title: Aquamarine (film)

text: Other critics were less positive. Carrie Rickey of "The Philadelphia Inquirer" wrote, "Like its title character, Allen's choppy and inconsistent film has two speeds, ditsy or sentimental, and never gathers momentum." Reviewing "Aquamarine" for the BBC, Stella Papamichael rated the film 2 out of 5 stars, writing, "the worthy message about the value of friendship, central to Alice Hoffman’s novel, is drowned out by a sappy, magazine-style portrait of girlhood that’s all lip-gloss and giggles." Marrit Ingman of "The Austin Chronicle" also rated the film 2 out of 5 stars but enjoyed some aspects, like its making fun of the dating advice in teen magazines such as "CosmoGirl".


title: Aquamarine (film)

text: Critics praised the cast's performances. Calling Paxton's portrayal of Aquamarine "impish, anxious and ebullient", Leydon hailed her "impressive talent for physical comedy", while Rechtshaffen wrote that Paxton "has an infectious, nutty energy". Roger Ebert praised Roberts and Levesque for their "unstudied charm", while Leydon lauded their "credible and compelling relationship with each other" as well as their "pitch-perfect reactions as straight women" to Paxton. Stein highlighted Roberts's performance, particularly her portrayal of Claire's vulnerability.


title: Aquamarine (film)

text: Since its release, "Aquamarine" has become a cult film and is especially popular among Generation Z. It has been ranked as one of the best "mermaid movies" by "USA Today" and "Teen Vogue".


title: Aquamarine (film)

text: Two of the film's stars, Roberts and Paxton, were featured on the soundtrack. In 2008, La La Land Records and Fox Music released a limited edition CD (1000 pressings) of David Hirschfelder's score (incorporating Paxton's voice) for the film.


title: AGBO

text: AGBO (also known as Gozie AGBO) is an independent film and television production company led by Anthony and Joe Russo, best known for their work in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, most notably "" and "". The company is responsible for the television shows "Deadly Class" and "Larry Charles' Dangerous World of Comedy", and the feature-length films "21 Bridges" and "Extraction."


title: AGBO

text: In March 2015, the Russo brothers hired Mike Larocca as their president of production, with the company then known as Getaway Productions. In November 2015, it was announced that they would co-produce "Deadly Class" alongside creator Rick Remender for Syfy. AGBO closed its first overall TV deal with Midnight Radio in June 2018. Under this deal, Midnight Radio will create and produce original television programming for AGBO with projects in the works that include "The Warriors" for Netflix, based on the 1979 Walter Hill film of the same name, "From," a horror series for YouTube Red, as well as the international spy series "Citadel", starring Priyanka Chopra and Richard Madden, for Amazon Studios. AGBO also produced the docu-series "Larry Charles' Dangerous World of Comedy", which premiered on Netflix on February 15, 2019.


title: AGBO

text: The company made several film deals in August 2018, the first being "Cherry," based on Nico Walker's novel of the same name, which the Russo Brothers will direct. Other deals announced shortly after included "21 Bridges" for STX, which was released on November 22, 2019., and finally it was announced that Sam Hargrave would direct "Dhaka," later renamed "Extraction," from a screenplay by Joe Russo with Chris Hemsworth set to star in the film. The film was released on Netflix on April 24, 2020, and received the biggest premiere viewership in the site's history, leading to a sequel being put in development from the same team.


title: AGBO

text: On March 10, 2020, the AGBO produced film "Relic" was acquired by IFC Midnight, with a theatrical release scheduled for July 10, 2020. More recently, Apple acquired "Cherry", with the film set to have a theatrical run on February 26, 2021, before heading to Apple TV+ on March 12, 2021. More recently, the company signed a deal with Spotify. In January 2022, AGBO sold a $400 million minority stake to the video game developer Nexon, which is valued at $1.1 billion as Nexon takes a 38% stake.


title: AGBO

text: AGBO currently has several projects in various stages of development. For MGM, they will produce a remake of "The Thomas Crown Affair" with Michael B. Jordan set to star, alongside other remakes of MGM's library.


title: AGBO

text: With Paramount Pictures distributing, AGBO will co-produce the Chris Hemsworth and Tiffany Haddish comedy "Down Under Cover".


title: AGBO

text: With A24 distributing, they are set to produce the sci-fi action film "Everything Everywhere All at Once" from directors Dan Kwan and Daniel Scheinert.


title: AGBO

text: Several other films have been optioned by the company with no distribution deals currently set; an adaptation of Alex North's novel "The Whisper Man" with Mike Larocca and Malcolm Gray producing, "All Fun and Games" from writer JJ Braider, John Brancato's script "The Last Neanderthal", and an American film adaptation of the Japanese anime series "Battle of the Planets" which the Russo Brothers may also direct. As well, they will produce a film about the Cambridge Analytica scandal with Matt Shakman in talks to direct and Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely writing the screenplay.


title: AGBO

text: On the television side, AGBO will produce an animated series based on "" for Netflix, with a potential a live-action spinoff also in development. They will also produce Amazon's television series based on the graphic novel Grimjack.


title: AGBO

text: In April 2020, it was announced that The Russos will team with Walt Disney Pictures to produce a live-action remake of the 1997 animated film "Hercules".


title: AGBO

text: In December 2020, it was announced that the Russos will direct an adaptation of Simon Stålenhag's graphic novel The Electric State for Universal Pictures with Millie Bobby Brown set to star. In June 2022, the film was moved to Netflix.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The Mount of Olives or Mount Olivet (; ; both lit. 'Mount of Olives'; in Arabic also , , 'the Mountain') is a mountain ridge east of and adjacent to Jerusalem's Old City. It is named for the olive groves that once covered its slopes. The southern part of the mount was the Silwan necropolis, attributed to the elite of the ancient Kingdom of Judah. The mount has been used as a Jewish cemetery for over 3,000 years and holds approximately 150,000 graves, making it central in the tradition of Jewish cemeteries.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Several key events in the life of Jesus, as related in the Gospels, took place on the Mount of Olives, and in the Acts of the Apostles it is described as the place from which Jesus ascended to heaven. Because of its association with both Jesus and Mary, the mount has been a site of Christian worship since ancient times and is today a major site of pilgrimage for Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Much of the top of the hill is occupied by At-Tur, a former village that is now a neighbourhood of East Jerusalem.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The Mount of Olives is one of three peaks of a mountain ridge which runs for just east of the Old City across the Kidron Valley, in this area called the Valley of Josaphat. The peak to its north is Mount Scopus, at , while the peak to its south is the Mount of Corruption, at . The highest point on the Mount of Olives is At-Tur, at . The ridge acts as a watershed, and its eastern side is the beginning of the Judean Desert.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The ridge is formed of oceanic sedimentary rock from the Late Cretaceous and contains a soft chalk and a hard flint. While the chalk is easily quarried, it is not a suitable strength for construction and features many man-made burial caves.


title: Mount of Olives

text: From Biblical times until the present, Jews have been buried on the Mount of Olives. The necropolis on the southern ridge, the location of the modern village of Silwan, was the burial place of Jerusalem's most important citizens in the period of the Biblical kings.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The religious ceremony marking the start of a new month was held on the Mount of Olives in the days of the Second Temple. Roman soldiers from the 10th Legion camped on the mount during the Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD. After the destruction of the Second Temple, Jews celebrated the festival of Sukkot on the Mount of Olives. They made pilgrimages to the Mount of Olives because it was 80 meters higher than the Temple Mount and offered a panoramic view of the Temple site. It became a traditional place for lamenting the Temple's destruction, especially on Tisha B'Av. In 1481, an Italian Jewish pilgrim, Meshullam of Volterra, wrote: "And all the community of Jews, every year, goes up to Mount Zion on the day of Tisha B'Av to fast and mourn, and from there they move down along Yoshafat Valley and up to Mount of Olives. From there they see the whole Temple (the Temple Mount) and there they weep and lament the destruction of this House." In the mid-1850s, the villagers of Silwan were paid £100 annually by the Jews in an effort to prevent the desecration of graves on the mount.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin asked to be buried on the Mount of Olives near the graves of Etzel members Meir Feinstein and Moshe Barazani, rather than Mount Herzl national cemetery.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The armistice agreement signed by Israel and Jordan following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War called for the establishment of a Special Committee to negotiate developments including "free access to the holy sites and cultural institutions and use of the cemetery on the Mount of Olives". However, during the 19 years the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank lasted, the committee was not formed. Non-Israeli Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the mount, but Jews of all countries and most non-Jewish Israeli citizens were barred from entering Jordan and therefore were unable to travel to the area.


title: Mount of Olives

text: By the end of 1949, and throughout the Jordanian rule of the site, some Arab residents uprooted tombstones and plowed the land in the cemeteries, and an estimated 38,000 tombstones were damaged in total. During this period, a road was paved through the cemetery, in the process destroying graves including those of famous persons. In 1964, the Intercontinental Hotel was built at the summit of the mount. Graves were also demolished for parking lots and a filling station and were used in latrines at a Jordanian Army barracks. The United Nations did not condemn the Jordanian government for these actions.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Following the 1967 Six-Day War restoration work was done and the cemetery was reopened for burials. Israel's 1980 unilateral annexation of East Jerusalem was condemned as a violation of international law and ruled null and void by the UN Security Council in UNSC Resolution 478.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Tombs in the Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery have been prone to vandalism, among them the tombs of the Gerrer Rebbe and Menachem Begin.


