title: Aerospace

text: In the aerospace and defense industry, much consolidation has occurred at the end of the 20th century, going into the 21st century. Between 1988 and 2011, more than 6,068 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of US$678 billion have been announced worldwide. The largest transactions have been:


title: Aerospace

text: Multiple technologies and innovations are used in aerospace, many of them pioneered around World War II:


title: Aerospace

text: Functional safety relates to a part of the general safety of a system or a piece of equipment. It implies that the system or equipment can be operated properly and without causing any danger, risk, damage or injury.


title: Aerospace

text: Functional safety is crucial in the aerospace industry, which allows no compromises or negligence. In this respect, supervisory bodies, such as the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA


title: Aerospace

text: ), regulate the aerospace market with strict certification standards. This is meant to reach and ensure the highest possible level of safety. The standards AS 9100 in America, EN 9100 on the European market or JISQ 9100 in Asia particularly address the aerospace and aviation industry. These are standards applying to the functional safety of aerospace vehicles. Some companies are therefore specialized in the certification, inspection verification and testing of the vehicles and spare parts to ensure and attest compliance with the appropriate regulations.


title: Aerospace

text: Spinoffs refer to any technology that is a direct result of coding or products created by NASA and redesigned for an alternate purpose. These technological advancements are one of the primary results of the aerospace industry, with $5.2 billion worth of revenue generated by spinoff technology, including computers and cellular devices. These spinoffs have applications in a variety of different fields including medicine, transportation, energy, consumer goods, public safety and more. NASA publishes an annual report called "Spinoffs", regarding many of the specific products and benefits to the aforementioned areas in an effort to highlight some of the ways funding is put to use. For example, in the most recent edition of this publication, "Spinoffs 2015", endoscopes are featured as one of the medical derivations of aerospace achievement. This device enables more precise and subsequently cost-effective neurosurgery by reducing complications through a minimally invasive procedure that abbreviates hospitalization. "These NASA technologies are not only giving companies and entrepreneurs a competitive edge in their own industries, but are also helping to shape budding industries, such as commercial lunar landers," said Daniel Lockney.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The Basilica Cistern, or Cisterna Basilica (, or , "Subterranean Cistern" or "Subterranean Palace"), is the largest of several hundred ancient cisterns that lie beneath the city of Istanbul, Turkey. The cistern, located southwest of the Hagia Sophia on the historical peninsula of Sarayburnu, was built in the 6th century during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. Today it is kept with little water, for public access inside the space.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: This subterranean cistern was called Basilica because it was located under a large public square, the Stoa Basilica, on the First Hill of Constantinople. Prior to its construction, a great basilica stood on the spot. It had been built during the Early Roman Age between the 3rd and 4th centuries as a commercial, legal and artistic centre. The basilica was reconstructed by Illus after a fire in 476.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: Ancient texts indicated that the basilica contained gardens, was surrounded by a colonnade and faced the Hagia Sophia. According to ancient historians, Emperor Constantine built a structure that was later reconstructed and enlarged by Emperor Justinian after the Nika riots of 532, which devastated the city.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The enlarged cistern provided a water filtration system for the Great Palace of Constantinople and other buildings on the First Hill, and continued to provide water to the Topkapı Palace after the Ottoman conquest in 1453 and into modern times.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The existence of the cistern was eventually forgotten by all but the locals who still drew water from it until, in 1565, the French traveller Petrus Gyllius left a record of it. Gyllius recorded being rowed in between the columns and seeing fish swimming in the water beneath the boat.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: This cathedral-sized cistern is an underground chamber approximately by – about in area – capable of holding of water. The ceiling is supported by a forest of 336 marble columns, each high, arranged in 12 rows of 28 columns each spaced apart. The capitals of the columns are mainly in the Ionic and Corinthian style, with the exception of a few Doric capitals with no engravings. One of the columns is carved with raised pictures of a Hen's Eye, slanted branches, and tears, and resembles the columns of the 4th-century Triumphal Arch of Theodosius I (AD 379–395), erected in the 'Forum Tauri' Square, today's Beyazıt Square. Ancient texts suggest that the tears on the column pay tribute to the hundreds of slaves who died during the construction of the Basilica Cistern. The majority of the columns in the cistern appear to have been recycled from the ruins of older buildings (a process called 'spoliation'), likely brought to Constantinople from various parts of the empire, together with those that were used in the construction of Hagia Sophia. They are carved out of different types of marble and granite.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: Fifty-two stone steps descend into the cistern which is surrounded by a firebrick wall with a thickness of and coated with a waterproofing mortar. The Basilica Cistern's water came from the Eğrikapı Water Distribution Centre in the Belgrade Forest, which lie north of the city. It traveled via the Valens (Bozdoğan) Aqueduct, and the original Mağlova Aqueduct, which was built by the Emperor Justinian.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The weight of the cistern is carried on the columns by means of the cross-shaped vaults and round arches of its roof.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The Basilica Cistern has been restored several times since its original creation. The first repairs were carried out in the 18th century during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Ahmed III in 1723 by the architect Muhammad Ağa of Kayseri. The second major repair was completed during the 19th century reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876–1909). Cracks in the masonry and damaged columns were repaired in 1968, with additional restoration in 1985 by the Istanbul Metropolitan Museum. During the 1985 restoration, 50,000 tons of mud were removed from the cistern, and platforms were erected to replace the boats previously used for touring the cistern. The cistern was opened to the public on 9 September 1987. It underwent additional cleaning In May 1994. Then in 2017 it was once again closed for restoration and earthquake-proofing, reopening to the public in 2022.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The bases of two columns In the northwest corner of the cistern reuse blocks carved with the face of Medusa. The origin of the two heads is unknown, though it is thought that they were brought to the cistern after being removed from a building of the late Roman period. There is no evidence to suggest that they were previously used as column bases. Tradition has it that the blocks are oriented sideways and inverted in order to negate the power of the Gorgons' gaze; but it is more likely that the stones were treated as mere rubble to be reused in a setting not originally intended to be viewed by visitors.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The cistern was used as a location for the 1963 James Bond film "From Russia with Love". In the film, it is referred to as having been constructed by the Emperor Constantine, with no reference to Justinian, and is fictitiously located under the Soviet consulate. It reality it is a long way away from the former Soviet (now Russian) consulate in Beyoğlu.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: In the fantasy series The Old Kingdom, the reservoir beneath the palace in Belisaere was inspired by the cistern.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The finale of the 2009 film "The International" takes place in a fantasy amalgam of the Old City, depicting the Basilica Cistern as lying beneath the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, which, in the film, is directly adjacent to the Süleymaniye Mosque.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: In the 2011 video game, "", the player-controlled character, Ezio Auditore, is given the chance to explore a section of this cistern in a memory sequence entitled The Yerebatan Cistern.


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The cistern also features in Jean-Baptiste Andrea's film thriller "Brotherhood of Tears" (2013). In the sequence, the lead character, acting as a transporter (played by Jeremie Renier), delivers a suitcase to a mysterious client (played by Turkish actor Ali Pinar).


title: Basilica Cistern

text: The cistern with its inverted Medusa pillar featured in the 2013 Dan Brown novel "Inferno" (as well as its 2016 film adaptation).


title: Rachita Ram

text: Bindhya Ram , known by her stage name Rachita Ram, is an Indian actress who is primarily known for her work in Kannada films. Rachita made her film debut with the 2013 film "Bulbul" as the lead opposite Darshan S.


title: Rachita Ram

text: She is a trained classical Bharata Natyam dancer who has given more than 50 performances. Her father Ram, also a Bharata Natyam dancer, has given nearly 500 public performances. She has a sister, Nithya Ram, who is also a television and film actress.


title: Rachita Ram

text: In 2012, she auditioned for a lead role in "Bulbul" alongside 200 participants and was selected. Before that she worked in the Kannada television soap "Benkiyalli Aralida Hoovu" along with her sister Nithya Ram. She was paired opposite Darshan in the film that went on to become a success commercially. On her performance, G. S. Kumar of "The Times of India" wrote, "Rachita Ram has presented an excellent performance in her first movie" and added, "Rachita Ram is amazing with her dialogue delivery, body language and excellent expressions." Her first release of 2014 was "Dil Rangeela", in which she was paired opposite Ganesh. B. S. Srivani of "Deccan Herald" felt that she "delivers a seasoned performance" in the film. Her second release of the year saw her paired opposite Darshan again in "Ambareesha". The film and her performance earned negative reviews from critics. In "Ranna", she played Rukmini, the love interest of Sudeep, appearing in a small yet pivotal role. In "Rathavara", she appeared as the love interest of Sriimurali, who plays a gangster and key aide of an MLA. Sunayana Suresh of "The Times of India" wrote, "Rachita Ram looks pretty and has acted every bit the cutesy girl-next-door that is required of her".


title: Rachita Ram

text: Rachita starred in the 2016 Kannada movie "Chakravyuha" opposite Puneeth Rajkumar. She made a cameo appearance in "Jaggu Dada" Starring Darshan. She also appeared in a song opposite Sudeep In Mukunda Murari.


title: Rachita Ram

text: Rachita's first release of 2017 was "Pushpaka Vimana" opposite Ramesh Aravind, where she played his daughter. Her next release was Chethan Kumar's "Bharjari" opposite Dhruva Sarja; it is also her second movie with actress Haripriya, after "Ranna."


title: Rachita Ram

text: In 2018 her first release was Preetham Gubbi's "Johnny Johnny Yes Papa" opposite Duniya Vijay. Her next release was Mahesh Kumar's "Ayogya" opposite Sathish Ninasam. It emerged as the biggest blockbuster of the year and she also won Best Actress-2018 at SIIMA awards. She also appeared in a song opposite Shiva Rajkumar in the movie "The Villain".


