title: Linoleic acid

text: Linoleic acid (LA: CHO; 18:2, ω-6) is a precursor to arachidonic acid (AA: CHO; 20:4, ω-6) with elongation and saturation. AA is the precursor to some prostaglandins, leukotrienes (LTA, LTB, LTC), thromboxane (TXA) and the N-acylethanolamine (NAE) arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA: CHNO; 20:4, ω-6), and other endocannabinoids and eicosanoids.


title: Linoleic acid

text: The metabolism of LA to AA begins with the conversion of LA into gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), effected by Δdesaturase. GLA is converted to dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), the immediate precursor to AA.


title: Linoleic acid

text: LA is also converted by various lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases, cytochrome P450 enzymes (the CYP monooxygenases), and non-enzymatic autoxidation mechanisms to mono-hydroxyl products viz., 13-Hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid, and 9-Hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid; these two hydroxy metabolites are enzymatically oxidized to their keto metabolites, 13-oxo-octadecadienoic acid and 9-oxo-octadecdienoic acid. Certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, the CYP epoxygenases, catalyze oxidation of LA to epoxide products viz., its 12,13-epoxide, Vernolic acid, and its 9,10-epoxide, Coronaric acid. These linoleic acid products are implicated in human physiology and pathology.


title: Linoleic acid

text: Hydroperoxides derived from the metabolism of anandamide (AEA: CHNO; 20:4,n-6), or its linoleoyl analogues, is by a lipoxygenase action found to be competitive inhibitors of brain and immune cell FAAH, the enzyme that breaks down AEA and other endocannabinoids, and the compound linoleoyl-ethanol-amide (CHNO; 18:2,n-6), an N-acylethanolamine, - the ethanolamide of linoleic acid (LA: CHO; 18:2, n-6) and its metabolized incorporated ethanolamine (MEA: CHNO), is the first natural inhibitor of FAAH, discovered.


title: Linoleic acid

text: Linoleic acid is a component of quick-drying oils, which are useful in oil paints and varnishes. These applications exploit the lability of the doubly allylic C-H groups (-CH=CH-C"H"-CH=CH-) toward oxygen in air (autoxidation). Addition of oxygen leads to crosslinking and formation of a stable film.


title: Linoleic acid

text: Linoleic acid has become increasingly popular in the beauty products industry because of its beneficial properties on the skin. Research points to linoleic acid's anti-inflammatory, acne reductive, skin-lightening and moisture retentive properties when applied topically on the skin.


title: Linoleic acid

text: It is abundant in safflower, and corn oil, and comprises over half their composition by weight. It is present in medium quantities in soybean oils, sesame, and almonds.


title: Linoleic acid

text: Cockroaches release oleic and linoleic acid upon death, which discourages other roaches from entering the area. This is similar to the mechanism found in ants and bees, which release oleic acid upon death.


title: Linoleic acid

text: Consumption of linoleic acid has been associated with lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease and premature death.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: "Thank You" is a song written and performed by English singer-songwriter Dido. The song made its first appearance in 1998 on the soundtrack of the movie "Sliding Doors." It was later included on Dido's 1999 debut album, "No Angel", and was released in September 2000 to mainstream success. It was also sampled in the 2000 single "Stan" by Eminem, which helped propel "Thank You" and "No Angel" to mainstream success.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: Entering the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 80 in January 2001, "Thank You" peaked at number three in April 2001. It held that spot for three weeks and became Dido's first and only top-10 single in the United States. Additionally, the song reached number one on the "Billboard" Adult Contemporary, Adult Pop Songs, and Hot Dance Club Songs charts. In the United Kingdom, "Thank You" also reached number three, becoming the singer's third top-five single in the United Kingdom.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: Dido wrote the song about the down times of depression and about how she lost her house. It remains Dido's biggest hit single in the United States to date, and her only one to reach the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. "Thank You" was one of the biggest sleeper hits of the year, debuting in January and remaining on the chart until the end of September. It spent 40 weeks on the chart, and in November "Billboard" published that "Thank You" finished as the seventh biggest song of the year.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: The song's verses are written in the key of G minor whilst the chorus is in B Major, with a tempo of 80 beats per minute in common time. It follows a chord progression of GmEFBF/A, and Dido's vocals span from F to B in the song.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: "Thank You" received acclaim from music critics, who thought the ballad was very "touching and soft" and an instant standout to the album. Jeff Burger from AllMusic had highlighted "Thank You" as an album standout. Christian Ward from "NME" wrote, Thank You', which, far from conjuring up images of lunatic fan-worship, is more reminiscent of the Corrs. Now that really is sick."


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: In the music video, Dido has not paid her bills, and the government comes to tear down her house. The police put an eviction notice on her door and movers start moving her belongings out. Dido, who seems oblivious to the fact that her house has been barricaded, is seen simply singing the song.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: During the first chorus of the song, Dido has a cup of tea whilst movers pile her belongings by an outside wall, and a mover steps on flowers in her front yard. In the end, she is escorted out of her home, her home is demolished, she leaves behind most of her belongings, and walks away with just her shoulder bag and umbrella.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: The end of the video implies that her house is actually being torn down for redevelopment, as her home is sandwiched between two large skyscrapers. The video was directed by Dave Meyers, and was released in January 2001. VEVO released an acoustic version of the song in December 2012, and a live concert version was released in August 2016.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: Eminem's critically acclaimed number-one single "Stan" samples the first verse of the song for its chorus. Dido herself appears in the music video for "Stan" (alongside Devon Sawa) as the pregnant girlfriend of the titular obsessed, suicidal and homicidal Eminem fan, and has made appearances on Eminem's tours to perform the song. When Eminem performed "Stan" live at the 2001 Grammy Awards, Elton John sang the Dido sample as he played keyboard during the performance. The sampling usage helped bring mainstream attention to "Thank You" and its parent album.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: House music duo Deep Dish remixed the song. It won a Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording in 2002.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: In an interview on BBC Radio 3 in 2005, The Duchess of Kent, who worked as a classical music teacher after relinquishing royal duties, chose "Thank You" as one of her favourite pieces.


title: Thank You (Dido song)

text: In April 2007, it was also voted number 57 in the BBC's list of the "Most Annoying Pop Songs We Hate to Love".


title: Data compression

text: In information theory, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Any particular compression is either lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy. No information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information. Typically, a device that performs data compression is referred to as an encoder, and one that performs the reversal of the process (decompression) as a decoder.


title: Data compression

text: The process of reducing the size of a data file is often referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called source coding; encoding done at the source of the data before it is stored or transmitted. Source coding should not be confused with channel coding, for error detection and correction or line coding, the means for mapping data onto a signal.


title: Data compression

text: Compression is useful because it reduces the resources required to store and transmit data. Computational resources are consumed in the compression and decompression processes. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off. For instance, a compression scheme for video may require expensive hardware for the video to be decompressed fast enough to be viewed as it is being decompressed, and the option to decompress the video in full before watching it may be inconvenient or require additional storage. The design of data compression schemes involves trade-offs among various factors, including the degree of compression, the amount of distortion introduced (when using lossy data compression), and the computational resources required to compress and decompress the data.


title: Data compression

text: Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy. For example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels; instead of coding "red pixel, red pixel, ..." the data may be encoded as "279 red pixels". This is a basic example of run-length encoding; there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy.


title: Data compression

text: The Lempel–Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage. DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. In the mid-1980s, following work by Terry Welch, the Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) algorithm rapidly became the method of choice for most general-purpose compression systems. LZW is used in GIF images, programs such as PKZIP, and hardware devices such as modems. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded. Grammar-based codes like this can compress highly repetitive input extremely effectively, for instance, a biological data collection of the same or closely related species, a huge versioned document collection, internet archival, etc. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string. Other practical grammar compression algorithms include Sequitur and Re-Pair.


title: Data compression

text: The strongest modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as an indirect form of statistical modelling. In a further refinement of the direct use of probabilistic modelling, statistical estimates can be coupled to an algorithm called arithmetic coding. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a finite-state machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols. It can achieve superior compression compared to other techniques such as the better-known Huffman algorithm. It uses an internal memory state to avoid the need to perform a one-to-one mapping of individual input symbols to distinct representations that use an integer number of bits, and it clears out the internal memory only after encoding the entire string of data symbols. Arithmetic coding applies especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the statistics vary and are context-dependent, as it can be easily coupled with an adaptive model of the probability distribution of the input data. An early example of the use of arithmetic coding was in an optional (but not widely used) feature of the JPEG image coding standard. It has since been applied in various other designs including H.263, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and HEVC for video coding.


title: Data compression

text: Archive software typically has the ability to adjust the "dictionary size", where a larger size demands more random access memory during compression and decompression, but compresses stronger, especially on repeating patterns in files' content.


title: Data compression

text: In the late 1980s, digital images became more common, and standards for lossless image compression emerged. In the early 1990s, lossy compression methods began to be widely used. In these schemes, some loss of information is accepted as dropping nonessential detail can save storage space. There is a corresponding trade-off between preserving information and reducing size. Lossy data compression schemes are designed by research on how people perceive the data in question. For example, the human eye is more sensitive to subtle variations in luminance than it is to the variations in color. JPEG image compression works in part by rounding off nonessential bits of information. A number of popular compression formats exploit these perceptual differences, including psychoacoustics for sound, and psychovisuals for images and video.