title: Mount of Olives

text: On 6 November 2010, an international watch-committee was set up by Diaspora Jews with the aim of reversing the desecration of the Jewish cemetery. According to one of the founders, the initiative was triggered by witnessing tombstones that were wrecked with "the kind of maliciousness that defies the imagination."


title: Mount of Olives

text: (II Samuel 15:30): "And David went up by the ascent of the Mount of Olives, and wept as he went up." The ascent was probably east of the City of David, near the village of Silwan. The sacred character of the mount is alluded to in the Book of Ezekiel (11:23): "And the glory of the Lord went up from the midst of the city, and stood upon the mountain which is on the east side of the city."


title: Mount of Olives

text: The biblical designation Mount of Corruption, or in Hebrew "Har HaMashchit" (I Kings 11:7–8), derives from the idol worship there, begun by King Solomon building altars to the gods of his Moabite and Ammonite wives on the southern peak, "on the mountain which is before (east of) Jerusalem" (1 Kings 11:7), just outside the limits of the holy city. This site was known for idol worship throughout the First Temple period, until king of Judah, Josiah, finally destroyed "the high places that were before Jerusalem, to the right of Har HaMashchit..."(II Kings 23:13)


title: Mount of Olives

text: An apocalyptic prophecy in the Book of Zechariah states that YHWH will stand on the Mount of Olives and the mountain will split in two, with one half shifting north and one half shifting south (Zechariah 14:4). According to the Masoretic Text, people will flee through this newly formed valley to a place called Azal (Zechariah 14:5). The Septuagint (LXX) has a different reading of Zechariah 14:5 stating that a valley will be blocked up as it was blocked up during the earthquake during King Uzziah's reign. Jewish historian Flavius Josephus mentions in "Antiquities of the Jews" that the valley in the area of the King's Gardens was blocked up by landslide rubble during Uzziah's earthquake. Israeli geologists Wachs and Levitte identified the remnant of a large landslide on the Mount of Olives directly adjacent to this area. Based on geographic and linguistic evidence, Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, a 19th-century linguist and archeologist in Palestine, theorized that the valley directly adjacent to this landslide is Azal. This evidence accords with the LXX reading of Zechariah 14:5 which states that the valley will be blocked up as far as Azal. The valley he identified (which is now known as Wady Yasul in Arabic, and Nahal Etzel in Hebrew) lies "south" of both Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Many Jews have wanted to be buried on the Mount of Olives since antiquity, based on the Jewish tradition (from the Biblical verse Zechariah 14:4) that when the Messiah comes, the resurrection of the dead will begin there. There are an estimated 150,000 graves on the Mount, including tombs traditionally associated with Zechariah and Absalom. On the upper slope, the traditional Tomb of the Prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi is situated. Notable rabbis buried on the mount include Chaim ibn Attar and others from the 15th century to the present day.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The Mount of Olives is frequently mentioned in the New Testament as part of the route from Jerusalem to Bethany and the place where Jesus stood when he wept over Jerusalem (an event known as "Flevit super illam" in Latin).


title: Mount of Olives

text: Jesus is said to have spent time on the mount, teaching and prophesying to his disciples (Matthew 24–25), including the Olivet discourse, returning after each day to rest (Luke 21:37, and John 8:1 in the additional section of John's Gospel known as the "Pericope Adulterae"), and also coming there on the night of his betrayal. At the foot of the Mount of Olives lies the Garden of Gethsemane. The New Testament tells how Jesus and his disciples sang together – "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives" Gospel of Matthew 26:30. Jesus ascended to heaven from the Mount of Olives according to Acts 1:9–12.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Again, the story of Jesus with his disciples on the Mount of Olives can be found in the Gnostic text Pistis Sophia, dated around the 3rd to 4th century CE.


title: Mount of Olives

text: Landmarks on the top of the Mount of Olives include the Augusta Victoria Hospital with the Lutheran Church of the Ascension and its highly visible 50-metre bell tower, the Mosque or Chapel of the Ascension, the Russian Orthodox Church of the Ascension with its tall white bell tower, the Church of the Pater Noster, and the Seven Arches Hotel. On the western slope there are the historic Jewish cemetery, the Tomb of the Prophets, the Catholic Church of Dominus Flevit, and the Russian Orthodox Church of Mary Magdalene. At the foot of the mount, where it meets the Kidron Valley, there is the Garden of Gethsemane with the Church of all Nations. Within the Kidron Valley itself are the Tomb of the Virgin Mary, the Grotto of Gethsemane, and the nearby tomb of the medieval historian Mujir ed-Din, and further south are the tombs of Absalom (Hebrew name: Yad Avshalom), the Hezir priestly family and of Zechariah. At the northern margin of Mount Olivet stand the Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center with the Orson Hyde Memorial Garden and the Jewish settlement of Beit Orot, bordering on the Tzurim Valley and Mitzpe Hamasu'ot which contains the Temple Mount Sifting Project. What lays north of here belongs to Mount Scopus. On the south-eastern slope of the Mount of Olives lies the Palestinian Arab village of al-Eizariya, identified with the ancient village of Bethany mentioned in the New Testament; a short distance from the village centre, towards the top of the mount, is the traditional site of Bethphage, marked by a Franciscan church.


title: Mount of Olives

text: The construction of the Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center for Near Eastern Studies, better known locally as the Mormon University, owned and operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) near the valley separating the Mount of Olives from Mount Scopus, initially sparked controversy because of concerns that the Mormons would engage in missionary activities. After the Mormons pledged not to proselytize in Israel, work on the building was allowed to proceed.


title: Pipe organ

text: The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air (called "wind") through the organ pipes selected from a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a single pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called "ranks", each of which has a common timbre and volume throughout the keyboard compass. Most organs have many ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, and volume that the player can employ singly or in combination through the use of controls called stops.


title: Pipe organ

text: A pipe organ has one or more keyboards (called "manuals") played by the hands, and a pedal clavier played by the feet; each keyboard controls its own division, or group of stops. The keyboard(s), pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organ's "console". The organ's continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain notes for as long as the corresponding keys are pressed, unlike the piano and harpsichord whose sound begins to dissipate immediately after a key is depressed. The smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual; the largest may have over 33,000 pipes and seven manuals. A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. A ranking of the largest organs in the world—based on the criterion constructed by Michał Szostak, i.e. 'the number of ranks and additional equipment managed from a single console—can be found in the quarterly magazine "The Organ" and in the online journal "Vox Humana".


title: Pipe organ

text: The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to the hydraulis in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC, in which the wind supply was created by the weight of displaced water in an airtight container. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply Byzantine organs with wind. A pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning the pipe organ's establishment in Western European church music. In England, "The first organ of which any detailed record exists was built in Winchester Cathedral in the 10th century. It was a huge machine with 400 pipes, which needed two men to play it and 70 men to blow it, and its sound could be heard throughout the city." Beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. By the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed. From that time, the pipe organ was the most complex man-made device—a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century.


title: Pipe organ

text: Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools, other public buildings and in private properties. They are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. In the early 20th century, pipe organs were installed in theaters to accompany the screening of films during the silent movie era; in municipal auditoria, where orchestral transcriptions were popular; and in the homes of the wealthy. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls. The organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years.


title: Pipe organ

text: The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word "organ" is derived from the Ancient Greek (), a generic term for an instrument or a tool, via the Latin , an instrument similar to a portative organ used in ancient Roman circus games.


title: Pipe organ

text: The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC. He devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire. The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the 2nd century AD, and true bellows began to appear in the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th or 7th century AD. Some 400 pieces of a hydraulis from the year 228 AD were revealed during the 1931 archaeological excavations in


title: Pipe organ

text: the former Roman town Aquincum, province of Pannonia (present day Budapest), which was used as a music instrument by the Aquincum fire dormitory; a modern replica produces an enjoyable sound.


title: Pipe organ

text: The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 913), in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the (organ) as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. It was often used in the Hippodrome in the imperial capital of Constantinople. A Syrian visitor describes a pipe organ powered by two servants pumping "bellows like a blacksmith's" as being played while guests ate at the emperor's Christmas dinner in Constantinople in 911. The first Western European pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent from Constantinople to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western European church music.


title: Pipe organ

text: From 800 to the 1400s, the use and construction of organs developed in significant ways, from the invention of the portative and positive organs to the installation of larger organs in major churches such as the cathedrals of Winchester and Notre Dame of Paris. In this period, organs began to be used in secular and religious settings. The introduction of organ into religious settings is ambiguous, most likely because the original position of the Church was that instrumental music was not to be allowed. However, by the twelfth century there is evidence for permanently installed organs existing in religious settings such as the Abbey of Fécamp and other locations throughout Europe.


title: Pipe organ

text: Several innovations occurred to organs in the Middle Ages, such as the creation of the portative and the positive organ. The portative organs were small and created for secular use and made of light weight delicate materials that would have been easy for one individual to transport and play on their own. The portative organ was a "flue-piped keyboard instrument, played with one hand while the other operated the bellows." Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings. The positive organ was larger than the portative organ but was still small enough to be portable and used in a variety of settings like the portative organ. Towards the middle of the 13th century, the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys, as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria.


