title: Crystal oscillator

text: Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz. As of 2003, around two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. However in applications where small size and weight is needed crystals can be replaced by thin-film bulk acoustic resonators, specifically if high frequency (more than roughly 1.5 GHz) resonance is needed. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A crystal oscillator is an electric oscillator type circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator, a crystal, as its frequency-determining element. "Crystal" is the common term used in electronics for the frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes connected to it. A more accurate term for it is "piezoelectric resonator". Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Piezoelectric resonators are sold as separate components for use in crystal oscillator circuits. They are also often incorporated in a single package with the crystal oscillator circuit.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Piezoelectricity was discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880. Paul Langevin first investigated quartz resonators for use in sonar during World War I. The first crystal-controlled oscillator, using a crystal of Rochelle salt, was built in 1917 and patented in 1918 by Alexander M. Nicholson at Bell Telephone Laboratories, although his priority was disputed by Walter Guyton Cady. Cady built the first quartz crystal oscillator in 1921.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Quartz crystal oscillators were developed for high-stability frequency references during the 1920s and 1930s. Prior to crystals, radio stations controlled their frequency with tuned circuits, which could easily drift off frequency by 3–4 kHz. Since broadcast stations were assigned frequencies only 10 kHz (Americas) or 9 kHz (elsewhere) apart, interference between adjacent stations due to frequency drift was a common problem. In 1925, Westinghouse installed a crystal oscillator in its flagship station KDKA, and by 1926, quartz crystals were used to control the frequency of many broadcasting stations and were popular with amateur radio operators. In 1928, Warren Marrison of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed the first quartz-crystal clock. With accuracies of up to 1 second in 30 years (30 ms/y, or 0.95 ns/s), quartz clocks replaced precision pendulum clocks as the world's most accurate timekeepers until atomic clocks were developed in the 1950s. Using the early work at Bell Labs, AT&T eventually established their Frequency Control Products division, later spun off and known today as Vectron International.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A number of firms started producing quartz crystals for electronic use during this time. Using what are now considered primitive methods, about 100,000 crystal units were produced in the United States during 1939. Through World War II crystals were made from natural quartz crystal, virtually all from Brazil. Shortages of crystals during the war caused by the demand for accurate frequency control of military and naval radios and radars spurred postwar research into culturing synthetic quartz, and by 1950 a hydrothermal process for growing quartz crystals on a commercial scale was developed at Bell Laboratories. By the 1970s virtually all crystals used in electronics were synthetic.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: In 1968, Juergen Staudte invented a photolithographic process for manufacturing quartz crystal oscillators while working at North American Aviation (now Rockwell) that allowed them to be made small enough for portable products like watches.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Although crystal oscillators still most commonly use quartz crystals, devices using other materials are becoming more common, such as ceramic resonators.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple rectangle or circular disk. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit, composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes). Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, does not change much. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator remains accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A quartz crystal can be modeled as an electrical network with low-impedance (series) and high-impedance (parallel) resonance points spaced closely together. Mathematically, using the Laplace transform, the impedance of this network can be written as:


title: Crystal oscillator

text: where formula_3 is the complex frequency (formula_4), formula_5 is the series resonant angular frequency, and formula_6 is the parallel resonant angular frequency.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Adding capacitance across a crystal causes the (parallel) resonant frequency to decrease. Adding inductance across a crystal causes the (parallel) resonant frequency to increase. These effects can be used to adjust the frequency at which a crystal oscillates. Crystal manufacturers normally cut and trim their crystals to have a specified resonant frequency with a known "load" capacitance added to the crystal. For example, a crystal intended for a 6 pF load has its specified parallel resonant frequency when a 6.0 pF capacitor is placed across it. Without the load capacitance, the resonant frequency is higher.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A quartz crystal provides both series and parallel resonance. The series resonance is a few kilohertz lower than the parallel one. Crystals below 30 MHz are generally operated between series and parallel resonance, which means that the crystal appears as an inductive reactance in operation, this inductance forming a parallel resonant circuit with externally connected parallel capacitance. Any small additional capacitance in parallel with the crystal pulls the frequency lower. Moreover, the effective inductive reactance of the crystal can be reduced by adding a capacitor in series with the crystal. This latter technique can provide a useful method of trimming the oscillatory frequency within a narrow range; in this case inserting a capacitor in series with the crystal raises the frequency of oscillation. For a crystal to operate at its specified frequency, the electronic circuit has to be exactly that specified by the crystal manufacturer. Note that these points imply a subtlety concerning crystal oscillators in this frequency range: the crystal does not usually oscillate at precisely either of its resonant frequencies.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals above 30 MHz (up to >200 MHz) are generally operated at series resonance where the impedance appears at its minimum and equal to the series resistance. For these crystals the series resistance is specified (<100 Ω) instead of the parallel capacitance. To reach higher frequencies, a crystal can be made to vibrate at one of its overtone modes, which occur near multiples of the fundamental resonant frequency. Only odd numbered overtones are used. Such a crystal is referred to as a 3rd, 5th, or even 7th overtone crystal. To accomplish this, the oscillator circuit usually includes additional LC circuits to select the desired overtone.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A crystal's frequency characteristic depends on the shape or "cut" of the crystal. A tuning-fork crystal is usually cut such that its frequency dependence on temperature is quadratic with the maximum around 25 °C. This means that a tuning-fork crystal oscillator resonates close to its target frequency at room temperature, but slows when the temperature either increases or decreases from room temperature. A common parabolic coefficient for a 32 kHz tuning-fork crystal is −0.04 ppm/°C:


