with former Trollhunter Jim Lake Jr. and his girlfriend Claire Nunez. Jim is wounded during the fight while his best friend Toby Domzaski accidentally snaps the train’s brakes, causing the train to be unable to stop, and complicating things for Prince Krel Taron, Steve Palchuck and Stuart as they are tasked to use 'trifurcate radiation' to negate the wizards' magic. It ultimately ends in the Arcane Order capturing Nari, unaware that Douxie swapped minds with her prior to her capture, the group being detained by the police before they escape.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: Jim recovers in a newly rebuilt Camelot while learning his mother Barbara is engaged to his former teacher and principal, the changeling Strickler. The group are then joined by Queen Aja Tarron and matured Eli Pepperjack, Steven unknowingly making himself pregnant when he kissed Aja for the seventh time. Blinky Galadrigal relays what he learned to reveal the Order's plan to awakening the Titans and have them converge at Arcadia Oaks, the center of the universe, to unite and recreate the world by destroying the current one. At that time, Order discovers Douxie’s spell and reverts the two back to their normal bodies, but not before Nari alerts Jim, "Trollhunter make the ninth configuration, Krohnisfere will make right". The heroes enter the Round Table and discover that the Arcane Order is already preparing a ritual to break the Genesis Seals. The heroes fail to prevent the ritual from carried out with each member of the order piloting their respective titan.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: The heroes split up: Claire, Blinky, Douxie’s familiar Archie, and Archie’s father Charlemagne head to the Hong Kong Trollmarket to acquire the Krohnisfere from the TrollDragon Zong-Shi; Krel leads Stuart, Steve, and Eli to retrieve Excalibur, while the rest split into two teams in an attempt to stop the titans of Skreal and a brainwashed Nari. But it ended with Strickler and his fellow changeling Nomura are killed in battle while Claire’s team manages to acquire the Krohnisfere, but are forced to leave Archie and his father behind when Belloc's titian destroys the bridge while defeating Varvatos Vex in a gigantic robotic suit of the fictional Gun Robot. The heroes reunite and Douxie restores Nari’s freewill. When asked of the Krohnisfere, Nari tells Jim that "Time unfolds differently, like a flower. Only the Trollhunter will know" before using her Titan to battle and kill Skrael in his Titan, killing herself as well. As Belloc's titan continues it advance, Blinky realizes the Titans are meant to join with a Heartstone and that the union of Trollmarket's Heartstone and Bellroc's Titan will cause the world to be reborn in fire. The group arrive ahead of Belloc while Jim realizes that the ninth configuration is meant to represent him and his friends, enabling Jim to finally pull Excalibur out of the stone. The heroes come face to face with Bellroc, who proves to be too powerful for them to handle. As Jim is left alone to face Bellroc, he comes to accept that the amulet never made him a hero and he already was one. Jim’s newly improved amulet (created with Akiridion technology, from the original blueprints from which Merlin had used when he first built the amulet and the hilt stone from Excalibur) begins to respond to Jim and flies towards him, giving him a magic/Akiridion armor which can empower Excalibur with greater power. Toby, after remembering the anti-magic radiation generator from their first encounter with the Arcane Order, uses it on Bellroc, giving Jim the opportunity to strike Bellroc with Excalibur. Jim finds a fatally hurt Toby, who has been crushed by debris and thanks his friends in his final moments with remaining eight heroes left to mourn him.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: Remembering Nari's words and realizing that the Krohnisfere is meant for him to travel back in time and prevent any tragic events that happened to him and his dearest of friends, Jim decides to use to return to when he first became the Trollhunter. He gives an emotional farewell and travels back to the morning where he found the mystical amulet, making his first change to the timeline by having Toby find Merlin's amulet under the canals.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: While planning the ending of the Netflix/DreamWorks Animation saga "Tales of Arcadia", the producers, wanting it to finish with an "Avengers"-style crossover, debated whether to conclude it with additional "" episodes or a feature film, and eventually made a film because a cinematic format allowed them to "tell this story on the scope that [they] wanted and have the story be as big as [they] aspired it to be". Aware that audiences watching the film would not necessarily be familiar with the rest of the saga, a recap prologue was written for the start of the film. The film was also influenced by Marvel Studios' "Avengers" films, the filmmakers having taken a similar approach so audiences unfamiliar with the franchise could nevertheless enjoy the film's story. According to writer Marc Guggenheim, early production on the film happened while the studio was working on "Wizards", which he felt gave the producers time to determine how to finish the saga's story. The writers included references to executive-producer Guillermo del Toro's "Pacific Rim", though they were careful to not to overload the film with "Pacific Rim" easter eggs.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: On August 7, 2020, it was revealed that Netflix and DreamWorks Animation were developing the "Tales of Arcadia" finale film, "Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans", with Johane Matte, Francisco Ruiz Velasco, and Andrew Schmidt directing, Guillermo del Toro, Marc Guggenheim and the Dan and Kevin Hageman writing and producing the film, with Chad Hammes and "Tales of Arcadia" creator Guillermo del Toro executive-producing. Emile Hirsch, Lexi Medrano, Charlie Saxton, Kelsey Grammer, Alfred Molina, Steven Yeun, Nick Frost, Colin O'Donoghue, Diego Luna, Tatiana Maslany, Cole Sand, Nick Offerman, Fred Tatasciore, Brian Blessed, Kay Bess, Piotr Michael, James Hong, Tom Kenny, Angel Lin, Amy Landecker, Jonathan Hyde, Bebe Wood, Laraine Newman, and Cheryl Hines were confirmed to be part of the cast of the film.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: The film was produced with a higher production budget than previous entries on the franchise and was provided by 88 Pictures, CGCG, Inc., and Original Force. The filmmakers choose to start the film with a high speed chase sequence as a way to showcase the higher budget and animation quality to the audience.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: Jeff Danna, who previously composed "" and "Wizards", and Scott Kirkland composed the score for the film. Dana and Kirkland composed new themes exclusive to the film, while also including themes from the previous "Tales of Arcadia" series in the score.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: On August 7, 2020, the film was confirmed to be released in 2021. On April 27, 2021, the release date was revealed to be July 21, 2021. The project marked the first DreamWorks Animation film to be released directly on a streaming service. The movie was released on Netflix on July 21, 2021.