title: Rachita Ram

text: In 2019 she had a handful of releases. Her first release was "Seetharama Kalyana," opposite Nikhil Kumar, which emerged as a blockbuster hit. Her next release was Puneeth Rajkumar's "Natasaarvabhowma" directed by Pavan Wadeyar, her second collaboration with Puneeth after "Chakravyuva". She appeared in a song in the movie "Amar" starring Abhishek Gowda. Her next release was R. Chandru's "I Love You" opposite star Upendra. She also made an appearance in Shivrajkumar's "Rustum" directed by Ravi Varma, where she was paired up with Bollywood actor Vivek Oberoi. She made a special appearance in a song in "Bharaate" opposite Sriimurali. This was followed by "Ayushman Bhava" where she played opposite Shiva Rajkumar.


title: Rachita Ram

text: After a gap of a year, In 2021 her first release was with Ramesh Aravind directoral "100" where she played Ramesh's sister character. The movie became an average grosser at the box office. Her next release in the year was Shankar's "Love You Rachchu" where she was paired opposite Ajay Rao, the movie with many controversies failed at the box office with poor response from the audience. In 2022 she made her Telugu debut opposite Kalyan Dev in the film "Super Machi" which was not ony a disaster at the box office and also the least collected film of the actress career as the film had zero collection at the box office.


title: Head of the Class

text: Head of the Class is an American sitcom television series that ran from 1986 to 1991 on the ABC television network.


title: Head of the Class

text: The series follows a group of gifted students in the Individualized Honors Program (IHP) at the fictional Millard Fillmore High School in Manhattan, and their history teacher Charlie Moore (Howard Hesseman). The program was ostensibly a vehicle for Hesseman, best known for his role as radio DJ Dr. Johnny Fever on the sitcom "WKRP in Cincinnati" (1978–1982). Hesseman left "Head of the Class" in 1990 and was replaced by Scottish comedian Billy Connolly (in his first major American production) as teacher Billy MacGregor for the final season. After the series ended, Connolly appeared in a short-lived spin-off titled "Billy".


title: Head of the Class

text: The series was created, and executive produced by Richard Eustis and Michael Elias. Elias had previously worked as a substitute teacher in New York City while hoping to become an actor.


title: Head of the Class

text: A revival of the series was ordered and was co-produced by Bill Lawrence's Doozer and Warner Horizon Scripted Television. It was released on HBO Max.


title: Head of the Class

text: "Head of the Class" is mainly set in the classroom of academically gifted high school students, all in the Individualized Honors Program at Millard Fillmore High School in New York City. The IHP students comprised a diverse range of personalities, ethnicities, and academic specialties.


title: Head of the Class

text: For the first three years of the show, the IHP class had ten students. Arvid Engen (Dan Frischman) was a skinny, bespectacled nerd, mathematics expert, and budding scientist. Arvid's best friend was the overweight, wisecracking cynic Dennis Blunden (Dan Schneider), a computer whiz whose fields were chemistry and physics and who had a knack for getting the socially inept Arvid involved in various schemes. Both of them wanted to go to M.I.T. Alan Pinkard (Tony O'Dell) was an ultra-conservative preppy and egotist; his area of expertise was political science and he was a devout fan of Ronald Reagan. Alan competed for the highest grades in the class with Darlene Merriman (Robin Givens), a spoiled rich girl who was probably even more self-centered than Alan and whose specialties were speech and debate. Both Alan and Darlene held the ambition of being named class valedictorian. Sarah Nevins (Kimberly Russell) did not have any one particular area of expertise; she was the most down-to-earth of the IHP class and was once cited as having the lowest G.P.A. Maria Borges (Leslie Bega) was very passionate about getting A's (going as far as grounding herself in the pilot episode for getting a 'B'), and Jawaharlal Choudhury (Jory Husain aka Joher Coleman) was an exchange student from India whose expertise was natural science. Eleven-year-old Janice Lazarotto (Tannis Vallely), despite her young age, was in high school and the IHP class because of her advanced intellect. Arts student Simone Foster (Khrystyne Haje) was a quiet, sensitive redhead with a particular fondness for poetry. A notable development in the show was the relationship between Simone and Eric Mardian (Brian Robbins), an aspiring writer and, outwardly, the most unlikely member of the IHP - Eric wore black leather, drove a motorcycle, acted tough, and ostensibly disliked anything academic (to Dr. Samuels's delight, he was the only one in the class not on the academic team, although he would never leave the IHP). Eric constantly hit on Simone (on whom he had a crush) and the two eventually had an on-again-off-again romance.


title: Head of the Class

text: There was some turnover in the cast in seasons four and five. Janice left for Harvard, Maria went to Performing Arts High School, and Jawaharlal moved to California with his family. New students included Aristotle McKenzie (De'voreaux White), described by Dennis as "this reject from "Do the Right Thing"" for his dreadlocks, Viki Amory (Lara Piper), a new-ager interested in quantum physics and skin-revealing clothing, and Alex Torres (Michael DeLorenzo), who had transferred from parochial school. T.J. Jones (Rain Pryor), who had first appeared as a potential IHP member in season three, was eventually added to the program and the cast. Jasper Kwong (Jonathan Ke Quan) was introduced as a new transfer student late in season four.


title: Head of the Class

text: Appearing as regulars throughout all five seasons were school administrators Dr. Harold Samuels (William G. Schilling) the principal of Fillmore High and Bernadette Meara (Jeannetta Arnette). Dr. Samuels was the blustery, overweight principal of the school. His attitude towards the IHP students was one of ambivalence: on the one hand, Dr. Samuels distrusted the kids (and had a particularly antagonistic relationship with Dennis, and tried to avoid Eric), but at the same time he was proud of their achievements and valued the prestige they brought to the school. He also distrusted the teaching methods of the class's teacher, Charlie Moore (Howard Hesseman), concerned that Charlie's methods – which often involved helping the IHP students branch out of their comfort zones and help them deal with the typical problems of kids their age, as well as using unorthodox methods of teaching the class subject at hand – might distract them too much from their studies. Ms. Meara was the level-headed assistant principal. There was some romantic tension between her and Charlie, although this ultimately came to nothing, and she later had a romantic friendship with Billy.


title: Head of the Class

text: In season 5, Mr Moore got his big break in Broadway and decided to quit. Billy Mcgregor, from Scotland, replaced Mr Moore. Unlike in the previous seasons, the students are allowed to call their new teacher Billy. The students get to prepare for senior year and the closing of Fillmore High School.


title: Head of the Class

text: In the series, the students often faced off against the rival Bronx High School of Science. Also, in every season, the IHP students produced the school musical. Musicals staged by the students included "Grease", "Little Shop of Horrors", and" Hair." A number of someday-famous actors made appearances on the show, including Brad Pitt.


title: Head of the Class

text: The opening of the show features various New York landmarks as well as Charlie Moore's journey to work every day. Charlie lives in a building in Hell's Kitchen occupied by a plant distributor on the first floor, who gives him a ride to the subway at 50th Street on the back of the truck before he makes his first delivery of the day. After Charlie grabs a hot dog for breakfast, he begins running into trouble as the subway station is on fire and he cannot hail any taxis to take him to the school. Forced to walk out of frustration, Charlie arrives late to class to the chagrin of Dr. Samuels but once he enters the classroom, his expression immediately brightens as he sees the students. It wouldn't be until season two that the credits include adding the names of the characters portrayed by their respective actors/actresses. After three seasons with the same opening, it was changed to a group photo of the class for season four. After Hesseman left the show, it was changed to notebook graphics for its final season.


title: Head of the Class

text: Most of the students' parents were seen over the course of the series, but usually in only one episode apiece. Parents who appeared more than once included:


title: Head of the Class

text: Out-of-work actor Charlie Moore began the first season as a substitute teacher, but warmed to the IHP class immediately, making it his mission to get them to think rather than merely to know. Although they are gifted academically, the IHP students had plenty of problems in their personal lives, and Mr. Moore not only is there to listen, but he also shows an unswerving ability to get the students to solve their own problems while making it seem like they came up with the answers on their own. By Episode 6 ("Teacher's Teacher"), the class's original teacher Mr. Thomas (Roscoe Lee Browne) had returned to Fillmore High, seemingly ready to return to the IHP class once Mr. Moore's tenure ended. After observing Mr. Moore's unorthodox teaching methods for most of the episode (much to Charlie's chagrin, as it also made apparent how much he would miss the IHP students), Mr. Thomas ultimately reveals he had no intention to return but came to observe Mr. Moore after hearing concerns about him from Dr. Samuels. Seeing Mr. Moore in action, Mr. Thomas gives him his blessing, leaving Mr. Moore to become their full-time teacher, knowing the IHP will be in good hands. Throughout the first season, Mr. Moore attempted to get the class involved in more than just their studies, encouraging them to play volleyball and make a music video for the school's time capsule (this marks the first foray into the fondness of "Head of the Class" for musical production numbers). At the same time, the class brought Mr. Moore into the present, acclimating him to the importance of personal computers. Near the end of the season, the IHP faces their Russian counterparts in an academic tournament, foreshadowing their famous trip to Moscow in season three.


title: Head of the Class

text: Season 2 began involving the IHP in the school as a whole, with Mr. Moore involving the class in the school literary journal and encouraging a lampoon of the school newspaper. Mr. Moore also decides to put on a school production of the musical "Grease", and encourages the IHP (who are initially reluctant) to participate, alongside other Fillmore students.


title: Head of the Class

text: While first season had some episodes that showed Charlie's personal life outside school, these become increasingly rare as the series continues. In season 2 (and thereafter), episodes consistently focus on the lives of the IHP students, with only a very few focusing specifically on Charlie; this is the last season in which we see Charlie's apartment.