title: Crystal oscillator

text: In a real application, this means that a clock built using a regular 32 kHz tuning-fork crystal keeps good time at room temperature, but loses 2 minutes per year at 10 °C above or below room temperature and loses 8 minutes per year at 20 °C above or below room temperature due to the quartz crystal.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator. The rate of expansion and contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the crystal. When the energy of the generated output frequencies matches the losses in the circuit, an oscillation can be sustained.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: An oscillator crystal has two electrically conductive plates, with a slice or tuning fork of quartz crystal sandwiched between them. During startup, the controlling circuit places the crystal into an unstable equilibrium, and due to the positive feedback in the system, any tiny fraction of noise is amplified, ramping up the oscillation. The crystal resonator can also be seen as a highly frequency-selective filter in this system: it only passes a very narrow subband of frequencies around the resonant one, attenuating everything else. Eventually, only the resonant frequency is active. As the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the signals in the crystal's frequency band becomes stronger, eventually dominating the output of the oscillator. The narrow resonance band of the quartz crystal filters out the unwanted frequencies.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The output frequency of a quartz oscillator can be either that of the fundamental resonance or of a multiple of that resonance, called a harmonic frequency. Harmonics are an exact integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. But, like many other mechanical resonators, crystals exhibit several modes of oscillation, usually at approximately odd integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. These are termed "overtone modes", and oscillator circuits can be designed to excite them. The overtone modes are at frequencies which are approximate, but not exact odd integer multiples of that of the fundamental mode, and overtone frequencies are therefore not exact harmonics of the fundamental.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: High frequency crystals are often designed to operate at third, fifth, or seventh overtones. Manufacturers have difficulty producing crystals thin enough to produce fundamental frequencies over 30 MHz. To produce higher frequencies, manufacturers make overtone crystals tuned to put the 3rd, 5th, or 7th overtone at the desired frequency, because they are thicker and therefore easier to manufacture than a fundamental crystal that would produce the same frequency—although exciting the desired overtone frequency requires a slightly more complicated oscillator circuit.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A fundamental crystal oscillator circuit is simpler and more efficient and has more pullability than a third overtone circuit.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A major reason for the wide use of crystal oscillators is their high Q factor. A typical "Q" value for a quartz oscillator ranges from 10 to 10, compared to perhaps 10 for an LC oscillator. The maximum "Q" for a high stability quartz oscillator can be estimated as "Q" = 1.6 × 10/"f", where "f" is the resonant frequency in megahertz.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: One of the most important traits of quartz crystal oscillators is that they can exhibit very low phase noise.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: In many oscillators, any spectral energy at the resonant frequency is amplified by the oscillator, resulting in a collection of tones at different phases.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: In a crystal oscillator, the crystal mostly vibrates in one axis, therefore only one phase is dominant.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: This property of low phase noise makes them particularly useful in telecommunications where stable signals are needed, and in scientific equipment where very precise time references are needed.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Environmental changes of temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration can change the resonant frequency of a quartz crystal, but there are several designs that reduce these environmental effects. These include the TCXO, MCXO, and OCXO which are defined below. These designs, particularly the OCXO, often produce devices with excellent short-term stability. The limitations in short-term stability are due mainly to noise from electronic components in the oscillator circuits. Long-term stability is limited by aging of the crystal.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Due to aging and environmental factors (such as temperature and vibration), it is difficult to keep even the best quartz oscillators within one part in 10 of their nominal frequency without constant adjustment. For this reason, atomic oscillators are used for applications requiring better long-term stability and accuracy.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: For crystals operated at series resonance or pulled away from the main mode by the inclusion of a series inductor or capacitor, significant (and temperature-dependent) spurious responses may be experienced. Though most spurious modes are typically some tens of kilohertz above the wanted series resonance their temperature coefficient is different from the main mode and the spurious response may move through the main mode at certain temperatures. Even if the series resistances at the spurious resonances appear higher than the one at wanted frequency a rapid change in the main mode series resistance can occur at specific temperatures when the two frequencies are coincidental.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A consequence of these activity dips is that the oscillator may lock at a spurious frequency at specific temperatures. This is generally minimized by ensuring that the maintaining circuit has insufficient gain to activate unwanted modes.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Spurious frequencies are also generated by subjecting the crystal to vibration. This modulates the resonant frequency to a small degree by the frequency of the vibrations. SC-cut (Stress Compensated) crystals are designed to minimize the frequency effect of mounting stress and they are therefore less sensitive to vibration. Acceleration effects including gravity are also reduced with SC-cut crystals as is frequency change with time due to long term mounting stress variation.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: There are disadvantages with SC-cut shear mode crystals, such as the need for the maintaining oscillator to discriminate against other closely related unwanted modes and increased frequency change due to temperature when subject to a full ambient range. SC-cut crystals are most advantageous where temperature control at their temperature of zero temperature coefficient (turnover) is possible, under these circumstances an overall stability performance from premium units can approach the stability of Rubidium frequency standards.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies, from a few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz. Many applications call for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequency, so hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in large quantities and stocked by electronics distributors. For example 3.579545 MHz crystals, which are made in large quantities for NTSC color television receivers, are popular for many non-television applications uses too. Using frequency dividers, frequency multipliers and phase-locked loop circuits, it is practical to derive a wide range of frequencies from one reference frequency.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The most common material for oscillator crystals is quartz. At the beginning of the technology, natural quartz crystals were used but now synthetic crystalline quartz grown by hydrothermal synthesis is predominant due to higher purity, lower cost and more convenient handling. One of the few remaining uses of natural crystals is for pressure transducers in deep wells. During World War II and for some time afterwards, natural quartz was considered a strategic material by the USA. Large crystals were imported from Brazil. Raw "lascas", the source material quartz for hydrothermal synthesis, are imported to USA or mined locally by Coleman Quartz. The average value of as-grown synthetic quartz in 1994 was