title: Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans

text: Den of Geek reviewed "Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans", stating that "Though brimming with stakes, Netflix's final movie installment of Guillermo del Toro's "Tales of Arcadia" rationalizes rather than justifies its conclusion."


title: Magical Negro

text: In the cinema of the United States, the Magical Negro is a supporting stock character who comes to the aid of white protagonists in a film. Magical Negro characters, who often possess special insight or mystical powers, have long been a tradition in American fiction.


title: Magical Negro

text: A trope, the term "Magical Negro" was popularized in 2001 by film director Spike Lee, while discussing films with students during a tour of college campuses, in which he said Hollywood continued to employ this premise, expressing dismay. He also said that the films "The Green Mile" and "The Legend of Bagger Vance" used the "super-duper magical Negro".


title: Magical Negro

text: Critics use the word "Negro" because it is considered archaic in modern English. This underlines their message that a "magical black character" who goes around selflessly helping white people is a throwback to stereotypes such as the "Sambo" or "noble savage".


title: Magical Negro

text: The Magical Negro is a trope in cinema, television, and literature: the character is typically, but not always, "in some way outwardly or inwardly disabled, either by discrimination, disability or social constraint". The Negro is often a janitor or prisoner. The character often has no past but simply appears one day to help the white protagonist. They usually have some sort of magical power, "rather vaguely defined but not the sort of thing one typically encounters." The character is patient and wise, often dispensing various words of wisdom, and is "closer to the earth". The character will also do almost anything, including sacrificing themselves to save the white protagonist, as exemplified in "The Defiant Ones", in which Sidney Poitier plays the prototypical Magical Negro.


title: Magical Negro

text: Film critic Matt Zoller Seitz stated that the trope "takes a subject that some white folks find unpleasant or even troubling to ponder (justifiably resentful black people's status in a country that, 50 years after the start of the modern civil rights struggle, is still run by, and mostly for, whites) and turns it into a source of gentle reassurance". Film reviewer Audrey Colombe argues that the trope has been perpetuated by the overwhelmingly White blockbuster film industry. Film director and writer Spike Lee said in 2001 that the White-dominated film industry is "still doing the same old thing ... recycling the noble savage and the happy slave".


title: Magical Negro

text: Racism historians Francisco Bethencourt and John Beusterien trace the trope to late fifteenth century and early sixteenth century Spanish "comedias de negros" and their depiction of black "savior soldiers," who reinforce the stereotype of the supposed greater physical strength of Africans. These include "El prodigio de Etiopía" and "El negro del mejor amo" by Lope de Vega and "El valiente negro en Flandes" by Andrés de Claramonte.


title: Magical Negro

text: Christopher John Farley, referring to the magical Negro as "Magical African American Friends" (MAAFs), says they are rooted in screenwriters’ ignorance of African Americans:


title: Magical Negro

text: MAAFs exist because most Hollywood screenwriters don't know much about black people other than what they hear on records by white hip-hop star Eminem. So instead of getting life histories or love interests, black characters get magical powers.


title: Magical Negro

text: The Magical Negro stereotype serves as a plot device to help the white protagonist get out of trouble, typically through helping the white character recognize his own faults and overcome them and teaching him to be a better person. Although the character may have magical powers, the "magic is ostensibly directed toward helping and enlightening a white male character". An article in a 2009 edition of the journal "Social Problems" stated the Magical Negro was an expression of racial profiling within the United States:


title: Magical Negro

text: These powers are used to save and transform disheveled, uncultured, lost, or broken whites (almost exclusively white men) into competent, successful, and content people within the context of the American myth of redemption and salvation. It is this feature of the Magical Negro that some people find most troubling. Although from a certain perspective the character may seem to be showing blacks in a positive light, the character is still ultimately subordinate to whites. He or she is also regarded as an exception, allowing white America to like individual black people but not black culture.