title: Data compression

text: Most forms of lossy compression are based on transform coding, especially the discrete cosine transform (DCT). It was first proposed in 1972 by Nasir Ahmed, who then developed a working algorithm with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973, before introducing it in January 1974. DCT is the most widely used lossy compression method, and is used in multimedia formats for images (such as JPEG and HEIF), video (such as MPEG, AVC and HEVC) and audio (such as MP3, AAC and Vorbis).


title: Data compression

text: Lossy image compression is used in digital cameras, to increase storage capacities. Similarly, DVDs, Blu-ray and streaming video use lossy video coding formats. Lossy compression is extensively used in video.


title: Data compression

text: In lossy audio compression, methods of psychoacoustics are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal. Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques; speech coding is distinguished as a separate discipline from general-purpose audio compression. Speech coding is used in internet telephony, for example, audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by the audio players.


title: Data compression

text: The theoretical basis for compression is provided by information theory and, more specifically, algorithmic information theory for lossless compression and rate–distortion theory for lossy compression. These areas of study were essentially created by Claude Shannon, who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Other topics associated with compression include coding theory and statistical inference.


title: Data compression

text: There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general intelligence".


title: Data compression

text: An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature space vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature spaces. For each compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input string x, corresponding to the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM.


title: Data compression

text: According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the best possible compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model, a zip file's compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can't unzip it without both, but there may be an even smaller combined form.


title: Data compression

text: Data compression can be viewed as a special case of data differencing. Data differencing consists of producing a "difference" given a "source" and a "target," with patching reproducing the "target" given a "source" and a "difference." Since there is no separate source and target in data compression, one can consider data compression as data differencing with empty source data, the compressed file corresponding to a difference from nothing. This is the same as considering absolute entropy (corresponding to data compression) as a special case of relative entropy (corresponding to data differencing) with no initial data.


title: Data compression

text: Entropy coding originated in the 1940s with the introduction of Shannon–Fano coding, the basis for Huffman coding which was developed in 1950. Transform coding dates back to the late 1960s, with the introduction of fast Fourier transform (FFT) coding in 1968 and the Hadamard transform in 1969.


title: Data compression

text: An important image compression technique is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a technique developed in the early 1970s. DCT is the basis for JPEG, a lossy compression format which was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) in 1992. JPEG greatly reduces the amount of data required to represent an image at the cost of a relatively small reduction in image quality and has become the most widely used image file format. Its highly efficient DCT-based compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos.


title: Data compression

text: Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed in 1984. It is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987. DEFLATE, a lossless compression algorithm specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.


title: Data compression

text: Wavelet compression, the use of wavelets in image compression, began after the development of DCT coding. The JPEG 2000 standard was introduced in 2000. In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms. JPEG 2000 technology, which includes the Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004.


title: Data compression

text: Audio data compression, not to be confused with dynamic range compression, has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data. Audio compression algorithms are implemented in software as audio codecs. In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy is reduced, using methods such as coding, quantization, discrete cosine transform and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to represent the uncompressed data.


title: Data compression

text: Lossy audio compression algorithms provide higher compression and are used in numerous audio applications including Vorbis and MP3. These algorithms almost all rely on psychoacoustics to eliminate or reduce fidelity of less audible sounds, thereby reducing the space required to store or transmit them.


title: Data compression

text: The acceptable trade-off between loss of audio quality and transmission or storage size depends upon the application. For example, one 640 MB compact disc (CD) holds approximately one hour of uncompressed high fidelity music, less than 2 hours of music compressed losslessly, or 7 hours of music compressed in the MP3 format at a medium bit rate. A digital sound recorder can typically store around 200 hours of clearly intelligible speech in 640 MB.


title: Data compression

text: Lossless audio compression produces a representation of digital data that can be decoded to an exact digital duplicate of the original. Compression ratios are around 50–60% of the original size, which is similar to those for generic lossless data compression. Lossless codecs use curve fitting or linear prediction as a basis for estimating the signal. Parameters describing the estimation and the difference between the estimation and the actual signal are coded separately.


title: Data compression

text: A number of lossless audio compression formats exist. See list of lossless codecs for a listing. Some formats are associated with a distinct system, such as Direct Stream Transfer, used in Super Audio CD and Meridian Lossless Packing, used in DVD-Audio, Dolby TrueHD, Blu-ray and HD DVD.


title: Data compression

text: Some audio file formats feature a combination of a lossy format and a lossless correction; this allows stripping the correction to easily obtain a lossy file. Such formats include MPEG-4 SLS (Scalable to Lossless), WavPack, and OptimFROG DualStream.


title: Data compression

text: When audio files are to be processed, either by further compression or for editing, it is desirable to work from an unchanged original (uncompressed or losslessly compressed). Processing of a lossily compressed file for some purpose usually produces a final result inferior to the creation of the same compressed file from an uncompressed original. In addition to sound editing or mixing, lossless audio compression is often used for archival storage, or as master copies.


title: Data compression

text: Lossy audio compression is used in a wide range of applications. In addition to standalone audio-only applications of file playback in MP3 players or computers, digitally compressed audio streams are used in most video DVDs, digital television, streaming media on the Internet, satellite and cable radio, and increasingly in terrestrial radio broadcasts. Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression than lossless compression, by discarding less-critical data based on psychoacoustic optimizations.


title: Data compression

text: Psychoacoustics recognizes that not all data in an audio stream can be perceived by the human auditory system. Most lossy compression reduces redundancy by first identifying perceptually irrelevant sounds, that is, sounds that are very hard to hear. Typical examples include high frequencies or sounds that occur at the same time as louder sounds. Those irrelevant sounds are coded with decreased accuracy or not at all.


title: Data compression

text: Due to the nature of lossy algorithms, audio quality suffers a digital generation loss when a file is decompressed and recompressed. This makes lossy compression unsuitable for storing the intermediate results in professional audio engineering applications, such as sound editing and multitrack recording. However, lossy formats such as MP3 are very popular with end-users as the file size is reduced to 5-20% of the original size and a megabyte can store about a minute's worth of music at adequate quality.


title: Data compression

text: To determine what information in an audio signal is perceptually irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) to convert time domain sampled waveforms into a transform domain, typically the frequency domain. Once transformed, component frequencies can be prioritized according to how audible they are. Audibility of spectral components is assessed using the absolute threshold of hearing and the principles of simultaneous masking—the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency—and, in some cases, temporal masking—where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time. Equal-loudness contours may also be used to weigh the perceptual importance of components. Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called psychoacoustic models.


title: Data compression

text: Other types of lossy compressors, such as the linear predictive coding (LPC) used with speech, are source-based coders. LPC uses a model of the human vocal tract to analyze speech sounds and infer the parameters used by the model to produce them moment to moment. These changing parameters are transmitted or stored and used to drive another model in the decoder which reproduces the sound.


title: Data compression

text: Lossy formats are often used for the distribution of streaming audio or interactive communication (such as in cell phone networks). In such applications, the data must be decompressed as the data flows, rather than after the entire data stream has been transmitted. Not all audio codecs can be used for streaming applications.


title: Data compression

text: Latency is introduced by the methods used to encode and decode the data. Some codecs will analyze a longer segment, called a "frame", of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time to decode. The inherent latency of the coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is a two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality.


title: Data compression

text: In contrast to the speed of compression, which is proportional to the number of operations required by the algorithm, here latency refers to the number of samples that must be analyzed before a block of audio is processed. In the minimum case, latency is zero samples (e.g., if the coder/decoder simply reduces the number of bits used to quantize the signal). Time domain algorithms such as LPC also often have low latencies, hence their popularity in speech coding for telephony. In algorithms such as MP3, however, a large number of samples have to be analyzed to implement a psychoacoustic model in the frequency domain, and latency is on the order of 23 ms.


title: Data compression

text: Speech encoding is an important category of audio data compression. The perceptual models used to estimate what aspects of speech a human ear can hear are generally somewhat different from those used for music. The range of frequencies needed to convey the sounds of a human voice is normally far narrower than that needed for music, and the sound is normally less complex. As a result, speech can be encoded at high quality using a relatively low bit rate.


title: Data compression

text: The earliest algorithms used in speech encoding (and audio data compression in general) were the A-law algorithm and the μ-law algorithm.


title: Data compression

text: Early audio research was conducted at Bell Labs. There, in 1950, C. Chapin Cutler filed the patent on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM). In 1973, Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) was introduced by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan.


title: Data compression

text: Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression, with linear predictive coding (LPC). Initial concepts for LPC date back to the work of Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966. During the 1970s, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs developed a form of LPC called adaptive predictive coding (APC), a perceptual coding algorithm that exploited the masking properties of the human ear, followed in the early 1980s with the code-excited linear prediction (CELP) algorithm which achieved a significant compression ratio for its time. Perceptual coding is used by modern audio compression formats such as MP3 and AAC.


title: Data compression

text: Discrete cosine transform (DCT), developed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974, provided the basis for the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) used by modern audio compression formats such as MP3, Dolby Digital, and AAC. MDCT was proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986.