title: Pipe organ

text: It is difficult to directly determine when larger organs began to be installed in Europe; however one of the first eyewitness accounts of organs is from Wulfstan of Winchester. This detailed account gives us an idea of what organs were like prior to the thirteenth century, when there are more records of large organs being placed in churches as well as their uses. In his account, he describes the sound of the organ: "among them bells outstanding in tone and size, and an organ [sounding] through bronze pipes prepared according to the musical proportions." This is one of the earliest accounts of organs in Europe and also indicates that the organ was large and more permanent than other evidence would suggest.


title: Pipe organ

text: The first organ documented to have been permanently installed was one installed in 1361 in Halberstadt, Germany. The first documented permanent organ installation likely prompted Guillaume de Machaut to describe the organ as "the king of instruments", a characterization still frequently applied. The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a chromatic key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard, although the keys were wider than on modern instruments. It had twenty bellows operated by ten men, and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full strength of their arm to hold down a key.


title: Pipe organ

text: Records of other organs permanently installed and used in worship services in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are found in large cathedrals such as Notre Dame, where in the 1300s you can find documents of organists being hired to work for the church as well as records documenting the installation of larger and permanent organs. The earliest record is a payment from 1332 from the clergy of Notre Dame to an organist to perform on the feasts St. Louis and St. Michael. The Notre Dame School also shows how organs could have been used within the increased use of polyphony, which would have allowed for the use of more instrumental voices within the music. This shows that by this point in time organs were being fully used within church services and not just in secular settings. There is proof that organs existed earlier in the medieval period, based on the surviving keyboards and casings of some organs, however no pipes from organs survive from this period. Until the mid-15th century, organs had no stop controls. Each manual controlled ranks at many pitches, known as the "Blockwerk." Around 1450, controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually. These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions. The higher-pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control; these stops developed into mixtures.


title: Pipe organ

text: During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the organ's tonal colors became more varied. Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments, such as the krummhorn and the viola da gamba. Builders such as Arp Schnitger, Jasper Johannsen, Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic masterpieces, displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound. These organs featured well-balanced mechanical key actions, giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech. Schnitger's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions.


title: Pipe organ

text: Different national styles of organ building began to develop, often due to changing political climates. In the Netherlands, the organ became a large instrument with several divisions, doubled ranks, and mounted cornets. The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions, and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common. The divisions of the organ became visibly discernible from the case design. Twentieth-century musicologists have retroactively labelled this the "Werkprinzip".


title: Pipe organ

text: In France, as in Italy, Spain and Portugal, organs were primarily designed to play alternatim verses rather than accompany congregational singing. The "French Classical Organ", became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era, more so than any other style of organ building in history, and standardized registrations developed. It was elaborately described by Dom Bédos de Celles in his treatise "L'art du facteur d'orgues" ("The Art of Organ Building"). The Italian Baroque organ was often a single-manual instrument, devoid of pedals. It was built on a full diapason chorus of octaves and fifths. The stop-names indicated the pitch relative to the fundamental ("Principale") and typically reached extremely short nominal pipe-lengths (for example, if the Principale were 8', the "Vigesimanona" was ½'). The highest ranks, however, "broke back", their smallest pipes being replaced by pipes an octave lower in pitch, to produce a kind of composite treble mixture.


title: Pipe organ

text: In England, many pipe organs were destroyed or removed from churches during the English Reformation of the 16th century and the Commonwealth period. Some were relocated to private homes. At the Restoration, organ builders such as Renatus Harris and "Father" Bernard Smith brought new organ-building ideas from continental Europe. English organs evolved from small one- or two-manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures, though still without pedal keyboards. The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early 18th century, and in 1712 Abraham Jordan claimed his "swelling organ" at St Magnus-the-Martyr to be a new invention. The swell box and the independent pedal division appeared in English organs beginning in the 18th century.


title: Pipe organ

text: During the Romantic period, the organ became more symphonic, capable of creating a gradual crescendo. This was made possible by voicing stops in such a way that families of tone that historically had only been used separately could now be used together, creating an entirely new way of approaching organ registration. New technologies and the work of organ builders such as , Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops, more variation in sound and timbre, and more divisions. For instance, as early as in 1808, the first 32' contre-bombarde was installed in the great organ of Nancy Cathedral, France. Enclosed divisions became common, and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops. The desire for louder, grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before. As a result, a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys. To solve this problem, Cavaillé-Coll configured the English "Barker lever" to assist in operating the key action. This is, essentially, a servomechanism that uses wind pressure from the air plenum, to augment the force that is exerted by the player's fingers.


title: Pipe organ

text: Organ builders began to lean towards specifications with fewer mixtures and high-pitched stops. They preferred to use more 8′ and 16′ stops in their specifications and wider pipe scales. These practices created a warmer, richer sound than was common in the 18th century. Organs began to be built in concert halls (such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris), and composers such as Camille Saint-Saëns and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works.


title: Pipe organ

text: The development of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes, greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design. Electric stop actions were also developed, which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created.


title: Pipe organ

text: Beginning in the early 20th century in Germany and in the mid-20th century in the United States, organ builders began to build historically inspired instruments modeled on Baroque organs. They returned to building mechanical key actions, voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales, and designing specifications with more mixture stops. This became known as the Organ Reform Movement.


title: Pipe organ

text: In the late 20th century, organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key, stop, and combination actions. Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable, this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist's performance using the MIDI protocol. In addition, some organ builders have incorporated digital (electronic) stops into their pipe organs.


title: Pipe organ

text: The electronic organ developed throughout the 20th century. Some pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price, smaller physical size, and minimal maintenance requirements. In the early 1970s, Rodgers Instruments pioneered the "hybrid" organ, an electronic instrument that incorporates real pipes; other builders such as Allen Organs and Johannus Orgelbouw have since built hybrid organs. Allen Organs first introduced the electronic organ in 1937 and in 1971 created the first digital organ using CMOS technology borrowed from NASA which created the digital pipe organ using sound recorded from actual speaking pipes and incorporating the sounds electronically within the memory of the digital organ thus having real pipe organ sound without the actual organ pipes.


title: Pipe organ

text: A pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes, a wind system, and one or more keyboards. The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system passes through them. An action connects the keyboards to the pipes. Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at a given time. The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console.


title: Pipe organ

text: Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound ("speak") when air under pressure ("wind") is directed through them. As one pipe produces a single pitch, multiple pipes are necessary to accommodate the musical scale. The greater the length of the pipe, the lower its resulting pitch will be. The timbre and volume of the sound produced by a pipe depends on the volume of air delivered to the pipe and the manner in which it is constructed and voiced, the latter adjusted by the builder to produce the desired tone and volume. Hence a pipe's volume cannot be readily changed while playing.


title: Pipe organ

text: Organ pipes are divided into flue pipes and reed pipes according to their design and timbre. Flue pipes produce sound by forcing air through a fipple, like that of a recorder, whereas reed pipes produce sound via a beating reed, like that of a clarinet or saxophone.


title: Pipe organ

text: Pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into ranks. A rank is a set of pipes of the same timbre but multiple pitches (one for each note on the keyboard), which is mounted (usually vertically) onto a windchest. The stop mechanism admits air to each rank. For a given pipe to sound, the stop governing the pipe's rank must be engaged, and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed. Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions. Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and conceptually comprises an individual instrument within the organ.


title: Pipe organ

text: An organ contains two actions, or systems of moving parts. When a key is depressed, the key action admits wind into a pipe. The stop action allows the organist to control which ranks are engaged. An action may be mechanical, pneumatic, or electrical (or some combination of these, such as electro-pneumatic action). The key action is independent of the stop action, allowing an organ to combine a mechanical key action along with an electric stop action.


title: Pipe organ

text: A key action which physically connects the keys and the windchests is a mechanical or tracker action. Connection is achieved through a series of rods called trackers. When the organist depresses a key, the corresponding tracker pulls open its pallet, allowing wind to enter the pipe.


title: Pipe organ

text: In a mechanical stop action, each stop control operates a valve for a whole rank of pipes. When the organist selects a stop, the valve allows wind to reach the selected rank. This control was at first a draw stop knob, which the organist selects by pulling (or drawing) toward himself/herself. This is the origin of the idiom "to pull out all the stops". More modern stop selectors, utilized in electric actions, are tilting tablets or rocker tabs.


title: Pipe organ

text: Tracker action has been used from antiquity to modern times. Before the pallet opens, wind pressure augments tension of the pallet spring, but once the pallet opens, only the spring tension is felt at the key. This provides a "breakaway" feel.


title: Pipe organ

text: A later development was the tubular-pneumatic action, which uses changes of pressure within lead tubing to operate pneumatic valves throughout the instrument. This allowed a lighter touch, and more flexibility in the location of the console, within a roughly 50-foot (15-m) limit. This type of construction was used in the late 19th century to early 20th century, and has had only rare application since the 1920s.


title: Pipe organ

text: A more recent development is the electric action which uses low voltage DC to control the key and/or stop mechanisms. Electricity may control the action indirectly through air pressure valves (pneumatics), in which case the action is electro-pneumatic. In such actions, an electromagnet attracts a small pilot valve which lets wind go to a bellows ("pneumatic") which opens the pallet. When electricity operates the action directly without the assistance of pneumatics, it is commonly referred to as direct electric action. In this type, the electromagnet's armature carries a disc pallet.


title: Pipe organ

text: When electrical wiring alone is used to connect the console to the windchest, electric actions allow the console to be separated at any practical distance from the rest of the organ, and to be movable. Electric stop actions can be controlled at the console by stop knobs, by pivoted tilting tablets, or rocker tabs. These are simple switches, like wall switches for room lights. Some may include electromagnets for setting or resetting when combinations are selected.