title: Magical Negro

text: In 2001 Spike Lee used the term in a series of talks on college campuses to criticize the stereotypical, unreal roles created for black men in films that were recent at that time, naming "The Family Man" (2000), "What Dreams May Come" (1998), "The Legend of Bagger Vance" (2000) and "The Green Mile" (1999) as examples. Talking about the time and place in which Bagger Vance is set, he said:


title: Magical Negro

text: In a book published in 2004, writer Krin Gabbard claimed that the Oda Mae Brown character in the 1990 movie "Ghost", played by Whoopi Goldberg, was an example of a Magical Negress.


title: Magical Negro

text: In 2012, writer Kia Miakka Natisse discussed actor Morgan Freeman playing parts conforming to the Magical Negro form, such as "a doctor who creates a prosthetic tail for a dolphin (in "Dolphin Tale"), and an ailing CIA mentor (in "Red") – in both roles he reprises the Magical Negro type, coming to save the day for his imperiled white counterparts. One could argue his gadget guru in "The Dark Knight Rises" fits under that same umbrella."


title: Magical Negro

text: Chris Rock made references to the trope on his show "The Chris Rock Show", including one critical of "The Legend of Bagger Vance", entitled "Migger, the Magic Nigger". Keegan-Michael Key and Jordan Peele, of "MADtv" and "Key and Peele" fame, followed suit in both shows with their own critical Magical Negro sketches.


title: Magical Negro

text: The 2019 indie film "Cold Brook," written and directed by William Fichtner, included a Magical Negro named Gil Le Doux, played by Harold Perrineau. The role was a century-old trapped ghost who was saved by two middle-aged men experiencing midlife crises.


title: Magical Negro

text: In March 2007, American critic David Ehrenstein used the title "Obama the 'Magic Negro'" for an editorial he wrote for the "Los Angeles Times", in which he described Barack Obama's image in white American culture:


title: Magical Negro

text: Discussing the Ehrenstein editorial at length, Rush Limbaugh at one point sang the words, "Barack the magic negro" to the tune of song "Puff, the Magic Dragon". Shortly after that Paul Shanklin recorded a song about Barack the Magic Negro set to that same tune, which Limbaugh played numerous times throughout the 2008 presidential election season. In Christmas 2008, Chip Saltsman, a Republican politician and chair of the Tennessee Republican Party, sent a 41-track CD containing the song to members of the Republican National Committee during the Republican National Committee chairmanship election. Saltsman's campaign imploded as a result of the controversy caused by the CD, and he withdrew from the race.


title: Magical Negro

text: In May 2015, theater and cultural critic Frank Rich, looking back at the coincidence of the 2015 Baltimore protests with the annual White House Correspondents Dinner in Washington, DC, wrote: "What made this particular instance poignant was the presence in the ballroom of our first African-American president, the Magic Negro who was somehow expected to relieve a nation founded and built on slavery from the toxic burdens of centuries of history."