title: Data compression

text: The world's first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system was developed by Oscar Bonello, an engineering professor at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1983, using the psychoacoustic principle of the masking of critical bands first published in 1967, he started developing a practical application based on the recently developed IBM PC computer, and the broadcast automation system was launched in 1987 under the name Audicom. Twenty years later, almost all the radio stations in the world were using similar technology manufactured by a number of companies.


title: Data compression

text: A literature compendium for a large variety of audio coding systems was published in the IEEE's "Journal on Selected Areas in Communications" ("JSAC"), in February 1988. While there were some papers from before that time, this collection documented an entire variety of finished, working audio coders, nearly all of them using perceptual techniques and some kind of frequency analysis and back-end noiseless coding.


title: Data compression

text: Uncompressed video requires a very high data rate. Although lossless video compression codecs perform at a compression factor of 5 to 12, a typical H.264 lossy compression video has a compression factor between 20 and 200.


title: Data compression

text: The two key video compression techniques used in video coding standards are the discrete cosine transform (DCT) and motion compensation (MC). Most video coding standards, such as the H.26x and MPEG formats, typically use motion-compensated DCT video coding (block motion compensation).


title: Data compression

text: Most video codecs are used alongside audio compression techniques to store the separate but complementary data streams as one combined package using so-called "container formats".


title: Data compression

text: Video data may be represented as a series of still image frames. Such data usually contains abundant amounts of spatial and temporal redundancy. Video compression algorithms attempt to reduce redundancy and store information more compactly.


title: Data compression

text: Most video compression formats and codecs exploit both spatial and temporal redundancy (e.g. through difference coding with motion compensation). Similarities can be encoded by only storing differences between e.g. temporally adjacent frames (inter-frame coding) or spatially adjacent pixels (intra-frame coding). Inter-frame compression (a temporal delta encoding) (re)uses data from one or more earlier or later frames in a sequence to describe the current frame. Intra-frame coding, on the other hand, uses only data from within the current frame, effectively being still-image compression.


title: Data compression

text: The intra-frame video coding formats used in camcorders and video editing employ simpler compression that uses only intra-frame prediction. This simplifies video editing software, as it prevents a situation in which a compressed frame refers to data that the editor has deleted.


title: Data compression

text: Usually, video compression additionally employs lossy compression techniques like quantization that reduce aspects of the source data that are (more or less) irrelevant to the human visual perception by exploiting perceptual features of human vision. For example, small differences in color are more difficult to perceive than are changes in brightness. Compression algorithms can average a color across these similar areas in a manner similar to those used in JPEG image compression. As in all lossy compression, there is a trade-off between video quality and bit rate, cost of processing the compression and decompression, and system requirements. Highly compressed video may present visible or distracting artifacts.


title: Data compression

text: Other methods other than the prevalent DCT-based transform formats, such as fractal compression, matching pursuit and the use of a discrete wavelet transform (DWT), have been the subject of some research, but are typically not used in practical products. Wavelet compression is used in still-image coders and video coders without motion compensation. Interest in fractal compression seems to be waning, due to recent theoretical analysis showing a comparative lack of effectiveness of such methods.


title: Data compression

text: In inter-frame coding, individual frames of a video sequence are compared from one frame to the next, and the video compression codec records the differences to the reference frame. If the frame contains areas where nothing has moved, the system can simply issue a short command that copies that part of the previous frame into the next one. If sections of the frame move in a simple manner, the compressor can emit a (slightly longer) command that tells the decompressor to shift, rotate, lighten, or darken the copy. This longer command still remains much shorter than data generated by intra-frame compression. Usually, the encoder will also transmit a residue signal which describes the remaining more subtle differences to the reference imagery. Using entropy coding, these residue signals have a more compact representation than the full signal. In areas of video with more motion, the compression must encode more data to keep up with the larger number of pixels that are changing. Commonly during explosions, flames, flocks of animals, and in some panning shots, the high-frequency detail leads to quality decreases or to increases in the variable bitrate.


title: Data compression

text: Today, nearly all commonly used video compression methods (e.g., those in standards approved by the ITU-T or ISO) share the same basic architecture that dates back to H.261 which was standardized in 1988 by the ITU-T. They mostly rely on the DCT, applied to rectangular blocks of neighboring pixels, and temporal prediction using motion vectors, as well as nowadays also an in-loop filtering step.


title: Data compression

text: In the prediction stage, various deduplication and difference-coding techniques are applied that help decorrelate data and describe new data based on already transmitted data.


title: Data compression

text: Then rectangular blocks of remaining pixel data are transformed to the frequency domain. In the main lossy processing stage, frequency domain data gets quantized in order to reduce information that is irrelevant to human visual perception.


title: Data compression

text: In the last stage statistical redundancy gets largely eliminated by an entropy coder which often applies some form of arithmetic coding.


title: Data compression

text: In an additional in-loop filtering stage various filters can be applied to the reconstructed image signal. By computing these filters also inside the encoding loop they can help compression because they can be applied to reference material before it gets used in the prediction process and they can be guided using the original signal. The most popular example are deblocking filters that blur out blocking artifacts from quantization discontinuities at transform block boundaries.


title: Data compression

text: In 1967, A.H. Robinson and C. Cherry proposed a run-length encoding bandwidth compression scheme for the transmission of analog television signals. Discrete cosine transform (DCT), which is fundamental to modern video compression, was introduced by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974.


title: Data compression

text: H.261, which debuted in 1988, commercially introduced the prevalent basic architecture of video compression technology. It was the first video coding format based on DCT compression. H.261 was developed by a number of companies, including Hitachi, PictureTel, NTT, BT and Toshiba.


title: Data compression

text: The most popular video coding standards used for codecs have been the MPEG standards. MPEG-1 was developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video. It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, which was developed by a number of companies, primarily Sony, Thomson and Mitsubishi Electric. MPEG-2 became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television. In 1999, it was followed by MPEG-4/H.263. It was also developed by a number of companies, primarily Mitsubishi Electric, Hitachi and Panasonic.


title: Data compression

text: H.264/MPEG-4 AVC was developed in 2003 by a number of organizations, primarily Panasonic, Godo Kaisha IP Bridge and LG Electronics. AVC commercially introduced the modern context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) and context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC) algorithms. AVC is the main video encoding standard for Blu-ray Discs, and is widely used by video sharing websites and streaming internet services such as YouTube, Netflix, Vimeo, and iTunes Store, web software such as Adobe Flash Player and Microsoft Silverlight, and various HDTV broadcasts over terrestrial and satellite television.


title: Data compression

text: Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and is less computationally intensive than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF-based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. Other algorithms developed in 2009 and 2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes). For a benchmark in genetics/genomics data compressors, see


title: Data compression

text: It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007, but when the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of Shannon information.


title: Endrick Felipe

text: Endrick Felipe Moreira de Sousa (born 21 July 2006), known as Endrick Felipe or simply Endrick, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Brasileirão club Palmeiras. He will join La Liga club Real Madrid in July 2024.


title: Endrick Felipe

text: Born in Brasília, Endrick started playing football at the age of four. His father, Douglas Sousa, published his son's goals on YouTube and looked for interested parties among the big Brazilian clubs. Endrick vowed to become a professional footballer to help his family, after his father was unable to feed him. His father was unemployed before receiving a job as a cleaner by Palmeiras.


title: Endrick Felipe

text: After nearly signing for São Paulo, he joined Palmeiras youth team at the age of 11. In five years he scored 165 goals in 169 games for Palmeiras youth teams. He participated in the 2022 Copa São Paulo de Futebol Júnior where he scored seven goals in seven games and was voted Player of the Tournament by supporters after leading Palmeiras to the title. Following the tournament, he caught the attention of international media and major European clubs.


title: Endrick Felipe

text: Endrick made his professional debut on 6 October 2022, as a second-half substitute in Palmeiras' Série A 4–0 win over Coritiba. At 16 years, two months and 16 days of age, he became the youngest player ever to appear for Palmeiras. He scored his first two goals on 25 October, in a 3–1 win over Athletico Paranaense, becoming the second youngest goal scorer in the history of Brazil's first division, behind Toninho de Matos.


title: Endrick Felipe

text: On 15 December 2022, Real Madrid announced that they have reached an agreement with Palmeiras, Endrick, and his family, to enlist Endrick upon the latter reaching his legal age in July 2024.


title: Endrick Felipe

text: A left-footed forward with a good shot, Endrick has drawn comparisons with legendary Brazil strikers Ronaldo and Romário. When asked to describe his style of play, he said, "I'll always fight. I'll be persistent and try until the last minute I'm in the game. I never give up, I pressure defenders, I run more than anyone else on the pitch." His idol is Cristiano Ronaldo. He is considered one of Brazil's best football prospects.


title: Ed Balls

text: Edward Michael Balls (born 25 February 1967) is a British broadcaster, writer, economist, professor and former politician who served as Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families from 2007 to 2010, and as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer from 2011 to 2015. A member of the Labour Party and the Co-operative Party, he was Member of Parliament (MP) for Normanton and later for Morley and Outwood between 2005 and 2015.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls attended Nottingham High School before he studied philosophy, politics and economics at Keble College, Oxford, and was later a Kennedy Scholar in economics at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. He was a teaching fellow at Harvard from 1988 to 1990, when he joined the "Financial Times" as the lead economic writer. Balls had joined the Labour Party while attending Nottingham High School, and became an adviser to Shadow Chancellor Gordon Brown in 1994, continuing in this role after Labour won the 1997 general election, and eventually becoming the Chief Economic Adviser to the Treasury.