title: Head of the Class

text: In 1988, "Head of the Class" broke new ground as it became the first American sitcom to be filmed in the Soviet Union with an episode filmed entirely in Moscow.


title: Head of the Class

text: The IHP is invited to come to the country for a rematch of the academic meet that happened in season one, which ended in a tie. The class has a lot of experiences while in Moscow: Dennis and Arvid take an interest in two beautiful women, until they realise they might be KGB spies; Eric meets up with his relatives in what is a very positive experience for him; capitalist Alan has an argument with a die-hard socialist in a store (who is also on the opposing Russian academic team); Sarah and Darlene decide to record the sights and sounds of Moscow; Simone goes to put flowers on a poet's grave and meets up with a charming Russian musician; Dr. Samuels believes that his hotel room is bugged, but ends up making a fool of himself; and Charlie has a brief romance with a schoolteacher.


title: Head of the Class

text: The IHP eventually wins the meet and the respect of the Russian team. The episode concludes with both teams attending a concert in Gorky Park swaying to the song "Far Away Lands" (written and performed by American David Pomeranz and Russian rock star Sasha Malinin).


title: Head of the Class

text: The fourth season saw some significant changes to the cast of characters – Maria, Jawaharlal and Janice left (Maria went to a performing arts school, Jawaharlal moved to California, and Janice went to Harvard as a sophomore). Several new characters took their place: Alex Torres (Michael DeLorenzo) was a Hispanic athletics student, somewhat stereotypically portrayed as having an eye for the ladies. Although Alex seemed attracted to Darlene particularly, both he and Eric competed for the affections of another new IHP student, the blonde hippie Viki Amory (Lara Piper). Another new character was aspiring filmmaker Aristotle McKenzie (De'voreaux White). T.J. Jones (Rain Pryor), a recurring character since the third season, joined the IHP in the fourth season (a remedial student with a streetwise attitude, T.J. was found to be smart enough to join the IHP). Also, the character of Jasper Kwong (Jonathan Ke Quan) was added to the IHP class late in the season. The season also showed them film a two-part episode at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The students' final year of high school was split over seasons four and five. Howard Hesseman left the show after the fourth season. As Hesseman noted in a 1989 interview, "We're not doing the show that I was led to believe I'd do, and it's difficult for me to get off that."


title: Head of the Class

text: In the first episode of season 5, Scottish teacher Billy MacGregor (Billy Connolly) arrived to replace the departed Charlie Moore (in the first episode of the season, it is explained to the dismayed IHP students that Mr. Moore's acting career finally took off). Despite initial uncertainty and some hostility from the students, Billy proved to be a successful replacement for Charlie. He usually comes into the class bringing his bike. He insisted that the students refer to him by his first name, and although he was more rousing and less laid-back than his predecessor, he proved to be just as wise and caring (Billy also had a habit of boisterously greeting his class every morning with the phrase, "good morning, geniuses", and facetiously barking to his students to, "get out of here", when the bell rang at the end of the class. He also taught his class in a manner more akin to a stand-up comedian than a teacher). Many episodes from this season focused on Billy having to adapt to living in America, and his attempts to romance Ms. Meara. Other aspects of Billy were his dislike of an outdated French textbook, which actually prompted one student to take a spur-of-the-moment jaunt to Paris, and his encouragement to the male students that the best way to get girls was to be themselves. The season (and the program itself) concluded with the IHP students graduating from high school. Janice Lazarotto (from seasons one–three) returned for a guest appearance in the finale, in which T.J. is named class valedictorian and the school is closed down and demolished.


title: Head of the Class

text: One major novelization was released, with the plot lines based on six episodes of the show. The book makes all the chapters flow together as one story, even though they didn't happen one right after the other on the show. It was written by Susan Beth Pfeffer and released in December 1989 by Bantam Books. The book is 120 pages long, with six chapters, each based on a different episode.


title: Head of the Class

text: All copyrights belong to Warner Bros. The novelization erroneously credits "First Day" as having been made in 1988 rather than 1986.


title: Head of the Class

text: A year after "Head of the Class" left the air, Billy Connolly reprised the role of Billy MacGregor for a short-lived spin-off series, "Billy".


title: Head of the Class

text: In May 2020, a revival of the series was ordered, co-produced by Bill Lawrence's Doozer and Warner Horizon Scripted Television. The order includes a pilot episode plus five additional scripts and will air on HBO Max. In March 2021, it was announced that a 10-episode first season was officially greenlit. In October 2021, a first look clip was released, with a November 4, 2021 series premiere date attached. In December 2021, the series was canceled after one season.


title: Head of the Class

text: In November 2020, it was reported that Isabella Gomez was cast in the lead role as teacher Alicia Adams. Coincidentally, Gomez and Howard Hesseman (who played Charlie Moore in the original series' first four seasons), had both starred on the television series "One Day at a Time", with Hesseman starring in the original series' final two seasons as Barbara Cooper's father-in-law Sam Royer, while Gomez starred in the 2017 reboot as Elena Alvarez. It was also announced that "Watchmen" actress Jolie Hoang-Rappaport will join the cast as student Makayla Washington. In December 2020, it was announced that "Little Fires Everywhere" actor Gavin Lewis will join the cast as student Luke Burrows. In January 2021, Jorge Diaz, Dior Goodjohn, Brandon Severs, Adrian Matthew Escalona and Christa Miller joined the cast. The October first look revealed that Givens would be reprising her role as Darlene from the original series.


title: Head of the Class

text: "Head of the Class" has appeared infrequently in syndicated reruns, airing on local stations and then briefly on TBS in September 1993 until November 1993 returning August 1996 until September 1996 weekday mornings, and on Nick at Nite in the early 2000s. Antenna TV began airing the series in January 2018. As of February 2020, the show was streaming on Roku Channel. The show is also streaming on HBO Max, and Rewind TV.


title: Head of the Class

text: In 2020, it was announced that season 1 of "Head of the Class" would be released as a "manufacture on demand" (MOD) DVD by Warner Archive, starting on June 9, 2020. The show had previously not seen any release on home media. The show had multiple musical episodes, thereby making music rights licensing difficult, a common problem when preparing series for home release. Another series, "WKRP in Cincinnati" (also starring Hesseman), encountered similar issues.


title: Head of the Class

text: The Season 2 DVD set included season three episodes "Radio Activity" and "I Am the King," because they were originally made during the second season. The Season 3 DVD set not only have "Radio Activity" and "I Am the King" in their release order, it also included season four episodes "Reel Problems" and "Recruitment Day," which were originally made during the third season.


title: Michael Durant

text: Michael J. Durant (born July 23, 1961) is an American veteran, former pilot, businessman, author, and political candidate. He was involved in the "Black Hawk Down" incident while serving as a U.S. Army pilot, and ran unsuccessfully in the Republican primary for the 2022 United States Senate election in Alabama.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant was a member of the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Night Stalkers) as a Chief Warrant Officer 3. He retired from the U.S. Army as a Chief Warrant Officer 4 Blackhawk helicopter Master Aviator in the 160th SOAR after participating in combat operations Prime Chance, Just Cause, and Desert Storm, and also Gothic Serpent, in which he was briefly held prisoner in 1993 after a raid in Somalia.


title: Michael Durant

text: Following his retirement from the military in 2001, Durant published a book detailing his experiences, was involved in public speaking engagements and founded an engineering company in Huntsville, Alabama. He also became politically active as a member of the Republican Party.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant was born on July 23, 1961, in Berlin, New Hampshire, the son of Leon Durant and Louise (nee Boucher). He enlisted in the U.S. Army in August 1979; after completing basic training, he attended the Defense Language Institute. He was assigned to the 470th Military Intelligence Group at Fort Clayton in Panama as a Spanish voice intercept operator. Durant finished helicopter flight training at Fort Rucker, Alabama. During flight school, he flew the TH-55 trainer and UH-1 helicopters.


title: Michael Durant

text: In November 1983, Durant was promoted to Warrant Officer 1, following completion of the UH-60 Blackhawk Aviators Qualification Course, and was assigned to the 377th Medical Evacuation Company in Seoul, South Korea. Durant flew over 150 medical evacuation missions in the UH-1 and UH-60 helicopters by 1985. He later moved to the 101st (Division) Aviation Battalion at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. While serving as a Chief Warrant Officer 2, he took the flight instructor's pilot course and conducted air assault missions in the UH-60. Durant joined the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) on August 1, 1988. Assigned to D Company, he performed duties as Flight Lead and Standardization Instructor Pilot. He participated in combat operations Prime Chance, Just Cause and Operation Desert Storm, where he was the first U.S. helicopter pilot to shoot at a SCUD missile launcher.


title: Michael Durant

text: During Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia, Durant was the pilot of helicopter "Super Six Four". His was the second MH-60L of two Black Hawk helicopters to crash during the Battle of Mogadishu on October 3, 1993. After his helicopter was hit on the tail by a RPG-7, it crashed about a mile southwest of the operation's target.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant and his crew of three, Bill Cleveland, Ray Frank, and Tommy Field, were badly injured in the crash. Durant suffered a crushed vertebra in his back and a compound fracture of his left femur. Two Delta Force snipers, MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Randy Shughart, had been providing suppressive fire from the air at hostile Somalis who were converging on the crash site. Both volunteered for insertion onto the ground to protect the crew and join Durant in fighting off the advancing Somalis. The pair killed numerous Somalis before they ran out of ammunition. They were soon overwhelmed and killed, after Cleveland, Frank and Field had died. Both Gordon and Shughart received the Medal of Honor posthumously for their heroism in this action.