title: Pipe organ

text: The most innovations in organ control systems connect the console and windchests via narrow data cables instead of the larger bundles of cables. Embedded computers in the console and near the windchests communicate with each other via various complex multiplexing syntaxes, comparable to MIDI.


title: Pipe organ

text: The wind system consists of the parts that produce, store, and deliver wind to the pipes. Pipe organ wind pressures are on the order of . Organ builders traditionally measure organ wind using a water U-tube manometer, which gives the pressure as the difference in water levels in the two legs of the manometer. The difference in water level is proportional to the difference in pressure between the wind being measured and the atmosphere. The 0.10 psi above would register as 2.75 inches of water (70 mmAq). An Italian organ from the Renaissance period may be on only , while (in the extreme) solo stops in some large 20th-century organs may require up to . In isolated, extreme cases, some stops have been voiced on .


title: Pipe organ

text: With the exception of water organs, playing the organ before the invention of motors required at least one person to operate the bellows. When signaled by the organist, a "calcant" would operate a set of bellows, supplying the organ with wind. Because calcants were expensive, organists would usually practise on other instruments such as the clavichord or harpsichord. By the mid-19th-century bellows were also being operated by water engines, steam engines or gasoline engines. Starting in the 1860s bellows were gradually replaced by rotating turbines which were later directly connected to electrical motors. This made it possible for organists to practice regularly on the organ. Most organs, both new and historic, have electric blowers, although some can still be operated manually. The wind supplied is stored in one or more regulators to maintain a constant pressure in the "windchests" until the action allows it to flow into the pipes.


title: Pipe organ

text: Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes, although mixtures and undulating stops (such as the Voix céleste) control multiple ranks. The name of the stop reflects not only the stop's timbre and construction, but also the style of the organ in which it resides. For example, the names on an organ built in the north German Baroque style generally will be derived from the German language, while the names of similar stops on an organ in the French Romantic style will usually be French. Most countries tend to use only their own languages for stop nomenclature. English-speaking nations as well as Japan are more receptive to foreign nomenclature. Stop names are not standardized: two otherwise identical stops from different organs may have different names.


title: Pipe organ

text: To facilitate a large range of timbres, organ stops exist at different pitch levels. A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is referred to as being at 8′ (pronounced "eight-foot") pitch. This refers to the speaking length of the lowest-sounding pipe in that rank, which is approximately . For the same reason, a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2′ pitch. Likewise, a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32′ pitch. Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously.


title: Pipe organ

text: The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop's name and its pitch in feet. Stops that control multiple ranks display a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks present, instead of pitch. Thus, a stop labelled "Open Diapason 8′ " is a single-rank diapason stop sounding at 8′ pitch. A stop labelled "Mixture V" is a five-rank mixture.


title: Pipe organ

text: Sometimes, a single rank of pipes may be able to be controlled by several stops, allowing the rank to be played at multiple pitches or on multiple manuals. Such a rank is said to be "unified" or "borrowed". For example, an 8′ Diapason rank may also be made available as a 4′ Octave. When both of these stops are selected and a key (for example, c′) is pressed, two pipes of the same rank will sound: the pipe normally corresponding to the key played (c′), and the pipe one octave above that (c′′). Because the 8′ rank does not have enough pipes to sound the top octave of the keyboard at 4′ pitch, it is common for an extra octave of pipes used only for the borrowed 4′ stop to be added. In this case, the full rank of pipes (now an "extended rank") is one octave longer than the keyboard.


title: Pipe organ

text: Special unpitched stops also appear in some organs. Among these are the Zimbelstern (a wheel of rotating bells), the nightingale (a pipe submerged in a small pool of water, creating the sound of a bird warbling when wind is admitted), and the "effet d'orage" ("thunder effect", a device that sounds the lowest bass pipes simultaneously). Standard orchestral percussion instruments such as the drum, chimes, celesta, and harp have also been imitated in organ building.


title: Pipe organ

text: The controls available to the organist, including the keyboards, couplers, expression pedals, stops, and registration aids are accessed from the console. The console is either built into the organ case or detached from it.


title: Pipe organ

text: Keyboards played by the hands are known as "manuals" (from the Latin "", meaning "hand"). The keyboard played by the feet is a "pedalboard". Every organ has at least one manual (most have two or more), and most have a pedalboard. Each keyboard is named for a particular division of the organ (a group of ranks) and generally controls only the stops from that division. The range of the keyboards has varied widely across time and between countries. Most current specifications call for two or more manuals with sixty-one notes (five octaves, from C to c″″) and a pedalboard with thirty or thirty-two notes (two and a half octaves, from C to f′ or g′).


title: Pipe organ

text: A "coupler" allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division. For example, a coupler labelled "Swell to Great" allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual. This coupler is a unison coupler, because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual. Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects. It also allows every stop of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual.


title: Pipe organ

text: "Octave couplers", which add the pipes an octave above (super-octave) or below (sub-octave) each note that is played, may operate on one division only (for example, the Swell super octave, which adds the octave above what is being played on the Swell to itself), or act as a coupler to another keyboard (for example, the Swell super-octave to Great, which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is being played).


title: Pipe organ

text: In addition, larger organs may use "unison off" couplers, which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch. These can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects, and can also be used to rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play.


title: Pipe organ

text: "Enclosure" refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops. In a two-manual organ with Great and Swell divisions, the Swell will be enclosed. In larger organs, parts or all of the Choir and Solo divisions may also be enclosed. The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the "swell box". At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal or vertical palettes known as "swell shades", which operate in a similar way to Venetian blinds; their position can be adjusted from the console. When the swell shades are open, more sound is heard than when they are closed. Sometimes the shades are exposed, but they are often concealed behind a row of facade-pipes or a grill.


title: Pipe organ

text: The most common method of controlling the louvers is the balanced swell pedal. This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near-vertical position (in which the shades are closed) to a near-horizontal position (in which the shades are open). An organ may also have a similar-looking crescendo pedal, found alongside any expression pedals. Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates the stops of the organ, starting with the softest and ending with the loudest; pressing it backwards reverses this process.


title: Pipe organ

text: Organ stops can be combined in many permutations, resulting in a great variety of sounds. A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one combination of stops (called a "registration") to another. Combination actions feature small buttons called "pistons" that can be pressed by the organist, generally located beneath the keys of each manual (thumb pistons) or above the pedalboard (toe pistons). The pistons may be "divisional" (affecting only a single division) or "general" (affecting all the divisions), and are either preset by the organ builder or can be altered by the organist. Modern combination actions operate via computer memory, and can store several channels of registrations.


title: Pipe organ

text: The pipes, action, and wind system are almost always contained in a case, the design of which also may incorporate the console. The case blends the organ's sound and aids in projecting it into the room. The case is often designed to complement the building's architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations. The visible portion of the case, called the "façade", will most often contain pipes, which may be either sounding pipes or dummy pipes solely for decoration. The façade pipes may be plain, burnished, gilded, or painted and are usually referred to as "(en) " within the context of the French organ school.


title: Pipe organ

text: Organ cases occasionally feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets. These are referred to as pipes "en chamade" and are particularly common in organs of the Iberian peninsula and large 20th-century instruments.


title: Pipe organ

text: Many organs, particularly those built in the early 20th century, are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers. Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case, enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant. For this reason, some modern builders, particularly those building instruments specializing in polyphony rather than Romantic compositions, avoid this unless the architecture of the room makes it necessary.


title: Pipe organ

text: The goal of tuning a pipe organ is to adjust the pitch of each pipe so that they all sound in tune with each other. How the pitch of each pipe is adjusted depends on the type and construction of that pipe.


title: Pipe organ

text: Regulation adjusts the action so that all pipes sound correctly. If the regulation is wrongly set, the keys may be at different heights, some pipes may sound when the keys are not pressed (a "cipher"), or pipes may not sound when a key is pressed. Tracker action, for example in the organ of Cradley Heath Baptist Church, includes adjustment nuts on the wire ends of the wooden trackers, which have the effect of changing the effective length of each tracker.


title: Pipe organ

text: The main development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself, leading to distinctive national styles of composition. Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues, the organ repertoire includes a large amount of sacred music, which is accompanimental (choral anthems, congregational hymns, liturgical elements, etc.) as well as solo in nature (chorale preludes, hymn versets designed for "alternatim" use, etc.). The organ's secular repertoire includes preludes, fugues, sonatas, organ symphonies, suites, and transcriptions of orchestral works.


title: Pipe organ

text: Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire, France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music. There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands, England, and the United States.


title: Pipe organ

text: Before the Baroque era, keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another, but rather was written to be played on "any" keyboard instrument. For this reason, much of the organ's repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the harpsichord. Pre-Renaissance keyboard music is found in compiled manuscripts that may include compositions from a variety of regions. The oldest of these sources is the Robertsbridge Codex, dating from about 1360. The Buxheimer Orgelbuch, which dates from about 1470 and was compiled in Germany, includes intabulations of vocal music by the English composer John Dunstaple. The earliest Italian organ music is found in the Faenza Codex, dating from 1420.


