title: Sudha Kongara

text: Sudha Kongara was born in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh into Telugu speaking family. Sudha grew up in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. She obtained a degree in History and Mass Communication from the Women's Christian College, Chennai.


title: Sudha Kongara

text: Kongara worked as a screenwriter for the English film "Mitr, My Friend" (2002). She worked as associate director for seven years with Mani Ratnam. She made her directorial debut in 2008 with the Telugu film "Andhra Andagadu" starring Krishna Bhagavaan, however, the film was not successful.


title: Sudha Kongara

text: During the production of her first Tamil directorial venture "Drohi" (2010), Kongara began writing a sports drama film on boxing which was titled "Irudhi Suttru". In mid-2013, she approached Madhavan, who was on a sabbatical from Tamil films, to portray the lead role in the film and his presence in the project, helped take the financial viability of the venture to a higher level. The pair had previously collaborated in Madhavan's films under the direction of Mani Ratnam, where Sudha had been an associate director. She then remade "Irudhi Suttru" in Telugu as "Guru." Her next film was "Soorarai Pottru" which is based on life of Air Deccan founder Captain GR Gopinath feature and it is produced by Suriya's 2D Entertainment and co-produced by Guneet Monga of Sikhya Entertainment.


title: The Buggles

text: The Buggles were an English new wave band formed in London in 1977 by singer and bassist Trevor Horn and keyboardist Geoff Downes. They are best known for their 1979 debut single "Video Killed the Radio Star", which topped the UK Singles Chart and reached number one in 15 other countries and was chosen as the song to launch MTV in 1981.


title: The Buggles

text: The duo released their first album, "The Age of Plastic", in January 1980 with "Video Killed the Radio Star" as its lead single. Soon after the album's release, Horn and Downes joined the progressive rock band Yes, recording and releasing "Drama" in the process. Following a tour to promote the album, Yes disbanded in 1981. That same year, on 1 August, the music video for "Video Killed the Radio Star" became the first ever shown on MTV in the United States. The following year, the Buggles released a second album, "Adventures in Modern Recording". Its lack of commercial success led to the breakup of the group. Since 1998, Horn and Downes have occasionally performed the Buggles' songs.


title: The Buggles

text: In October 2011, the Buggles reunited to play at the British Music Experience at the O2 Arena in London. At the 2016 Progressive Music Awards, the Buggles won an "Outer Limit Award".


title: The Buggles

text: Downes claimed the group's name derived as a pun on the rock band the Beatles, saying: "It was originally called the Bugs ... studio insects—imaginary creatures who lived in recording studios creating havoc. Then somebody said as a joke that the Bugs would never be as big as the Beatles. So we changed it to the Buggles." Horn later spoke of its name: "I know the name's awful, but at the time it was the era of the great punk thing. I'd got fed up of producing people who were generally idiots but called themselves all sorts of clever names like the Unwanted, the Unwashed, the Unheard ... when it came to choosing our name I thought I'd pick the most disgusting name possible. In retrospect I have frequently regretted calling myself Buggles, but in those days I never really thought much about packaging or selling myself, all that really concerned me was the record."


title: The Buggles

text: Horn began his career producing jingles and punk rock groups. Downes was a keyboardist in She's French and graduated from Leeds College of Music in 1975, after which he moved to London looking for keyboard work. The two first met in 1976 at auditions for Tina Charles' backing band and worked with her producer, Biddu, whose backing tracks had an influence on their early work as the Buggles. Horn met musician Bruce Woolley while playing the bass guitar in the house band at the Hammersmith Odeon. Both expressed an interest in Kraftwerk and Daniel Miller, leading them to read "Crash" by J. G. Ballard. Said Horn, "We had this idea that at some future point there'd be a record label that didn't really have any artists—just a computer in the basement and some mad Vincent Price-like figure making the records ... One of the groups this computer would make would be the Buggles, which was obviously a corruption of the Beatles, who would just be this inconsequential bunch of people with a hit song that the computer had written ... and would never be seen."


title: The Buggles

text: In 1977, Horn, Downes and Woolley got together and began recording a selection of demos in a small room above a stonemason shop in Wimbledon, southwest London, including "Video Killed the Radio Star", "Clean, Clean" and "On TV". Though unsure about what they wished to do with the demos, Downes remembered that "we knew even then ... there was some distant goal that had to be reached", and proceeded to re-record the songs at a 16-track recording studio in north London. Initial searches for the right record label to record and release an album failed, but Horn, having begun a relationship with Jill Sinclair, a co-founder of Sarm East Studios, managed to secure plans for a potential deal. However, the demo version of "Video Killed the Radio Star" caught the attention of producer Chris Blackwell of Island Records and, on the day on which Horn and Downes were due to sign with Sarm East, Blackwell offered them a more lucrative deal, which they accepted. Downes claimed Island rejected them three times before a final deal was agreed upon.


title: The Buggles

text: With the Island recording contract having been secured, the Buggles recorded their debut studio album, "The Age of Plastic", through 1979. Initially, the demo of "Video Killed the Radio Star" featured vocals by Tina Charles, who also helped fund the project. Although the song was primarily a Woolley composition, he ended his association with Horn and Downes to form before the song's release as a single. Making "The Age of Plastic" involved several months of tiresome and intense experimentation with studio equipment and techniques, struggling to capture the "magic" of the original demos. Debi Doss and Linda Jardim, the female voices on "Video Killed the Radio Star", contributed their vocals to other songs on the album.


title: The Buggles

text: "Video Killed the Radio Star", the album's lead single, was released first in September 1979 to considerable commercial success, topping the chart in 16 countries. Its music video, directed by Russell Mulcahy, was the first aired on MTV in the United States on 1 August 1981. Film composer Hans Zimmer makes a brief appearance in the video. "The Age of Plastic" was released in January 1980 and reached No. 27 on the UK Albums Chart. Three subsequent singles were released: "Living in the Plastic Age", "Clean, Clean" and "Elstree", all of which charted in the United Kingdom.


title: The Buggles

text: In early 1980, Horn and Downes began work on a second Buggles album in London, working in a studio next door to that of the progressive rock band Yes, who had lost vocalist Jon Anderson and keyboardist Rick Wakeman following failed recording sessions for a potential new album. In particular, Horn had been a long-standing fan of Yes. The Buggles offered a song to Yes, "We Can Fly from Here", but at the suggestion of Brian Lane, manager of both bands, Yes' bassist Chris Squire invited them to actually replace Anderson and Wakeman as members of Yes. Horn and Downes accepted the offer and joined Squire, Steve Howe and Alan White to record "Drama".


title: The Buggles

text: The absorption of the Buggles into Yes met with mixed reactions; the band was sometimes booed in the United Kingdom despite its chart position, but not in the United States. Horn admitted that he did not have Anderson's vocal range or style, which many fans missed, but most were still willing to give the new incarnation of Yes a chance. However, some press critics and fans were far less forgiving, especially in the United Kingdom. The US tour was much less financially successful than expected, and Yes disbanded in December 1980 after the "Drama" tour ended.


title: The Buggles

text: In early 1981, following the disbanding of Yes, Downes and Horn reconvened at Sarm East Studios to record the Buggles' second studio album, "Adventures in Modern Recording". However, Downes left the group on the day that the recording was to begin to help form Asia with Howe, citing musical differences. Horn was angry that Island Records renegotiated publishing terms for Downes to join Asia, but never did for Horn since, in his words, he was "washed up, career-wise." To fix this problem, Jill Sinclair made a deal with the French label Carrere, whose leader Claude Carrere, whom Horn described as a "very nice man", helped fund the album. Horn was now left to complete much of the album with several additional personnel.


title: The Buggles

text: Released in November 1981, "Adventures in Modern Recording" involved Horn's experimentation with numerous production techniques, especially with the heavy use of sampling with the Fairlight CMI, with instruments from the computer such as the drums on "Inner City" and the big band jazz sounds on "Vermillion Sands". These same sampling techniques would later be used in records that he produced, such as "Slave to the Rhythm" by Grace Jones, "90125" by Yes, "The Seduction of Claude Debussy" by Art of Noise, and "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" by Frankie Goes to Hollywood. While the album garnered little attention in the United Kingdom, Horn recalled in 2010 that it was a commercial success in France, and in the United States the album peaked at number 161 on the American "Billboard" 200. By the time of the album's release, when Horn was also producing the album "The Lexicon of Love" by ABC, he decided to take Sinclair's advice that he was always meant to be a producer rather than a performer or songwriter; thus the performance of "Lenny" on a Dutch television show, with ABC as the backing band, marked the end of the Buggles. As Horn recalled when he was interviewed after the show:


title: The Buggles

text: Being largely a studio creation, the Buggles never toured. There were some "Top of the Pops" playback appearances, and later some performances for promotional purposes in support of the second album, but the first live outing by the original duo came in a low-key appearance on 3 December 1998 at a showcase for new bands on Horn's ZTT Records label at Mean Fiddler in northwest London. During this appearance, the Buggles played only "Video Killed the Radio Star", backed by singer Tessa Niles and one of the other groups on the bill, the Marbles.


title: The Buggles

text: On 11 November 2004, the Buggles reunited with Doss, Jardim, Allan and Woolley at Wembley Arena to perform "Video Killed the Radio Star" and "The Plastic Age" as part of a The Prince's Trust charity concert celebrating Horn's career as a producer.