title: Michael Durant

text: The hostile Somalis captured Durant, the sole American survivor, and held him captive for 11 days. During much of his imprisonment, he was personally protected and cared for by Abdullahi "Firimbi" Hassan, a physician and propaganda minister to Somali General Mohamed Farrah Aidid, though he was shot in his arm by an intruding militia member. Aidid then released Durant and a Nigerian soldier who had been captured previously into the custody of the International Committee of the Red Cross.


title: Michael Durant

text: After being freed, and recovering at Landstuhl Regional Medical Center (LRMC) in Germany, Durant resumed flying with the 160th SOAR. He retired from the Army in 2001 with more than 3,700 flight hours, over 1,400 of which were flown with night vision goggles.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant's military service awards include the Distinguished Service Medal, Distinguished Flying Cross with Oak Leaf Cluster, Bronze Star with Valor Device, Purple Heart, Meritorious Service Medal, three Air Medals and the Prisoner of War Medal, among others.


title: Michael Durant

text: After his retirement, Durant moved to Alabama and began offering seminars to military personnel about helicopter maneuvering and Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) operations. Durant talks about the Somalia raid and the experiences he had while in captivity. He spoke extensively with actor Ron Eldard, who portrayed him in the 2001 film "Black Hawk Down", which depicts the events of the raid.


title: Michael Durant

text: In 2003, Durant published a book, "In the Company of Heroes", in which he chronicled his military career and his captivity.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant holds a BSc degree in professional aeronautics and a MBA degree in aviation management from the Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Following his move to Alabama, he became owner, president and CEO of Pinnacle Solutions, an engineering services company based in Huntsville, Alabama, in 2008. The company's clients include the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps and NASA, among others. In December 2021, after the launch of his campaign for the U.S. Senate, Durant turned over control of Pinnacle Solutions to its employees via an Employee Stock Ownership Plan.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant became involved in politics after his retirement from the military; as a Republican, he served on the presidential campaigns of George W. Bush in 2004 and John McCain in 2008, both times in a veterans' leadership role.


title: Michael Durant

text: In July 2008, Durant criticized then-presidential candidate Barack Obama for having cancelled a planned trip to LRMC near Ramstein Air Base where he had intended, while in Europe, to visit American casualties of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. Durant said he thought this was inappropriate for a potential commander in chief. Scott Gration, a retired two-star Air Force general who advised the Obama campaign, said in a response that Obama "did not want to see our wounded warriors perceived as a campaign event when his visit was to show his appreciation for our troops and decided instead not to go."


title: Michael Durant

text: In 2011, Durant gave a speech to the U.S. Army War College, during which he mentioned the opinion that "disarming the population," like what had been done in Somalia, would be "a pretty good step toward law and order" in U.S. cities. The comments re-emerged during Durant's campaign for the U.S. Senate; the campaign of primary opponent Katie Britt charged that Durant's worldview was "not conservative." Durant claimed that media outlets had mischaracterized and taken his statements out of context. In an interview with radio host Phil Williams, Durant stated, "I'm not condoning it. In fact, I'm arguing against it, that it really isn't a smart tactic – certainly not when you're outnumbered like we were there."


title: Michael Durant

text: In September 2021, media speculation arose regarding a possible run for U.S. Senate by Durant. He officially launched a campaign for the office on October 19, 2021, running to replace retiring incumbent Senator Richard Shelby in 2022. A late entry to the race, Durant positioned himself as a political outsider and supporter of former President Donald Trump, outlining an "Alabama First" campaign tour. Durant was supported by the More Perfect Union political action committee, which supports the formation of a caucus of centrist senators.


title: Michael Durant

text: By March 2022, Durant began to lead in polls against the two major opposing candidates in the Republican primary, Shelby's former Chief of Staff Katie Britt and Representative Mo Brooks. Durant's lead expanded after Brooks was un-endorsed by Trump. That same month, Durant expressed in interviews that he believed President Joe Biden was "not rightfully elected" in the 2020 presidential election and that he would not have voted to certify the election results, as well as support for removing Biden from office.


title: Michael Durant

text: In April 2022, the Alabama Republican Party proposed a series of televised debates between Durant, Britt and Brooks. Durant's campaign did not agree to participate in these debates, and declined to comment when asked about the debates. Britt, Brooks, and other political analysts such as Quin Hillyer and Steve Flowers criticized Durant for an apparent refusal to debate. Brooks said that Durant "has the public policy chops of a snail," while Britt questioned if Durant had "something to hide." Alabama Republican Party Chairman John Wahl stated that the debates were unlikely to occur without Durant's participation. Durant broke the silence on the debates on April 21, 2022, stating that he was open to debating but also cited scheduling issues with his own campaign schedule. Durant then officially declined the proposed dates for the debates later that month, shuttering the plans for the debate series.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant began to slip in polls around May, in the weeks before the primary election. Durant was the subject of multiple negative attack ads that contributed to a rising unfavorable rating among voters in polls. Additionally, Durant was the subject of speculation that he did not actually live in Alabama, which "The New York Times" called "a false claim." Durant's views on immigration also attracted attention shortly before the primary; he claimed in a radio interview that increased legal immigration was "America First" while also touting that he was "the toughest on illegal immigration." On the night of the primary on May 24, Durant conceded the election after incoming results showed him in third place behind Britt and Brooks. Although there was media speculation that Durant would endorse Brooks after losing a spot in the runoff, in June, Durant officially declined to endorse Brooks or Britt, lambasting the political process and the two remaining candidates. Durant also stated that his campaign would be his last foray into politics, blaming his loss on "blatant" untrue attack ads.


title: Michael Durant

text: Durant and his wife, Lisa (who is also a former Army aviator), reside in Madison, Alabama. They have six children and three grandchildren. Durant's previous marriage to his first wife, Lorrie, ended in divorce; Durant later stated that his handling of the media attention he received in the wake of the "Black Hawk Down" incident "probably was a contributing factor" to the divorce.


title: Invention of radio

text: The invention of radio communication was preceded by many decades of establishing theoretical underpinnings, discovery and experimental investigation of radio waves, and engineering and technical developments related to their transmission and detection. These developments allowed Guglielmo Marconi to turn radio waves into a wireless communication system.


title: Invention of radio

text: The idea that the wires needed for electrical telegraph could be eliminated, creating a wireless telegraph, had been around for a while before the establishment of radio-based communication. Inventors attempted to build systems based on electric conduction, electromagnetic induction, or on other theoretical ideas. Several inventors/experimenters came across the phenomenon of radio waves before its existence was proven; it was written off as electromagnetic induction at the time.


title: Invention of radio

text: The discovery of electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in the 1880s came after theoretical development on the connection between electricity and magnetism that started in the early 1800s. This work culminated in a theory of electromagnetic radiation developed by James Clerk Maxwell by 1873, which Hertz demonstrated experimentally. Hertz considered electromagnetic waves to be of little practical value. Other experimenters, such as Oliver Lodge and Jagadish Chandra Bose, explored the physical properties of electromagnetic waves, and they developed electric devices and methods to improve the transmission and detection of electromagnetic waves. But they did not apparently see the value in developing a communication system based on electromagnetic waves.


title: Invention of radio

text: In the mid 1890s, building on techniques physicists were using to study electromagnetic waves, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first apparatus for long-distance radio communication. On 23 December 1900, the Canadian inventor Reginald A. Fessenden became the first person to send audio (wireless telephony) by means of electromagnetic waves, successfully transmitting over a distance of about a mile (1.6 kilometers,) and six years later on Christmas Eve 1906 he became the first person to make a public wireless broadcast.


title: Invention of radio

text: Before the discovery of electromagnetic waves and the development of radio communication there were many wireless telegraph systems proposed and tested. In April 1872 William Henry Ward received for a wireless telegraphy system where he theorized that convection currents in the atmosphere could carry signals like a telegraph wire. A few months after Ward received his patent, Mahlon Loomis of West Virginia received for a similar "wireless telegraph" in July 1872. The patented system claimed to utilize atmospheric electricity to eliminate the overhead wire used by the existing telegraph systems. It did not contain diagrams or specific methods and it did not refer to or incorporate any known scientific theory.


title: Invention of radio

text: In the United States, Thomas Edison, in the mid-1880s, patented an electromagnetic induction system he called "grasshopper telegraphy", which allowed telegraphic signals to jump the short distance between a running train and telegraph wires running parallel to the tracks. In the United Kingdom, William Preece was able to develop an electromagnetic induction telegraph system that, with antenna wires many kilometers long, could transmit across gaps of about . Inventor Nathan Stubblefield, between 1885 and 1892, also worked on an induction transmission system.


title: Invention of radio

text: A form of wireless telephony is recorded in four patents for the photophone, invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter in 1880. The photophone allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light, and on June 3, 1880 Bell and Tainter transmitted the world's first wireless telephone message on their newly invented form of light telecommunication.


title: Invention of radio

text: In the early 1890s Nikola Tesla began his research into high frequency electricity. Tesla was aware of Hertz's experiments with electromagnetic waves from 1889 on but, (like many scientists of that time) thought, even if radio waves existed, they would probably only travel in straight lines making them useless for long range transmission.


title: Invention of radio

text: Instead of using radio waves, Tesla's efforts were focused towards building a conduction based power distribution system, although he noted in 1893 that his system could also incorporate communication. His laboratory work and later large scale experiments at Colorado Springs led him to the conclusion that he could build a conduction based worldwide wireless system that would use the Earth itself (via injecting very large amounts of electric current into the ground) as the means to conduct the signal very long distances (across the Earth), overcoming the perceived limitations of other systems. He went on to try to implement his ideas of power transmission and wireless telecommunication in his very large but unsuccessful Wardenclyffe Tower project.