title: Ed Balls

text: At the 2005 general election, Balls was elected as the MP for Normanton (which in 2010 became Morley and Outwood), and in 2006 became Economic Secretary to the Treasury. When Brown became Prime Minister in 2007, Balls became Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, serving until the 2010 general election; Labour were at that point defeated after thirteen years in government, and returned to Opposition. Balls was appointed as Shadow Secretary of State for Education under Harriet Harman and finished in third place at the 2010 Labour leadership election, triggered by Brown's resignation as Leader of the Labour Party, after which he was appointed as Ed Miliband's Shadow Home Secretary. He served in this role until 2011, when he was then appointed as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer, a role that he held until he was unseated at the 2015 general election.


title: Ed Balls

text: Following his electoral defeat, he became a senior fellow at Harvard University Kennedy School's Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government, and a visiting professor to the Policy Institute at King's College London. He was appointed chairman of Norwich City F.C. in December 2015, a position he held until December 2018. In 2020, he was appointed Professor of Political Economy at King's College London. Balls was a contestant on series 14 of the BBC's "Strictly Come Dancing", surviving until week 10, and in 2021 was the winner in the BBC's "Celebrity Best Home Cook".


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls' father is zoologist Michael Balls; his mother is Carolyn Janet Riseborough. His younger brother is Andrew Balls, the CIO for Global Fixed Income at the investment firm PIMCO.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls was born in Norwich. When he was eight years old the family moved to Nottingham where he attended Crossdale Drive Primary School in Keyworth and the private all-boys Nottingham High School, where he played the violin.


title: Ed Balls

text: Raised as an Anglican, he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Keble College, Oxford, graduating with a First – according to John Rentoul in "The Independent" – ahead of David Cameron. Later he attended the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard, where he was a Kennedy Scholar specialising in Economics.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls joined the Labour Party in 1983 while still at school. While at Oxford University he was a partially active member of the Labour Club, but also signed up to the Liberal Club as well as the Conservative Association, "because they used to book top-flight political speakers, and only members were allowed to attend their lectures" according to friends. Balls was a founding member of The Steamers, an all-male drinking club, and suffered embarrassment when a contemporary photo of him wearing Nazi uniform appeared in the papers.


title: Ed Balls

text: Between 1988 and 1990, Balls was a Teaching Fellow at Harvard University. He joined the "Financial Times" in 1990 as a lead economic writer until his appointment as an economic adviser to Shadow Chancellor Gordon Brown in 1994. When Labour regained power at the 1997 general election, Brown became Chancellor and Balls continued to work as his economic adviser, eventually becoming Chief Economic Adviser to the Treasury.


title: Ed Balls

text: In July 2004, Balls was selected to stand as Labour and Co-operative candidate for the parliamentary seat of Normanton in West Yorkshire, a Labour stronghold whose MP, Bill O'Brien, was retiring. He stepped down as Chief Economic Adviser to HM Treasury, but was given a position at the Smith Institute, a political think tank. HM Treasury and the Cabinet Office was subsequently stated that "the normal and proper procedures were followed".


title: Ed Balls

text: In the 2005 general election, he was elected MP for Normanton with a majority of 10,002 and 51.2% of the vote. After the Boundary Commission proposed changes which would abolish his constituency, Balls ran a campaign, in connection with the local newspaper the "Wakefield Express", to save the seat and, together with the three other Wakefield MPs (his wife Yvette Cooper, Mary Creagh and Jon Trickett), fought an unsuccessful High Court legal action against the Boundary Commission's proposals.


title: Ed Balls

text: In March 2007, he was selected to be the Labour Party candidate for the new Morley and Outwood constituency; unlike the previous safe Labour seat of Normanton, it was a marginal, which contained parts of the abolished Normanton and Morley and Rothwell constituencies, and was elected for the new seat in May 2010. On 5 February 2013, Balls voted in favour in the House of Commons Second Reading vote on marriage equality in Britain. Balls was a member of the Labour Friends of Israel.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls became Economic Secretary to the Treasury, a junior ministerial position at HM Treasury, in the Cabinet reshuffle of May 2006. While Economic Secretary, he was commissioned, alongside Jon Cunliffe, by the G7 finance ministers to prepare a report on economic aspects of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.


title: Ed Balls

text: When Gordon Brown became Prime Minister on 27 June 2007, Balls was promoted to Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families. At the Department for Children, Schools and Families, Balls brought together schools and children's policy for the first time in the Children's Plan and raised the UK education and training leaving age to 18. In 2007 Balls was considered to be given the post of Chancellor, but the role was given to Alistair Darling.


title: Ed Balls

text: In October 2008, Balls announced that the Government had decided to scrap SAT tests for 14-year-olds, a move which was broadly welcomed by teachers, parent groups and opposition MPs. The decision to continue with SAT tests for 11-year-olds was described by head teachers' leader Mick Brookes as a missed opportunity.


title: Ed Balls

text: In December 2008, following the case of the Death of Baby P, Balls intervened directly in the running of Haringey Social Services, ordering the immediate dismissal, without compensation, of Sharon Shoesmith the Director of Children's Services. David Cameron had also called for her dismissal.


title: Ed Balls

text: Prior to her dismissal, Shoesmith had been widely praised in her former role as Director of Education, though she was handicapped by having no social work background. An emergency OFSTED report ordered by Balls in November 2008 following the child abuse trial found that safeguarding arrangements were inadequate although Shoesmith's lawyers alleged that the final report had been altered. Shoesmith subsequently brought a Judicial review against Balls, Ofsted and Haringey Council and a series of appeals followed.


title: Ed Balls

text: The Conservative Opposition supported Balls' right to dismiss her "because ministers want to uphold the principle that they – and not the courts, through judicial review – should be responsible for their decisions". She received compensation as her sacking was deemed "procedurally unfair" and the Department for Children, Schools and Families was subsequently refused leave to appeal to the Supreme Court.


title: Ed Balls

text: In October 2013, it was reported that Shoesmith had agreed to an out-of-court settlement with Haringey Council; unconfirmed reports referred to a sum of 'up to £600,000'. Appeal Court judge Lord Neuberger had described Balls' dismissal of Shoesmith as 'unlawful', but in a statement issued on 29 October, Balls asserted that 'faced with the same situation [he] would do the same thing again.'


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls sponsored the Children, Schools and Families Bill, which had its first reading on 19 November 2009. Part of the proposed legislation will see regulation of parents who home educate their children in England, introduced in response to the Badman Review, with annual inspections to determine quality of education and welfare of the child. Home educators across the UK petitioned their MPs to remove the proposed legislation.


title: Ed Balls

text: Several parts of the bill, including the proposed register for home educators, and compulsory sex education lessons, were abandoned as they had failed to gain cross party support prior to the pending May 2010 election.


title: Ed Balls

text: Following the resignation of Gordon Brown as both Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party, Balls announced on 19 May 2010 that he was standing in the election to replace Brown. Balls was the third candidate to secure the minimum of 33 nominations from members of the Parliamentary Labour Party in order to enter the leadership race. The other contenders were former Foreign Secretary David Miliband, former Health Secretary Andy Burnham, backbencher Diane Abbott and former Energy Secretary Ed Miliband, who was elected.


title: Ed Balls

text: The new leader Ed Miliband appointed Balls Shadow Home Secretary on 8 October 2010, a job he held until 20 January 2011, when the resignation of Alan Johnson for "personal reasons" led Miliband to announce Balls as Labour's Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer.


title: Ed Balls

text: As Shadow Chancellor, Balls regularly appeared with Miliband at joint press conferences relating to Labour policy. Together with Miliband, Balls promoted a "five-point plan for jobs and growth" as Shadow Chancellor. The plan was described as aimed at helping the UK economy, and would have involved reinstating the bonus tax to fund building more social homes, bringing forward long-term investment, cutting VAT to 17.5%, cutting VAT on home improvements to 5% for one year, and instigating a one-year national insurance break.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls declared in January 2012 that he would continue with the public sector pay freeze which led to opposition from Len McCluskey. He had a bruising exchange in the House of Commons with George Osborne regarding the Libor rate scandal, where Osborne accused Balls of being involved in the scandal. Conservative MPs became unhappy after Bank of England deputy governor, Paul Tucker denied encouragement to pressurise Barclays with Andrea Leadsom saying Osborne had made a mistake and should apologise.


title: Ed Balls

text: In the 2015 general election Balls lost his seat to the Conservative Party's Andrea Jenkyns by a margin of 0.9%. It was claimed that the Labour leader's office had known for two weeks that Balls was likely to lose. Larry Elliott of "The Guardian" described this as the Portillo moment of the election. On 11 May, it was reported that, on leaving the Commons, Balls would receive up to £88,000 in expenses for relocation and to close down his parliamentary office.