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Cereal, formally termed breakfast cereal (and further categorized as cold cereal or warm cereal), is a traditional breakfast food made from processed cereal grains. It is traditionally eaten as part of breakfast, or a snack food, primarily in Western societies.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Although warm cereals like porridge and grits have the longest history, ready-to-eat cold cereals appeared around the late 19th century, and are most often mixed with milk (traditionally cow's milk), but can also be paired with yogurt instead or eaten plain. Fruit or nuts are sometimes added. Many cereals are produced via extrusion.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Some companies promote their products for the health benefits that come from eating oat-based and high-fiber cereals. In the United States, cereals are often fortified with vitamins but can still lack many of the vitamins needed for a healthy breakfast. A significant proportion of cereals have a high sugar content ("sugar cereals" or "sugary cereals" in common parlance). Some cereals are marketed primarily towards children, feature a cartoon mascot, and may contain a toy or prize.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Between 1970 and 1998, the number of different types of breakfast cereals in the U.S. more than doubled, from about 160 to around 340; , there were roughly 4,945 different types (estimate based on the mass customization of online shopping). In this highly competitive market, cereal companies have developed an ever-increasing number of varieties and flavors (some are flavored like dessert or candy). Although many plain wheat-, oat- and corn-based cereals exist, many other varieties are highly sweetened, while some brands include freeze-dried fruit as a sweet element. The breakfast cereal industry has gross profit margins of 40–45%, 90% penetration in some markets, and has had steady and continued growth throughout its history.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Cereal grains, namely porridge (and especially oatmeal), became an important breakfast component in North America. Barley was a common grain used, though other grains and yellow peas could be used. In many modern cultures, porridge is still eaten as a breakfast dish.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Native Americans had found a way to make ground corn palatable, later called "grits" (from the Old English word "grēot", meaning "gravel"). "Hominy" was another preparation. While this became a staple in the southern U.S., grits never gained a hold in the northern states. Food reformers in the 19th century called for cutting back on excessive meat consumption at breakfast. They explored numerous vegetarian alternatives. Late in the century, the Seventh-day Adventists based in Michigan made these food reforms part of their religion, and indeed non-meat breakfasts were featured in their sanitariums and led to new breakfast cereals.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Ferdinand Schumacher, a German immigrant, began the cereals revolution in 1854 with a hand oats grinder in the back room of a small store in Akron, Ohio. His German Mills American Oatmeal Company was the nation's first commercial oatmeal manufacturer. He marketed the product locally as a substitute for breakfast pork. Improved production technology (steel cutters, porcelain rollers, improved hullers), combined with an influx of German and Irish immigrants, quickly boosted sales and profits. In 1877, Schumacher adopted the Quaker symbol, the first registered trademark for a breakfast cereal. The acceptance of "horse food" for human consumption encouraged other entrepreneurs to enter the industry. Henry Parsons Crowell started operations in 1882, and John Robert Stuart in 1885. Crowell cut costs by consolidating every step of the processing—grading, cleaning, hulling, cutting, rolling, packaging, and shipping—in one factory operating at Ravenna, Ohio. Stuart operated mills in Chicago and Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Stuart and Crowell combined in 1885 and initiated a price war. After a fire at his mill in Akron, Schumacher joined Stuart and Crowell to form the Consolidated Oatmeal Company.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: The American Cereal Company (Quaker Oats, but see below) created a cereal made from oats in 1877, manufacturing the product in Akron, Ohio. Separately, in 1888, a trust or holding company combined the nation's seven largest mills into the American Cereal Company using the Quaker Oats brand name. By 1900, technology, entrepreneurship, and the "Man in Quaker Garb"—a symbol of plain honesty and reliability—gave Quaker Oats a national market and annual sales of $10 million (equivalent to $ million today).


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Early in the 20th century, the Quaker Oats Company (formed in 1901 to replace the American Cereal Company) ventured into the world market. Schumacher, the innovator; Stuart, the manager and financial leader; and Crowell, the creative merchandiser, advertiser, and promoter, doubled sales every decade. Alexander P. Anderson's steam-pressure method of shooting rice from guns created Puffed rice and puffed wheat. Crowell's intensive advertising campaign in the 1920s and 1930s featured promotions with such celebrities as Babe Ruth, Max Baer, and Shirley Temple. Sponsorship of the popular "Rin-Tin-Tin" and "Sergeant Preston of the Yukon" radio shows aided the company's expansion during the depression. Meat rationing during World War II boosted annual sales to $90 million (equivalent to $ billion today), and by 1956 sales topped $277 million ($ billion today). By 1964 the firm sold over 200 products, grossed over $500 million ($ billion today), and claimed that eight million people ate Quaker Oats each day. Expansion included the acquisition of Aunt Jemima Mills Company in 1926, which continues as a leading brand of pancake mixes and syrup, the sport drink Gatorade in 1983, and in 1986, the Golden Grain Company, producers of Rice-A-Roni canned lunch food. In 2001 Quaker Oats was itself bought out by PepsiCo.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular, due to the inconvenient necessity of tenderizing the heavy bran and graham nuggets by soaking them overnight.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: George H. Hoyt created Wheatena circa 1879, during an era when retailers would typically buy cereal (the most popular being cracked wheat, oatmeal, and cerealine) in barrel lots, and scoop it out to sell by the pound to customers. Hoyt, who had found a distinctive process of preparing wheat for cereal, sold his cereal in boxes, offering consumers a more sanitary and consumer-friendly option.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Packaged breakfast cereals were considerably more convenient than a product that had to be cooked, and as a result of this convenience (and clever marketing), they became popular. Battle Creek, Michigan was a center both of the Seventh-day Adventist Church and of innovation in the ready-to-eat cereal industry, and indeed, the church had a substantial impact on the development of cereal goods through the person of John Harvey Kellogg (1851–1943). Son of an Adventist factory owner in Battle Creek, Kellogg was encouraged by his church to train in medicine at Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York City in 1875. After graduating, he became medical superintendent at the Western Health Reform Institute in Battle Creek, established in 1866 by the Adventists to offer their natural remedies for illness. Many wealthy industrialists came to Kellogg's sanitarium for recuperation and rejuvenation.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: In Battle Creek sanitarium guests found fresh air, exercise, rest, hydrotherapy, a strict vegetarian diet, and abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, and tea. (They were accustomed to breakfasts of ham, eggs, sausages, fried potatoes, hot biscuits, hotcakes (pancakes), and coffee.) To supplement the center's vegetarian regimen, Kellogg experimented with granola. Soon afterwards he began to experiment with wheat, resulting in a lighter, flakier product. In 1891 he acquired a patent and then in 1895 he launched the Cornflakes brand, which overnight captured a national market. Soon there were forty rival manufacturers in the Battle Creek area. His brother William K. Kellogg (1860–1951) worked for him for many years until, in 1906, he broke away, bought the rights to Cornflakes, and set up the Kellogg Toasted Corn Flake Company. William Kellogg discarded the health food concept, opting for heavy advertising and commercial taste appeal. Later, his signature on every package became the company trademark.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: The second major innovator in the cereal industry was Charles W. Post, a salesman who was admitted to Kellogg's sanitarium as a patient in the late 1800s. While there, he grew deeply impressed with their all-grain diet. Upon his release, he began experimenting with grain products, beginning with an all-grain coffee substitute called Postum. In 1898 he introduced Grape-nuts, the concentrated cereal with a nutty flavor (containing neither grapes nor nuts). Good business sense, determination, and powerful advertising produced a multimillion-dollar fortune for Post in a few years. After his death, his company acquired the Jell-O company in 1925, Baker's Chocolate in 1927, Maxwell House coffee in 1928, and Birdseye frozen foods in 1929. In 1929, the company changed its name to General Foods. In 1985, Philip Morris Tobacco Company bought General Foods for $5.6 billion (equivalent to $ billion today) and merged it with its Kraft division. Because of Kellogg and Post, the city of Battle Creek, Michigan is nicknamed the "Cereal Capital of the World".