title: Invention of radio

text: Various scientists proposed that electricity and magnetism were linked. Around 1800 Alessandro Volta developed the first means of producing an electric current. In 1802 Gian Domenico Romagnosi may have suggested a relationship between electricity and magnetism but his reports went unnoticed. In 1820 Hans Christian Ørsted performed a simple and today widely known experiment on electric current and magnetism. He demonstrated that a wire carrying a current could deflect a magnetized compass needle. Ørsted's work influenced André-Marie Ampère to produce a theory of electromagnetism. Several scientists speculated that light might be connected with electricity or magnetism.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1831, Michael Faraday began a series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. The relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor, but did not complete his work involving that proposal. In 1846 Michael Faraday speculated that light was a wave disturbance in a "force field".


title: Invention of radio

text: Expanding upon a series of experiments by Felix Savary, between 1842 and 1850 Joseph Henry performed experiments detecting inductive magnetic effects over a distance of . He was the first (1838–42) to produce high frequency AC electrical oscillations, and to point out and experimentally demonstrate that the discharge of a capacitor under certain conditions is oscillatory, or, as he puts it, consists ""of a principal discharge in one direction and then several reflex actions backward and forward, each more feeble than the preceding until equilibrium is attained"". This view was also later adopted by Helmholtz, the mathematical demonstration of this fact was first given by Lord Kelvin in his paper on "Transient Electric Currents".


title: Invention of radio

text: Between 1861 and 1865, based on the earlier experimental work of Faraday and other scientists and on his own modification to Ampere's law, James Clerk Maxwell developed his theory of electromagnetism, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves. In 1873 Maxwell described the theoretical basis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves in his paper to the Royal Society, ""A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field"." This theory united all previously unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism, and optics into a consistent theory. His set of equations—Maxwell's equations—demonstrated that electricity, magnetism, and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon, the electromagnetic field. Subsequently, all other classic laws or equations of these disciplines were special cases of Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's work in electromagnetism has been called the "second great unification in physics", after Newton's unification of gravity in the 17th century.


title: Invention of radio

text: Oliver Heaviside, later reformulated Maxwell's original equations into the set of four vector equations that are generally known today as Maxwell's equations. Neither Maxwell nor Heaviside transmitted or received radio waves; however, their equations for electromagnetic fields established principles for radio design, and remain the standard expression of classical electromagnetism.


title: Invention of radio

text: "Imagine [Maxwell's] feelings when the differential equations he had formulated proved to him that electromagnetic fields spread in the form of polarised waves, and at the speed of light! To few men in the world has such an experience been vouchsafed... it took physicists some decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was the leap that his genius forced upon the conceptions of his fellow-workers."


title: Invention of radio

text: "From a long view of the history of the world—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electromagnetism. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade."


title: Invention of radio

text: Berend Wilhelm Feddersen, a German physicist, in 1859, as a private scholar in Leipzig, succeeded in experiments with the Leyden jar to prove that electric sparks were composed of damped oscillations.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1870 the German physicist Wilhelm von Bezold discovered and demonstrated the fact that the advancing and reflected oscillations produced in conductors by a capacitor discharge gave rise to interference phenomena. Professors Elihu Thomson and E. J. Houston in 1876 made a number of experiments and observations on high frequency oscillatory discharges. In 1883 George FitzGerald suggested at a British Association meeting that electromagnetic waves could be generated by the discharge of a capacitor, but the suggestion was not followed up, possibly because no means was known for detecting the waves.


title: Invention of radio

text: When German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was looking for a subject for his doctoral dissertation in 1879, instructor Hermann von Helmholtz suggested he try to prove Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. Hertz initially couldn't see any way to test the theory but his observation, in the autumn of 1886, of discharging a Leyden jar into a large coil and producing a spark in an adjacent coil gave him the idea of how to build a test apparatus. Using a Ruhmkorff coil to create sparks across a gap (a spark gap transmitter) and observing the sparks created between the gap in a nearby metal loop antenna, between 1886 and 1888 Hertz would conduct a series of scientific experiments that would validate Maxwell's theory. Hertz published his results in a series of papers between 1887 and 1890, and again in complete book form in 1893.


title: Invention of radio

text: The first of the papers published, ""On Very Rapid Electric Oscillations"", gives an account of the chronological course of his investigation, as far as it was carried out up to the end of the year 1886 and the beginning of 1887.


title: Invention of radio

text: For the first time, electromagnetic radio waves ("Hertzian waves") were intentionally and unequivocally proven to have been transmitted through free space by a spark-gap device, and detected over a short distance.


title: Invention of radio

text: Hertz was able to have some control over the frequencies of his radiated waves by altering the inductance and capacitance of his transmitting and receiving antennas. He focused the electromagnetic waves using a corner reflector and a parabolic reflector, to demonstrate that radio behaved the same as light, as Maxwell's electromagnetic theory had predicted more than 20 years earlier.


title: Invention of radio

text: Hertz did not devise a system for practical utilization of electromagnetic waves, nor did he describe any potential applications of the technology. Hertz was asked by his students at the University of Bonn what use there might be for these waves. He replied, ""It's of no use whatsoever. This is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was right, we just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye. But they are there.""


title: Invention of radio

text: Hertz died in 1894, and the art of radio wave communication was left to others to implement into a practical form. After Hertz's experiments, Sir William Crookes published an article in February 1892 in "The Fortnightly Review" on 'Some possibilities of electricity' with his thoughts on possibility of wireless communication based on the research of Lodge and Hertz, and the American physicist Amos Emerson Dolbear brought similar attention to the idea.


title: Invention of radio

text: During 1789–91, Luigi Galvani noticed that a spark generated nearby caused a convulsion in a frog's leg being touched by a scalpel. In different experiments, he noticed contractions in frogs' legs caused by lightning and a luminous discharge from a charged Leyden jar that disappeared over time and was renewed whenever a spark occurred nearby.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1852 Samuel Alfred Varley noticed a remarkable fall in the resistance of masses of metallic filings under the action of atmospheric electrical discharges.


title: Invention of radio

text: Towards the end of 1875, while experimenting with the telegraph, Thomas Edison noted a phenomenon that he termed "etheric force", announcing it to the press on November 28. He abandoned this research when Elihu Thomson, among others, ridiculed the idea, claiming it was electromagnetic induction.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1879 the experimenter and inventor David Edward Hughes, working in London, discovered that a bad contact in a Bell telephone he was using in his experiments seemed to be sparking when he worked on a nearby induction balance (an early form of metal detector). He developed an improved detector to pick up this unknown "extra current" based on his new microphone design (similar to later detectors known as coherers or crystal detectors) and developed a way to interrupt his induction balance to produce a series of sparks. By trial and error experiments he eventually found he could pick up these "aerial waves" as he carried his telephone device down the street out to a range of .


title: Invention of radio

text: On February 20, 1880, he demonstrated his experiment to representatives of the Royal Society including Thomas Henry Huxley, Sir George Gabriel Stokes, and William Spottiswoode, then president of the Society. Stokes was convinced the phenomenon Hughes was demonstrating was merely electromagnetic induction, not a type of conduction through the air. Hughes was not a physicist and seems to have accepted Stokes observations and did not pursue the experiments any further. His work may have been mentioned in William Crookes' 1892 "Fortnightly Review" review of 'Some possibilities of electricity' article as an unnamed individual whose experiment Crookes participate in.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1890, Édouard Branly demonstrated what he later called the "radio-conductor," which Lodge in 1893 named the coherer, the first sensitive device for detecting radio waves. Shortly after the experiments of Hertz, Branly discovered that loose metal filings, which in a normal state have a high electrical resistance, lose this resistance in the presence of electric oscillations and become practically conductors of electricity. This Branly showed by placing metal filings in a glass box or tube, and making them part of an ordinary electric circuit. According to the common explanation, when electric waves are set up in the neighborhood of this circuit, electromotive forces are generated in it which appear to bring the filings more closely together, that is, to cohere, and thus their electrical resistance decreases, from which cause this piece of apparatus was termed by Sir Oliver Lodge a coherer. Hence the receiving instrument, which may be a telegraph relay, that normally would not indicate any sign of current from the small battery, can be operated when electric oscillations are set up. Branly further found that when the filings had once cohered they retained their low resistance until shaken apart, for instance, by tapping on the tube. The coherer, however, was not sensitive enough to be used reliably as radio developed.


title: Invention of radio

text: British physicist and writer Sir Oliver Lodge came close to being the first to prove the existence of Maxwell's electromagnetic waves. In a series of spring 1888 experiments conducted with a Leyden jar connected to a length of wire with spaced spark gaps he noticed he was getting different size sparks and a glow pattern along the wire that seemed to be a function of wavelength. Before he could present his own findings he learned of Hertz' series of proofs on the same subject.


title: Invention of radio

text: On 1 June 1894, at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford University, Lodge gave a memorial lecture on the work of Hertz (recently deceased) and the German physicist's proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves 6 years earlier. Lodge set up a demonstration on the quasi-optical nature of "Hertzian waves" (radio waves) and demonstrated their similarity to light and vision including reflection and transmission. Later in June and on 14 August 1894 he did similar experiments, increasing the distance of transmission up to 55 meters. In these lectures Lodge demonstrated a detector that would become standard in radio work, an improved version of Branly's detector which Lodge dubbed the "coherer". It consisted of a glass tube containing metal filings between two electrodes. When the small electrical charge from waves from an antenna were applied to the electrodes, the metal particles would cling together or "cohere" causing the device to become conductive allowing the current from a battery to pass through it. In Lodge's setup the slight impulses from the coherer were picked up by a mirror galvanometer which would deflect a beam of light being projected on it, giving a visual signal that the impulse was received. After receiving a signal the metal filings in the coherer were broken apart or "decohered" by a manually operated vibrator or by the vibrations of a bell placed on the table near by that rang every time a transmission was received. Lodge also demonstrated tuning using a pair of Leyden jars that could be brought into resonance. Lodge's lectures were widely publicized and his techniques influenced and were expanded on by other radio pioneers including Augusto Righi and his student Guglielmo Marconi, Alexander Popov, Lee de Forest, and Jagadish Chandra Bose.