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Two types of quartz crystals exist: left-handed and right-handed. The two differ in their optical rotation but they are identical in other physical properties. Both left and right-handed crystals can be used for oscillators, if the cut angle is correct. In manufacture, right-handed quartz is generally used. The SiO tetrahedrons form parallel helices; the direction of twist of the helix determines the left- or right-hand orientation. The helixes are aligned along the c-axis and merged, sharing atoms. The mass of the helixes forms a mesh of small and large channels parallel to the c-axis. The large ones are large enough to allow some mobility of smaller ions and molecules through the crystal.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Quartz exists in several phases. At 573 °C at 1 atmosphere (and at higher temperatures and higher pressures) the α-quartz undergoes quartz inversion, transforms reversibly to β-quartz. The reverse process however is not entirely homogeneous and crystal twinning occurs. Care must be taken during manufacturing and processing to avoid phase transformation. Other phases, e.g. the higher-temperature phases tridymite and cristobalite, are not significant for oscillators. All quartz oscillator crystals are the α-quartz type.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Infrared spectrophotometry is used as one of the methods for measuring the quality of the grown crystals. The wavenumbers 3585, 3500, and 3410 cm are commonly used. The measured value is based on the absorption bands of the OH radical and the infrared Q value is calculated. The electronic grade crystals, grade C, have Q of 1.8 million or above; the premium grade B crystals have Q of 2.2 million, and special premium grade A crystals have Q of 3.0 million. The Q value is calculated only for the z region; crystals containing other regions can be adversely affected. Another quality indicator is the etch channel density; when the crystal is etched, tubular channels are created along linear defects. For processing involving etching, e.g. the wristwatch tuning fork crystals, low etch channel density is desirable. The etch channel density for swept quartz is about 10–100 and significantly more for unswept quartz. Presence of etch channels and etch pits degrades the resonator's Q and introduces nonlinearities.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals for AT-cut are the most common in mass production of oscillator materials; the shape and dimensions are optimized for high yield of the required wafers. High-purity quartz crystals are grown with especially low content of aluminium, alkali metal and other impurities and minimal defects; the low amount of alkali metals provides increased resistance to ionizing radiation. Crystals for wrist watches, for cutting the tuning fork 32768 Hz crystals, are grown with very low etch channel density.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Special high-Q crystals, for use in highly stable oscillators, are grown at constant slow speed and have constant low infrared absorption along the entire Z axis. Crystals can be grown as Y-bar, with a seed crystal in bar shape and elongated along the Y axis, or as Z-plate, grown from a plate seed with Y-axis direction length and X-axis width. The region around the seed crystal contains a large number of crystal defects and should not be used for the wafers.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals grow anisotropically; the growth along the Z axis is up to 3 times faster than along the X axis. The growth direction and rate also influences the rate of uptake of impurities. Y-bar crystals, or Z-plate crystals with long Y axis, have four growth regions usually called +X, −X, Z, and S. The distribution of impurities during growth is uneven; different growth areas contain different levels of contaminants. The Z regions are the purest, the small occasionally present S regions are less pure, the +X region is yet less pure, and the -X region has the highest level of impurities. The impurities have a negative impact on radiation hardness, susceptibility to twinning, filter loss, and long and short term stability of the crystals. Different-cut seeds in different orientations may provide other kinds of growth regions. The growth speed of the −X direction is slowest due to the effect of adsorption of water molecules on the crystal surface; aluminium impurities suppress growth in two other directions. The content of aluminium is lowest in Z region, higher in +X, yet higher in −X, and highest in S; the size of S regions also grows with increased amount of aluminium present. The content of hydrogen is lowest in Z region, higher in +X region, yet higher in S region, and highest in −X. Aluminium inclusions transform into color centers with gamma-ray irradiation, causing a darkening of the crystal proportional to the dose and level of impurities; the presence of regions with different darkness reveals the different growth regions.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The dominant type of defect of concern in quartz crystals is the substitution of an Al(III) for a Si(IV) atom in the crystal lattice. The aluminium ion has an associated interstitial charge compensator present nearby, which can be a H ion (attached to the nearby oxygen and forming a hydroxyl group, called Al−OH defect), Li ion, Na ion, K ion (less common), or an electron hole trapped in a nearby oxygen atom orbital. The composition of the growth solution, whether it is based on lithium or sodium alkali compounds, determines the charge compensating ions for the aluminium defects. The ion impurities are of concern as they are not firmly bound and can migrate through the crystal, altering the local lattice elasticity and the resonant frequency of the crystal. Other common impurities of concern are e.g. iron(III) (interstitial), fluorine, boron(III), phosphorus(V) (substitution), titanium(IV) (substitution, universally present in magmatic quartz, less common in hydrothermal quartz), and germanium(IV) (substitution). Sodium and iron ions can cause inclusions of acnite and elemeusite crystals. Inclusions of water may be present in fast-grown crystals; interstitial water molecules are abundant near the crystal seed. Another defect of importance is the hydrogen containing growth defect, when instead of a Si−O−Si structure, a pair of Si−OH HO−Si groups is formed; essentially a hydrolyzed bond. Fast-grown crystals contain more hydrogen defects than slow-grown ones. These growth defects source as supply of hydrogen ions for radiation-induced processes and forming Al-OH defects. Germanium impurities tend to trap electrons created during irradiation; the alkali metal cations then migrate towards the negatively charged center and form a stabilizing complex. Matrix defects can also be present; oxygen vacancies, silicon vacancies (usually compensated by 4 hydrogens or 3 hydrogens and a hole), peroxy groups, etc. Some of the defects produce localized levels in the forbidden band, serving as charge traps; Al(III) and B(III) typically serve as hole traps while electron vacancies, titanium, germanium, and phosphorus atoms serve as electron traps. The trapped charge carriers can be released by heating; their recombination is the cause of thermoluminescence.