title: The Buggles

text: On 28 September 2010, the Buggles performed their first actual concert, billed as "The Lost Gig", at Supperclub in Notting Hill, west London, as a fundraiser for the Royal Hospital for Neuro-disability. Following an opening performance by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, the Buggles' set included "The Age of Plastic" performed in its entirety, including Woolley singing with Horn on "Clean, Clean". Also featured were Lol Creme, Chris Braide, Alison Moyet, Gary Barlow, Richard O'Brien and Claudia Brücken


title: The Buggles

text: On 25 October 2011, the Buggles reunited to play at the British Music Experience at the O2 Arena. The gig included the first live performance of "I Am a Camera" and covers of "Space Oddity" by David Bowie and "Check It Out" by Nicki Minaj and will.i.am, which utilised samples from "Video Killed the Radio Star". Kirsten Joy, Holly Petrie and Kate Westall provided backup vocals.


title: The Buggles

text: In 2013, Downes spoke of the chance of another reunion: "It's always a challenge working on new stuff, and I'd love to collaborate with Trevor again ... it's not impossibility, just a matter of making the planets align so that one day we can hopefully make it happen." In March 2015, Downes joined the Trevor Horn Band on stage at the Shepherd's Bush Empire to play "The Plastic Age" and "Video Killed the Radio Star". Horn and Downes reunited in the studio in early 2016 for more Buggles activity.


title: The Buggles

text: Many of the lyrics Trevor Horn wrote were inspired by sci-fi works by writers such as J. G. Ballard. According to Geoff Downes;


title: The Buggles

text: Downes claims to have used George Shearing's "technique of doubling melody lines in block chords (using the 5th note)... quite extensively on some of the Buggles' recordings".


title: The Buggles

text: Both of the Buggles' albums have received positive reception from music critics. The Trouser Press called both albums "technically stunning, reasonably catchy and crashingly hollow," while AllMusic's Jeri Montesano said that, compared to 1990s pop music, they "still sound fresh".


title: The Buggles

text: After leaving the Buggles, Downes joined his former Yes bandmate Steve Howe in forming the aforementioned supergroup Asia, together with John Wetton (formerly from King Crimson) and Carl Palmer (formerly from Emerson, Lake & Palmer), which made its name with the 1982 hit single "Heat of the Moment". Downes remains a member of Asia today, being the only member to have stayed with the group since its beginning. Parallel to Asia, he also worked on other projects, including several solo albums and production of acts such as GTR. In 2011, Downes rejoined Yes as their keyboardist, working once again alongside Horn on the album "Fly from Here" and accompanying tour.


title: The Buggles

text: Horn embarked on a highly successful career as a record producer, achieving success with the bands ABC, Dollar, Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Art of Noise, and even the albums "90125" and "Big Generator" from a re-formed Yes, with Jon Anderson back on vocals. In 1985, Horn won the Best Producer BRIT Award. More than twenty years on, he is still active, producing with Seal, Tina Turner, Paul McCartney, Tom Jones, Cher, Simple Minds, Belle and Sebastian, t.A.T.u., Charlotte Church, Captain, Pet Shop Boys and Robbie Williams among his many credits. He is currently working with his new band, the Producers, who released the album "Made in Basing Street" (2012).


title: The Buggles

text: Both Asia and Producers have played "Video Killed the Radio Star" as part of their live set in tribute to their members' origins in the Buggles.


title: The Buggles

text: In 2009, Horn produced the album "Reality Killed the Video Star" for British singer Robbie Williams. The album title pays homage to the trademark Buggles song, and Horn performed the song with Williams (Horn on bass and Williams on vocals) at the BBC Electric Proms on 20 October 2009.


title: The Buggles

text: Following 2010 discussions with Chris Squire, Horn produced the Yes album "Fly from Here" (2011), the bulk of whose forty-seven-minute duration comprises unused or incomplete Buggles material from the early 1980s (particularly "We Can Fly from Here"), reminiscent of the use of the Buggles' "I am a Camera" for "Into the Lens" on "Drama" during their first stint in 1980. He thus insisted that Downes play keyboards on the album (replacing Oliver Wakeman, son of Rick Wakeman) and Horn himself played and sang backing vocals on the album. The album's group photograph prominently features Horn standing centre, signifying that to all intents he was considered the sixth band member for the recording. "The Fly From Here" tour did not feature Horn.


title: The Buggles

text: In February 2017, Bruce Woolley and his band the Radio Science Orchestra, released a new, dark ambient version of "Video Killed the Radio Star" with singer Polly Scattergood on vocals. The single was released on Gramophone Records, along with a music video featuring musician and producer Thomas Dolby and Wolfgang Wild of "Retronaut" fame.


title: The Buggles

text: On 8 March 2017, Horn posted an announcement on his official Facebook page, linking to an article on theatre website "Broadway World" that Horn, Downes and Woolley were working together on a musical provisionally entitled "The Robot Sings". Based on "The Tempest" by William Shakespeare, and taking influence from sci-fi authors such as J. G. Ballard, Brian Aldiss and Isaac Asimov, the stage show will tell the story of a boy called Jay trying to save his robot companion. The musical will feature "Video Killed The Radio Star" as well as new compositions by Downes, and the script will be written by Jack Woolley.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: In mathematics, the infimum (abbreviated inf; plural infima) of a subset formula_1 of a partially ordered set formula_2 is a greatest element in formula_2 that is less than or equal to each element of formula_4 if such an element exists. Consequently, the term "greatest lower bound" (abbreviated as ) is also commonly used.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The supremum (abbreviated sup; plural suprema) of a subset formula_1 of a partially ordered set formula_2 is the least element in formula_2 that is greater than or equal to each element of formula_4 if such an element exists. Consequently, the supremum is also referred to as the "least upper bound" (or ).


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The infimum is in a precise sense dual to the concept of a supremum. Infima and suprema of real numbers are common special cases that are important in analysis, and especially in Lebesgue integration. However, the general definitions remain valid in the more abstract setting of order theory where arbitrary partially ordered sets are considered.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The concepts of infimum and supremum are close to minimum and maximum, but are more useful in analysis because they better characterize special sets which may have . For instance, the set of positive real numbers formula_9 (not including formula_10) does not have a minimum, because any given element of formula_9 could simply be divided in half resulting in a smaller number that is still in formula_12 There is, however, exactly one infimum of the positive real numbers relative to the real numbers: formula_13 which is smaller than all the positive real numbers and greater than any other real number which could be used as a lower bound. An infimum of a set is always and only defined relative to a superset of the set in question. For example, there is no infimum of the positive real numbers inside the positive real numbers (as their own superset), nor any infimum of the positive real numbers inside the complex numbers with positive real part.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: A of a subset formula_1 of a partially ordered set formula_15 is an element formula_16 of formula_2 such that


title: Infimum and supremum

text: Similarly, an of a subset formula_1 of a partially ordered set formula_15 is an element formula_30 of formula_2 such that


title: Infimum and supremum

text: Infima and suprema do not necessarily exist. Existence of an infimum of a subset formula_1 of formula_2 can fail if formula_1 has no lower bound at all, or if the set of lower bounds does not contain a greatest element. However, if an infimum or supremum does exist, it is unique.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: Consequently, partially ordered sets for which certain infima are known to exist become especially interesting. For instance, a lattice is a partially ordered set in which all subsets have both a supremum and an infimum, and a complete lattice is a partially ordered set in which subsets have both a supremum and an infimum. More information on the various classes of partially ordered sets that arise from such considerations are found in the article on completeness properties.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: If the supremum of a subset formula_1 exists, it is unique. If formula_1 contains a greatest element, then that element is the supremum; otherwise, the supremum does not belong to formula_1 (or does not exist). Likewise, if the infimum exists, it is unique. If formula_1 contains a least element, then that element is the infimum; otherwise, the infimum does not belong to formula_1 (or does not exist).


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The infimum of a subset formula_1 of a partially ordered set formula_25 assuming it exists, does not necessarily belong to formula_52 If it does, it is a minimum or least element of formula_52 Similarly, if the supremum of formula_1 belongs to formula_4 it is a maximum or greatest element of formula_52


title: Infimum and supremum

text: For example, consider the set of negative real numbers (excluding zero). This set has no greatest element, since for every element of the set, there is another, larger, element. For instance, for any negative real number formula_57 there is another negative real number formula_58 which is greater. On the other hand, every real number greater than or equal to zero is certainly an upper bound on this set. Hence, formula_10 is the least upper bound of the negative reals, so the supremum is 0. This set has a supremum but no greatest element.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: However, the definition of maximal and minimal elements is more general. In particular, a set can have many maximal and minimal elements, whereas infima and suprema are unique.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: Whereas maxima and minima must be members of the subset that is under consideration, the infimum and supremum of a subset need not be members of that subset themselves.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: Finally, a partially ordered set may have many minimal upper bounds without having a least upper bound. Minimal upper bounds are those upper bounds for which there is no strictly smaller element that also is an upper bound. This does not say that each minimal upper bound is smaller than all other upper bounds, it merely is not greater. The distinction between "minimal" and "least" is only possible when the given order is not a total one. In a totally ordered set, like the real numbers, the concepts are the same.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: As an example, let formula_1 be the set of all finite subsets of natural numbers and consider the partially ordered set obtained by taking all sets from formula_1 together with the set of integers formula_62 and the set of positive real numbers formula_63 ordered by subset inclusion as above. Then clearly both formula_62 and formula_9 are greater than all finite sets of natural numbers. Yet, neither is formula_9 smaller than formula_62 nor is the converse true: both sets are minimal upper bounds but none is a supremum.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The is an example of the aforementioned completeness properties which is typical for the set of real numbers. This property is sometimes called .