title: Invention of radio

text: Lodge at the time seemed to see no value in using radio waves for signalling or wireless telegraphy and there is debate as to whether he even bothered to demonstrate communication during his lectures. Physicist John Ambrose Fleming, pointed out that Lodge's lecture was a physics experiment, not a demonstration of telegraphic signaling. After radio communication was developed Lodge's lecture would become the focus of priority disputes over who invented wireless telegraphy (radio). His early demonstration and later development of radio tuning (his 1898 Syntonic tuning patent) would lead to patent disputes with the Marconi Company. When Lodge's syntonic patent was extended in 1911 for another seven years Marconi agreed to settle the patent dispute and purchase the patent.


title: Invention of radio

text: In November 1894, the Indian physicist, Jagadish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in Calcutta, but he was not interested in patenting his work. Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using electromagnetic waves, confirming that communication signals can be sent without using wires. He sent and received radio waves over distance but did not commercially exploit this achievement.


title: Invention of radio

text: Bose demonstrated the ability of the signal to travel from the lecture room, and through an intervening room and passage, to a third room distant from the radiator, thus passing through three solid walls on the way, as well as the body of the chairman (who happened to be the Lieutenant-Governor). The receiver at this distance still had energy enough to make a contact which set a bell ringing, discharged a pistol, and exploded a miniature mine. To get this result from his small radiator, Bose set up an apparatus which curiously anticipated the lofty 'antennae' of modern wireless telegraphy—a circular metal plate at the top of a pole, high, being put in connection with the radiator and a similar one with the receiving apparatus.


title: Invention of radio

text: The form of 'Coherer' devised by Professor Bose, and described by him at the end of his paper '' allowed for the sensibility and range to appear to leave little to be desired at the time. In 1896, the British, Daily Chronicle reported on his UHF experiments: ""The inventor (J. C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuable application of this new theoretical marvel.""


title: Invention of radio

text: After Bose's Friday Evening Discourses at the Royal Institution, The Electric Engineer expressed 'surprise that no secret was at any time made as to its construction, so that it has been open to all the world to adopt it for practical and possibly money-making purposes.'


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1899, Bose announced the development of an ""iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector"" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London. Later he received , ""Detector for electrical disturbances"" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver. Bose would continue with his research and made other contributions to the development of radio.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1894–95 the Russian physicist Alexander Stepanovich Popov conducted experiments developing a radio receiver, an improved version of coherer-based design by Oliver Lodge. His design with coherer auto-tapping mechanism was designed as a lightning detector to help the forest service track lightning strikes that could start fires. His receiver proved to be able to sense lightning strikes at distances of up to 30 km. Popov built a version of the receiver that was capable of automatically recording lightning strikes on paper rolls. Popov presented his radio receiver to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895 — the day has been celebrated in the Russian Federation as "Radio Day" promoted in eastern European countries as the inventor of radio. The paper on his findings was published the same year (December 15, 1895). Popov had recorded, at the end of 1895, that he was hoping for distant signaling with radio waves. He did not apply for a patent for this invention.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1898 Nikola Tesla developed a radio/coherer based remote-controlled boat, with a form of secure communication between transmitter and receiver, which he demonstrated in 1898. Tesla called his invention a "teleautomaton" and he hoped to sell it as a guided naval torpedo.


title: Invention of radio

text: Guglielmo Marconi studied at the Leghorn Technical School, and acquainted himself with the published writings of Professor Augusto Righi of the University of Bologna. In 1894, Sir William Preece delivered a paper to the Royal Institution in London on electric signalling without wires. In 1894 at the Royal Institution lectures, Lodge delivered "The Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors". Marconi is said to have read, while on vacation in 1894, about the experiments that Hertz did in the 1880s. Marconi also read about Tesla's work. It was at this time that Marconi began to understand that radio waves could be used for wireless communications. Marconi's early apparatus was a development of Hertz's laboratory apparatus into a system designed for communications purposes. At first Marconi used a transmitter to ring a bell in a receiver in his attic laboratory. He then moved his experiments out-of-doors on the family estate near Bologna, Italy, to communicate further. He replaced Hertz's vertical dipole with a vertical wire topped by a metal sheet, with an opposing terminal connected to the ground. On the receiver side, Marconi replaced the spark gap with a metal powder coherer, a detector developed by Edouard Branly and other experimenters. Marconi transmitted radio signals for about at the end of 1895.


title: Invention of radio

text: Marconi was awarded a patent for radio with British patent No. 12,039, "Improvements in Transmitting Electrical Impulses and Signals and in Apparatus There-for". The complete specification was filed March 2, 1897. This was Marconi's initial patent for the radio, though it used various earlier techniques of various other experimenters and resembled the instrument demonstrated by others (including Popov). During this time spark-gap wireless telegraphy was widely researched. In July, 1896, Marconi got his invention and new method of telegraphy to the attention of Preece, then engineer-in-chief to the British Government Telegraph Service, who had for the previous twelve years interested himself in the development of wireless telegraphy by the inductive-conductive method. On June 4, 1897, he delivered "Signalling through Space without Wires". Preece devoted considerable time to exhibiting and explaining the Marconi apparatus at the Royal Institution in London, stating that Marconi invented a new relay which had high sensitiveness and delicacy.


title: Invention of radio

text: The Marconi Company Ltd. was founded by Marconi in 1897, known as the Wireless Telegraph Trading Signal Company. Also in 1897, Marconi established the radio station at Niton, Isle of Wight, England. Marconi's wireless telegraphy was inspected by the Post Office Telegraph authorities; they made a series of experiments with Marconi's system of telegraphy without connecting wires, in the Bristol Channel. The October wireless signals of 1897 were sent from Salisbury Plain to Bath, a distance of . Around 1900 Marconi developed an empirical law that, for simple vertical sending and receiving antennas of equal height, the maximum working telegraphic distance varied as the square of the height of the antenna. This became known as Marconi's law.


title: Invention of radio

text: Other experimental stations were established at Lavernock Point, near Penarth; on the Flat Holmes, an island in mid-channel, and at Brean Down, a promontory on the Somerset side. Signals were obtained between the first and last-named points, a distance of, approximately, . The receiving instrument used was a Morse inkwriter of the Post Office pattern. In 1898, Marconi opened a radio factory in Hall Street, Chelmsford, England, employing around 50 people. In 1899, Marconi announced his invention of the "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at Royal Society, London.


title: Invention of radio

text: In May, 1898, communication was established for the Corporation of Lloyds between Ballycastle and the Lighthouse on Rathlin Island in the north of Ireland. In July 1898, the Marconi telegraphy was employed to report the results of yacht races at the Kingstown Regatta for the Dublin Express newspaper. A set of instruments were fitted up in a room at Kingstown, and another on board a steamer, the Flying Huntress. The aerial conductor on shore was a strip of wire netting attached to a mast high, and several hundred messages were sent and correctly received during the progress of the races.


title: Invention of radio

text: At this time His Majesty King Edward VII, then Prince of Wales, had the misfortune to injure his knee, and was confined on board the royal yacht Osltorm in Cowes Bay.


title: Invention of radio

text: Marconi fitted up his apparatus on board the royal yacht by request, and also at Osborne House, Isle of Wight, and kept up wireless communication for three weeks between these stations. The distances covered were small; but as the yacht moved about, on some occasions high hills were interposed so that the aerial wires were overtopped by hundreds of feet, yet this was no obstacle to communication. These demonstrations led the Corporation of Trinity House to afford an opportunity for testing the system in practice between the South Foreland Lighthouse, near Dover, and the East Goodwin Lightship, on the Goodwin Sands. This installation was set in operation on December 24, 1898, and proved to be of value. It was shown that when once the apparatus was set up it could be worked by ordinary seamen with very little training.


title: Invention of radio

text: At the end of 1898 electric wave telegraphy established by Marconi had demonstrated its utility, especially for communication between ship and ship and ship and shore.


title: Invention of radio

text: The Haven Hotel station and Wireless Telegraph Mast was where much of Marconi's research work on wireless telegraphy was carried out after 1898. In 1899, he transmitted messages across the English Channel. Also in 1899, Marconi delivered ""Wireless Telegraphy"" to the Institution of Electrical Engineers. In addition, in 1899, W. H. Preece delivered "Aetheric Telegraphy", stating that the experimental stage in wireless telegraphy had been passed in 1894 and inventors were then entering the commercial stage. Preece, continuing in the lecture, details the work of Marconi and other British inventors. In April 1899, Marconi's experiments were repeated for the first time in the United States, by Jerome Green at the University of Notre Dame. In October, 1899, the progress of the yachts in the international race between the Columbia and Shamrock was successfully reported by aerial telegraphy, as many as 4,000 words having been (as is said) despatched from the two ship stations to the shore stations. Immediately afterward the apparatus was placed by request at the service of the United States Navy Board, and some highly interesting experiments followed under Marconi's personal supervision. The Marconi Company was renamed Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company in 1900.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1901, Marconi claimed to have received daytime transatlantic radio frequency signals at a wavelength of 366 metres (820 kHz). Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, Rosslare Strand, Co. Wexford in 1901 to act as a link between Poldhu in Cornwall and Clifden in Co. Galway. His announcement on 12 December 1901, using a kite-supported antenna for reception, stated that the message was received at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland (now part of Canada) via signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The message received had been prearranged and was known to Marconi, consisting of the Morse letter 'S' – three dots. Bradford has recently contested the reported success, however, based on theoretical work as well as a reenactment of the experiment. It is now well known that long-distance transmission at a wavelength of 366 meters is not possible during the daytime, because the skywave is heavily absorbed by the ionosphere. It is possible that what was heard was only random atmospheric noise, which was mistaken for a signal, or that Marconi may have heard a shortwave harmonic of the signal. The distance between the two points was about .