title: Ed Balls

text: On 28 April 2011, Balls, urged by an assistant to search Twitter for a recent article about himself, accidentally entered his intended search term in the wrong box and sent a tweet reading only "Ed Balls". The tweet was retweeted by thousands; Balls was unaware that it was possible to delete tweets. The tweet has never been deleted. The incident is now celebrated as "Ed Balls Day" every 28 April, with followers retweeting his original message and commemorating the occasion in other ways. When invited to send something to be auctioned to raise funds for the party in 2015, Balls submitted a framed, signed printout of the tweet. To celebrate "Ed Balls Day" in 2016, Balls baked a cake featuring the tweet.


title: Ed Balls

text: Six years on from the original tweet, Ed Balls Day 2017 drew tweets from organisations including Virgin Atlantic and the National Trust – the latter in response to a tweet parodying Prime Minister Theresa May's criticism of the National Trust for omitting the word "Easter" from promotional material for Easter egg hunts.


title: Ed Balls

text: Eleven years after the incident, Ed Balls Day is still being celebrated, with many offering each other a "Happy Ed Balls Day" online, in the style of a public holiday.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls has played a prominent role in the Fabian Society. In 1992, he wrote a Fabian pamphlet advocating Bank of England independence, a policy adopted when Gordon Brown became Chancellor in 1997. Balls was elected Vice-Chair of the Fabian Society for 2006 and Chair of the Fabian Society for 2007. As Vice-Chair of the Fabian Society, he launched the Fabian Life Chances Commission report in April 2006 and opened the Society's Next Decade lecture series in November 2006, arguing for closer European cooperation on the environment.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls has been a central figure in New Labour's economic reform agenda. He and Brown have differed from the Blairites in being keen to stress their roots in Labour Party intellectual traditions such as Fabianism and the co-operative movement, as well as their modernising credentials in policy and electoral terms. In a "New Statesman" interview in March 2006, Martin Bright writes that Balls "says the use of the term 'socialist' is less of a problem for his generation than it has been for older politicians like Blair and Brown, who remain bruised by the ideological warfare of the 1970s and 1980s". In the interview, Balls said:


title: Ed Balls

text: In September 2007, with his wife Yvette Cooper, he was accused by Liberal Democrat MP Norman Baker of "breaking the spirit of Commons rules" by using MPs' allowances to help pay for a £655,000 home in north London. Balls and Cooper bought a four-bedroom house in Stoke Newington, and registered this as their second home (rather than their home in Castleford, West Yorkshire) to qualify for up to £44,000 a year to subsidise a reported £438,000 mortgage under the Commons Additional Costs Allowance, of which they claimed £24,400. Both worked in London full-time and their children attended local London schools. Balls and Cooper claimed that "The whole family travel between their Yorkshire home and London each week when Parliament is sitting. As they are all in London during the week, their children have always attended the nearest school to their London house."


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls and Cooper "flipped" the designation of their second home three times within the space of two years. In June 2008, they were referred to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards over allegations that they were claiming expenses for what was effectively their main home in London. Their combined claim was £24,000 i.e. "slightly more" than the single MP allowance. The commissioner exonerated them, adding that their motives were not for profit as they paid full capital gains tax.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls was fined in June 2013 for going through a red light in December 2012. He has also admitted speeding in April 2013 and using his mobile phone while driving during the 2010 general election campaign. On 5 August 2014, he was fined £900 and given five penalty points on his driving licence for failing to stop after a car accident. He said he knew that the cars had touched, but did not stop to check as he did not think any damage had been done.


title: Ed Balls

text: After leaving politics, Balls was appointed Senior Fellow at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, and also became Visiting Professor of King's College, London. He was appointed as the chairman of Norwich City F.C. in December 2015, the football club he supports. He stood down in December 2018.


title: Ed Balls

text: In 2016 he took part in "The Great Sport Relief Bake Off" and series 14 of the BBC's "Strictly Come Dancing". He was partnered with Katya Jones, a Russian professional dancer. Writing about his performance in the sixth week Halloween special, Michael Hogan of "The Daily Telegraph" said "The dad-dancing politician got a standing ovation from the studio audience, chuckles from the judges and enough viewer votes to keep him out of yet another dance-off." His dance to "Gangnam Style" was nominated for the Must-See Moment Award at the 2017 Television BAFTAs. He was eventually eliminated in week 10.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls' autobiographical memoir "Speaking Out" was published in August 2016. In the book, he said Labour's four-week general election campaign in 2015 was "astonishingly dysfunctional" and "we weren't ready – and didn't deserve – to return to government". He also described Jeremy Corbyn's leadership project as a "leftist utopian fantasy, devoid of connection to the reality of people's lives".


title: Ed Balls

text: A three-part documentary, "Travels in Trumpland with Ed Balls", began broadcasting on BBC Two on 29 July 2018. It looks at supporters of the then President Trump and how things have changed. During one episode, Balls took part in a professional wrestling match in order to explore the correlation between Trump and the sport.


title: Ed Balls

text: Another three-part documentary, "Travels in Euroland with Ed Balls", began broadcasting on BBC Two on 23 January 2020. It explores anti-elite sentiment in Europe, the rise of right-wing politics, and the effect austerity has had in European politics.


title: Ed Balls

text: In September 2017, Balls was placed at Number 74 in 'The 100 Most Influential People on the Left' by commentator Iain Dale.


title: Ed Balls

text: In November 2017 Balls was a contestant on the British TV show "Would I Lie to You?", where he revealed that he had once negotiated the Home Office budget while crawling in a children's ball pit.


title: Ed Balls

text: On 8 and 15 November 2021 Balls hosted "Ed Balls: Crisis In Care" on BBC Two, a two-part documentary exploring the challenges facing social care providers in England.


title: Ed Balls

text: Balls married Labour MP Yvette Cooper, who later became Secretary of State for Work and Pensions and Shadow Home Secretary, in Eastbourne on 10 January 1998. Cooper is Member of Parliament for Morley & Outwood's neighbouring constituency of Normanton, Pontefract and Castleford. They have three children. In January 2008, they became the first married couple to serve together in HM Cabinet when Cooper became Chief Secretary to the Treasury, although Cooper had attended cabinet sessions as housing minister prior to then.