title: Pipe organ

text: In the Renaissance period, Dutch composers such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck composed both fantasias and psalm settings. Sweelinck in particular developed a rich collection of keyboard figuration that influenced subsequent composers. The Italian composer Claudio Merulo wrote in the typical Italian genres of the toccata, the canzona, and the ricercar. In Spain, the works of Antonio de Cabezón began the most prolific period of Spanish organ composition, which culminated with Juan Cabanilles.


title: Pipe organ

text: Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal. Sacred organ music was based on chorales: composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes, chorale fantasias, and chorale motets. Towards the end of the Baroque era, the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed, forming the chorale partita. This genre was developed by Georg Böhm, Johann Pachelbel, and Dieterich Buxtehude. The primary type of free-form piece in this period was the praeludium, as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann, Nicolaus Bruhns, Böhm, and Buxtehude. The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large-scale preludes and fugues and chorale-based works. Towards the end of the Baroque era, George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos.


title: Pipe organ

text: In France, organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze, François Couperin, and Nicolas de Grigny. Because the French organ of the 17th and early 18th centuries was very standardized, a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire. The music of French composers (and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi) was written for use during the Mass. Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period; the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use. In England, composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi-sectional free works for liturgical use called "voluntaries" through the 19th century.


title: Pipe organ

text: Organ music was seldom written in the Classical era, as composers preferred the piano with its ability to create dynamics. In Germany, the six sonatas op. 65 of Felix Mendelssohn (published 1845) marked the beginning of a renewed interest in composing for the organ. Inspired by the newly built Cavaillé-Coll organs, the French organist-composers César Franck, Alexandre Guilmant and Charles-Marie Widor led organ music into the symphonic realm. The development of symphonic organ music continued with Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire. Widor and Vierne wrote large-scale, multi-movement works called "organ symphonies" that exploited the full possibilities of the symphonic organ, such as Widor's Symphony for Organ No. 6 and Vierne's Organ Symphony No. 3. Max Reger and Sigfrid Karg-Elert's symphonic works made use of the abilities of the large Romantic organs being built in Germany at the time.


title: Pipe organ

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues, allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra, as in Saint-Saëns' Symphony No. 3 (sometimes known as the "Organ Symphony"). Frequently the organ is given a soloistic part, such as in Joseph Jongen's "Symphonie Concertante for Organ & Orchestra", Francis Poulenc's "Concerto for Organ, Strings and Tympani", and Frigyes Hidas' Organ Concerto.


title: Pipe organ

text: Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst, Richard Strauss, Ottorino Respighi, Gustav Mahler, Anton Bruckner, and Ralph Vaughan Williams. Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras, transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire. As silent films became popular, theatre organs were installed in theatres to provide accompaniment for the films.


title: Pipe organ

text: In the 20th-century symphonic repertoire, both sacred and secular, continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupré, Maurice Duruflé, and Herbert Howells. Other composers, such as Olivier Messiaen, György Ligeti, Jehan Alain, Jean Langlais, Gerd Zacher, and Petr Eben, wrote post-tonal organ music. Messiaen's music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique.


title: Pipe organ

text: Albert Schweitzer was an organist who studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement.


title: Pipe organ

text: Music director Hans Zimmer used pipe organ in the movie Interstellar for the leading background score. The final recording took place in London's Temple Church on 1926 four-manual Harrison and Harrison organ.


title: Jim Duggan

text: James Edward Duggan Jr. (born January 14, 1954), better known by his ring name "Hacksaw" Jim Duggan, is an American professional wrestler. He is signed to WWE on a Legends contract. His best-known character is that of an American patriot, which sees him use a 2x4 length of wood as a weapon, the battle cry "Hooo!" and the U-S-A! cheer.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now known as WWE), Duggan was the winner of the first ever Royal Rumble match in 1988 and in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), he was a one time United States Heavyweight Champion and a one time (and the final) World Television Champion. In wrestling, he is a one time world champion having won the IWA World Heavyweight Championship. Duggan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2011.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan grew up in Glens Falls, New York, where he became a star athlete in high school. Duggan is of English and Scottish ancestry. He was raised Presbyterian. His father was the Chief of police for the City of Glens Falls. Duggan was a letterman in football, track, wrestling, and basketball. In wrestling, Duggan won the New York State High School wrestling championship, unlimited weight class division – the first wrestler from Glens Falls to do so.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Upon graduating from high school, he was recruited by Ohio State University, but would instead choose to play football at Southern Methodist University (SMU), where he was eventually voted team captain. Duggan earned his bachelor's degree in applied plant biology. After college, Duggan was signed by the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League, but was released after being plagued by knee injuries.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan broke into professional wrestling thanks in large part to wrestler Fritz Von Erich. The two met while Duggan was on a recruiting trip to SMU. Duggan's first professional match was in 1979 against Gino Hernandez. Duggan began his career as a villain. Training at the Sportatorium in Dallas, Texas as well as with Samoan wrestling promoter Peter Maivia, Duggan gained the attention of Vince McMahon, Sr. and the World Wrestling Federation (WWF).


title: Jim Duggan

text: After a brief stint with the WWF, Duggan began to work regularly for Georgia Championship Wrestling. During this time, Duggan was known by two in-ring aliases: in the Contiguous United States as "Big" Jim Duggan and in Hawaii as The Convict, a masked wrestler. After wrestling for a Birmingham, Alabama-based promotion, Duggan began wrestling in a promotion based in San Antonio, Texas where he adopted his well-known "Hacksaw" nickname.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In 1982, Duggan made his debut in Mid-South Wrestling. Upon debuting as a heel, and bounty hunter for Skandor Akbar, Duggan soon became a member of the Rat Pack faction, alongside Ted DiBiase, Matt Bourne, and Mr. Olympia. After newcomer "Hacksaw" Butch Reed debuted within the promotion, Duggan and Reed had a personal feud for a time over who would be the true "Hacksaw". The Rats also feuded with stars such as Reed, Magnum T. A. and the Junkyard Dog. During this time, Duggan interfered in a DiBiase/JYD match while wearing a gorilla suit during the Louisiana State Fair, causing JYD to lose a "Loser Leaves Town" match in Shreveport, Louisiana. After DiBiase aligned himself with Skandor Akbar, Duggan refused to go along with him and became a face for the first time in his career. At this time, Duggan began carrying his iconic 2x4.


title: Jim Duggan

text: As a fan favorite, he won the Mid-South Tag Team Championship with Magnum T. A. and later won the North American Heavyweight Championship. After the Mid-South North American title was retired when Mid-South became the Universal Wrestling Federation (UWF) in 1986, Duggan lost to Terry Gordy in a tournament final to determine the first UWF World Heavyweight Champion. Duggan then teamed up with Terry Taylor and won the UWF World Tag Team Championship for the second time. After losing a Loser Leaves Town match to the One Man Gang, Duggan left the UWF for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF).


title: Jim Duggan

text: In August 1981, while still wrestling in Georgia, Duggan toured throughout Japan under New Japan Pro-Wrestling, during their "Bloody Fight Series" tour, facing Antonio Inoki in the first day of August 21, in a losing effort. Duggan would defeat low-card wrestlers such as Haruka Eigen, Kengo Kimura, Ryūma Gō and Kantaro Hoshino, while losing to main eventers such as Inoki, Tatsumi Fujinami, Seiji Sakaguchi, Strong Kobayashi and Tiger Toguchi. At one point, he teamed up with Bad News Allen to face the teams of Eigen and Gō, in a winning effort, and Choshu and Sakaguchi, in a losing effort.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In January 1986, while he was now working under Bill Watts' Universal Wrestling Federation, Duggan would once again venture overseas to New Japan, now wrestling in their "New Year Dash" tour, coincidentally facing Inoki once again in the first day of their tour on January 3, this time ending in a double count-out. Duggan, a now more established wrestler, was receiving a lot of good results during the tour, clashing with main eventers such as Fujinami, Sakaguchi, Kimura and Choshu to draws, and dominating young lions such as Tatsutoshi Goto and Yang-Seung Hi. He also wrestled tag-team action during the series, teaming with the likes of Tony St. Clair, Johnny Mantell, Black Tiger, Mike Miller and the twin-team of Madd Maxx (1 & 2), with the majority of them ending in the losing end for Duggan's team. Duggan would tour one last time overseas in September of the same year, wrestling on New Japan's "Challenge Spirit" tour, resuming his encounters against Inoki, Fujinami, Kimura and Sakaguchi, as well as facing Umanosuke Ueda and George Takano in tag-team matches, teaming once again with Madd Maxx, Jerry Gray and The Angel Of Death. His last match came against Seiji Sakaguchi in a double count-out.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan was signed to the WWF in January 1987, making his first major appearance with the WWF at WrestleMania III, where he also made his pay-per-view debut. In the weeks preceding WrestleMania, Duggan began his first WWF feud with Nikolai Volkoff. At the event, he ran to ringside prior to a match between The Killer Bees and The Iron Sheik and Nikolai Volkoff and interrupted Volkoff's pre-match singing of the Russian national anthem. Duggan had previously done this on TV matches leading up to the event.


title: Jim Duggan

text: On May 26, 1987 Duggan and the Iron Sheik were arrested for DUI in New Jersey. Duggan was released from the company, but was ultimately brought back in a lower spot on roster. Although he did not win any major titles in the promotion, for seven years he was a consistent fan favorite with his patriotic working class everyman gimmick. His character was mainly comical, as he rarely was in major contention for titles. His first major WWF match was at the first-ever Survivor Series pay-per-view in 1987, when he participated in the first Survivor Series match and was a member of the winning team.