title: Infimum and supremum

text: If an ordered set formula_1 has the property that every nonempty subset of formula_1 having an upper bound also has a least upper bound, then formula_1 is said to have the least-upper-bound property. As noted above, the set formula_71 of all real numbers has the least-upper-bound property. Similarly, the set formula_62 of integers has the least-upper-bound property; if formula_1 is a nonempty subset of formula_62 and there is some number formula_75 such that every element formula_76 of formula_1 is less than or equal to formula_78 then there is a least upper bound formula_79 for formula_4 an integer that is an upper bound for formula_1 and is less than or equal to every other upper bound for formula_52 A well-ordered set also has the least-upper-bound property, and the empty subset has also a least upper bound: the minimum of the whole set.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: An example of a set that the least-upper-bound property is formula_83 the set of rational numbers. Let formula_1 be the set of all rational numbers formula_85 such that formula_86 Then formula_1 has an upper bound (formula_88 for example, or formula_89) but no least upper bound in formula_90: If we suppose formula_91 is the least upper bound, a contradiction is immediately deduced because between any two reals formula_92 and formula_23 (including formula_94 and formula_95) there exists some rational formula_96 which itself would have to be the least upper bound (if formula_97) or a member of formula_1 greater than formula_95 (if formula_100). Another example is the hyperreals; there is no least upper bound of the set of positive infinitesimals.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: There is a corresponding ; an ordered set possesses the greatest-lower-bound property if and only if it also possesses the least-upper-bound property; the least-upper-bound of the set of lower bounds of a set is the greatest-lower-bound, and the greatest-lower-bound of the set of upper bounds of a set is the least-upper-bound of the set.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: If in a partially ordered set formula_2 every bounded subset has a supremum, this applies also, for any set formula_102 in the function space containing all functions from formula_103 to formula_25 where formula_105 if and only if formula_106 for all formula_107 For example, it applies for real functions, and, since these can be considered special cases of functions, for real formula_75-tuples and sequences of real numbers.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: In analysis, infima and suprema of subsets formula_1 of the real numbers are particularly important. For instance, the negative real numbers do not have a greatest element, and their supremum is formula_10 (which is not a negative real number).


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The completeness of the real numbers implies (and is equivalent to) that any bounded nonempty subset formula_1 of the real numbers has an infimum and a supremum. If formula_1 is not bounded below, one often formally writes formula_113 If formula_1 is empty, one writes formula_115


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The following formulas depend on a notation that conveniently generalizes arithmetic operations on sets: Let the sets formula_116 and scalar formula_117 Define


title: Infimum and supremum

text: In those cases where the infima and suprema of the sets formula_123 and formula_124 exist, the following identities hold:


title: Infimum and supremum

text: If one denotes by formula_176 the partially-ordered set formula_2 with the opposite order relation; that is, for all formula_178 declare:


title: Infimum and supremum

text: then infimum of a subset formula_1 in formula_2 equals the supremum of formula_1 in formula_176 and vice versa.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: In the last example, the supremum of a set of rationals is irrational, which means that the rationals are incomplete.


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The supremum of a subset formula_1 of formula_207 where formula_208 denotes "divides", is the lowest common multiple of the elements of formula_52


title: Infimum and supremum

text: The supremum of a set formula_1 containing subsets of some set formula_103 is the union of the subsets when considering the partially ordered set formula_212, where formula_2 is the power set of formula_103 and formula_215 is subset.


title: Personal development

text: Personal development or self improvement consists of activities that develop a person's capabilities and potential, build human capital, facilitate employability, and enhance quality of life and the realization of dreams and aspirations. Personal development may take place over the course of an individual's entire lifespan and is not limited to one stage of a person's life. It can include official and informal actions for developing others in roles such as teacher, guide, counselor, manager, coach, or mentor, and it is not restricted to self-help. When personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems offered to support positive adult development at the individual level in organizations.


title: Personal development

text: Personal development can also include developing other people's skills and personalities. This can happen through roles such as those of a teacher or mentor, either through a personal competency (such as the alleged skill of certain managers in developing the potential of employees) or through a professional service (such as providing training, assessment, or coaching).


title: Personal development

text: Beyond improving oneself and developing others, "personal development" labels a field of practice and research:


title: Personal development

text: Any sort of development—whether economic, political, biological, organizational or personal—requires a framework if one wishes to know whether a change has actually occurred. In the case of personal development, an individual often functions as the primary judge of improvement or of regression, but the validation of objective improvement requires assessment using standard criteria.


title: Personal development

text: Personal development as an industry has several business-relationship formats of operating. The main ways are business-to-consumer and business-to-business. However, there have been two new ways emerge: consumer-to-business and consumer-to-consumer. The personal development market had a global market size of 38.28 billion dollars in 2019.


title: Personal development

text: The business-to-consumer market involves selling books, courses and techniques to individuals, such as:


title: Personal development

text: Some programs deliver their content online. Many include tools sold with a program, such as motivational books for self-help, recipes for weight-loss or technical manuals for yoga, and martial-arts programs.


title: Personal development

text: Some consulting firms such as DDI and FranklinCovey specialize in personal development, but generalist firms operating in the fields of human resources, recruitment and organizational strategy—such as Hewitt, Watson Wyatt Worldwide, Hay Group, McKinsey, Boston Consulting Group, and Korn/Ferry—have entered what they perceive as a growing market, not to mention smaller firms and self-employed professionals who provide consulting, training and coaching.


title: Personal development

text: Major religions—such as the age-old Abrahamic and Indian religions—as well as 20th-century New Age philosophies have variously used practices such as prayer, music, dance, singing, chanting, poetry, writing, sports and martial arts.


title: Personal development

text: Michel Foucault describes in "Care of the Self" the techniques of "epimelia" used in ancient Greece and Rome, which included dieting, exercise, sexual abstinence, contemplation, prayer, and confession—some of which also became practices within different branches of Christianity.


title: Personal development

text: Wushu and T'ai chi ch'uan utilize traditional Chinese techniques, including breathing and energy exercises, meditation, martial arts, as well as practices linked to traditional Chinese medicine, such as dieting, massage, and acupuncture.


title: Personal development

text: Two individual ancient philosophical traditions: those of Aristotle (Western tradition) and Confucius (Eastern tradition) stand out and contribute to the worldwide view of "personal development" in the 21st century. Elsewhere anonymous or named founders of schools of self-development appear endemic—note the traditions of the Indian sub-continent in this regard.


title: Personal development

text: Paul Oliver suggests that the popularity of Indian traditions for a personal developer may lie in their relative lack of prescriptive doctrine.


title: Personal development

text: Khurram Murad describes that personal development in Islam is to work towards eternal life in paradise. Paradise is the ultimate goal of life. Allah has provided ways to help those striving towards eternal life, including staying away from things of the world. These worldly things can distract those away from the path to paradise. In the end, paradise will bring satisfaction to those who are working on their personal development because of the pleasure that comes from Allah.


title: Personal development

text: The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BCE322 BCE) wrote "Nicomachean Ethics", in which he defined personal development as a category of phronesis or practical wisdom, where the practice of virtues ("arête") leads to "eudaimonia", commonly translated as "happiness" but more accurately understood as "human flourishing" or "living well". Aristotle continues to influence the Western concept of personal development , particularly in the economics of human development and in positive psychology.


title: Personal development

text: In Chinese tradition, Confucius (around 551 BCE479 BCE) founded an ongoing philosophy. His ideas continue to influence family values, education and personnel management in China and East Asia. In his "Great Learning" Confucius wrote:


title: Personal development

text: Psychology became linked to personal development in the early 20th century starting with the research efforts of Alfred Adler (1870–1937) and Carl Jung (1875–1961).


title: Personal development

text: Adler refused to limit psychology to analysis alone. He made the important point that aspirations focus on looking forward and do not limit themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood experiences. He also originated the concepts of lifestyle (1929—he defined "lifestyle" as an individual's characteristic approach to life, in facing problems) and of self-image, as a concept that influenced management under the heading of work-life balance, also known as the equilibrium between a person's career and personal life.


title: Personal development

text: Carl Gustav Jung made contributions to personal development with his concept of individuation, which he saw as the drive of the individual to achieve the wholeness and balance of the Self.


title: Personal development

text: Daniel Levinson (1920–1994) developed Jung's early concept of "life stages" and included a sociological perspective. Levinson proposed that personal development comes under the influence—throughout life—of aspirations, which he called "the Dream":


title: Personal development

text: Research on success in reaching goals, as undertaken by Albert Bandura (1925–2021), suggested that self-efficacy best explains why people with the same level of knowledge and skills get very different results. Having self-efficacy leads to an increased likelihood of success. According to Bandura self-confidence functions as a powerful predictor of success because:


title: Personal development

text: In 1998 Martin Seligman won election to a one-year term as President of the American Psychological Association and proposed a new focus: on healthy individuals rather than on pathology (he created the "positive psychology" current)


title: Personal development

text: Social psychology heavily emphasizes and focuses on human behavior and how individuals interact with others in society. Infants develop socially by creating trusting and dependent relationships with others—namely parental figures. They learn how to act and treat other people based on the example of parental figures and other adults they interact with often. Toddlers further develop social skills. Additionally, they begin to gain a desire for autonomy and grow more and more independent as they grow older. The balance of social involvement and autonomy varies per person, but normally autonomous behavior increases with age. Some studies suggest that selfishness begins to diminish, and prosocial behaviors increase, between the ages of six years old to twelve years old. Additionally, the years of adulthood are times of development—self-actualization, relational and occupational development, loss, and coping skills development, etc.—affected by those around us: parents, co-workers, romantic partners, and children. Social psychology draws from many other psychological theories and principles yet views them through a lens of social interaction.


title: Personal development

text: The psychodynamic view of personal development varies from other perspectives. Namely, that the development of our traits, personalities, and thinking patterns are predominantly subconscious. Psychodynamic theory suggests these subconscious changes—which emerge as external actions—are formed from suppressed sexual and aggressive urges and other internalized conflicts. Sigmund Freud and other notable psychodynamic theorists postulate that these repressed cognitions form during childhood and adolescence. Conscious development would then be "digging up" these repressed memories and feelings. Once repressed memories and emotions are discovered, an individual can sift through them and receive healthy closure. Much, if not all, of conscious development occurs with the aid of a trained psychodynamic therapist.