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Muesli is a breakfast cereal based on uncooked rolled oats, fruit, and nuts. It was developed around 1900 by the Swiss physician Maximilian Bircher-Benner for patients in his hospital. It is available in a packaged dry form such as Alpen or Familia Swiss Müesli, or it can be made fresh.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: In 1902 Force wheat flakes became the first ready-to-eat breakfast cereal introduced into the United Kingdom. The cereal, and the Sunny Jim character, achieved wide success in Britain, at its peak in 1930 selling 12.5 million packages in one year.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Kellogg began the breakfast cereal marketing and introduced the first in-box prize in the early 1900s. Quaker Oats entered the market with Puffed Rice and Wheat Berries it had introduced at the 1904 World Fair, with raw grains shot with hot compressed air from tubes, popping up to many times their size. They were marketed as a revolution in food science. In the 1920s, national advertising in magazines and radio broadcasts played a key role in the emergence of the fourth big cereal manufacturer, General Mills. In 1921, James Ford Bell, president of a Minneapolis wheat milling firm, began experimenting with rolled wheat flakes. After tempering, steaming, cracking wheat, and processing it with syrup, sugar, and salt, it was prepared in a pressure cooker for rolling and then dried in an electric oven. By 1925, Wheaties had become the "Breakfast of Champions". In 1928, four milling companies consolidated as the General Mills Company in Minneapolis. The new firm expanded packaged food sales with heavy advertising, including sponsorship of radio programs such as "Skippy", "Jack Armstrong, The All-American Boy", and baseball games. Jack Dempsey, Johnny Weissmuller, and others verified the "Breakfast of Champions" slogan. By 1941 Wheaties had won 12% percent of the cereal market. Experiments with the puffing process produced Kix, a puffed corn cereal, and Cheerios, a puffed oats cereal. Further product innovation and diversification brought total General Mills sales to over $500 million annually (18% in packaged foods) by the early 1950s. In 1944 General Foods launched a marketing campaign for Grape Nuts, focusing on nutritional importance of breakfast.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: After World War II, the big breakfast cereal companies—now including General Mills, who entered the market in 1924 with Wheaties—increasingly started to target children. The flour was refined to remove fiber, which at the time was considered to undermine digestion and absorption of nutrients, and sugar was added to improve the flavor for children. The new breakfast cereals began to look starkly different from their ancestors. Ranger Joe, the first pre-sweetened breakfast cereal of sugar-coated puffed wheat or rice, was introduced in the US in 1939. Kellogg's Sugar Smacks, created in 1953, had 56% sugar by weight. Different mascots were introduced, such as the Rice Krispies elves and later pop icons like Tony the Tiger and the Trix Rabbit.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: In the 1960s, the modern version of granola was invented and popularized. It evolved from a product called Granula (similar to Grape Nuts) to the recognizable modern form involving at a minimum: sweetened toasted oats, but also possibly: dried fruit, puffed rice, nuts or chocolate.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Over 2016 to 2017, Americans purchased 3.1 billion boxes of cereal, mostly as ready to eat cold cereal. In a $9.8 billion cereal market, cold cereal purchases were 88% of the total (12% for hot cereals), with the overall cereal market declining due to reduced consumption of sugar and dairy products. Kellogg's and General Mills each had 30% of the market share for cold cereals. Honey Nut Cheerios was the leading cold cereal.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: The processing of grains helps to separate the bran and cereal germ, but may remove nutrients, such as B vitamins and dietary fiber. Processing is the modification of a grain or mixture of grains usually taking place in a facility remote from the location where the product is eaten. This distinguishes "breakfast cereals" from foods made from grains modified and cooked in the place where they are eaten.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Breakfast cereals may be fortified with dietary minerals and vitamins. For example, breakfast cereal in Canada may be fortified with specific micronutrient amounts per 100 grams of cereal, including thiamin, (2.0 mg), niacin (4.8 mg), and vitamin B6 (0.6 mg), among others.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Breakfast cereal companies make gluten-free cereals which are free of any gluten-containing grains. These cereals are targeted for consumers who suffer from gluten-related disorders, as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy, among others. Some companies that produce gluten-free cereals include Kellogg's, General Mills, Nature's Path and Arrowhead Mills.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Most warm cereals can be classified as porridges, in that they consist of cereal grains which are soaked in hot water, cooked and/or boiled to soften them and make them palatable. Sweeteners, such as brown sugar, honey, or maple syrup, are often added either by the manufacturer, during cooking, or before eating. Porridge is especially popular in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and England. Porridge became important in Scotland due to the freezing winters. The Scottish people prefer porridge to be made with only water and salt while other prefer more creamier substances to be added. Wales had a perfect climate for cultivating oats making porridge common in Welsh households. Ireland mixes porridge with whiskey as a cure for the common cold while England references the dish to the royal family and their traditions.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Common hot cereals in parts of Canada include oatmeal, Cream of Wheat (and Cream of Rice) and Red River cereal. These hot cereals are typically served with maple syrup or brown sugar and milk or cream. Yogurt is also added to Red River cereal. Many Canadians also enjoy cereals similar to those in the United States market.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: In China, porridges such as rice congee, or those made with other ingredients (including corn meal or millet) are often eaten for breakfast. Eating breakfast cereal has become more important in China and specifically Hong Kong due to the increase of work and decrease in time.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: In Greece, cornmeal is poured into boiling milk to create a cereal of a thick consistency which is often served to young children. The cereal production in Greece has recently declined.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Oatmeal is a common breakfast in Ireland. Oatmeal and porridge have been consumed in Ireland since the 19th century.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: In Russia, a breakfast is kasha, a porridge of buckwheat (, "grechka"), farina (, "manka"), or other grains. Kasha is found throughout much of Eastern Europe, including Poland and Croatia. Russia does not value breakfast cereals as much as other places. Most instances of cereal consumption is due to the desire for weight loss.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Pap is a porridge used in a variety of meals eaten throughout the day. In the Afrikaans culture of descendants of Dutch farmers and French Huguenots, it is usually sprinkled with sugar and then eaten with milk; it can be made to a very stiff consistency so that it forms—what could be described as—a softish lumpy crumble (called "krummel-pap") or a more creamy porridge consistency (called "slap-pap"). It is generally made from maize ("mielie") meal and is sold under various brand names. Taystee Wheat is made into a creamy wheat-based porridge. Porridge brands unique to South Africa include Jungle Oats and Bokomo Maltabella (made from malted sorghum). In other parts of Africa it is known as "ugali", "bota", and "banku" or "makkau".