title: Invention of radio

text: The Poldhu to Newfoundland transmission claim has been criticized. There are various science historians, such as Belrose and Bradford, who have cast doubt that the Atlantic was bridged in 1901, but other science historians have taken the position that this was the first transatlantic radio transmission. Critics have claimed that it is more likely that Marconi received stray atmospheric noise from atmospheric electricity in this experiment. The transmitting station in Poldhu, Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter that could produce a signal in the medium frequency range and with high power levels.


title: Invention of radio

text: Marconi transmitted from England to Canada and the United States. In this period, a particular electromagnetic receiver, called the "Marconi magnetic detector" or "hysteresis magnetic detector", was developed further by Marconi and was successfully used in his early transatlantic work (1902) and in many of the smaller stations for a number of years. In 1902, a Marconi station was established in the village of Crookhaven, County Cork, Ireland to provide marine radio communications to ships arriving from the Americas. A ship's master could contact shipping line agents ashore to enquire which port was to receive their cargo without the need to come ashore at what was the first port of landfall. Ireland was also, due to its western location, to play a key role in early efforts to send trans-Atlantic messages. Marconi transmitted from his station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada across the Atlantic, and on 18 January 1903 a Marconi station sent a message of greetings from Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States, to the King of the United Kingdom, marking the first transatlantic radio transmission originating in the United States.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1904, Marconi inaugurated an ocean daily newspaper, the "Cunard Daily Bulletin", on the R.M.S. "Campania." At the start, passing events were printed in a little pamphlet of four pages called the "Cunard Bulletin". The title would read Cunard Daily Bulletin, with subheads for ""Marconigrams Direct to the Ship"." All the passenger ships of the Cunard Company were fitted with Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy, by means of which constant communication was kept up, either with other ships or with land stations on the eastern or western hemisphere. The RMS Lucania, in October 1903, with Marconi on board, was the first vessel to hold communications with both sides of the Atlantic. The "Cunard Daily Bulletin", a thirty-two page illustrated paper published on board these boats recorded news received by wireless telegraphy, and was the first ocean newspaper. In August 1903, an agreement was made with the British Government by which the Cunard Co. were to build two steamers, to be, with all other Cunard ships, at the disposal of the British Admiralty for hire or purchase whenever they might be required, the Government lending the company £2,600,000 to build the ships and granting them a subsidy of £150,000 a year. One was the RMS Lusitania and another was the RMS Mauritania.


title: Invention of radio

text: Marconi was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun for contributions to radio sciences. Marconi's demonstrations of the use of radio for wireless communications, equipping ships with life saving wireless communications, establishing the first transatlantic radio service, and building the first stations for the British shortwave service, have marked his place in history.


title: Invention of radio

text: In June and July 1923, Marconi's shortwave transmissions took place at night on 97 meters from Poldhu Wireless Station, Cornwall, to his yacht Elettra in the Cape Verde Islands. In September 1924, Marconi transmitted during daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut. In July 1924, Marconi entered into contracts with the British General Post Office (GPO) to install telegraphy circuits from London to Australia, India, South Africa and Canada as the main element of the Imperial Wireless Chain. The UK-to-Canada shortwave ""Beam Wireless Service"" went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia, South Africa and India went into service in 1927. Electronic components for the system were built at Marconi's New Street wireless factory in Chelmsford.


title: Invention of radio

text: Ferdinand Braun's major contributions were the introduction of a closed tuned circuit in the generating part of the transmitter, and its separation from the radiating part (the antenna) by means of inductive coupling, and later on the usage of crystals for receiving purposes. Braun experimented at first at the University of Strasbourg. Braun had written extensively on wireless subjects and was well known through his many contributions to the Electrician and other scientific journals. In 1899, he would apply for the patents, "Electro telegraphy by means of condensers and induction coils" and "Wireless electro transmission of signals over surfaces".


title: Invention of radio

text: Pioneers working on wireless devices eventually came to a limit of distance they could cover. Connecting the antenna directly to the spark gap produced only a heavily damped pulse train. There were only a few cycles before oscillations ceased. Braun's circuit afforded a much longer sustained oscillation because the energy encountered less loss swinging between coil and Leyden Jars. Also, by means of inductive antenna coupling the radiator was matched to the generator.


title: Invention of radio

text: In spring 1899 Braun, accompanied by his colleagues Cantor and Zenneck, went to Cuxhaven to continue their experiments at the North Sea. On February 6, 1899, he would apply for the United States Patent, . Not before long he bridged a distance of 42 km to the city of Mutzing. On 24 September 1900 radio telegraphy signals were exchanged regularly with the island of Heligoland over a distance of 62 km. Lightvessels in the river Elbe and a coast station at Cuxhaven commenced a regular radio telegraph service. On August 6, 1901, he would apply for .


title: Invention of radio

text: By 1904, the closed circuit system of wireless telegraphy, connected with the name of Braun, was well known and generally adopted in principle. The results of Braun's experiments, published in the Electrician, possess interest, apart from the method employed. Braun showed how the problem could be satisfactorily and economically solved. The closed circuit oscillator has the advantage, as was known, of being able to draw upon the kinetic energy in the oscillator circuit, and thus, because such a circuit can be given a much greater capacity than can be obtained with a radiating aerial alone, much more energy can be stored up and radiated by its employment. The emission is also prolonged, both results tending towards the attainment of the much desired train of undamped waves. The energy available, though greater than with the open system, was still inconsiderable unless very high potentials, with the attendant drawbacks, were used. Braun avoided the use of extremely high potentials for charging the gap and also makes use of a less wasteful gap by sub-dividing it. The chief point in his new arrangement, however, is not the sub-division of the gap merely but their arrangement, by which they are charged in parallel, at low voltages, and discharge in series. The Nobel Prize awarded to Braun in 1909 depicts this design.


title: Invention of radio

text: John Stone Stone labored as an early telephone engineer and was influential in developing wireless communication technology, and obtained dozens of key patents in the field of "space telegraphy". Patents of Stone for radio, together with their equivalents in other countries, form a very voluminous contribution to the patent literature of the subject. More than seventy United States patents have been granted to this patentee alone. In many cases these specifications are learned contributions to the literature of the subject, filled with valuable references to other sources of information.


title: Invention of radio

text: Stone has had issued to him a large number of patents embracing a method for impressing oscillations on a radiator system and emitting the energy in the form of waves of predetermined length whatever may be the electrical dimensions of the oscillator. On February 8, 1900, he filed for a selective system in . In this system, two simple circuits are associated inductively, each having an independent degree of freedom, and in which the restoration of electric oscillations to zero potential the currents are superimposed, giving rise to compound harmonic currents which permit the resonator system to be syntonized with precision to the oscillator. Stone's system, as stated in , developed free or unguided simple harmonic electromagnetic signal waves of a definite frequency to the exclusion of the energy of signal waves of other frequencies, and an elevated conductor and means for developing therein forced simple electric vibrations of corresponding frequency. In these patents Stone devised a multiple inductive oscillation circuit with the object of forcing on the antenna circuit a single oscillation of definite frequency. In the system for receiving the energy of free or unguided simple harmonic electromagnetic signal waves of a definite frequency to the exclusion of the energy of signal waves of other frequencies, he claimed an elevated conductor and a resonant circuit associated with said conductor and attuned to the frequency of the waves, the energy of which is to be received. A coherer made on what is called the "Stone system" was employed in some of the portable wireless outfits of the United States Army. The Stone Coherer has two small steel plugs between which are placed loosely packed carbon granules. This is a "self-decohering" device; though not as sensitive as other forms of detectors it is well suited to the rough usage of portable outfits.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1897, recently promoted Royal Navy Captain Henry Jackson became the first person to achieve ship-to-ship wireless communications and demonstrated continuous communication with another vessel up to three miles away. became the first British warship to have wireless telegraphy installed when she conducted the first trials of the new equipment for the Royal Navy. Starting in December 1899, HMS "Hector" and were outfitted with wireless equipment. On 25 January 1901, HMS "Jaseur" received signals from the "Marconi transmitter" on the Isle of Wight and from HMS "Hector" (25 January).