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The mobility of interstitial ions depends strongly on temperature. Hydrogen ions are mobile down to 10 K, but alkali metal ions become mobile only at temperatures around and above 200 K.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The hydroxyl defects can be measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. The trapped holes can be measured by electron spin resonance. The Al−Na defects show as an acoustic loss peak due to their stress-induced motion; the Al−Li defects do not form a potential well so are not detectable this way. Some of the radiation-induced defects during their thermal annealing produce thermoluminescence; defects related to aluminium, titanium, and germanium can be distinguished.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Swept crystals are crystals that have undergone a solid-state electrodiffusion purification process. Sweeping involves heating the crystal above 500 °C in a hydrogen-free atmosphere, with a voltage gradient of at least 1 kV/cm, for several hours (usually over 12). The migration of impurities and the gradual replacement of alkali metal ions with hydrogen (when swept in air) or electron holes (when swept in vacuum) causes a weak electric current through the crystal; decay of this current to a constant value signals the end of the process. The crystal is then left to cool, while the electric field is maintained. The impurities are concentrated at the cathode region of the crystal, which is cut off afterwards and discarded. Swept crystals have increased resistance to radiation, as the dose effects are dependent on the level of alkali metal impurities; they are suitable for use in devices exposed to ionizing radiation, e.g. for nuclear and space technology. Sweeping under vacuum at higher temperatures and higher field strengths yields yet more radiation-hard crystals. The level and character of impurities can be measured by infrared spectroscopy. Quartz can be swept in both α and β phase; sweeping in β phase is faster, but the phase transition may induce twinning. Twinning can be mitigated by subjecting the crystal to compression stress in the X direction, or an AC or DC electric field along the X axis while the crystal cools through the phase transformation temperature region.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Sweeping can also be used to introduce one kind of an impurity into the crystal. Lithium, sodium, and hydrogen swept crystals are used for, e.g., studying quartz behavior.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals can be adjusted to exact frequencies by laser trimming. A technique used in the world of amateur radio for slight decrease of the crystal frequency may be achieved by exposing crystals with silver electrodes to vapors of iodine, which causes a slight mass increase on the surface by forming a thin layer of silver iodide; such crystals however had problematic long-term stability. Another method commonly used is electrochemical increase or decrease of silver electrode thickness by submerging a resonator in lapis lazuli dissolved in water, citric acid in water, or water with salt, and using the resonator as one electrode, and a small silver electrode as the other.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Raising frequency by scratching off parts of the electrodes is not advised as this may damage the crystal and lower its Q factor. Capacitor trimmers can be also used for frequency adjustment of the oscillator circuit.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Some other piezoelectric materials than quartz can be employed. These include single crystals of lithium tantalate, lithium niobate, lithium borate, berlinite, gallium arsenide, lithium tetraborate, aluminium phosphate, bismuth germanium oxide, polycrystalline zirconium titanate ceramics, high-alumina ceramics, silicon-zinc oxide composite, or dipotassium tartrate. Some materials may be more suitable for specific applications. An oscillator crystal can be also manufactured by depositing the resonator material on the silicon chip surface. Crystals of gallium phosphate, langasite, langanite and langatate are about 10 times more pullable than the corresponding quartz crystals, and are used in some VCXO oscillators.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The frequency stability is determined by the crystal's Q. It is inversely dependent on the frequency, and on the constant that is dependent on the particular cut. Other factors influencing Q are the overtone used, the temperature, the level of driving of the crystal, the quality of the surface finish, the mechanical stresses imposed on the crystal by bonding and mounting, the geometry of the crystal and the attached electrodes, the material purity and defects in the crystal, type and pressure of the gas in the enclosure, interfering modes, and presence and absorbed dose of ionizing and neutron radiation.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The stability of AT cut crystals decreases with increasing frequency. For more accurate higher frequencies it is better to use a crystal with lower fundamental frequency, operating at an overtone.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A badly designed oscillator circuit may suddenly begin oscillating on an overtone. In 1972, a train in Fremont, California crashed due to a faulty oscillator. An inappropriate value of the tank capacitor caused the crystal in a control board to be overdriven, jumping to an overtone, and causing the train to speed up instead of slowing down.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Temperature influences the operating frequency; various forms of compensation are used, from analog compensation (TCXO) and microcontroller compensation (MCXO) to stabilization of the temperature with a crystal oven (OCXO). The crystals possess temperature hysteresis; the frequency at a given temperature achieved by increasing the temperature is not equal to the frequency on the same temperature achieved by decreasing the temperature. The temperature sensitivity depends primarily on the cut; the temperature compensated cuts are chosen as to minimize frequency/temperature dependence. Special cuts can be made with linear temperature characteristics; the LC cut is used in quartz thermometers. Other influencing factors are the overtone used, the mounting and electrodes, impurities in the crystal, mechanical strain, crystal geometry, rate of temperature change, thermal history (due to hysteresis), ionizing radiation, and drive level.