title: Ed Balls

text: In September 2010, the British Stammering Association announced that Balls had become a patron of the association. Its Chief Executive, Norbert Lieckfeldt, commended Balls for talking about his stammer in public.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The Hudsucker Proxy is a 1994 screwball comedy film co-written, produced, and directed by the Coen brothers. Sam Raimi co-wrote the script and served as second unit director. The film stars Tim Robbins as a naïve but ambitious business school graduate who is installed as president of a manufacturing company, Jennifer Jason Leigh as a newspaper reporter, and Paul Newman as a company director who hires the graduate as part of a stock scam.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The script was finished in 1985, but production did not start until 1991, when Joel Silver acquired the script for Silver Pictures. Warner Bros. subsequently agreed to distribute the film, with further financing from PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films. Filming at Carolco Studios in Wilmington, North Carolina lasted from November 1992 to March 1993. The New York City scale model set was designed by Michael J. McAlister and Mark Stetson, with further effects provided by The Computer Film Company.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Upon its release in March 1994, "The Hudsucker Proxy" received mixed reviews from critics and bombed at the box office, but has since gained a cult following.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: In December 1958, Norville Barnes, a business college graduate from Muncie, Indiana, arrives in New York City, looking for a job. He struggles due to lack of experience and becomes a mailroom clerk at Hudsucker Industries, a large corporation. Soon thereafter, the company's founder and president, Waring Hudsucker, unexpectedly commits suicide during a business meeting by jumping out of a top-floor window. Afterward, Sidney J. Mussburger, a ruthless member of the company's board of directors, knowing that Hudsucker Industries' bylaws call for Hudsucker's stock shares to be sold to the public, suggests a scheme to buy the controlling interest in the company by temporarily depressing the stock price by hiring a clearly incompetent president to run the business.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: In the mailroom, Norville is assigned to deliver a "Blue Letter" to Mussburger. The letter is a top-secret communication from Hudsucker, sent shortly before his death. However, Norville does not deliver the letter; instead, he pitches Mussburger an invention of his (indicated with no other explanation than a simple drawing of a circle and his cryptic explanation, "you know: for kids."). Believing Norville to be an idiot, Mussburger selects him as a proxy for Hudsucker. Across town, Amy Archer, a brassy Pulitzer Prize–winning reporter for the "Manhattan Argus" newspaper, is assigned to write a story about Norville and find out what kind of man he really is. She obtains a job at Hudsucker Industries as his personal secretary, pretending to be yet another desperate graduate from his alma mater in Muncie. One night, Amy searches the building for clues and meets Moses, who operates the tower's giant clock and knows "just about anything if it concerns Hudsucker". He tells her Mussburger's plot, and she takes the story back to her Chief, but he does not believe it.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The other executives at Hudsucker Industries decide to produce Norville's invention in hopes that it will flop and further depress the company's stock. However, the invention is the hula hoop, which initially fails in obscurity but then becomes an enormous success. Norville allows success to go to his head and becomes yet another uncaring tycoon. Amy, who had fallen for his naive charm, is infuriated over Norville's new attitude and leaves him. Buzz, the eager elevator operator, pitches a new invention: the flexi-straw. Norville dismisses it and fires Buzz. Meanwhile, Aloysius, a Hudsucker janitor, discovers Amy's true identity and informs Mussburger. Mussburger reveals Amy's secret identity to Norville and tells him he will be dismissed as president after the new year. Mussburger also convinces the board that Norville is insane and must be sent to the local psychiatric hospital.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: On New Year's Eve, Amy finds Norville drunk at a beatnik bar. She apologizes, but he storms out and is chased by an angry mob led by Buzz. Norville escapes to the top floor of the Hudsucker skyscraper and changes back into his mailroom uniform. He climbs out on the ledge, where Aloysius locks him out and watches as he slips and falls off the building at the stroke of midnight. While Norville plummets, Moses stops the building's giant clock, which freezes time. Waring Hudsucker appears to Norville as an angel and tells him to read the Blue Letter (still in Norville's uniform pocket) that was supposed to be delivered to Mussburger: it contains Hudsucker's instructions to transfer his shares to his immediate successor as president, rather than to the public. This would have been Mussburger, but, unaware of this, he proceeded with his scheme to elect Norville. Inside the building's giant clock, Moses fights Aloysius, defeating him. Norville descends safely to the ground. He and Amy reconcile. As 1959 progresses, Mussburger attempts suicide and is sent to an asylum while Norville develops a new invention "for kids": another enigmatic circle on a folded sheet of paper that ultimately turns out to be a frisbee.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The Coen brothers first met Sam Raimi when Joel Coen worked as an assistant editor on Raimi's "The Evil Dead" (1981). Together, they began writing the script for "The Hudsucker Proxy" in 1981, and continued during the filming of "Crimewave" (1985), and post-production on "Blood Simple" (1985), in which Joel and Ethan Coen shared a house with Raimi. The Coens and Raimi were inspired by the films of Preston Sturges, such as "Christmas in July" (1940) and the Hollywood satire, "Sullivan's Travels" (1941). The sentimental tone and decency of ordinary men as heroes was influenced by films of Frank Capra, like "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town" (1936), "Meet John Doe" (1941), and "It's a Wonderful Life" (1946). The dialogue is an homage to Howard Hawks' "His Girl Friday" (1940), while Jennifer Jason Leigh's performance as fast-talking reporter Amy Archer is reminiscent of Rosalind Russell and Katharine Hepburn, in both the physical and vocal mannerisms. Other movies that observers found references to include "Executive Suite" (1954) and "Sweet Smell of Success" (1957). The brothers had no intention of commenting on or parodying such movies, instead as Ethan said "It's the case where, having seen those movies, we say 'They're really fun - let's do one'; as opposed to 'They're really fun- let's comment upon them.'" Raimi describes the script as "big-business comedy. It's a return to the very large love story comedies they used to make in the forties and early fifties." So the brothers started to pace around their apartment, taking turns on the typewriter, and when they found themselves stuck at a point, Raimi would do all sorts of tricks to get the boys back up. For example, while Ethan is pacing around, he would move things around the apartment so Ethan would be thrown off, he even said he threw firecrackers at them.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: One film critic described the numerous influences: "From his infelicitous name to his physical clumsiness, Norville Barnes is a Preston Sturges hero trapped in a Frank Capra story, and never should that twain meet, especially not in a world that seems to have been created by Fritz Lang – the mechanistic monstrousness of the mailroom contrasted with the Bauhaus gigantism of the corporate offices perfectly matches the boss-labour split in "Metropolis" (1927)." An interviewer proposed that the characters represent capitalism versus labour economics. Joel Coen replied: "Maybe the characters do embody those grand themes you mentioned, but that question is independent of whether or not we're interested in them – and we're not." "The Hudsucker Proxy" presents various narrative motifs pertaining to the Rota Fortunae and visual motifs concerning the shape of circles. This includes Moses' monologue at the beginning, the Hudsucker Clock, Mussburger's wristwatch, the inventions of both the hula hoop and frisbee, as well as Norville and Amy's conversation about Karma.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The first image the Coens and Raimi conceived was of Norville Barnes about to jump from the window of a skyscraper and then they had to figure out how he got there and how to save him. The inclusion of the hula hoop came as a result of a plot device. Joel remembers, "We had to come up with something that Norville was going to invent that on the face of it was ridiculous. Something that would seem, by any sort of rational measure, to be doomed to failure, but something that on the other hand the audience already knew was going to be a phenomenal success." Ethan said, "The whole circle motif was built into the design of the movie, and that just made it seem more appropriate." Joel: "What grew out of that was the design element which drives the movie. The tension between vertical lines and circles; you have these tall buildings, then these circles everywhere which are echoed in the plot...in the structure of the movie itself. It starts with the end and circles back to the beginning, with a big flashback." It took the Coens and Raimi three months to write the screenplay. As early as 1985, the Coens were quoted as saying that an upcoming project "takes place in the late Fifties in a skyscraper and is about Big Business. The characters talk fast and wear sharp clothes."


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Despite having finished the script in 1985, Joel explained, "We couldn't make "Hudsucker" back then because we weren't that popular yet. Plus, the script was too expensive and we had just completed "Blood Simple", which was an independent film." After completing "Barton Fink" (1991), the Coens were looking forward to doing a more mainstream film. "The Hudsucker Proxy" was revived and the Coens and Raimi performed a brief rewrite. Producer Joel Silver, a fan of the Coens' previous films, acquired the script for his production company, Silver Pictures, and pitched the project at Warner Bros. Pictures. Silver also allowed the Coens complete artistic control.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: This was the first time the Coen brothers chose big stars to act in one of their films. Joel Silver's first choice for Norville Barnes was Tom Cruise, but the Coens persisted in a desire to cast Tim Robbins. Jon Cryer auditioned for the lead role of Norville Barnes. Winona Ryder and Bridget Fonda were in competition for the role of Amy Archer, before Jennifer Jason Leigh was cast. Leigh had previously auditioned for a role in the Coens's "Miller's Crossing" and "Barton Fink"; her failed auditions prompted the Coens to cast her in "The Hudsucker Proxy". To prepare for her role as Amy Archer, Leigh read the biographies of some of the most substantial ladies of the thirties and forties such as Rosalind Russell, Katharine Hepburn, and Jean Arthur. When casting the role of Sidney Mussburger, "Warner Bros. suggested all sorts of names," remembered Joel. "A lot of them were comedians who were clearly wrong. Mussburger is the bad guy and Paul Newman brought that character to life." However, the Coens first offered the role to Clint Eastwood, but he was forced to turn it down due to scheduling conflicts.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Once Newman and Robbins signed on, PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films agreed to co-finance the film with Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures. The film was shot on five sound stages at Carolco Studios in Wilmington, North Carolina beginning on November 30, 1992. Raimi served as second unit director, shooting the hula hoop sequence and Waring Hudsucker's suicide. Production designer Dennis Gassner was influenced by fascist architecture, particularly the work of Albert Speer, as well as Terry Gilliam's "Brazil" (1985), Frank Lloyd Wright and the Art Deco movement. Gassner contemplated using five huge rooms needed to accommodate the sound stages. Gassner noted "You see, we wanted things to be big." He said that the huge 1950's-inspired table up in the boardroom was so long, it had to be built in five sections and later on assembled on the soundstage. The intention for the set sizes was to generate an oppressive feel. Principal photography ended on March 18, 1993.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: In addition, numerous sequences were filmed in downtown Chicago, particularly in the Merchandise Mart building for the entrance and lobby to Hudsucker Industries and the Hilton Chicago Christmas ballroom.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The presses in the "News & Observer" building in downtown Raleigh, North Carolina appeared in the movie.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The visual effects supervisor was Michael J. McAlister ("Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade", "Willow") with Mark Stetson ("Superman Returns", "Peter Pan") as miniatures supervisor. Peter Chesney, mechanical effects designer on many Coen brothers films, created a pair of 16-foot angel wings for actor Charles Durning, who portrayed Waring Hudsucker. "I made a complicated steel armature with a lot of electric motors to time everything so he can fold up his wings, unfold them and flap them about. Then we covered them with real duck and turkey feathers," says Chesney. "We modeled them after photographs of a hovering dove landing in slow motion." The buildings in the background (designed by McAlister and Stetson) were 1:24 scale models, shot separately and merged in post-production. To lengthen the sequence, the model of the Hudsucker building was the equivalent of 90 stories, not 45.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Despite the New York City setting, additional skyscrapers in Chicago, Illinois provided inspiration for the opening sequence of the skyline, such as the Merchandise Mart and Aon Center. Skyscrapers from New York City included the Chanin Building, the Fred F. French Building and One Wall Street, Manhattan. "We took all our favorite buildings in New York from where they actually stood and sort of put them into one neighborhood," Gassner continued, "a fantasy vision which adds to the atmosphere and flavor." First of all, a model had to be created based on the fantasy 1950s New York for the opening shot. So a miniature city was created, as McAlister mentioned that the Coens did not want a realistic reproduction of 1950s New York skyline, instead they wanted a more stylized version of it. So Gassner used the book "New York in The Forties" as a reference to create the look for the cityscape. It took three months and 27 crew members to create the miniature city at the scale of 24:1. As for the Hudsucker building, they made it at the scale of 6:1 for closer shots including the long-zoom in of Norville at the beginning. For that scene to be created, it started off with a wide angle shot, moving closer towards Tim Robbins, who was standing in a full sized set, which they inserted inside the shot of the model clock. ‘Marrying a live-action image with a painted or miniature element was, of course, nothing new, however, in the case of the zoom-in on Robbins from such a distance, keeping the full-size set locked in with the model building, ‘that was state-of-the-art and the only way to do it was with computers.’ says McAlister. Most of the buildings were created with two sides only, as they will only be seen from the front and the side, and some only needed one side as they were only going to be seen from the front, while the Hudsucker building was made completely three-dimensional. The work of The Computer Film Company (supervised by Janek Sirrs) included manipulations of the zoom-in shot of Norville at the beginning, as well as CGI snow and composites of the falling sequences.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: To create the two suicide falls, the miniature New York set was hung sideways to allow full movement along the heights of the buildings. McAlister calculated that such a drop would take seven seconds, but for dramatic purposes it was extended to around thirty. Problems occurred when the Coens and cinematographer Roger Deakins decided that these shots would be more effective with a wide-angle lens. "The buildings had been designed for an 18 mm lens, but as we tried a 14 mm lens, and then a 10 mm, we liked the shots more and more." However, the wider amount of vision meant that the edges of the frame went beyond the fringes of the model city, leaving empty spaces with no buildings. In the end, extra buildings were created from putting the one-sided buildings together and placing them at the edges. Charles Durning's fall was shot conventionally, but because Tim Robbins had to stop abruptly at the camera, his was shot in reverse as he was pulled away from the camera.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The skyscraper models created for The Hudsucker Proxy were re-used for "The Shadow", "Batman Forever", "Batman & Robin", and "Godzilla".