title: Jim Duggan

text: By the late fall of 1987, Duggan received his first major push since his return, being placed in a feud opposite "King" Harley Race, who was using a monarch gimmick who sneered at wrestlers he thought were below him. Duggan vowed he would never give in to Race's demands to bow to him, and during a televised confrontation, took Race's crown and cape, though Race would later get them back. At the 1987 Slammy Awards, where Duggan presented the nominees for "Best Ring Apparel," an on-stage shoving match between him and the winner (Race), sparking a wild brawl broke out between the two, going backstage and eventually reaching back to the main stage before interrupting another award presentation and Gorilla Monsoon stepping in to separate the two. Duggan eventually defeated Race several times in both televised and non-televised shows.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan participated in the first-ever Royal Rumble match in 1988, where he was the 13th of twenty entrants. He won the match after he last eliminated the One Man Gang.


title: Jim Duggan

text: At WrestleMania IV, he participated in a 14-man tournament for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship, where he lost to Ted DiBiase in the first round after interference from André the Giant. Shortly after WrestleMania IV, Duggan—upset that André cost him his match—came to the ring during one of André's matches and challenged him; a feud erupted when André suddenly grabbed Duggan and began throttling him, before Duggan knocked André out with his 2x4 board. André generally came out the winner in their matches, usually by interference from André's manager Bobby Heenan. André also interfered in several of Duggan's matches against other wrestlers, including Hercules on the April 30 edition of "Saturday Night's Main Event".


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan earned a shot at the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship against The Honky Tonk Man in July 1988, but Honky Tonk got himself disqualified, thus retaining the title.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan then began displaying traits of an American patriot by feuding with several foreign villains in the fall of 1988. He got involved in a feud with Dino Bravo, and the two were on opposing sides as Jake "The Snake" Roberts' team fought André the Giant's at the 1988 Survivor Series. Duggan was disqualified after he used his 2x4 on Bravo. Duggan's team eventually lost the match. His next feud was with Russian Boris Zhukov, whom he defeated in a flag match on the November 26 edition of "Saturday Night's Main Event". He restarted his feud with Dino Bravo, and at the 1989 Royal Rumble, Duggan and The Hart Foundation (Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart) defeated Bravo and The Fabulous Rougeau Brothers (Jacques and Raymond) in a two out of three falls match. He was involved in a rivalry with Bad News Brown, which culminated in a match at WrestleMania V where both men fought to a no contest.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In mid-1989, he started a feud with King Haku, who was awarded the crown on the July 9, 1988 edition of "Superstars" when Harley Race was forced to vacate the crown due to injuries sustained in a match against Hulk Hogan on the March 12, 1988 edition of "Saturday Night's Main Event". Duggan defeated Haku to win the crown and earn the title of "King of the WWF" on the May 13, 1989 edition of "Superstars". On the May 27 edition of "Saturday Night's Main Event", Duggan earned a shot at the Intercontinental Championship against "Ravishing" Rick Rude. Duggan won the match by countout, and Rude retained the title, as a title cannot change hands via countout or disqualification. At SummerSlam, Duggan teamed with Demolition (Ax and Smash) in a six-man tag team match and defeated André the Giant and The Twin Towers (Akeem and The Big Bossman).


title: Jim Duggan

text: He eventually lost his crown to "Macho Man" Randy Savage, who began calling himself "Macho King", and started a feud with Savage. At Survivor Series, he captained a team dubbed "The 4x4's" against Savage's team, "The King's Court". Duggan's team lost the match. He faced Savage again on the January 27 edition of "Saturday Night's Main Event". Duggan defeated another former rival, Dino Bravo at WrestleMania VI. He began teaming with his former rival, Nikolai Volkoff and started a feud with The Orient Express (Tanaka and Sato), whom they beat at SummerSlam. He began a short feud with WWF World Heavyweight Champion Sgt. Slaughter and faced Slaughter for the title on the February 1 edition of "The Main Event". Slaughter retained the title by getting himself disqualified.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In late 1991, he patched up things with Sgt. Slaughter, who had turned babyface, and the pair formed a tag team. At Survivor Series, the duo joined the Texas Tornado and Tito Santana in an elimination match to defeat a team led by Col. Mustafa. On the February 8 edition of "Saturday Night's Main Event", Duggan and Slaughter defeated the Beverly Brothers (Blake and Beau). At WrestleMania VIII, he teamed up with Virgil, Sgt. Slaughter, and Big Bossman against The Nasty Boys (Jerry Sags and Brian Knobs), The Mountie, and Repo Man. Slaughter eventually left active wrestling and Duggan continued to pursue his singles career again.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In mid-1992, Duggan was moved to undercard status. In early 1993, he was involved in a feud with the then near 600 pound Yokozuna, who was the number one contender to the WWF Championship. Manager Mr. Fuji was bad mouthing America and Duggan challenged his protégé to a match. The match was promoted by claiming that no one had knocked Yokozuna off his feet, even though Yokozuna had fallen off his feet shortly before, during the 1993 Royal Rumble match. The stipulations to the match were if Duggan knocked Yokozuna off his feet, Duggan would win. On the February 6 edition of "Superstars", Duggan won the match after knocking Yokozuna down completely, but then was manhandled by the much bigger Yokozuna after the match and fell victim to four Banzai Drops, sidelining Duggan for about four months.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan eventually returned to television and started a feud with then-Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels, challenging him for the title on the May 3 edition of "Monday Night Raw". Michaels ran through the crowd, and retained the title by countout. On the next show, to prevent Michaels from pulling the stunt again, Duggan received a return bout in a lumberjack match. Before the match started, Duggan attacked his former rival Yokozuna after discovering he was one of the lumberjacks. Late in the match, Bam Bam Bigelow distracted Duggan from the outside, which enabled Michaels to attack him and throw him out of the ring to where Yokozuna was standing. Yokozuna then paid Duggan back by legdropping him on the floor, then rolled his lifeless body back into the ring as the referee’s back was turned. As Michaels went to pin Duggan, Mr. Perfect entered the ring and attacked the champion, which resulted in Duggan being disqualified and touching off a postmatch brawl between the lumberjacks; Duggan would eventually rise to his feet and clear the ring with his 2x4. Duggan then competed in the King of the Ring tournament, defeating Papa Shango to qualify before losing to Bam Bam Bigelow in the quarterfinals. He continued to appear on WWF programming until the summer, when he left the company after losing several pre-Summerslam matches to Yokozuna.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan signed a contract with World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in late 1994. He debuted in WCW at Fall Brawl, where he defeated Steve Austin in a squash match lasting thirty-five seconds to win the United States Heavyweight Championship. After becoming champion, he quickly started a feud with Austin, and eventually defeated him in a title rematch at Halloween Havoc by disqualification. The two had a second title rematch on the November 16 edition of "Clash of the Champions", where Duggan retained the title again by disqualification. Duggan's reign ended at Starrcade, where he was defeated by Vader.


title: Jim Duggan

text: After he lost the U.S. title to Vader, Duggan moved to the mid-card division and began wrestling on "Saturday Night". He defeated Bunkhouse Buck at SuperBrawl V. He faced former WWF rival Meng (known as Haku in WWF) in a martial arts match at Uncensored, which Meng won. At The Great American Bash, he defeated Sgt. Craig Pittman by disqualification in Pittman's pay-per-view debut. At Bash at the Beach, Duggan lost to Kamala.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In late 1995, Duggan started a feud with Big Bubba Rogers, which culminated in a Taped Fist match at World War 3, which Rogers won. Duggan participated in the first-ever three ring, 60 man battle royal for the vacant World Heavyweight Championship, but was eliminated. He fought Loch Ness to a double disqualification at a "Main Event" taping before SuperBrawl VI. Duggan then started a short feud with Diamond Dallas Page, to whom he lost in a Taped Fist match at Bash at the Beach. At World War 3, he unsuccessfully participated in a three ring 60 man battle royal to determine the #1 contender to the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Duggan had no major pay-per-view matches for over two years before he disappeared in 1998 after he was diagnosed with kidney cancer.


title: Jim Duggan

text: After being cured of his cancer, Duggan returned to wrestling and replaced Buff Bagwell in a match against Berlyn at Fall Brawl, which Duggan lost. Soon after, Duggan became involved in a storyline where he became a janitor for WCW. Duggan then started a feud with the anti-American stable the Revolution (Shane Douglas, Dean Malenko, Perry Saturn, and Asya). At Starrcade, he and his surprise partners, the newly reunited Varsity Club (Kevin Sullivan, Mike Rotunda, and Rick Steiner), faced the Revolution in a losing effort after the Club turned on Duggan. As a result of losing, the next night on "Nitro", Duggan was forced to denounce the U.S. flag but he refused to do so. In response, the Revolution attacked him and began beating him until The Filthy Animals, who were also feuding with the Revolution, saved Duggan.