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Scotland is famous for its consumption of oats. In Northern Ireland, the company White's has been milling oats in Tandragee since 1841. England has incorporated porridge in their culture for centuries. Many of the different types of porridge were made specially for the royal family including a type of porridge called "pea porridge". This specific dish was made for King Richard II.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Consumption of breakfast cereal is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.


title: Breakfast cereal

text: Regular breakfast cereal consumption is associated with less risk of being overweight or obese and high-fiber breakfast cereals are associated with a lower risk of diabetes.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The Brazilian Air Force (, FAB) is the air branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces and one of the three national uniformed services. The FAB was formed when the Army and Navy air branches were merged into a single military force initially called "National Air Forces" in 1941. Both air branches transferred their equipments, installations and personnel to the new force.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: According to Flight International (Flightglobal.com) and the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the Brazilian Air Force has an active strength of 80,937 military personnel and operates around 715 aircraft. The Brazilian Air Force is the largest air force in the Southern Hemisphere and the second largest in the Americas after the United States Air Force.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The Contestado War was the first conflict in which Brazilian military aviation was employed. On September 19, 1914, taking advantage of a special train driving troops, three aircraft were boarded: a Morane-Saulnier biplane, a Morane-Saulnier monoplane and a Blitzer SIT biplane. The train continued from Rio de Janeiro passing through São Paulo where it would reach the São Paulo – Rio Grande railway to the station of União da Vitória.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: Along the way, sparks shot through the locomotive, hitting a gallon of gasoline in one of the wagons carrying the dismantled aircraft. The fire spread, much like the planes. After the crash, only the Morane-Saulnier remained in flying condition.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: In the conflict zone, he coordinated the construction of runways and hangars to be used in União da Vitória, Canoinhas and Rio Negro. Then, two Morane-Saulnier and special ammunition were brought from Rio de Janeiro, as well as a mechanic.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The first aerial activity occurred only on January 4, 1915, when a training flight followed the course of the Iguaçú River to the Timbo River. The first official mission took place on January 19 and the duration of the flight was just over an hour.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The following week, on February 25, 1915, a Morane-Saulnier had an accident. During a test flight in the vicinity of the field, the engine stopped and aircraft crashed with total loss, pilot survived.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: March 1, 1915 was the scheduled date for a heavy attack on the rebels. The mission was to fly over the Valley of Santa Maria, to launch bombs on the rebels' stronghold, and to observe and direct the shots of the artillery and the advance of the infantry. Two Morane-Saulnier aircraft took off, but the attack was canceled due to adverse weather conditions, for the aircraft piloted by then lieutenant-aviator Ricardo Kirk suffered a crash, of which he was killed.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: Ricardo Kirk was the first Brazilian Military Aviator. In 1891 he entered the Military Academy and was commissioned an ensign in November, 1893 and to first-lieutenant in March, 1898 and posthumously to captain in 1915.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: Although the two sides in struggle had few airplanes during the Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, aviation made a big impact during the conflict. The federal government had approximately 58 aircraft divided between the Navy and the Army.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: On the other hand, the Paulistas had only two Potez 25 and two Waco planes, in addition to a small number of tourist planes. At the end of July, the rebel government obtained another plane, brought by Lieutenant Artur Mota Lima, who defected from Campo dos Afonsos, Rio de Janeiro. The "reds", as the federal government planes were known, not only acted on the lines of combat, but also were used to bombard several cities of São Paulo, among them Campinas, where they caused great damage. They also served as a propaganda weapon, dropping leaflets on enemy cities and into rebel concentration camps.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: For the use of aerial means, General Góis Monteiro had in his Staff of two advisers, Captains Vasco Alves Secco and Carlos Pfaltzgraff Brazil.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: Major Eduardo Gomes, commander of the Joint Aviation Group, who since the outbreak of hostilities had coordinated the employment of his unit and the reinforcements of the Military Aviation School, was designated, on September 16, Commander of the Air Units of the Army Detachment of the East.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: On September 6, Major Ajalmar Vieira Mascarenhas was appointed Commander of the Air Units of the Detachment of the Southern Army.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The Navy's aircraft were under the direct operational control of the naval authorities, operating in support of the surface ships deployed near the port of Santos, to effect a naval blockade and also in support of the Naval Flotilla of Mato Grosso, based in Ladário. They also participated in operations with Military Aviation in the Paraíba Valley and on the southern front, in escort and observation missions.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The Air Force of São Paulo was under the overall command of Major Ivo Borges, Commander of the Aviation Units of the Constitutionalist Aviation, and Major Lysias A. Rodrigues, Commander of the Constitutionalist Aviation Group.