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals tend to suffer anomalies in their frequency/temperature and resistance/temperature characteristics, known as activity dips. These are small downward frequency or upward resistance excursions localized at certain temperatures, with their temperature position dependent on the value of the load capacitors.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Mechanical stresses also influence the frequency. The stresses can be induced by mounting, bonding, and application of the electrodes, by differential thermal expansion of the mounting, electrodes, and the crystal itself, by differential thermal stresses when there is a temperature gradient present, by expansion or shrinkage of the bonding materials during curing, by the air pressure that is transferred to the ambient pressure within the crystal enclosure, by the stresses of the crystal lattice itself (nonuniform growth, impurities, dislocations), by the surface imperfections and damage caused during manufacture, and by the action of gravity on the mass of the crystal; the frequency can therefore be influenced by position of the crystal. Other dynamic stress inducing factors are shocks, vibrations, and acoustic noise. Some cuts are less sensitive to stresses; the SC (Stress Compensated) cut is an example. Atmospheric pressure changes can also introduce deformations to the housing, influencing the frequency by changing stray capacitances.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Atmospheric humidity influences the thermal transfer properties of air, and can change electrical properties of plastics by diffusion of water molecules into their structure, altering the dielectric constants and electrical conductivity.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Other factors influencing the frequency are the power supply voltage, load impedance, magnetic fields, electric fields (in case of cuts that are sensitive to them, e.g., SC cuts), the presence and absorbed dose of γ-particles and ionizing radiation, and the age of the crystal.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals undergo slow gradual change of frequency with time, known as aging. There are many mechanisms involved. The mounting and contacts may undergo relief of the built-in stresses. Molecules of contamination either from the residual atmosphere, outgassed from the crystal, electrodes or packaging materials, or introduced during sealing the housing can be adsorbed on the crystal surface, changing its mass; this effect is exploited in quartz crystal microbalances. The composition of the crystal can be gradually altered by outgassing, diffusion of atoms of impurities or migrating from the electrodes, or the lattice can be damaged by radiation. Slow chemical reactions may occur on or in the crystal, or on the inner surfaces of the enclosure. Electrode material, e.g. chromium or aluminium, can react with the crystal, creating layers of metal oxide and silicon; these interface layers can undergo changes in time. The pressure in the enclosure can change due to varying atmospheric pressure, temperature, leaks, or outgassing of the materials inside. Factors outside of the crystal itself are e.g. aging of the oscillator circuitry (and e.g. change of capacitances), and drift of parameters of the crystal oven. External atmosphere composition can also influence the aging; hydrogen can diffuse through nickel housing. Helium can cause similar issues when it diffuses through glass enclosures of rubidium standards.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Gold is a favored electrode material for low-aging resonators; its adhesion to quartz is strong enough to maintain contact even at strong mechanical shocks, but weak enough to not support significant strain gradients (unlike chromium, aluminium, and nickel). Gold also does not form oxides; it adsorbs organic contaminants from the air, but these are easy to remove. However, gold alone can undergo delamination; a layer of chromium is therefore sometimes used for improved binding strength. Silver and aluminium are often used as electrodes; however both form oxide layers with time that increases the crystal mass and lowers frequency. Silver can be passivated by exposition to iodine vapors, forming a layer of silver iodide. Aluminium oxidizes readily but slowly, until about 5 nm thickness is reached; increased temperature during artificial aging does not significantly increase the oxide forming speed; a thick oxide layer can be formed during manufacture by anodizing. Exposition of silver-plated crystal to iodine vapors can also be used in amateur conditions for lowering the crystal frequency slightly; the frequency can also be increased by scratching off parts of the electrodes, but that carries risk of damage to the crystal and loss of Q.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: A DC voltage bias between the electrodes can accelerate the initial aging, probably by induced diffusion of impurities through the crystal. Placing a capacitor in series with the crystal and a several-megaohm resistor in parallel can minimize such voltages.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Aging decreases logarithmically with time, the largest changes occurring shortly after manufacture. Artificially aging a crystal by prolonged storage at 85 to 125 °C can increase its long-term stability.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals are sensitive to shock. The mechanical stress causes a short-term change in the oscillator frequency due to the stress-sensitivity of the crystal, and can introduce a permanent change of frequency due to shock-induced changes of mounting and internal stresses (if the elastic limits of the mechanical parts are exceeded), desorption of contamination from the crystal surfaces, or change in parameters of the oscillator circuit. High magnitudes of shocks may tear the crystals off their mountings (especially in the case of large low-frequency crystals suspended on thin wires), or cause cracking of the crystal. Crystals free of surface imperfections are highly shock-resistant; chemical polishing can produce crystals able to survive tens of thousands of g.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals have no inherent failure mechanisms; some have operated in devices for decades. Failures may be, however, introduced by faults in bonding, leaky enclosures, corrosion, frequency shift by aging, breaking the crystal by too high mechanical shock, or radiation-induced damage when nonswept quartz is used. Crystals can be also damaged by overdriving.