title: Personal development

text: Cognitive-behavioral views on personal development follow traditional patterns of personal development: behavior modification, cognitive reframing, and successive approximation being some of the more notable techniques. An individual is seen as in control of their actions and their thoughts, though self-mastery is required. With behavior modification, individuals will develop personal skills and traits by altering their behavior independent of their emotions. For example, a person may feel intense anger but would still behave in a positive manner. They are able to suppress their emotions and act in a more socially acceptable way. The accumulation of these efforts would change the person into a more patient individual. Cognitive reframing plays an instrumental role in personal development. Cognitive-behavioral psychologists believe that how we view events is more important than the event itself. Thus, if one can view negative events in beneficial ways, they can progress and develop with fewer setbacks. Successive approximation—or shaping—most closely aligns with personal development. Successive approximation is when one desires a final result but takes incremental steps to achieve the result. Normally, each successful step towards the final goal is rewarded until the goal is achieved. Personal development, if it is to be long-lasting, is achieved incrementally.


title: Personal development

text: Educational psychology focuses on the human learning experience: learning and teaching methods, aptitude testing, and so on. Educational psychology seeks to further personal development by increasing one's ability to learn, retain information, and apply knowledge to real-world experiences. If one is able to increase efficacious learning, they are better equipped for personal development.


title: Personal development

text: Education offers children the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development. Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development. If early education fails to meet these qualifications, it can greatly stunt development in children, hindering their success in education as well as society. They can fall behind in development compared to peers of the same age group.


title: Personal development

text: During the 1960s a large increase in the number of students on American campuses led to research on the personal development needs of undergraduate students. Arthur Chickering defined seven vectors of personal development for young adults during their undergraduate years:


title: Personal development

text: In the UK, personal development took a central place in university policy in 1997 when the Dearing Report declared that universities should go beyond academic teaching to provide students with personal development. In 2001 a Quality Assessment Agency for UK universities produced guidelines for universities to enhance personal development as:


title: Personal development

text: In the 1990s, business schools began to set up specific personal-development programs for leadership and career orientation and in 1998 the European Foundation for Management Development set up the EQUIS accreditation system which specified that personal development must form part of the learning process through internships, working on team projects and going abroad for work or exchange programs.


title: Personal development

text: The first personal development certification required for business school graduation originated in 2002 as a partnership between Metizo, a personal-development consulting firm, and the Euromed Management School in Marseilles: students must not only complete assignments but also demonstrate self-awareness and achievement of personal-development competencies.


title: Personal development

text: As an academic department, personal development as a specific discipline is often associated with business schools. As an area of research, personal development draws on links to other academic disciplines:


title: Personal development

text: Personal Development can include gaining self-awareness of the course of one’s lifespan. It includes multiple definitions but is different from self knowledge. Self-awareness is more in depth and explores the conscious and unconscious aspects of ourselves. We are able to gain self-awareness through socializing and communicating according to the social behaviorism view. Self-awareness can also be a positive intrapersonal experience where one is able to reflect during a moment of action or past actions. Becoming more self aware can help us to increase our emotional intelligence, leadership skills, and performance.


title: Personal development

text: Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), proposed a hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top, defined as "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming". In other words, self actualization is the ambition to become a better version of oneself, to become everything one is capable of being.


title: Personal development

text: Since Maslow himself believed that only a small minority of people self-actualize—he estimated one percent—his hierarchy of needs had the consequence that organizations came to regard self-actualization or personal development as occurring at the top of the organizational pyramid, while openness and job security in the workplace would fulfill the needs of the mass of employees.


title: Personal development

text: As organizations and labor markets became more global, responsibility for development shifted from the company to the individual. In 1999 management thinker Peter Drucker wrote in the "Harvard Business Review":


title: Personal development

text: Management professors Sumantra Ghoshal of the London Business School and Christopher Bartlett of the Harvard Business School wrote in 1997 that companies must manage people individually and establish a new work contract. On the one hand, the company must allegedly recognize that personal development creates economic value: "market performance flows not from the omnipotent wisdom of top managers but from the initiative, creativity and skills of all employees". On the other hand, employees should recognize that their work includes personal development and "embrace the invigorating force of continuous learning and personal development".


title: Personal development

text: The 1997 publication of Ghoshal's and Bartlett's "Individualized Corporation" corresponded to a change in career development from a system of predefined paths defined by companies, to a strategy defined by the individual and matched to the needs of organizations in an open landscape of possibilities. Another contribution to the study of career development came with the recognition that women's careers show specific personal needs and different development paths from men. The 2007 study of women's careers by Sylvia Ann Hewlett "Off-Ramps and On-Ramps" had a major impact on the way companies view careers. Further work on the career as a personal development process came from study by Herminia Ibarra in her "Working Identity" on the relationship with career change and identity change, indicating that priorities of work and lifestyle continually develop through life.


title: Personal development

text: Personal development programs in companies fall into two categories: the provision of employee benefits and the fostering of development strategies.


title: Personal development

text: Employee surveys may help organizations find out personal-development needs, preferences and problems, and they use the results to design benefits programs. Typical programs in this category include:


title: Personal development

text: As an investment, personal development programs have the goal of increasing human capital or improving productivity, innovation or quality. Proponents actually see such programs not as a cost but as an investment with results linked to an organization's strategic development goals. Employees gain access to these investment-oriented programs by selection according to the value and future potential of the employee, usually defined in a talent management architecture including populations such as new hires, perceived high-potential employees, perceived key employees, sales staff, research staff and perceived future leaders. Organizations may also offer other (non-investment-oriented) programs to many or even all employees. Personal development also forms an element in management tools such as personal development planning, assessing one's level of ability using a competency grid, or getting feedback from a 360 questionnaire filled in by colleagues at different levels in the organization.


title: Personal development

text: A common criticism surrounding personal development programs is that they are often treated as an arbitrary performance management tool to pay lip service to, but ultimately ignored. As such, many companies have decided to replace personal development programs with SMART Personal Development Objectives, which are regularly reviewed and updated. Personal Development Objectives help employees achieve career goals and improve overall performance.


title: Personal development

text: Scholars have targeted self-help claims as misleading and incorrect. In 2005, Steve Salerno portrayed the American self-help movement—he uses the acronym "SHAM": the "Self-Help and Actualization Movement"—not only as ineffective in achieving its goals but also as socially harmful, and that self-help customers keep investing more money in these services regardless of their effectiveness. Others similarly point out that with self-help books "supply increases the demand ... The more people read them, the more they think they need them ... more like an addiction than an alliance".


title: Personal development

text: Self-help writers have been described as working "in the area of the ideological, the imagined, the narrativized. ... although a veneer of scientism permeates the[ir] work, there is also an underlying armature of moralizing".


title: William Guarnere

text: William J. Guarnere Sr. (April 28, 1923 – March 8, 2014) was a United States Army paratrooper who fought in World War II as a non-commissioned officer with Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, in the 101st Airborne Division.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere wrote "Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story" with long-time friend Edward "Babe" Heffron and journalist Robyn Post in 2007. Guarnere was portrayed in the 2001 HBO miniseries "Band of Brothers" by Frank John Hughes.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere was born in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on April 28, 1923. He was the youngest of 10 children born to Joseph and Augusta Guarnere, who were of Italian origin. He joined the Citizens Military Training Camp (CMTC) program during the Great Depression, gaining entrance at age 15 because his mother told the government her son was two years older. He spent three summers in the CMTC, which took four years to complete. His plan was to complete training and become an officer in the United States Army. After his third year, however, the program was canceled due to the war in Europe.


title: William Guarnere

text: Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, and six months before graduation, Guarnere left South Philadelphia High School and went to work for Baldwin Locomotive Works, making Sherman tanks for the army. This upset his mother, because none of her other children had graduated from high school. Guarnere switched to the night shift and returned to school, earning his diploma in 1942. Because of his work, he had an exemption from military service. However, on 31 August 1942, Guarnere enlisted in the military and started training at Camp Toccoa, Georgia.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere was assigned to Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division. He made his first combat jump on D-Day as part of the Allied invasion of France.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere earned the nickname "Wild Bill" because of his reckless attitude towards the enemy. He displayed strong hatred for the Germans as his older brother Henry Guarnere had been killed fighting in the Italian campaign at Monte Cassino.


title: William Guarnere

text: In the early hours of June 6, Guarnere joined lieutenant Richard Winters and a few others trying to secure the small village of Sainte-Marie-du-Mont and the exit of causeway number 2 leading from the beach. As they headed south, they heard a German platoon coming to bring supplies and took up ambush positions. Winters told the men to wait for his order to fire, but Guarnere, claiming he thought Winters might be hesitant to kill, opened fire immediately with his Thompson submachine gun, killing most of the unit.


title: William Guarnere

text: Later that morning, Guarnere also joined Winters in assaulting a group of four 105mm howitzers at Brécourt Manor. Winters named Guarnere as 2nd platoon's sergeant as the 13 paratroopers came up against about 50 German soldiers. The attack was later used as an example of how a small squad could attack a vastly larger force in a defensive position.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere was wounded in mid-October 1944, while Easy Company was securing the line on "The Island" on the south side of the Rhine River. He had to go up and down the line to check on and encourage his men, who were spread out over a distance of about a mile. He stole a motorcycle from a Dutch farmer and rode it across an open field, where he was shot in the right leg by a sniper. The impact knocked him off the motorcycle, fractured his right tibia, and lodged some shrapnel in his right buttock. He was sent back to England on October 17, 1944.


title: William Guarnere

text: While recovering from injuries, Guarnere did not want to be assigned to another unit, so he put black shoe polish all over his cast, put his pants leg over the cast, and walked out of the hospital in severe pain. He was caught by an officer, court-martialed, demoted to private, and returned to the hospital. He told them he would just go AWOL again to rejoin Easy Company. The hospital kept him a week longer and then transferred him back to his unit. Guarnere arrived at Mourmelon-le-Grand, just outside Reims, where the 101st was on R&R (rest and recuperation), about December 10, 1944, just before the company was sent to the Battle of the Bulge in Belgium, on December 16. Because the paperwork did not arrive from England about his court-martial and demotion, he was reinstated in his same position.


title: William Guarnere

text: While holding the line, just up the hill southwest of Foy, a massive artillery barrage hit Easy Company in their position. Guarnere lost his right leg in the incoming barrage, while trying to drag his friend Joe Toye (who had also lost his right leg) to safety. This injury ended Guarnere's participation in the war.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere received the Silver Star for combat during the Brecourt Manor Assault on D-Day, and was later decorated with three Bronze Star Medals and two Purple Hearts, making him one of only two Easy Company members (the other being Lynn Compton) to be awarded the Silver Star during the war while a member of Easy Company.


title: William Guarnere

text: In his autobiography, "Beyond Band of Brothers: Memoirs of Major Richard Winters", Richard Winters referred to Guarnere as a "natural killer."