title: Jim Duggan

text: During this period, he found the World Television Championship in a trash can, which had been thrown away by the previous champion Scott Hall earlier and claimed it for himself. He would make title defenses exclusively on "Saturday Night", and remained champion until the title was deactivated. After WCW was rebooted and the nWo storyline ended, it was replaced by two new factions in WCW called The Millionaire's Club and the New Blood, which began feuding with one another. The Millionaire's Club consisted of veterans and the New Blood consisted of young wrestlers of the 1990s. Duggan joined the Millionaire's Club and helped them in their war against the New Blood.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Near the end of his career in WCW, he became involved in more major storylines, including one that involved him becoming a villain by abandoning the patriotic gimmick for a short time to join Lance Storm and his faction Team Canada. This angle began when Duggan started working with the Misfits In Action (MIA) but at Fall Brawl, he turned on MIA's leader U.S. Champion General Rection during Rection's title defense against Team Canada's Lance Storm. Duggan was the special guest enforcer for the match, and helped Storm in winning the match. During this time Duggan cut his hair short, shaved his trademark beard and sang "O Canada". At Halloween Havoc, Duggan and Storm teamed up against General Rection in a handicap match for Storm's U.S. Title. Duggan missed an attack on Rection, which led to Rection pinning Duggan to win the match. Duggan continued to unintentionally cost Team Canada many of their victories, but he helped Storm to defeat The Cat in a match at Starrcade. However, after the match, Team Canada turned on Duggan, who then began feuding with Team Canada, and at Sin he was the special guest referee in a Penalty Box match between Team Canada and the Filthy Animals. Despite Duggan's role as the referee, Team Canada won the match after Storm forced Kidman to submit.


title: Jim Duggan

text: After WCW was purchased by the WWF in March 2001, Duggan began wrestling in the independent circuit. On December 5, 2002, Duggan defeated Krusher Kong at LWE Xplosion.


title: Jim Duggan

text: On the March 12, 2003 pay-per-view of NWA Total Nonstop Action (TNA), Duggan made a surprise appearance and defeated fellow WCW alum Mike Sanders. on the March 19 NWATNA, Duggan and Moondog Spot defeated Mike Sanders and Disco Inferno. Duggan made his final appearance in TNA on October 29, where he lost to Jeff Jarrett.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan appeared on the October 3, 2005 edition of "Raw", dubbed "The Homecoming" along with several other WWF/E alumni. He and the other legends attacked Rob Conway after Conway came to the ring and insulted them. He was also one of the "legends" available for fans to select to team with Eugene in a match at Taboo Tuesday to face the team of Conway and Tyson Tomko (Jimmy Snuka was chosen instead of Duggan). He returned to WWE again after Royal Rumble, with a message from John Cena to Lita after Edge lost the WWE Championship: "HOOOOO!" Duggan and Edge began a short feud with each other which culminated in a match that occurred two weeks later on "Raw", which Edge won after Lita provided a distraction.


title: Jim Duggan

text: After feuding with Edge and Lita, he became mentor and tutor to Eugene and the two feuded with The Spirit Squad. He began working on "Heat", but also made a few appearances on "Raw" with Eugene and The Highlanders. On the November 6 edition of "Raw", Duggan and Eugene faced the Spirit Squad in a match with the stipulation that the losing team would disband and never team up again. After Duggan was caught off guard after the other Spirit Squad members interfered and then pinned for the win, Eugene snapped and attacked Duggan. He started a feud with Eugene, and three weeks later, the two had a match with each other, which Eugene won.


title: Jim Duggan

text: At New Year's Revolution, Duggan teamed with Super Crazy in a tag team turmoil match to determine the number one contenders to the World Tag Team Championship, in a losing effort. On the January 15 edition of "Raw", Duggan was dragged out by Rated-RKO (Edge and Randy Orton) and was beaten to a pulp. Edge and Orton feared Duggan would help out Shawn Michaels in a handicap match and wanted to set an example for anyone else backstage that wished to do the same. On the March 5 edition of "Raw", he faced Chris Masters in a Masterlock Challenge, but was unable to break the hold.


title: Jim Duggan

text: After months of wrestling on "Heat", Duggan returned to "Raw" in July, teaming up with The Sandman and feuding with Carlito and William Regal. This team was short lived as Duggan soon returned to "Heat" and Sandman was soon released from his contract with WWE. On the August 6 edition of "Raw", Duggan was a contestant in the "WWE Dating Game", a parody of "The Dating Game". However, Duggan lost when Maria chose Ron Simmons.


title: Jim Duggan

text: On December 31, he lost a 2008 Royal Rumble qualifying match to the returning Umaga. After that, he began primarily appearing on "Heat" once again, defeating locals and teaming with Super Crazy. On the March 17 episode of "Raw", he participated in a 17-on-2 handicap elimination tag team match as part of the 17 members of the "Raw" roster against John Cena and Randy Orton. After Cody Rhodes was eliminated, all the remaining "Raw" wrestlers attacked Cena and Orton, resulting in their disqualification. Duggan also took part in a 12-on-12 tag team preview match on the March 25 episode of "ECW". He competed 24-man battle royal was held just before WrestleMania XXIV aired to determine the #1 contender for an ECW Championship match. The match was eventually won by Kane.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In the summer of 2008, Duggan started a short feud with Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase after Rhodes and DiBiase tried to convince Duggan to retire and let the young talent run the show. Soon after, Duggan would come out and announce that he would take Rhodes and DiBiase's advice and retire, but Jerry Lawler stopped him by convincing Duggan to stay. Duggan and Lawler then wrestled Rhodes and DiBiase on the August 25, 2008 edition of "Raw", but lost the match. On the October 20 edition of "Raw", Duggan confronted Santino Marella and Beth Phoenix during one of Marella's tirades against his three possible opponents at Cyber Sunday (Roddy Piper, Goldust, and The Honky Tonk Man). Upset at being interrupted, Marella took off his clothes, getting ready to fight Duggan. Yet before a fight could begin, Marella instructed Phoenix to throw the clothes in Duggan's face, a move that temporarily distracted Duggan. Marella then smashed a guitar over Duggan's head, ending the segment. Duggan would appear on "Raw"'s 800th episode during Kung Fu Naki's in-ring dance segment, which also involved various other members of the WWE roster.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In 2009, Duggan appeared in the 2009 Royal Rumble match, entering at #29 and setting a record for the most years between Royal Rumble appearances. He was eliminated from the match by Big Show. On the August 10 episode of "Raw", Duggan made his final televised appearance as Sgt. Slaughter had him come out in place of Bret Hart, due to the episode taking place in Canada, when he introduced "The best there was, the best there is, and the best there ever will be" in order to mock the Canadian fans.


title: Jim Duggan

text: He then resumed wrestling on the independent circuit. He recently appeared on Pro Wrestling Ohio's "Wrestlelution 3" where he defeated "The Megastar" Marion Fontaine.


title: Jim Duggan

text: He has signed on with Global Force Wrestling as a "legend" to help promote GFW events and tours. To promote the shows, GFW's Jeff Jarrett and Duggan have appeared at Dell Diamond on Thursday, May 28. January 2016, Duggan appeared in an event for Modern Vintage Wrestling in Wilmington, North Carolina.


title: Jim Duggan

text: On April 2, 2011, Duggan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by fellow inductee "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan returned to wrestling in WWE with an appearance at the 2012 Royal Rumble and entered the Royal Rumble match as the #19 entrant and was eliminated by Cody Rhodes. On the February 3, 2012 episode of "SmackDown", Duggan teamed with Santino Marella in a losing effort against the WWE Tag Team Champions Primo and Epico. On April 10, 2012, Duggan made an appearance on "SuperSmackDown LIVE: Blast from the Past", where he lost to Hunico by disqualification. Later that year, he appeared on the July 3 "SuperSmackDown LIVE: The Great American Bash" event, teaming with Sgt. Slaughter and Santino Marella to face Hunico, Camacho, and Drew McIntyre.


title: Jim Duggan

text: It was announced in February 2012 that Duggan would appear on a WWE original reality show called "WWE Legends House". The show premiered on the WWE Network on April 17, 2014.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan appears as himself in the film "Pro Wrestlers vs Zombies," in which he battles the undead with his 2x4.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In 1999, Duggan was a guest panelist for two episodes of the Nickelodeon children's game show "Figure It Out".


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan appears in the sixth episode of the second season of GamesMaster in the UK, where he played WWF on the Super Nintendo against a boy he picked from the crowd, Hacksaw played as Macho Man Randy Savage and was beaten.