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Crystals suffer from minor short-term frequency fluctuations as well. The main causes of such noise are e.g. thermal noise (which limits the noise floor), phonon scattering (influenced by lattice defects), adsorption/desorption of molecules on the surface of the crystal, noise of the oscillator circuits, mechanical shocks and vibrations, acceleration and orientation changes, temperature fluctuations, and relief of mechanical stresses. The short-term stability is measured by four main parameters: Allan variance (the most common one specified in oscillator data sheets), phase noise, spectral density of phase deviations, and spectral density of fractional frequency deviations. The effects of acceleration and vibration tend to dominate the other noise sources; surface acoustic wave devices tend to be more sensitive than bulk acoustic wave (BAW) ones, and the stress-compensated cuts are even less sensitive. The relative orientation of the acceleration vector to the crystal dramatically influences the crystal's vibration sensitivity. Mechanical vibration isolation mountings can be used for high-stability crystals.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Phase noise plays a significant role in frequency synthesis systems using frequency multiplication; a multiplication of a frequency by N increases the phase noise power by N. A frequency multiplication by 10 times multiplies the magnitude of the phase error by 10 times. This can be disastrous for systems employing PLL or FSK technologies.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Magnetic fields have little effect on the crystal itself, as quartz is diamagnetic; eddy currents or AC voltages can however be induced into the circuits, and magnetic parts of the mounting and housing may be influenced.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: After the power-up, the crystals take several seconds to minutes to "warm up" and stabilize their frequency. The oven-controlled OCXOs require usually 3–10 minutes for heating up to reach thermal equilibrium; the oven-less oscillators stabilize in several seconds as the few milliwatts dissipated in the crystal cause a small but noticeable level of internal heating.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The crystals have to be driven at the appropriate drive level. Low-frequency crystals, especially flexural-mode ones, may fracture at too high drive levels. The drive level is specified as the amount of power dissipated in the crystal. The appropriate drive levels are about 5 μW for flexural modes up to 100 kHz, 1 μW for fundamental modes at 1–4 MHz, 0.5 μW for fundamental modes 4–20 MHz and 0.5 μW for overtone modes at 20–200 MHz. Too low drive level may cause problems with starting the oscillator. Low drive levels are better for higher stability and lower power consumption of the oscillator. Higher drive levels, in turn, reduce the impact of noise by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The resonator plate can be cut from the source crystal in many different ways. The orientation of the cut influences the crystal's aging characteristics, frequency stability, thermal characteristics, and other parameters. These cuts operate at bulk acoustic wave (BAW); for higher frequencies, surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are employed.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The T in the cut name marks a temperature-compensated cut, a cut oriented in a way that the temperature coefficients of the lattice are minimal; the FC and SC cuts are also temperature-compensated.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The high frequency cuts are mounted by their edges, usually on springs; the stiffness of the spring has to be optimal, as if it is too stiff, mechanical shocks could be transferred to the crystal and cause it to break, and too little stiffness may allow the crystal to collide with the inside of the package when subjected to a mechanical shock, and break. Strip resonators, usually AT cuts, are smaller and therefore less sensitive to mechanical shocks. At the same frequency and overtone, the strip has less pullability, higher resistance, and higher temperature coefficient.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The low frequency cuts are mounted at the nodes where they are virtually motionless; thin wires are attached at such points on each side between the crystal and the leads. The large mass of the crystal suspended on the thin wires makes the assembly sensitive to mechanical shocks and vibrations.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The crystals are usually mounted in hermetically sealed glass or metal cases, filled with a dry and inert atmosphere, usually vacuum, nitrogen, or helium. Plastic housings can be used as well, but those are not hermetic and another secondary sealing has to be built around the crystal.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: Several resonator configurations are possible, in addition to the classical way of directly attaching leads to the crystal. E.g. the BVA resonator (Boîtier à Vieillissement Amélioré, Enclosure with Improved Aging), developed in 1976; the parts that influence the vibrations are machined from a single crystal (which reduces the mounting stress), and the electrodes are deposited not on the resonator itself but on the inner sides of two condenser discs made of adjacent slices of the quartz from the same bar, forming a three-layer sandwich with no stress between the electrodes and the vibrating element. The gap between the electrodes and the resonator act as two small series capacitors, making the crystal less sensitive to circuit influences. The architecture eliminates the effects of the surface contacts between the electrodes, the constraints in the mounting connections, and the issues related to ion migration from the electrodes into the lattice of the vibrating element. The resulting configuration is rugged, resistant to shock and vibration, resistant to acceleration and ionizing radiation, and has improved aging characteristics. AT cut is usually used, though SC cut variants exist as well. BVA resonators are often used in spacecraft applications.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: In the 1930s to 1950s, it was fairly common for people to adjust the frequency of the crystals by manual grinding. The crystals were ground using a fine abrasive slurry, or even a toothpaste, to increase their frequency. A slight decrease by 1–2 kHz when the crystal was overground was possible by marking the crystal face with a pencil lead, at the cost of a lowered Q.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: The frequency of the crystal is slightly adjustable ("pullable") by modifying the attached capacitances. A varactor, a diode with capacitance depending on applied voltage, is often used in voltage-controlled crystal oscillators, VCXO. The crystal cuts are usually AT or rarely SC, and operate in fundamental mode; the amount of available frequency deviation is inversely proportional to the square of the overtone number, so a third overtone has only one-ninth of the pullability of the fundamental mode. SC cuts, while more stable, are significantly less pullable.