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1899 the United States Navy Board issued a report on the results of investigations of the Marconi system of wireless telegraphy. The report noted that the system was well adapted for use in squadron signalling, under conditions of rain, fog, darkness and motion of speed although dampness affected the performance. They also noted that when two stations were transmitting simultaneously both would be received and that the system had the potential to affect the compass. They reported ranges from for large ships with tall masts () to for smaller vessels. The board recommended that the system was given a trial by the United States Navy.


title: Invention of radio

text: In late 1886, Reginald Fessenden began working directly for Thomas Edison at the inventor's new laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey. Fessenden quickly made major advances, especially in receiver design, as he worked to develop audio reception of signals. The United States Weather Bureau began, early in 1900, a systematic course of experimentation in wireless telegraphy, employing him as a specialist. Fessenden evolved the heterodyne principle here where two signals combined to produce a third signal.


title: Invention of radio

text: In 1900, construction began on a large radio transmitting alternator. Fessenden, experimenting with a high-frequency spark transmitter, successfully transmitted speech on December 23, 1900, over a distance of about , the "first audio radio transmission". Early in 1901 the Weather Bureau officially installed Fessenden at Wier's Point, Roanoke Island, North Carolina, and he made experimental transmissions across water to a station located about west of Cape Hatteras, the distance between the two stations being roughly . An alternator of 1 kW output at 10 kilohertz was built in 1902. The credit for the development of this machine is due to Charles Proteus Steinmetz, Caryl D. Haskins, Ernst Alexanderson, John T. H. Dempster, Henry Geisenhoner, Adam Stein, Jr., and F. P. Mansbendel.


title: Invention of radio

text: In a paper written by Fessenden in 1902, it was asserted that important advances had been made, one of which was overcoming largely the loss of energy experienced in other systems. In an interview with a "New York Journal" correspondent, Fessenden stated that in his early apparatus he did not use an air transformer at the sending end, nor a concentric cylinder for emitters and antennae, and had used capacity, but arranged in a manner entirely different from that in other systems, and that he "did not" employ a coherer or any form of imperfect contact. Fessenden asserted that he had paid particular attention to selective and multiplex systems, and was well satisfied with the results in that direction. On August 12, 1902, 13 patents were issued to Fessenden, covering various methods, devices, and systems for signaling without wires. These patents involved many new principles, the "chef-d'oeuvre" of which was a method for distributing capacity and inductance instead of localizing these coefficients of the oscillator as in previous systems.


title: Invention of radio

text: By the summer of 1906, a machine producing 50 kilohertz was installed at the Brant Rock station, and in the fall of 1906, what was called an electric alternating dynamo was working regularly at 75 kilohertz, with an output of 0.5 kW. Fessenden used this for wireless telephoning to Plymouth, Massachusetts, a distance of approximately . In the following year machines were constructed having a frequency of 96 kilohertz and outputs of 1 kW and 2 kW. Fessenden believed that the damped wave-coherer system was essentially and fundamentally incapable of development into a practical system. He would employ a two-phase high frequency "alternator method" and the continuous production of waves with changing constants of sending circuit. Fessenden would also use duplex and multiplex commutator methods. On December 11, 1906, operation of the wireless transmission in conjunction with the wire lines took place. In July 1907 the range was considerably extended and speech was successfully transmitted between Brant Rock and Jamaica, on Long Island, a distance of nearly , in daylight and mostly over land, the mast at Jamaica being approximately high.


title: Invention of radio

text: In November 1904, the English physicist John Ambrose Fleming invented the two-electrode vacuum-tube rectifier, which he called the "Fleming oscillation valve". for which he obtained GB patent 24850 and . This "Fleming Valve" was sensitive and reliable, and so it replaced the crystal diode used in receivers used for long-distance wireless communication. It had an advantage, that it could not be permanently injured or set out of adjustment by any exceptionally strong stray signal, such as those due to atmospheric electricity. Fleming earned a Hughes Medal in 1910 for his electronic achievements. Marconi used this device as a radio detector.


title: Invention of radio

text: The Supreme Court of the United States would eventually invalidate the US patent because of an improper disclaimer and, additionally, maintained the technology in the patent was known art when filed. This invention was the first vacuum tube. Fleming's diode was used in radio receivers for many decades afterward, until it was superseded by improved solid state electronic technology more than 50 years later.


title: Invention of radio

text: Lee De Forest had an interest in wireless telegraphy and he invented the Audion in 1906. He was president and secretary of the De Forest Radio Telephone and Telegraph Company (1913). The De Forest System was adopted by the United States Government, and had been demonstrated to other Governments including those of Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Russia, and British Indies, all of which purchased De Forest apparatus previous to the Great War. De Forest is one of the fathers of the "electronic age", as the Audion helped to usher in the widespread use of electronics.


title: Invention of radio

text: De Forest made the "Audion tube" from a vacuum tube. He also made the ""Oscillion"", an undamped wave transmitter. He developed the De Forest method of wireless telegraphy and founded the American De Forest Wireless Telegraph Company. De Forest was a distinguished electrical engineer and the foremost American contributor to the development of wireless telegraphy and telephony. The elements of his device takes relatively weak electrical signals and amplifies them. The "Audion Detector", "Audion Amplifier", and the ""Oscillion"" transmitter had furthered the radio art and the transmission of written or audible speech. In World War I, the De Forest system was a factor in the efficiency of the United States Signal Service, and was also installed by the United States Government in Alaska.


title: Invention of radio

text: Below is a brief selection of important events and individuals related to the development of radio, from 1860 to 1910.


title: Whaling

text: Whaling is the process of hunting of whales for their usable products such as meat and blubber, which can be turned into a type of oil that became increasingly important in the Industrial Revolution.


title: Whaling

text: It was practiced as an organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16th century, it had risen to be the principal industry in the Basque coastal regions of Spain and France. The industry spread throughout the world, and became increasingly profitable in terms of trade and resources. Some regions of the world's oceans, along the animals' migration routes, had a particularly dense whale population, and became the targets for large concentrations of whaling ships, and the industry continued to grow well into the 20th century. The depletion of some whale species to near extinction led to the banning of whaling in many countries by 1969, and to an international cessation of whaling as an industry in the late 1980s.


title: Whaling

text: The earliest known forms of whaling date to at least 3000 BC. Coastal communities around the world have long histories of subsistence use of cetaceans, by dolphin drive hunting and by harvesting drift whales. Widespread commercial whaling emerged with organized fleets of whaleships in the 17th century; competitive national whaling industries in the 18th and 19th centuries; and the introduction of factory ships and explosive harpoons along with the concept of whale harvesting in the first half of the 20th century. By the late 1930s, more than 50,000 whales were killed annually. In 1986, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) banned commercial whaling because of the extreme depletion of most of the whale stocks.


title: Whaling

text: Contemporary whaling for whale meat is subject to intense debate. Canada, Iceland, Japan, Norway, Russia, South Korea, the United States and the Danish dependencies of the Faroe Islands and Greenland continue to hunt in the 21st century. Countries that support commercial whaling, notably Iceland, Japan, and Norway, wish to lift the IWC moratorium on certain whale stocks for hunting. Anti-whaling countries and environmental activists oppose lifting the ban. Under the terms of the IWC moratorium, aboriginal whaling is allowed to continue on a subsistence basis. Over the past few decades, whale watching has become a significant industry in many parts of the world; in some countries, it has replaced whaling, but in a few others, the two business models exist in an uneasy tension. The live capture of cetaceans for display in aquaria (e.g., captive killer whales) continues.


title: Whaling

text: Whaling began in prehistoric times in coastal waters. The earliest depictions of whaling are the Neolithic Bangudae Petroglyphs in Korea, which may date back to 6000 BC. These images are the earliest evidence for whaling. Although prehistoric hunting and gathering is generally considered to have had little ecological impact, early whaling in the Arctic may have altered freshwater ecology.


title: Whaling

text: Early whaling affected the development of widely disparate cultures on different continents. The Basques were the first to catch whales commercially, and dominated the trade for five centuries, spreading to the far corners of the North Atlantic and even reaching the South Atlantic. The development of modern whaling techniques was spurred in the 19th century by the increase in demand for whale oil, sometimes known as "train oil", and in the 20th century by a demand for margarine and later whale meat.


title: Whaling

text: Many countries once had significant whaling industries, and these are covered in separate articles; for example Whaling in the Netherlands, Whaling in Scotland, and Whaling in Argentina. Canada, Iceland, Japan, Norway, Russia, South Korea, the United States and the Danish dependencies of the Faroe Islands and Greenland continue to hunt in the 21st century, and are described below.


title: Whaling

text: and pilot whales, which are some of the smallest species of whales. There are also smaller numbers killed of gray whales, sei whales, fin whales, bowhead whales, Bryde's whales, sperm whales and humpback whales.


title: Whaling

text: Recent scientific surveys estimate a population of 103,000 minkes in the northeast Atlantic. With respect to the populations of Antarctic minke whales, as of January 2010, the IWC states that it is "unable to provide reliable estimates at the present time" and that a "major review is underway by the Scientific Committee."


title: Whaling

text: Whale is used little today and modern whaling is primarily done for food: for pets, fur farms, sled dogs and humans, and for making carvings of tusks, teeth and vertebrae. Both meat and blubber (muktuk) are eaten from narwhals, belugas and bowheads. From commercially hunted minkes, meat is eaten by humans or animals, and blubber is rendered down mostly to cheap industrial products such as animal feed or, in Iceland, as a fuel supplement for whaling ships.


title: Whaling

text: International cooperation on whaling regulation began in 1931 and culminated in the signing of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) in 1946. Its aim is to:


title: Whaling

text: The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the ICRW to decide hunting quotas and other relevant matters based on the findings of its Scientific Committee. Non-member countries are not bound by its regulations and conduct their own management programs. It regulates hunting of 13 species of great whales, and has not reached consensus on whether it may regulate smaller species.


title: Whaling

text: The IWC voted on July 23, 1982, to establish a moratorium on commercial whaling of great whales beginning in the 1985–86 season. Since 1992, the IWC's Scientific Committee has requested that it be allowed to give quota proposals for some whale stocks, but this has so far been refused by the Plenary Committee.


title: Whaling

text: At the 2010 meeting of the International Whaling Commission in Morocco, representatives of the 88 member states discussed whether or not to lift the 24-year ban on commercial whaling. Japan, Norway and Iceland have urged the organisation to lift the ban. A coalition of anti-whaling nations has offered a compromise plan that would allow these countries to continue whaling, but with smaller catches and under close supervision. Their plan would also completely ban whaling in the Southern Ocean. More than 200 scientists and experts have opposed the compromise proposal for lifting the ban, and have also opposed allowing whaling in the Southern Ocean, which was declared a whale sanctuary in 1994. Opponents of the compromise plan want to see an end to all commercial whaling, but are willing to allow subsistence-level catches by indigenous peoples.


title: Whaling

text: Greenland's and Canada's catches of narwhals (data 1954–2014), belugas from multiple sources shown in the Beluga whale article, Indonesia's catches of sperm whales, and bycatch in Korea.