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan and former WWF announcer Sean Mooney now run a weekly podcast on the MLW Radio Network called "Primetime with Hacksaw Jim Duggan and Sean Mooney". Duggan left the podcast after 18 episodes and Mooney is now hosting by himself.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In 2017, Duggan released the first issue of a biographical comic book miniseries through Squared Circle Comics, titled "Hacksaw Jim Duggan".


title: Jim Duggan

text: Duggan and his wife Debra have two daughters, Celia and Rebecca. He is a close friend of Willie Robertson who owns the Duck Commanders.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In 1987, Duggan and The Iron Sheik (Khosrow Vaziri) were pulled over by New Jersey State Police before a WWF event, suspecting Duggan of driving under the influence. After a search of the vehicle and the persons, police discovered that Duggan was under the influence of marijuana and alcohol, while Vaziri was high on cocaine. Small amounts of cocaine were also found in the vehicle. Duggan received a conditional release while Vaziri was placed on probation for a year. The scandal that erupted after two in-ring enemies were found drinking and doing drugs together led to the end of the angle, the Sheik's release, and Duggan's temporary departure from WWF. Duggan soon returned to wrestling.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In November 2013, Duggan started an IndieGoGo campaign to cover the cost repairing his torn rotator cuff. Funding closed December 2013 and raised $10,396; well over the goal of $6,500.


title: Jim Duggan

text: In 2018, Duggan was admitted into the ICU and underwent a heart procedure for atrial fibrillation. In 2019, Duggan had a pair of heart surgeries for what was described as a serious infection. On October 20, 2021, he was rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The nature of the surgery is unknown however his wife posted on Facebook “Back where we don't want to be. Please pray for Jim and his doctors as he has emergency surgery this morning. Thank you, Debra.” On October 28, 2021, Duggan announced via Instagram a week later that he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and had been living with it for a couple of months. This led to another surgery on October 29, 2021. "Jim's surgery went as planned. He is resting comfortably now. Thank you for your prayers, good vibes and well wishes. Please continue them as he continues to heal" his wife said. On December 8, 2021, Duggan announced in a video uploaded to his Twitter account that he was cancer-free. On May 15, 2022, Duggan posted a video on his Facebook page to announce that his cancer treatment was not over and he would need hormone shots and radiation treatment for the next 8 weeks, 5 days a week. Duggan said the doctors are very optimistic that they caught it early.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), formerly known as Steno-Fallot tetralogy, is a congenital heart defect characterized by four specific cardiac defects. Classically, the four defects are:


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: At birth, children may be asymptomatic or present with many severe symptoms. Later in infancy, there are typically episodes of bluish colour to the skin due to a lack of sufficient oxygenation, known as cyanosis. When affected babies cry or have a bowel movement, they may undergo a "tet spell" where they turn cyanotic, have difficulty breathing, become limp, and occasionally lose consciousness. Other symptoms may include a heart murmur, finger clubbing, and easy tiring upon breastfeeding.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: The cause of tetralogy of Fallot is typically not known. Risk factors include a mother who uses alcohol, has diabetes, is over the age of 40, or gets rubella during pregnancy. It may also be associated with Down syndrome and other chromosomal defects that cause congenital heart defects.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: TOF is typically treated by open heart surgery in the first year of life. The timing of surgery depends on the baby's symptoms and size. The procedure involves increasing the size of the pulmonary valve and pulmonary arteries and repairing the ventricular septal defect. In babies who are too small, a temporary surgery may be done with plans for a second surgery when the baby is bigger. With proper care, most people who are affected live to be adults. Long-term problems may include an irregular heart rate and pulmonary regurgitation.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: The prevalence of TOF is estimated to be anywhere from 0.02 to 0.04%. Though males and females were initially thought to be affected equally, more recent studies have found males to be affected more than females. It is the most common complex congenital heart defect, accounting for about 10 percent of cases. It was initially described in 1671 by Niels Steensen. A further description was published in 1888 by the French physician Étienne-Louis Arthur Fallot, after whom it is named. The first total surgical repair was carried out in 1954.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Tetralogy of Fallot results in low oxygenation of blood. This is due to a mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the left ventricle via the ventricular septal defect (VSD) and preferential flow of the mixed blood from both ventricles through the aorta because of the obstruction to flow through the pulmonary valve. The latter is known as a right-to-left shunt.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Infants with TOF – a cyanotic heart disease – have low blood oxygen saturation. Blood oxygenation varies greatly from one patient to another depending on the severity of the anatomic defects. Typical ranges vary from 60% to around 90%. Depending on the degree of obstruction, symptoms vary from no cyanosis or mild cyanosis to profound cyanosis at birth. If the baby is not cyanotic, then it is sometimes referred to as a "pink tet". Other symptoms include a heart murmur which may range from almost imperceptible to very loud, difficulty in feeding, failure to gain weight, retarded growth and physical development, labored breathing (dyspnea) on exertion, clubbing of the fingers and toes, and polycythemia. The baby may turn blue with breastfeeding or crying.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Those born with tetralogy of Fallot are more likely to experience psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in later life, potentially due to underlying genetic changes that predispose to both conditions.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Infants and children with unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot may develop "tet spells". These are acute hypoxia spells, characterized by shortness of breath, cyanosis, agitation, and loss of consciousness. This may be initiated by any event – such as anxiety, pain, dehydration, or fever – leading to decreased oxygen saturation or that causes decreased systemic vascular resistance, which in turn leads to increased shunting through the ventricular septal defect. Typically, these spells decrease in frequency after the first four years of life.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Clinically, tet spells are characterized by a sudden, marked increase in cyanosis followed by syncope.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Older children will often squat instinctively during a tet spell. This increases systemic vascular resistance and allows for a temporary reversal of the shunt. It increases pressure on the left side of the heart, decreasing the right to left shunt, thus decreasing the amount of deoxygenated blood entering the systemic circulation.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: While the specific causes of TOF have not been fully identified, there are various environmental or genetic factors that have been associated with TOF. So far, around 20% of overall CHD cases have been due to known causes such as genetic defects and teratogens which are various factors causing embryo development abnormalities or birth defects. However, the other 80% of cases have little known about their cause.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Genetic factors linked to TOF include various gene mutations or deletions. Gene deletions associated with TOF include chromosome 22 deletion as well as DiGeorge syndrome.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Embryology studies show that anterior malalignment of the aorticopulmonary septum results in the clinical combination of a ventricular septal defect (VSD), pulmonary stenosis, and an overriding aorta. Right ventricular hypertrophy develops progressively from resistance to blood flow through the right ventricular outflow tract.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: In healthy individuals, the human heart develops around the 20th day of gestation, when the outer endocardial tubes merge into a single cardiac tube. Thereafter, the cardiac tube begins to fold, developing into the atrium and ventricle. The right ventricle is dominant prior to birth, receiving 65% of the venous return to the heart, and is the main contributor of blood flow to the lower part of the body, the placenta, and the lungs. Though the exact cause of TOF is unknown, an association that has been observed is an anterior deviation of the infundibular septum that results in a misaligned VSD, with an overriding aorta causing a subsequent right ventricular obstruction.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Different factors such as pulmonary stenosis can also contribute with the right ventricular outflow obstruction. During tet spells, a decrease in systemic vascular resistance or an increase in pulmonary resistance would be physiologically observed.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: The main anatomic defect in TOF is the anterior deviation of the pulmonary outflow septum. This defect results in narrowing of the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT), override of the aorta, and a VSD.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: "Tetralogy" denotes four parts, here implying the syndrome's four anatomic defects. This is not to be confused with the similarly named teratology, a field of medicine concerned with abnormal development and congenital malformations (including tetralogy of Fallot). Below are the four heart malformations that present together in tetralogy of Fallot:


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: There is anatomic variation between the hearts of individuals with tetralogy of Fallot. Primarily, the degree of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction varies between patients and generally determines clinical symptoms and disease progression.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Presumably, this arises from an unequal growth of the aorticopulmonary septum (aka pulmonary outflow septum). The aorta is too large, thus "overriding," and this "steals" from the pulmonary artery, which is therefore stenosed. This then prevents ventricular wall closure, therefore VSD, and this increases the pressures on the right side, and so the R ventricle becomes bigger to handle the work.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Tetralogy of Fallot with pulmonary atresia ("pseudotruncus arteriosus") is a severe variant in which there is complete obstruction (atresia) of the right ventricular outflow tract, causing an absence of the pulmonary trunk during embryonic development. In these individuals, blood shunts completely from the right ventricle to the left where it is pumped only through the aorta. The lungs are perfused via extensive collaterals from the systemic arteries, and sometimes also via the ductus arteriosus.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: There are three different useful diagnostic tests used for the diagnosis of tetralogy of Fallot. These include a chest radiograph, electrocardiogram, and echocardiogram. The echocardiography determines the final diagnosis and typically offers enough information for surgical treatment planning. About half of all patients are now diagnosed before they are born. Differential diagnosis is when physicians diagnose between two or more conditions for a person's symptoms and this can include primary pulmonary causes of cyanosis, cyanotic heart lesions, pulmonary stenosis and transposed arterial trunks.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Before more sophisticated techniques became available, chest X-ray was the definitive method of diagnosis. The abnormal "coeur-en-sabot" (boot-like) appearance of a heart with tetralogy of Fallot is classically visible via chest X-ray, although most infants with tetralogy may not show this finding. The boot like shape is due to the right ventricular hypertrophy present in TOF. Lung fields are often dark (absence of interstitial lung markings) due to decreased pulmonary blood flow.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: An electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the most basic procedures for assessing the heart. Tiny electrodes are applied to specific areas on the body, near the chest, arm, and neck. Lead cables connect the electrodes to an ECG machine. The heart's electrical activity is then measured. Natural electrical impulses help maintain blood flowing properly by coordinating contractions in different areas of the heart. These impulses are recorded by an ECG, which shows how fast, the rhythm, intensity and timing of the electrical impulses as they travel through the heart.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Electrocardiography shows right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), along with right axis deviation. RVH is noted on EKG as tall R-waves in lead V1 and deep S-waves in lead V5-V6.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Congenital heart defects are now diagnosed with echocardiography, which is quick, involves no radiation, is very specific, and can be done prenatally.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: Echocardiography establishes the presence of TOF by demonstrating a VSD, RVH, and aortic override. Many patients are diagnosed prenatally. Color Doppler (type of echocardiography) measures the degree of pulmonary stenosis. Additionally, close monitoring of the ductus arteriosus is done in the neonatal period to ensure that there is adequate blood flow through the pulmonary valve.


title: Tetralogy of Fallot

text: In certain cases, coronary artery anatomy cannot be clearly viewed using echocardiogram. In this case, cardiac catheterization can be done.