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere returned to the United States in March 1945 and took on many odd jobs. He wore an artificial right leg until he was able to secure full disability from the Army, then threw away the limb, using only crutches thereafter, and retired.


title: William Guarnere

text: He became an active member of many veterans organizations, and presided over many Easy Company reunions.


title: William Guarnere

text: After returning home from Europe, Guarnere married his girlfriend Frances Peca (d. 1997) and had two sons, Eugene and William Jr. Eugene would follow in his father's footsteps and briefly served in Vietnam. At the time of his death, Guarnere had nine grandchildren and fourteen great-grandchildren.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere wrote "Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story" with his best friend Edward "Babe" Heffron and Robyn Post, outlining Easy Company's experiences. The book was published by Berkley Publishing Group, Penguin Books, in 2007. Guarnere also wrote a short piece for "Silver Eagle: the official biography of Band of Brothers veteran Clancy Lyall", which was used as the afterword. British publisher Pneuma Springs Publishing released the book in March 2013.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere and Heffron remained lifelong friends after returning home. Guarnere was Heffron's best man at the latter's wedding in 1954. He was also the godfather to Heffron's daughter Patricia.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere died of a ruptured aneurysm at Jefferson University Hospital, Philadelphia on 8 March 2014. He was 90 years old. He is survived by his two sons, nine grandchildren and fourteen great-grandchildren.


title: William Guarnere

text: Guarnere was honored by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania with a half-staff flag order by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett to celebrate his life and military service.


title: William Guarnere

text: Following his death, Wild Bill's granddaughter formed the Wild Bill Guarnere Memorial Fund to continue Bill's tradition of giving back to Veterans. September 19, 2015, the Fund presented an 8' Bronze Statue of Wild Bill Guarnere, by sculptor Chad Fisher, to the Delaware County Veterans Memorial.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids are fish from the family Cichlidae in the order Cichliformes. Cichlids were traditionally classed in a suborder, the Labroidei, along with the wrasses (Labridae), in the order Perciformes, but molecular studies have contradicted this grouping. The closest living relative of cichlids is probably the convict blenny, and both families are classified in the 5th edition of "Fishes of the World" as the two families in the Cichliformes, part of the subseries Ovalentaria. This family is both large and diverse. At least 1,650 species have been scientifically described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families. New species are discovered annually, and many species remain undescribed. The actual number of species is therefore unknown, with estimates varying between 2,000 and 3,000.


title: Cichlid

text: Many cichlids, particularly tilapia, are important food fishes, while others, such as the "Cichla" species, are valued game fish. The family also includes many popular freshwater aquarium fish kept by hobbyists, including the angelfish, oscars, and discus. Cichlids have the largest number of endangered species among vertebrate families, most in the haplochromine group. Cichlids are particularly well known for having evolved rapidly into many closely related but morphologically diverse species within large lakes, particularly Lakes Tanganyika, Victoria, Malawi, and Edward. Their diversity in the African Great Lakes is important for the study of speciation in evolution. Many cichlids introduced into waters outside of their natural range have become nuisances.


title: Cichlid

text: All cichlids practice some form of parental care for their eggs and fry, usually in the form of guarding the eggs and fry or mouthbrooding.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids span a wide range of body sizes, from species as small as in length (e.g., female "Neolamprologus multifasciatus") to much larger species approaching in length ("Boulengerochromis" and "Cichla"). As a group, cichlids exhibit a similar diversity of body shapes, ranging from strongly laterally compressed species (such as "Altolamprologus", "Pterophyllum", and "Symphysodon") to species that are cylindrical and highly elongated (such as "Julidochromis", "Teleogramma", "Teleocichla", "Crenicichla", and "Gobiocichla"). Generally, however, cichlids tend to be of medium size, ovate in shape, and slightly laterally compressed, and generally similar to the North American sunfishes in morphology, behavior, and ecology.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids share a single key trait - the fusion of the lower pharyngeal bones into a single tooth-bearing structure. A complex set of muscles allows the upper and lower pharyngeal bones to be used as a second set of jaws for processing food, allowing a division of labor between the "true jaws" (mandibles) and the "pharyngeal jaws". Cichlids are efficient and often highly specialized feeders that capture and process a very wide variety of food items. This is assumed to be one reason why they are so diverse.


title: Cichlid

text: Kullander (1998) recognizes eight subfamilies of cichlids: the Astronotinae, Cichlasomatinae, Cichlinae, Etroplinae, Geophaginae, Heterochromidinae, Pseudocrenilabrinae, and Retroculinae. A ninth subfamily, the Ptychochrominae, was later recognized by Sparks and Smith. Cichlid taxonomy is still debated, and classification of genera cannot yet be definitively given. A comprehensive system of assigning species to monophyletic genera is still lacking, and there is not complete agreement on what genera should be recognized in this family.


title: Cichlid

text: As an example of the classification problems, Kullander placed the African genus "Heterochromis" phylogenetically within Neotropical cichlids, although later papers concluded otherwise. Other problems center upon the identity of the putative common ancestor for the Lake Victoria superflock (many closely related species sharing a single habitat), and the ancestral lineages of Lake Tanganyikan cichlids.


title: Cichlid

text: Comparisons between a morphologically based phylogeny and analyses of gene loci produce differences at the genus level. A consensus remains that the Cichlidae as a family are monophyletic.


title: Cichlid

text: In cichlid taxonomy, dentition was formerly used as a classifying characteristic, but this was complicated because in many cichlids, tooth shapes change with age, due to wear, and cannot be relied upon. Genome sequencing and other technologies transformed cichlid taxonomy.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids are one of the largest vertebrate families in the world. They are most diverse in Africa and South America. Africa alone is host to at least an estimated 1,600 species. Central America and Mexico have about 120 species, as far north as the Rio Grande in South Texas. Madagascar has its own distinctive species ("Katria", "Oxylapia", "Paratilapia", "Paretroplus", "Ptychochromis", and "Ptychochromoides"), only distantly related to those on the African mainland. Native cichlids are largely absent in Asia, except for 9 species in Israel, Lebanon, and Syria ("Astatotilapia flaviijosephi", "Oreochromis aureus", "O. niloticus", "Sarotherodon galilaeus", "Coptodon zillii", and "Tristramella" spp.), two in Iran ("Iranocichla"), and three in India and Sri Lanka ("Etroplus" and "Pseudetroplus"). If disregarding Trinidad and Tobago (where the few native cichlids are members of genera that are widespread in the South American mainland), the three species from the genus "Nandopsis" are the only cichlids from the Antilles in the Caribbean, specifically Cuba and Hispaniola. Europe, Australia, Antarctica, and North America north of the Rio Grande drainage have no native cichlids, although in Florida, Hawaii, Japan, northern Australia, and elsewhere, feral populations of cichlids have become established as exotics.


title: Cichlid

text: Although most cichlids are found at relatively shallow depths, several exceptions do exist. The deepest known occurrences are "Trematocara" at more than below the surface in Lake Tanganyika. Others found in relatively deep waters include species such as "Alticorpus macrocleithrum" and "Pallidochromis tokolosh" down to below the surface in Lake Malawi, and the whitish (nonpigmented) and blind "Lamprologus lethops", which is believed to live as deep as below the surface in the Congo River.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids are less commonly found in brackish and saltwater habitats, though many species tolerate brackish water for extended periods; "Mayaheros urophthalmus", for example, is equally at home in freshwater marshes and mangrove swamps, and lives and breeds in saltwater environments such as the mangrove belts around barrier islands. Several species of "Tilapia", "Sarotherodon", and "Oreochromis" are euryhaline and can disperse along brackish coastlines between rivers. Only a few cichlids, however, inhabit primarily brackish or salt water, most notably "Etroplus maculatus", "Etroplus suratensis", and "Sarotherodon melanotheron". The perhaps most extreme habitats for cichlids are the warm hypersaline lakes where the members of the genera "Alcolapia" and "Danakilia" are found. Lake Abaeded in Eritrea encompasses the entire distribution of "D. dinicolai", and its temperature ranges from .


title: Cichlid

text: With the exception of the species from Cuba, Hispaniola, and Madagascar, cichlids have not reached any oceanic island and have a predominantly Gondwanan distribution, showing the precise sister relationships predicted by vicariance: Africa-South America and India-Madagascar. The dispersal hypothesis, in contrast, requires cichlids to have negotiated thousands of kilometers of open ocean between India and Madagascar without colonizing any other island, or for that matter, crossing the Mozambique Channel to Africa. Although the vast majority of Malagasy cichlids are entirely restricted to fresh water, "Ptychochromis grandidieri" and "Paretroplus polyactis" are commonly found in coastal brackish water and are apparently salt tolerant, as is also the case for "Etroplus maculatus" and "E. suratensis" from India and Sri Lanka.