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: It is thought that the inspiration for the scene in which CEO Waring Hudsucker jumps to his death from the company's building was inspired by the real life suicide of Eli Black, former chairman of United Brands, in 1975.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The score to "The Hudsucker Proxy" was written by Carter Burwell, the fifth of his collaborations with the Coen Brothers. "Adagio of Spartacus and Phrygia" from the ballet "Spartacus" by Khachaturian is the basis of the main theme and additional music from the ballet runs under the Hula-Hoop sequence. The popular music of the time is also reflected in the character of Vic Tenetta (played by Peter Gallagher), modeled after Dean Martin, who sings "Memories Are Made of This." Additional inspiration comes from Aram Khachaturian's "Gayane" suite. A section from the ballet is used by Burwell for the scene in which Norville and Amy meet for the first time. The composer's "Dance of the Young Mountaineers" is used when a young boy is the first to try the hula hoop, followed by "Sabre Dance" (both from "Gayane").


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Warner Bros. held test screenings and audience comments were largely mixed. The studio suggested re-shoots, but the Coens, who held final cut privilege, refused because they were very nervous working with their biggest budget to date and were eager for mainstream success. The producers eventually added footage that had been cut and also shot minor pick-ups for the ending. "Variety" claimed that the pick-ups were done to try to save the film because Warner feared it was going to be a box office bomb. Joel Coen addressed the issue in an interview: "First of all, they weren't reshoots. They were a little bit of additional footage. We wanted to shoot a fight scene at the end of the movie. It was the product of something we discovered editing the movie, not previewing it. We've done additional shooting on every movie, so it's normal."


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: The film premiered in January 1994 at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah. In addition, "The Hudsucker Proxy" opened the 1994 Cannes Film Festival on May 12, 1994. The film was in competition for the Palme d'Or, but lost to "Pulp Fiction". "The Hudsucker Proxy" was released on March 11, 1994, and only grossed $2,816,518 in the United States and Canada. Worldwide, it grossed $11.3 million. The production budget was officially set at $25 million, although, it was reported to have increased to $40 million for marketing and promotion purposes. The film was a box office bomb.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: In addition to the film under-performing at the box office, "The Hudsucker Proxy" opened to mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reports that 60% of reviews from 47 critics were positive, with an average rating of 6.4/10. The consensus states, "Intriguingly strange and visually distinctive, "The Hudsucker Proxy" is ultimately almost – but not quite – as smart and absorbing as it needs to be."


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Roger Ebert praised the production design, scale model work, matte paintings, cinematography, and characters. "But the problem with the movie is that it's all surface and no substance," Ebert wrote. "Not even the slightest attempt is made to suggest that the film takes its own story seriously. Everything is style. The performances seem deliberately angled as satire." Desson Thomson of "The Washington Post" described "The Hudsucker Proxy" as being "pointlessly flashy and compulsively overloaded with references to films of the 1930s. Missing in this film's performances is a sense of humanity, the crucial ingredient in the movies "Hudsucker" is clearly trying to evoke. "Hudsucker" isn't the real thing at all. It's just a proxy."


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Todd McCarthy, writing in "Variety", called the film "one of the most inspired and technically stunning pastiches of old Hollywood pictures ever to come out of the New Hollywood. But a pastiche it remains, as nearly everything in the Coen brothers' latest and biggest film seems like a wizardly but artificial synthesis, leaving a hole in the middle where some emotion and humanity should be." James Berardinelli gave a largely positive review. ""The Hudsucker Proxy" skewers Big Business on the same shaft that Robert Altman ran Hollywood through with "The Player". From the "Brazil"-like scenes in the cavernous mail room to the convoluted machinations in the board room, this film is pure satire of the nastiest and most enjoyable sort. In this surreal world of 1958 can be found many of the issues confronting large corporations in the 1990s, all twisted to match the filmmakers' vision."


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Warner Home Video released "The Hudsucker Proxy" on DVD on May 18, 1999. No featurettes were included. It was one of the first Blu-ray Disc titles released through the Warner Archive Collection on February 26, 2013, but it still lacked any featurettes.


title: The Hudsucker Proxy

text: Two decades after the film's release, Scout Tafoya of RogerEbert.com praised the film for its stylistic adventurousness and expansion upon the themes and concepts of the films that inspired it. "Whereas the comedies of the 1930s and '40s could talk quickly and move quickly, they couldn't run at a full gallop like the Coen Brothers. Their camera soars, traveling at the speed of progress, gossip, capitalism itself. Everything races at top speed. The production design, the one thing everyone felt comfortable praising, is a marvel. Every frame doubles as a survey of early modern art, from Art Deco to Futurism."


title: Indian classical dance

text: Indian classical dance or "Shastriya Devesh" is an umbrella term for various performance arts rooted in Hindu musical theatre styles, whose theory and practice can be traced to the Sanskrit text "Natya Shastra".


title: Indian classical dance

text: The number of classical dances range from eight to more, depending on the source and scholar. The Sangeet Natak Academy recognizes eight – Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri and Mohiniyattam. Scholars such as Drid Williams add Chhau, Yakshagana and Bhagavata Mela to the list. Additionally, the Indian Ministry of Culture includes Chhau in its classical list. These dances are traditionally regional. They consist of compositions in Hindi, Malayalam, Meitei (Manipuri), Sanskrit, Tamil, Odia, Telugu, or any other Indian language and they represent an unity of core ideas in a diversity of styles, costumes and expression. Currently, there are 9 official classical dances in India.


title: Indian classical dance

text: Indian classical dancing started around 200 BCE in India. People in India loved art in India so they developed dancing into their culture, and they would dance at any events like weddings and Diwali.


title: Indian classical dance

text: Indian classical dancing is a very joyful and celebratory thing for people to do in the Indian culture. The style of Indian classical dancing is very vibrant and motivational. It is a style of dance that is like a communication with the gods. Indian classical dancing usually happens at festivals and cultural events. The dancers who perform this kind of dance usually is a professional dancer that has had a lot of practice in that specific style of Indian classical dancing. In Indian classical dancing the professional dancers usually dance to beat of the song or sound that is playing. They move their body to rhythm of the music and they flow. They movement and coordination usually sync up with whatever sound or song they are listening to. The dancer takes the role of the character that they hear in the song or sound and become emotionally connected with the story and the audience.


title: Indian classical dance

text: When dancers perform classical Indian dancing they wear traditional clothes. They wear sarees, "lenghas" and kurtas (Traditional Indian clothing).Usually females are the people performing Indian classical dancing. The costume consists of a long colourful material with a beautiful pattern on it, wrapped around her body, she usually wears a lot of jewellery like necklaces, hand bracelet and leg bracelets the female also wears a head ornamental piece, she usually has a lot of makeup applied to her to make her seem vibrant and attract attention from the crowd, and her outfit is usually custom made by hand. The costume will have a special design on it that consists of many beads and other spectacular designed things attached to the costume. The female wears foot shakers which jingles as she dances.


title: Indian classical dance

text: The "Natya Shastra" is the foundational treatise for classical dances of India, and this text is attributed to the ancient scholar Bharata Muni. Its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE. The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures – all of which are part of Indian classical dances. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures.


title: Indian classical dance

text: While the "Natya Shastra" is the revered ancient text in the Hindu tradition, there are numerous other ancient and medieval Sanskrit dance-drama related texts that further discuss and expand on the classical repertoire of performance arts, such as the "Abhinaya Darpana", "Abhinava Bharati", "Natya Darpana", "Bhava Prakasa" and many others. The term "classical" (Sanskrit: "Shastriya") denotes the ancient Indian Shastra-based performing arts.


title: Indian classical dance

text: The text Natya Shastra describes religious arts as a form as "margi", or a "spiritual traditional path" that liberates the soul, while the folk entertainment is called "desi", or a "regional popular practice".