title: Crystal oscillator

text: On electrical schematic diagrams, "crystals" are designated with the class letter "Y" (Y1, Y2, etc.). Oscillators, whether they are crystal oscillators or others, are designated with the class letter "G" (G1, G2, etc.). Crystals may also be designated on a schematic with "X" or "XTAL", or a crystal oscillator with "XO".


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (also known as "Saint Teresa in Ecstasy" or the "Transverberation of Saint Teresa"; or ) is a sculptural group in white marble set in an elevated aedicule in the Cornaro Chapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. It was designed and completed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, the leading sculptor of his day, who also designed the setting of the Chapel in marble, stucco and paint. It is generally considered to be one of the sculptural masterpieces of the High Roman Baroque. The sculpture depicts Teresa of Ávila, a Spanish Carmelite nun and saint, swooning in a state of religious ecstasy, while an angel holding a spear stands over her.


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: The entire ensemble was overseen and completed by a mature Bernini during the Pamphili papacy of Innocent X. When Innocent acceded to the papal throne, he shunned Bernini's artistic services; the sculptor had been the favourite artist of the previous and profligate Barberini pope. Without papal patronage, the services of Bernini's studio were therefore available to a patron such as the Venetian Cardinal Federico Cornaro (1579–1653).


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: Cornaro had chosen the hitherto unremarkable church of the Discalced Carmelites for his burial chapel. The selected site for the chapel was the left transept that had previously held an image of 'St. Paul in Ecstasy', which was replaced by Bernini's dramatization of a religious experience undergone and related by the first Discalced Carmelite saint, who had been canonised not long before, in 1622. It was completed in 1652 for the then princely sum of 12,000 scudi.


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: A small format terracotta model of about was created between 1644 and 1647. The sculpture represents the first embodiment of the project, with traces of Bernini's fingerprints still visible. The model belongs to the Hermitage Museum's collection.


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: The two central sculptural figures of the swooning nun and the angel with the spear derive from an episode described by Teresa of Avila, a mystical cloistered Discalced Carmelite reformer and nun, in her autobiography, "The Life of Teresa of Jesus" (1515–1582). Her experience of religious ecstasy in her encounter with the angel is described as follows:


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: The group is illuminated by natural light which filters through a hidden window in the dome of the surrounding aedicule, and underscored by gilded stucco rays. Teresa is shown lying on a cloud indicating that this is intended to be a divine apparition we are witnessing. Other witnesses appear on the side walls; life-size high-relief donor portraits of male members of the Cornaro family, e.g. Cardinal Federico Cornaro and Doge Giovanni I Cornaro, are present and shown discussing the event in boxes as if at the theatre. Although the figures are executed in white marble, the aedicule, wall panels and theatre boxes are made from coloured marbles. Above, the vault of the Chapel is frescoed with an illusionistic cherub-filled sky with the descending light of the Holy Ghost allegorized as a dove.


title: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

text: The effects are theatrical, the Cornaro family seeming to observe the scene from their boxes, and the chapel illustrates a moment where divinity intrudes on an earthly body. Caroline Babcock speaks of Bernini's melding of sensual and spiritual pleasure in the "orgiastic" grouping as both intentional and influential on artists and writers of the day. Irving Lavin said "the transverberation becomes a point of contact between earth and heaven, between matter and spirit". As Bernini biographer Franco Mormando points out, although Bernini's point of departure for his depiction of Teresa's mystical experience was her own description, there were many details about the experience that she never specifies ("e.g.", the position of her body) and that Bernini simply supplied from his own artistic imagination, all with an aim of increasing the nearly transgressively sensual charge of the episode: "Certainly no other artist, in rendering the scene, before or after Bernini, dared as much in transforming the saint's appearance."