title: Cichlid

text: Within the cichlid family, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, planktivores, and detritivores are known, meaning the Cichlidae encompass essentially the full range of food consumption possible in the animal kingdom. Various species have morphological adaptations for specific food sources, but most cichlids consume a wider variety of foods based on availability.


title: Cichlid

text: Carnivorous cichlids can be further divided into piscivorous and molluscivorous, since the morphology and hunting behavior differ greatly between the two categories. Piscivorous cichlids eat other fish, fry, larvae, and eggs. Some species eat the offspring of mouthbrooders by head-ramming, wherein the hunter shoves its head into the mouth of a female to expel her young and eat them. Molluscivorous cichlids have several hunting strategies amongst the varieties within the group. Lake Malawi cichlids consume substrate and filter it out through their gill rakers to eat the mollusks that were in the substrate. Gill rakers are finger-like structures that line the gills of some fish to catch any food that might escape through their gills.


title: Cichlid

text: Many cichlids are primarily herbivores, feeding on algae (e.g. "Petrochromis") and plants (e.g. "Etroplus suratensis"). Small animals, particularly invertebrates, are only a minor part of their diets.


title: Cichlid

text: Other cichlids are detritivores and eat organic material, called "Aufwuchs" (offal); among these species are the tilapiines of the genera "Oreochromis", "Sarotherodon", and "Tilapia".


title: Cichlid

text: Other cichlids are predatory and eat little or no plant matter. These include generalists that catch a variety of small animals, including other fishes and insect larvae (e.g. "Pterophyllum"), as well as variety of specialists. "Trematocranus" is a specialized snail-eater, while "Pungu maclareni" feeds on sponges. A number of cichlids feed on other fish, either entirely or in part. "Crenicichla" species are stealth predators that lunge from concealment at passing small fish, while "Rhamphochromis" species are open-water pursuit predators that chase down their prey. Paedophagous cichlids such as the "Caprichromis" species eat other species' eggs or young, in some cases ramming the heads of mouthbrooding species to force them to disgorge their young. Among the more unusual feeding strategies are those of "Corematodus", "Docimodus evelynae", "Plecodus", "Perissodus", and "Genyochromis" spp., which feed on scales and fins of other fishes, a behavior known as lepidophagy, along with the death-mimicking behaviour of "Nimbochromis" and "Parachromis" species, which lay motionless, luring small fish to their side prior to ambush.


title: Cichlid

text: This variety of feeding styles has helped cichlids to inhabit similarly varied habitats. Its pharyngeal teeth (in the throat) afford cichlids so many "niche" feeding strategies, because the jaws pick and hold food, while the pharyngeal teeth crush the prey.


title: Cichlid

text: Aggressive behavior in cichlids is ritualized and consists of multiple displays used to seek confrontation while being involved in evaluation of competitors, coinciding with temporal proximity to mating. Displays of ritualized aggression in cichlids include a remarkably rapid change in coloration, during which a successfully dominant territorial male assumes a more vivid and brighter coloration, while a subordinate or "nonterritorial" male assumes a dull-pale coloration. In addition to color displays, cichlids employ their lateral lines to sense movements of water around their opponents to evaluate the competing male for physical traits/fitness. Male cichlids are very territorial due to the pressure of reproduction, and establish their territory and social status by physically driving out challenging males (novel intruders) through lateral displays (parallel orientation, uncovering gills), biting, or mouth fights (head-on collisions of open mouths, measuring jaw sizes, and biting each other's jaws). The cichlid social dichotomy is composed of a single dominant with multiple subordinates, where the physical aggression of males becomes a contest for resources (mates, territory, food). Female cichlids prefer to mate with a successfully alpha male with vivid coloration, whose territory has food readily available.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids mate either monogamously or polygamously. The mating system of a given cichlid species is not consistently associated with its brooding system. For example, although most monogamous cichlids are not mouthbrooders, "Chromidotilapia", "Gymnogeophagus", "Spathodus", and "Tanganicodus" all include – or consist entirely of – monogamous mouthbrooders. In contrast, numerous open- or cave-spawning cichlids are polygamous; examples include many "Apistogramma", "Lamprologus", "Nannacara", and "Pelvicachromis" species.


title: Cichlid

text: Most adult male cichlids, specifically in the cichlid tribe Haplochromini, exhibit a unique pattern of oval-shaped color dots on their anal fins. These phenomena, known as egg spots, aid in the mouthbrooding mechanisms of cichlids. The egg spots consist of carotenoid-based pigment cells, which indicate a high cost to the organism, when considering that fish are not able to synthesize their own carotenoids.


title: Cichlid

text: The mimicry of egg spots is used by males for the fertilization process. Mouthbrooding females lay eggs and immediately snatch them up with their mouths. Over millions of years, male cichlids have evolved egg spots to initiate the fertilization process more efficiently. When the females are snatching up the eggs into their mouth, the males gyrate their anal fins, which illuminates the egg spots on his tail. Afterwards, the female, believing these are her eggs, places her mouth to the anal fin (specifically the genital papilla) of the male, which is when he discharges sperm into her mouth and fertilizes the eggs.


title: Cichlid

text: The genuine color of egg spots is a yellow, red, or orange inner circle with a colorless ring surrounding the shape. Through phylogenetic analysis, using the mitochondrial "ND2" gene, the true egg spots are thought to have evolved in the common ancestor of the "Astatoreochromis" lineage and the modern "Haplochrominis" species. This ancestor was most likely riverine in origin, based on the most parsimonious representation of habitat type in the cichlid family. The presence of egg spots in a turbid riverine environment would seem particularly beneficial and necessary for intraspecies communication.


title: Cichlid

text: Two pigmentation genes are found to be associated with egg-spot patterning and color arrangement. These are "fhl2-a" and "fhl2-b", which are paralogs. These genes aid in pattern formation and cell-fate determination in early embryonic development. The highest expression of these genes was temporally correlated with egg-spot formation. A short, interspersed, repetitive element was also seen to be associated with egg spots. Specifically, it was evident upstream of the transcriptional start site of "fhl2" in only "Haplochrominis" species with egg spots


title: Cichlid

text: Pit spawning, also referred to as substrate breeding, is a behavior in cichlid fish in which a fish builds a pit in the sand or ground, where a pair court and consequently spawn. Many different factors go into this behavior of pit spawning, including female choice of the male and pit size, as well as the male defense of the pits once they are dug in the sand. Cichlids are often divided into two main groups: mouthbrooders and substrate brooders. Different parenting investment levels and behaviors are associated with each type of reproduction. As pit spawning is a reproductive behavior, many different physiological changes occur in the cichlid while this process is occurring that interfere with social interaction. Different kinds of species that pit spawn, and many different morphological changes occur because of this behavioral experience. Pit spawning is an evolved behavior across the cichlid group. Phylogenetic evidence from cichlids in Lake Tanganyika could be helpful in uncovering the evolution of their reproductive behaviors. Several important behaviors are associated with pit spawning, including parental care, food provisioning, and brood guarding.


title: Cichlid

text: One of the differences studied in African cichlids is reproductive behavior. Some species pit spawn and some are known as mouth brooders. Mouthbrooding is a reproductive technique where the fish scoop up eggs and fry for protection. While this behavior differs from species to species in the details, the general basis of the behavior is the same. Mouthbrooding also affects how they choose their mates and breeding grounds. In a 1995 study, Nelson found that in pit-spawning females choose males for mating based on the size of the pit that they dig, as well as some of the physical characteristics seen in the males. Pit spawning also differs from mouth brooding in the size and postnatal care exhibited. Eggs that have been hatched from pit-spawning cichlids are usually smaller than those of mouthbrooders. Pit-spawners' eggs are usually around 2 mm, while mouthbrooders are typically around 7 mm. While different behaviors take place postnatally between mouthbrooders and pit spawners, some similarities exist. Females in both mouthbrooders and pit-spawning cichlids take care of their young after they are hatched. In some cases, both parents exhibit care, but the female always cares for the eggs and newly hatched fry.


title: Cichlid

text: Many species of cichlids use pit spawning, but one of the less commonly studied species that exhibits this behavior is the Neotropical "Cichlasoma dimerus". This fish is a substrate breeder that displays biparental care after the fry have hatched from their eggs. One study examined reproductive and social behaviors of this species to see how they accomplished their pit spawning, including different physiological factors such as hormone levels, color changes, and plasma cortisol levels. The entire spawning process could take about 90 minutes and 400 to 800 eggs could be laid. The female deposits about 10 eggs at a time, attaching them to the spawning surface, which may be a pit constructed on the substrate or another surface. The number of eggs laid was correlated to the space available on the substrate. Once the eggs were attached, the male swam over the eggs and fertilized them. The parents would then dig pits in the sand, 10–20 cm wide and 5–10 cm deep, where larvae were transferred after hatching. Larvae began swimming 8 days after fertilization and parenting behaviors and some of the physiological factors measured changed.


title: Cichlid

text: In the same study, color changes were present before and after the pit spawning occurred. For example, after the larvae were transferred and the pits were beginning to be protected, their fins turned a dark grey color. In another study, of the rainbow cichlid, "Herotilapia multispinosa", e color changes occurred throughout the spawning process. Before spawning, the rainbow cichlid was an olive color with grey bands. Once spawning behaviors started, the body and fins of the fish became a more golden color. When the eggs were finished being laid, the pelvic fin all the way back to the caudal fin turned to a darker color and blackened in both the males and the females.