title: Indian classical dance

text: Indian classical dances are traditionally performed as an expressive drama-dance form of religious performance art, related to Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, pan-Hindu Epics and the Vedic literature, or a folksy entertainment that includes story-telling from Sanskrit or regional language plays. As a religious art, they are either performed inside the sanctum of a Hindu temple, or near it. Folksy entertainment may also be performed in temple grounds or any fairground, typically in a rural setting by travelling troupes of artists; alternatively, they have been performed inside the halls of royal courts or public squares during festivals.


title: Indian classical dance

text: However, this is not the case for Kathak, Manipuri and Chhau as it has their own uniqueness. Kathak can be also performed on courtyards of mosques and had Muslim elements while Manipuri had the "huyen langlon" genre which focuses on combat. Like Manipuri, Chhau also had elements on combat.


title: Indian classical dance

text: The Natya Shastra mentions four "Pravrittis" (traditions, genres) of ancient dance-drama in vogue when it was composed – "Avanti" (Ujjain, central), "Dakshinatya" (south), "Panchali" (north, west) and "Odra-Magadhi" (east).


title: Indian classical dance

text: Sources differ in their list of Indian classical dance forms. Encyclopædia Britannica mentions six dances. The Sangeet Natak Akademi has given recognition to nine Indian dances. The Indian government's Ministry of Culture includes nine dance forms. Scholars such as Drid Williams and others include Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela to the nine classical Indian dances in the Sangeet Natak Akademi list.


title: Indian classical dance

text: All major classical Indian dance forms include in repertoire, three categories of performance in the "Natya Shastra". These are "Nritta", "Nritya" and "Natya":


title: Indian classical dance

text: All classical dances of India used similar symbolism and rules of gestures in "abhinaya" (acting). The roots of "abhinaya" are found in the "Natyashastra" text which defines drama in verse 6.10 as that which aesthetically arouses joy in the spectator, through the medium of actor's art of communication, that helps connect and transport the individual into a super sensual inner state of being. A performance art, asserts "Natyashastra", connects the artists and the audience through "abhinaya" (literally, "carrying to the spectators"), that is applying body-speech-mind and scene, wherein the actors communicate to the audience, through song and music. Drama in this ancient Sanskrit text, this is an art to engage every aspect of life, to glorify and gift a state of joyful consciousness.


title: Indian classical dance

text: The communication through symbols is in the form of expressive gestures (mudras or hastas) and pantomime set to music. The gestures and facial expressions convey the "ras" (sentiment, emotional taste) and "bhava" (mood) of the underlying story. In Hindu classical dances, the artist successfully expresses the spiritual ideas by paying attention to four aspects of a performance:


title: Steve Madden (company)

text: Steven Madden, Ltd., also known as Steve Madden, is a publicly traded company that designs and markets shoes and fashion accessories. Based in Long Island City, New York, the company's brands include Dolce Vita, Betsey Johnson, Blondo, Greats, BB Dakota and Mad Love. Steve Madden is also a licensee of various brands, including Anne Klein and Superga.


title: Steve Madden (company)

text: Businessman Steve Madden started the company with $1,100 in 1990 by selling shoes out of the trunk of his car to small Manhattan stores, where their chunky platform look attracted clothing designers, such as Betsey Johnson, who used them in their fashion shows. Steven Madden, Ltd. was incorporated in New York on July 9, 1990, and reincorporated under the same name in Delaware in November 1998. The company went public in 1993, underwritten through Stratton Oakmont. Steve Madden operates over 220 retail stores worldwide including eight Internet stores. The company reported net sales of for 2021.


title: Invisible Woman

text: The Invisible Woman (Susan "Sue" Storm-Richards) is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a founding member of the Fantastic Four and was the first female superhero created by Marvel during the Silver Age of Comic Books.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Sue Storm received her powers by being exposed to a cosmic storm, and was originally known as the Invisible Girl. She possesses two powers: invisibility and force fields. Her invisibility power deals with bending light waves and allows her to render herself and other objects invisible. She can also project powerful fields of invisible psionic, hyperspace-based energy that she uses for a variety of offensive and defensive effects, including shields, blasts, explosions, and levitation. Sue plays a central role in the lives of her hot-headed younger brother Johnny Storm, her brilliant husband Reed Richards, her close friend Ben Grimm, and her children (Franklin and Valeria). She was also romantically attracted to Namor the Sub-Mariner for a time, and they remain close friends.


title: Invisible Woman

text: The Invisible Woman was portrayed by Rebecca Staab in the unreleased 1994 film "The Fantastic Four", Jessica Alba in the 2005 film "Fantastic Four" and its 2007 sequel "", and Kate Mara in the 2015 film "Fantastic Four".


title: Invisible Woman

text: Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in "The Fantastic Four" #1 (Nov. 1961).


title: Invisible Woman

text: Since Stan Lee wanted "The Fantastic Four" to be driven by familial connections rather than action, the primary impetus for Susan Storm's creation was to not only be a full member of the team, but also the female lead (with Reed Richards a.k.a. Mister Fantastic being the male lead) of the series. He eventually emphasized this to readers explicitly, with a story in which the Fantastic Four read fan mail denigrating the Invisible Girl's value to the team, and respond by enumerating some of the occasions on which she played a key role in their victories. Teammate Johnny Storm a.k.a. the Human Torch being Sue's little brother became one of several sources of tension within the group, and she also served as the center of a love triangle with Reed and the Fantastic Four's sometime ally, sometime enemy Namor. Sue was initially presented as the sole reason for Ben Grimm, a bad guy, remaining on the group, which was significantly toned down in the published series.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Lee did not want Sue to have super strength, "to be Wonder Woman and punch people", so eventually he came to invisibility, inspired by works such as Universal Pictures' "The Invisible Man". His original two-page plot summary for the first issue of "The Fantastic Four", reprinted in the "Marvel Masterworks" and "Marvel Epic Collection" editions of the first ten issues, handled Susan's powers similarly to "The Invisible Man", which required her to take off her clothes, but noting concern that that might be "too sexy" for a comic book. It also noted that she could not turn visible again, and would wear a mask recreating her face when she wanted to be seen. By the time the first issue was written and drawn, both elements had changed: Susan could turn invisible and visible at will, and doing so affected the visibility of whatever clothing she was wearing.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Invisible Woman has primarily appeared in issues of "Fantastic Four". In issue 22 (January 1964), the creators expanded Sue's abilities, giving her the powers to render other objects and people invisible and create strong force fields and psionic blasts. Under John Byrne's authorship, Sue became more confident and assertive in her abilities, which became more versatile and impressive. She finds she can use her force field abilities to manipulate matter through the air, immobilize enemies, or administer long-range attacks. Susan changed her "nom de guerre" to Invisible Woman.


title: Invisible Woman

text: In April 2019, Marvel Comics announced that it will publish Sue Storm's first solo miniseries, "Invisible Woman." It was written by Mark Waid, drawn by Mattia De Iulis with covers by Adam Hughes. It was later confirmed by Tom Brevoort, editor at Marvel Comics, that the miniseries was produced for trademark purposes.


title: Invisible Woman

text: As detailed in "The Marvel Saga: Official History of The Marvel Universe #16", Susan Storm, and her younger brother, Jonathan grew up in the town of Glenville, Long Island, children of the physician Franklin Storm and his wife Mary. The parents left their kids alone one night to travel to a dinner honoring Dr. Storm. On the way, a tire blew out and Mary was injured. Franklin escaped injury and insisted on operating on his wife. He was unable to save her. After his wife's death, Dr. Franklin Storm became a gambler and a drunk, losing his medical practice, which led him to the accidental killing of a loan shark. Franklin did not defend himself in court, because he still felt guilty over Mary's death. With their father in prison, Susan had to become a mother figure for her younger brother.


title: Invisible Woman

text: While living with her aunt, Susan, at the young age of 17, met her future husband, Reed Richards, a house guest who was attending college. When she graduated from high school as the award-winning captain of her Girls' Varsity Swim Team, she moved to California to attend college, where she pursued an acting career and encountered Richards again. They began to become romantically involved with each other.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Reed Richards, working in the field of aerospace engineering, was designing a spacecraft for interstellar travel. Everything was going well until the government stopped the funding of his project. Richards, wanting to see his project through, decided to make an unscheduled test flight. Originally, it was only going to be Reed and his best friend, Ben Grimm, involved, but Susan was instrumental in persuading Reed in letting her brother and herself join them on the dangerous space mission. In space, the quartet was exposed to massive amounts of cosmic radiation. As a result, they had to abort the mission and return to Earth. After the crash landing, they realized that they gained superhuman powers; hers was the ability to become invisible at will. Realizing the potential use of their abilities, the four of them became the Fantastic Four, for the benefit of mankind. Susan adopted the code name Invisible Girl.


title: Invisible Woman

text: As the Fantastic Four, the team set up their first headquarters in the Baxter Building in Manhattan. The Fantastic Four encounter many villains in the early part of their career, but none of them contend for Susan's affections more than Namor the Sub-Mariner. Sue feels an amount of attraction to Namor, but her heart belongs with Reed, a situation that has been called the Marvel Universe's first love triangle.