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The establishment of the United Kingdom's Royal Air Force in April 1918, and the creation of the Italian Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) and the French Air Force during the 1920s drove the idea of uniting Brazilian air power under the same organization. Together with these events the Brazilian strategists were also influenced by the theories of Giulio Douhet, Billy Mitchell and Hugh Montague Trenchard.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The first public manifest to create an integrated military air service came up in 1928 when an army Major called Lysias Rodrigues wrote an article called "An urgent need: The Ministry of the Air" (). Two years later the French Military Mission, working for the Brazilian Army, made the first steps to organize a national air arm. The idea got more support when a group of Brazilian airmen came from Italy in 1934 and explained the advantages of having a military aviation unified. Also, the Spanish Revolution and the first movements of World War II at the end of the thirties showed the importance of Air power for military strategies.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: One of the main supporters of the plan to create an independent air arm was the then-president Getúlio Vargas. He organized a study group early in 1940 and the whole structure of the Ministry of Aeronautics () was established the end of that year. This new governmental agency was responsible for the all aspects of the civil and military aviation including infrastructure, regulation and organization.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: Formally, the Ministry of Aeronautics was founded on January 20, 1941, and so its military branch called "National Air Forces", changed to "Brazilian Air Force" () on May, 22. The Army () and Navy () air branches were extinguished and all personnel, aircraft, installations and other related equipment were transferred to FAB.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The Brazilian Air force made important contributions to the Allied war effort in World War II, especially as part of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force on the Italian front.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: From mid-1942 until the end of the war, the FAB also patrolled the Atlantic. On 31 July 1943 it claimed the German submarine U-199, which was located on the surface, off Rio de Janeiro, at . Two Brazilian aircraft, a PBY Catalina and a Lockheed Hudson, and an American PBM Mariner attacked the U-boat. The Catalina, named , was captained by 2nd Lt. Alberto M. Torres, and hit "U-199" with depth charges, sinking her. Forty-nine of the crew were killed, although twelve Germans managed to escape, including the captain. This was possible due to the Catalina's crew, who threw a lifeboat to the survivors.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: "1st Fighter Group", which saw action in Italy, was formed on December 18, 1943. Its commanding officer was Aviation Lt.Col. Nero Moura.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The group had 350 men, including 43 pilots. The group was divided into four flights: Red ("A"), Yellow ("B"), Blue ("C"), and Green ("D"). The CO of the group and some officers were not attached to any specific flight. Unlike the BEF's Army component, the 1º GAVCA had personnel who were experienced Brazilian Air Force pilots. One of them was Alberto M. Torres, who had piloted a PBY Catalina that had sunk U-199, operating off the Brazilian coast.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The group trained for combat in Panama, where 2º Ten.-Av. (Aviation Second Lieutenant) Dante Isidoro Gastaldoni was killed in a training accident. On May 11, 1944, the group was declared operational and became active in the air defense of the Panama Canal Zone. On June 22, the 1º GAVCA traveled to the US to convert to the Republic P-47D Thunderbolt.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: On September 19, 1944, the 1º GAVCA left for Italy, arriving at Livorno on October 6. It became part of the 350th Fighter Group of the USAAF, which in turn was part of the 62nd Fighter Wing, XXII Tactical Air Command, of the 12th Air Force.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: The Brazilian pilots initially flew from 31 October 1944, as individual elements of flights attached to 350th FG squadrons, at first in affiliation flights and progressively taking part in more dangerous missions. Less than two weeks later, on November 11, the group started its own operations flying from its base at Tarquinia, using its tactical callsign "Jambock". Brazilian Air Force stars replaced the white U.S. star in the roundel on the FAB Thunderbolts. The 1GAVCA started its fighting career as a fighter-bomber unit, its missions being armed reconnaissance and interdiction, in support of the US Fifth Army, to which the FEB was attached.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: On April 16, 1945, the U.S. Fifth Army started its offensive along the Po Valley. By then, the strength of the Group had fallen to 25 pilots, some having been killed and others shot down and captured. Some others had been relieved from operations on medical grounds due to combat fatigue. The Group disbanded the Yellow flight and distributed the surviving pilots among the other flights. Each pilot flew on average two missions a day.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: On 22 April 1945, the three remaining flights took off at 5-minute intervals, starting at 8:30 AM, to destroy bridges, barges, and motorized vehicles in the San Benedetto region. At 10:00 AM, a flight took off for an armed reconnaissance mission south of Mantua. They destroyed more than 80 tanks, trucks, and vehicles. By the end of the day, the group had flown 44 individual missions and destroyed hundreds of vehicles and barges. On this day the group flew the most sorties of the war; consequently, Brazil commemorates April 22 Brazilian Fighter Arm Day.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: In all, the 1GAVCA flew a total of 445 missions, 2,550 individual sorties, and 5,465 combat flight hours, from 11 November 1944 to 6 May 1945. The XXII Tactical Air Command acknowledged the efficiency of the Group by noting that although it flew only 5% of the total of missions carried out by all squadrons under its control, it accomplished a much higher percentage of the total destruction wrought:


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: After the war, the FAB began flying the British Gloster Meteor jet fighter. The jets were purchased from the British for 15,000 tons of crude cotton, as Brazil had no foreign currency reserves to spare. The jet was operated by the FAB until the mid-1960s, when it was replaced by the F-80C and TF-33A, which were later replaced by the MB-326, Mirage III and Northrop F-5 jets.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: During events involving the Lobster War, between 1961 and 1964, the Brazilian Air Force played an important role in monitoring and patrolling the large area of litigation with France, making its B-17 squadrons available for observation and photo-reconnaissance of French vessels close to Brazilian coast, in addition to using its most modern anti-submarine warfare means, such as the S-2 Tracker and P-2V Neptune.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: Having been given authority over all national military aircraft since 1941, from her commissioning in 1961 to 1999 the Brazilian Air Force flew the S-2 Trackers of the aircraft carrier "Minas Gerais" while from 1965 naval aviation flew its own helicopters. Now naval aviation is also authorized to fly its own fixed wing carrier based aircraft.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: During the Cold War, the then Brazilian military government was aligned with the United States and NATO. This meant that the Northrop F-5 could be bought cheaply from the United States, which called this jet the "Freedom Fighter". Many other countries, such as Mexico, also benefited from this policy. But Brazil did not buy the F-5A Freedom Fighter, instead buying the F-5 Tiger II years later.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: In the middle of the Cold War, between 1970 and 1974, the Brazilian Air Force used its attack aircraft to bomb camps of internal Maoism guerrilla groups in the regions of the Vale do Ribeira and in the Araguaia River, attacking targets inside the jungles, using NA T-6 attack planes and B-26 Invader bombers armed with napalms.


title: Brazilian Air Force

text: In 1977 the Brazilian Air Force conducted Operation Saucer regarding alleged UFO sightings in the city of Colares, Pará State. The objects observed in the military records received the nickname of luminous bodies and were associated with phenomena reported by residents and authorities, reported by the local press, which reported alleged attacks on the civilian population. The operation was terminated after 4 months, and other related missions were carried out during 1978 by the National Intelligence Service. The Operation's documentary collection comprises hundreds of pages of documents, such as reports, photographic images and footage.