title: Cichlid

text: Females prefer a bigger pit size when choosing where to lay eggs. Differences are seen in the sizes of pits that created, as well as a change in the morphology of the pits. Evolutionary differences between species of fish may cause them to either create pits or castles when spawning. The differences were changes in the way that each species fed, their macrohabitats, and the abilities of their sensory systems.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids are renowned for their recent, rapid evolutionary radiation, both across the entire clade and within different communities across separate habitats. Within their phylogeny, many parallel instances are seen of lineages evolving to the same trait and multiple cases of reversion to an ancestral trait. The family Cichlidae arose between 80 and 100 million years ago within the order Perciformes (perch-like fishes). Cichlidae can be split into a few groups based on their geographic location: Madagascar, Indian, African, and Neotropical (or South American). The most famous and diverse group, the African cichlids, can be further split either into Eastern and Western varieties, or into groups depending on which lake the species is from: Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria, or Lake Tanganyika. Of these subgroups, the Madagascar and Indian cichlids are the most basal and least diverse. Of the African cichlids, the West African or Lake Tanganyika cichlids are the most basal.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids' common ancestor is believed to have been a spit-spawning species. Both Madagascar and Indian cichlids retain this feature. However, of the African cichlids, all extant substrate brooding species originate solely from Lake Tanganyika. The ancestor of the Lake Malawi and Lake Victoria cichlids were mouthbrooders. Similarly, only around 30% of South American cichlids are thought to retain the ancestral substrate-brooding trait. Mouthbrooding is thought to have evolved individually up to 14 times, and a return to substrate brooding as many as three separate times between both African and Neotropical species.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids have a great variety of behaviors associated with substrate brooding, including courtship and parental care alongside the brooding and nest-building behaviors needed for pit spawning. Cichlids' behavior typically revolves around establishing and defending territories when not courting, brooding, or raising young. Encounters between males and males or females and females are agonistic, while an encounter between a male and female leads to courtship. Courtship in male cichlids follows the establishment of some form of territory, sometimes coupled with building a bower to attract mates. After this, males may attempt to attract female cichlids to their territories by a variety of lekking display strategies or otherwise seek out females of their species. However, cichlids, at the time of spawning, undergo a behavioral change such that they become less receptive to outside interactions. This is often coupled with some physiological change in appearance.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids can have maternal, paternal, or biparental care. Maternal care is most common among mouthbrooders, but cichlids' common ancestor is thought to exhibit paternal-only care. Other individuals outside of the parents may also play a role in raising young; in the biparental daffodil cichlid ("Neolamprologus pulcher"), closely related satellite males, those males that surround other males' territories and attempt to mate with female cichlids in the area, help rear the primary males' offspring and their own.


title: Cichlid

text: A common form of brood care involves food provisioning. For example, females of lyretail cichlids ("Neolamprologus modabu") dig at sandy substrate more to push nutritional detritus and zooplankton into the surrounding water. Adult of " N. modabu" perform this strategy to collect food for themselves, but dig more when offspring are present, likely to feed their fry. This substrate-disruption strategy is rather common and can also be seen in convict cichlids ("Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum"). Other cichlids have an ectothermal mucus that they grow and feed to their young, while still others chew and distribute caught food to offspring. These strategies, however, are less common in pit-spawning cichlids.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids have highly organized breeding activities. All species show some form of parental care for both eggs and larvae, often nurturing free-swimming young until they are weeks or months old.


title: Cichlid

text: Communal parental care, where multiple monogamous pairs care for a mixed school of young have also been observed in multiple cichlid species, including "Amphilophus citrinellus", "Etroplus suratensis", and "Tilapia rendalli". Comparably, the fry of "Neolamprologus brichardi", a species that commonly lives in large groups, are protected not only by the adults, but also by older juveniles from previous spawns. Several cichlids, including discus ("Symphysodon" spp.), some "Amphilophus" species, "Etroplus", and "Uaru" species, feed their young with a skin secretion from mucous glands.


title: Cichlid

text: The species "Neolamprologus pulcher" uses a cooperative breeding system, in which one breeding pair has many helpers that are subordinate to the dominant breeders.


title: Cichlid

text: Parental care falls into one of four categories: substrate or open brooders, secretive cave brooders (also known as guarding speleophils), and at least two types of mouthbrooders, ovophile mouthbrooders and larvophile mouthbrooders.


title: Cichlid

text: Open- or substrate-brooding cichlids lay their eggs in the open, on rocks, leaves, or logs. Examples of open-brooding cichlids include "Pterophyllum" and "Symphysodon" species and "Anomalochromis thomasi". Male and female parents usually engage in differing brooding roles. Most commonly, the male patrols the pair's territory and repels intruders, while the female fans water over the eggs, removing the infertile ones, and leading the fry while foraging. Both sexes are able to perform the full range of parenting behaviours.


title: Cichlid

text: Secretive cave-spawning cichlids lay their eggs in caves, crevices, holes, or discarded mollusc shells, frequently attaching the eggs to the roof of the chamber. Examples include "Pelvicachromis" spp., "Archocentrus" spp., and "Apistogramma" spp. Free-swimming fry and parents communicate in captivity and in the wild. Frequently, this communication is based on body movements, such as shaking and pelvic fin flicking. In addition, open- and cave-brooding parents assist in finding food resources for their fry. Multiple neotropical cichlid species perform leaf-turning and fin-digging behaviors.


title: Cichlid

text: Ovophile mouthbrooders incubate their eggs in their mouths as soon as they are laid, and frequently mouthbrood free-swimming fry for several weeks. Examples include many East African Rift lakes (Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Victoria) endemics, e.g.: "Maylandia", "Pseudotropheus", "Tropheus", and "Astatotilapia burtoni", along with some South American cichlids such as "Geophagus steindachneri".


title: Cichlid

text: Larvophile mouthbrooders lay eggs in the open or in a cave and take the hatched larvae into the mouth. Examples include some variants of "Geophagus altifrons", and some "Aequidens", "Gymnogeophagus", and "Satanoperca", as well as "Oreochromis mossambicus" and "Oreochromis niloticus". Mouthbrooders, whether of eggs or larvae, are predominantly females. Exceptions that also involve the males include eretmodine cichlids (genera "Spathodus", "Eretmodus", and "Tanganicodus"), some "Sarotherodon" species (such as "Sarotherodon melanotheron"), "Chromidotilapia guentheri", and some "Aequidens" species. This method appears to have evolved independently in several groups of African cichlids.


title: Cichlid

text: Cichlids provide scientists with a unique perspective of speciation, having become extremely diverse in the more recent geological past. Some of the contributing factors to their diversification are believed to be the various forms of prey processing displayed by cichlid pharyngeal jaw apparatus. These different jaw apparatus allow for a broad range of feeding strategies, including algae scraping, snail crushing, planktivory, piscivory, and insectivory. Some cichlids can also show phenotypic plasticity in their pharyngeal jaws, which can also help lead to speciation. In response to different diets or food scarcity, members of the same species can display different jaw morphologies that are better suited to different feeding strategies. As species members begin to concentrate around different food sources and continue their lifecycle, they most likely spawn with like individuals. This can reinforce the jaw morphology and given enough time, create new species. Such a process can happen through allopatric speciation, whereby species diverge according to different selection pressures in different geographical areas, or through sympatric speciation, by which new species evolve from a common ancestor while remaining in the same area. In Lake Apoyo in Nicaragua, "Amphilophus zaliosus" and its sister species "Amphilophus citrinellus" display many of the criteria needed for sympatric speciation. In the African rift lake system, cichlid species in numerous distinct lakes evolved from a shared hybrid swarm.


title: Cichlid

text: In 2010, the International Union for Conservation of Nature classified 184 species as vulnerable, 52 as endangered, and 106 as critically endangered. At present, the IUCN only lists "Yssichromis" sp. nov. "argens" as extinct in the wild, and six species are listed as entirely extinct, but many more possibly belong in these categories (for example, "Haplochromis aelocephalus", "H. apogonoides", "H. dentex", "H. dichrourus", and numerous other members of the genus "Haplochromis" have not been seen since the 1980s, but are maintained as critically endangered on the small chance that tiny –but currently unknown– populations survive).


title: Cichlid

text: Because of the introduced Nile perch ("Lates niloticus"), Nile tilapia ("Oreochromis niloticus"), and water hyacinth, deforestation that led to water siltation, and overfishing, many Lake Victoria cichlid species have become extinct or been drastically reduced. By around 1980, lake fisheries yielded only 1% cichlids, a drastic decline from 80% in earlier years.


title: Cichlid

text: By far the largest Lake Victoria group is the haplochromine cichlids, with more than 500 species, but at least 200 of these (about 40%) have become extinct, and many others are seriously threatened. Initially it was feared that the percentage of extinct species was even higher, but some species have been rediscovered after the Nile perch started to decline in the 1990s. Some species have survived in nearby small satellite lakes, or in refugia among rocks or papyrus sedges (protecting them from the Nile perch), or have adapted to the human-induced changes in the lake itself. The species were often specialists and these were not affected to the same extent. For example, the piscivorous haplochromines were particularly hard hit with a high number of extinctions, while the zooplanktivorous haplochromines reached densities in 2001 that were similar to before the drastic decline, although consisting of fewer species and with some changes in their ecology.


title: Cichlid

text: Although cichlids are mostly small- to medium-sized, many are notable as food and game fishes. With few thick rib bones and tasty flesh, artisan fishing is not uncommon in Central America and South America, as well as areas surrounding the African rift lakes.


title: Cichlid

text: The most important food cichlids, however, are the tilapiines of North Africa. Fast growing, tolerant of stocking density, and adaptable, tilapiine species have been introduced and farmed extensively in many parts of Asia and are increasingly common aquaculture targets elsewhere.


title: Cichlid

text: Farmed tilapia production is about annually, with an estimated value of US$1.8 billion, about equal to that of salmon and trout.


title: Cichlid

text: Unlike those carnivorous fish, tilapia can feed on algae or any plant-based food. This reduces the cost of tilapia farming, reduces fishing pressure on prey species, avoids concentrating toxins that accumulate at higher levels of the food chain, and makes tilapia the preferred "aquatic chickens" of the trade.


title: Cichlid

text: Many large cichlids are popular game fish. The peacock bass ("Cichla" species) of South America is one of the most popular sportfish. It was introduced in many waters around the world. In Florida, this fish generates millions of hours of fishing and sportfishing revenue of more than US$8 million a year. Other cichlids preferred by anglers include the oscar, Mayan cichlid ("Cichlasoma urophthalmus"), and jaguar guapote ("Parachromis managuensis").


title: Cichlid

text: The most common species in hobbyist aquaria is "Pterophyllum scalare" from the Amazon River basin in tropical South America, known in the trade as the "angelfish". Other popular or readily available species include the oscar ("Astronotus ocellatus"), convict cichlid ("Archocentrus nigrofasciatus") and discus fish ("Symphysodon").


title: Cichlid

text: Some cichlids readily hybridize with related species, both in the wild and under artificial conditions. Other groups of fishes, such as European cyprinids, also hybridize. Unusually, cichlid hybrids have been put to extensive commercial use, in particular for aquaculture and aquaria. The hybrid red strain of tilapia, for example, is often preferred in aquaculture for its rapid growth. Tilapia hybridization can produce all-male populations to control stock density or prevent reproduction in ponds.


title: Cichlid

text: The most common aquarium hybrid is perhaps the blood parrot cichlid, which is a cross of several species, especially from species in the genus "Amphilophus". (There are many hypotheses, but the most likely is: "Amphilophus labiatus" x "Vieja synspillus" With a triangular-shaped mouth, an abnormal spine, and an occasionally missing caudal fin (known as the "love heart" parrot cichlid), the fish is controversial among aquarists. Some have called blood parrot cichlids "the Frankenstein monster of the fish world". Another notable hybrid, the flowerhorn cichlid, was very popular in some parts of Asia from 2001 until late 2003, and is believed to bring good luck to its owner. The popularity of the flowerhorn cichlid declined in 2004. Owners released many specimens into the rivers and canals of Malaysia and Singapore, where they threaten endemic communities.


title: Cichlid

text: Numerous cichlid species have been selectively bred to develop ornamental aquarium strains. The most intensive programs have involved angelfish and discus, and many mutations that affect both coloration and fins are known. Other cichlids have been bred for albino, leucistic, and xanthistic pigment mutations, including oscars, convict cichlid and "Pelvicachromis pulcher". Both dominant and recessive pigment mutations have been observed. In convict cichlids, for example, a leucistic coloration is recessively inherited, while in "Oreochromis niloticus niloticus", red coloration is caused by a dominant inherited mutation.


title: Cichlid

text: This selective breeding may have unintended consequences. For example, hybrid strains of "Mikrogeophagus ramirezi" have health and fertility problems. Similarly, intentional inbreeding can cause physical abnormalities, such as the notched phenotype in angelfish.


title: Cichlid

text: The genus list is as per FishBase. Studies are continuing, however, on the members of this family, particularly the haplochromine cichlids of the African rift lakes.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont (27 July 1768 – 17 July 1793), known as Charlotte Corday (), was a figure of the French Revolution. In 1793, she was executed by guillotine for the assassination of Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat, who was in part responsible for the more radical course the Revolution had taken through his role as a politician and journalist. Marat had played a substantial role in the political purge of the Girondins, with whom Corday sympathized. His murder was depicted in the painting "The Death of Marat" by Jacques-Louis David, which shows Marat's dead body after Corday had stabbed him in his medicinal bath. In 1847, writer Alphonse de Lamartine gave Corday the posthumous nickname "l'ange de l'assassinat" (the Angel of Assassination).


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Born in Saint-Saturnin-des-Ligneries, a hamlet in the commune of Écorches (Orne), in Normandy, Charlotte Corday was a member of a minor aristocratic family. She was a fifth-generation descendant of the dramatist Pierre Corneille. Her parents were cousins.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: While Corday was a young girl, her older sister and their mother, Charlotte Marie Jacqueline Gaultier de Mesnival, died. Her father, Jacques François de Corday, Seigneur d'Armont (1737–1798), unable to cope with his grief over their deaths, sent Corday and her younger sister to the Abbaye aux Dames convent in Caen, where the former had access to the abbey's library and first encountered the writings of Plutarch, Rousseau and Voltaire. After 1791, she lived in Caen with her cousin, Madame Le Coustellier de Bretteville-Gouville. The two developed a close relationship, and Corday was the sole heir to her cousin's estate.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Corday's physical appearance is described on her passport as "five feet and one inch... hair and eyebrows auburn, eyes gray, forehead high, mouth medium size, chin dimpled, and an oval face".


title: Charlotte Corday

text: After the revolution radicalized further and headed towards terror, Charlotte Corday began to sympathize with the Girondins. She admired their speeches and grew fond of many of the Girondist groups whom she met while living in Caen. She respected the political principles of the Girondins and came to align herself with their thinking. She regarded them as a movement that would ultimately save France. The Girondins represented a more moderate approach to the revolution and they, like Corday, were skeptical about the direction the revolution was taking. They opposed the Montagnards, who advocated a more radical approach to the revolution, which included the extreme idea that the only way the revolution would survive invasion and civil war was through terrorizing and executing those opposed to it. The opposition to this radical thinking, coupled with the influence of the Girondins, ultimately led Corday to carry out her plan to murder one of the most outspoken and popular Montagnard radicals, Jean-Paul Marat.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Corday's action aided in restructuring the private versus public role of the woman in society at the time. The idea of women as second class or "less than" was challenged, and Corday was considered a hero to those who were against the teachings of Marat. There have been suggestions that her act incited the banning of women's political clubs, and the executions of female activists such as the Girondin Madame Roland.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: The influence of Girondin ideas on Corday is evident in her words at her trial: "I have killed one man to save a hundred thousand." As the revolution progressed, the Girondins had become progressively more opposed to the radical, violent propositions of the Montagnards such as Marat and Robespierre. Corday's notion that she was saving a hundred thousand lives echoes this Girondin sentiment as they attempted to slow the revolution and reverse the violence that had escalated since the September Massacres of 1792.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Jean-Paul Marat was a member of the radical Jacobin faction that had a leading role during the Reign of Terror. As a journalist, he exerted power and influence through his newspaper, "L'Ami du peuple" ("The Friend of the People"). Corday's decision to kill Marat was stimulated not only by her revulsion at the September Massacres, for which she held Marat responsible, but by her fear of an all-out civil war. She believed that Marat was threatening the Republic, and that his death would end violence throughout the country. She also believed that King Louis XVI should not have been executed.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: On 9 July 1793, Corday left her cousin, carrying a copy of Plutarch's "Parallel Lives", and went to Paris, where she took a room at the Hôtel de Providence. She bought a kitchen knife with a blade. During the next few days, she wrote her "Adresse aux Français amis des lois et de la paix" ("Address to the French, friends of Law and Peace") to explain her motives for assassinating Marat.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Corday initially planned to assassinate Marat in front of the entire National Convention. She intended to make an example of him, but upon arriving in Paris she discovered that Marat no longer attended meetings because his health was deteriorating due to a skin disorder (perhaps dermatitis herpetiformis). She was then forced to change her plan. She went to Marat's home before noon on 13 July, claiming to have knowledge of a planned Girondist uprising in Caen; she was turned away by Catherine Evrard, the sister of Marat's fiancée Simonne.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: On her return that evening, Marat admitted her. At the time, he conducted most of his affairs from a bathtub because of his skin condition. Marat wrote down the names of the Girondins that she gave to him; she then pulled out the knife and plunged it into his chest. He called out: "Aidez-moi, ma chère amie!" ("Help me, my dear friend!"), and then died.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: This is the moment memorialized by Jacques-Louis David's painting "The Death of Marat". A different angle of the iconic pose of Marat dead in his bath is in Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry's 1860 painting "Charlotte Corday".


title: Charlotte Corday

text: In response to Marat's dying shout, Simonne Evrard rushed into the room. She was joined by a distributor of Marat's newspaper, who seized Corday. Two neighbours, a military surgeon and a dentist, attempted to revive Marat. Republican officials arrived to interrogate Corday, and to calm a hysterical crowd who appeared ready to lynch her.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Charlotte Corday sent the following farewell letter to her father which was intercepted and read during the trial, the letter helping to establish that Marat's murder was premeditated:


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Corday underwent three separate cross-examinations by senior revolutionary judicial officials, including the President of the Revolutionary Tribunal and the chief prosecutor. She stressed that she was a republican and had been so even before the Revolution, citing the values of ancient Rome as an ideal model.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: The focus of the questioning was to establish whether she had been part of a wider Girondist conspiracy. Corday remained constant in insisting that "I alone conceived the plan and executed it." She referred to Marat as a "hoarder" and a "monster" who was respected only in Paris. She credited her fatal knifing of Marat with one blow not to practicing in advance but to luck.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Charlotte Corday asked for Gustave le Doulcet, an old acquaintance, to defend her, but he did not receive the letter she wrote to him in time, so Claude François Chauveau-Lagarde was appointed instead to assist her during the trial. It is believed that Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville voluntarily delayed the letter, however, it is said that Corday thought that Le Doulcet refused to defend her and sent to him a last letter of reproach just before going to the scaffold.