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: Black Rifle Coffee Company (BRCC) is a coffee company based in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. It gained national attention in 2017, when it employed about 50 people, after pledging to hire 10,000 veterans to protest Starbucks's pledge to hire 10,000 refugees.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: The company was founded in December 2014 by former Green Beret Evan Hafer. He began by selling a small volume of his "Freedom Roast" coffee through a friend's apparel website. The coffee sold well, so Hafer launched his own brand and website through which to sell his coffee and branded accessories. The company specializes in its online, direct-to-consumer coffee subscription service, which had over 100,000 subscribers as of 2020. In addition to online sales, Black Rifle Coffee Company has physical coffee shops in Utah, Texas, Oklahoma and Georgia. The coffee is also distributed at some firing ranges, 5.11 Tactical stores, and Bass Pro Shops.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: BRCC has produced a number of sometimes controversial social media videos which combine military humor with hipster jokes and guns.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: In 2018, BRCC opened a new coffee roasting facility in Manchester, Tennessee, as part of a $6 million investment in the state. It also launched Coffee or Die Magazine, an online news and lifestyle publication that reports on military, veteran, law enforcement, and coffee topics.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: In 2018, the company's gross revenue totaled $30 million. In 2019, BRCC employed more than 200 people — 40 percent of them veterans of the U.S. military. At the time of reporting, their products were available at 1,700 retail locations across the country. On September 29, 2019, BRCC opened its first stand-alone licensed coffee shop in Boerne, Texas. According to the "Washington Examiner", circa 2021 they employed approximately 550 people, half of whom were veterans, military spouses or reservists.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: The company expanded in 2020 with the release of ready-to-drink canned iced coffee. In March 2020, BRCC launched a coffee-donation campaign to support medical and emergency workers, quarantined military personnel and their families, and others working to mitigate the national and global impact of COVID-19. In May, a Canadian gun ban enacted following the 2020 Nova Scotia attacks was mistakenly thought to include a ban on the coffee company, but further inspection revealed that the ban was actually applied to a similarly named Arizona-based "Black Rifle Company". In July, BRCC provided a $15,000 grant to the Hunter Seven Foundation, supporting a new round of medical research exploring the effects of toxic exposure in Afghanistan.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: A July 2021 article in "The New York Times", Hafer describes his vision for growth of the physical franchised stores using retired military NCO's. He sees Navy petty officers and Army staff sergeants joining the company and running a franchise of their own rather than joining the local police force in their hometowns.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: BRCC plans to expand into the Philippines by 2023, after receiving interest from the Filipino people.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: In November 2021, Black Rifle Coffee Company merged with SilverBox Engaged Merger Corporation via a special-purpose acquisition company in an effort to raise funds for expansion and to go public. The company has a valuation of approximately $1.7 billion. The merger completed in February 2022.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: Black Rifle Coffee Company's corporate image is built on its conservative politics and supporting veterans. Over half of its staff are former military.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: The company maintains a pro-military, pro-gun, pro-police image and has publicly supported the politics of former US President Donald Trump through actions such as publishing a (since-deleted) blog post that supported Trump's then-current proposal of an immigration ban from Muslim majority countries. The company's political stance has attracted attention from Fox News, and it has been endorsed by conservative broadcast personality Sean Hannity and Donald Trump Jr.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: A 2021 "Salon" article reported that BRCC is trying to draw a line and distance themselves from the far-right after their logos and gear appeared on Kyle Rittenhouse, a teen who was acquitted after killing two people and injuring another in self-defense during a Black Lives Matter protest in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Black Rifle Coffee's symbols were also present on rioters who trespassed the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: The company's brand is tied closely to its pro-gun and socially conservative image as well as close links with American military and law enforcement.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: In 2017 BRCC launched an advertising campaign based on their plan to hire 10,000 veterans. While it was conceived previously BRCC launched the campaign after well-known coffee purveyor Starbucks Corporation launched an advertising campaign centered around their plan to hire 10,000 refugees. BRCC released a meme on social media that juxtaposed an image of ISIS fighters photoshopped with Starbucks cups next to an image of American soldiers in combat, which read: “Starbucks vows to hire 10,000 refugees,” and “Black Rifle Coffee Company vows to hire 10,000 veterans.” Company posts associated with the ad campaign labelled Starbucks “Hipsterbucks.” While Hafer criticized what he saw as a publicity stunt by Starbucks, BRCC also received similar criticism around their ad campaign, especially because of the size disparity between BRCC and Starbucks as well as the suggestion in BRCC's ad campaign that Starbucks doesn't hire veterans. In 2013, Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz and former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates had launched a similar program to hire 10,000 veterans in the next five years and by 2017 had hired 8,000 of them. As of February 2017, BRCC employed 52 people in total. Hafer responded that BRCC and Starbucks are very different companies, and that their size disparity meant that BRCC's proposal was a much more ambitious plan. In a 2017 interview with Vice News, founder Hafer commended Starbucks' veteran hiring program and clarified that he supports all hiring pushes as long as the message is a positive one.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: For a campaign in July 2019, BRCC donated a bag of coffee to a police officer for every bag purchased, in response to a story that six Tempe, Arizona police officers had been asked to leave a branch of Starbucks.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: BRCC rejected a potential logo for one of their coffee bags featuring a Renaissance-style rendering of Saint Michael the Archangel, a patron saint of military personnel, shooting a short-barreled rifle. The design was rejected when Hafer was informed by a friend at The Pentagon that the image of Saint Michael standing on the neck of Satan was being used by white supremacists because of the resemblance to George Floyd's murder.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: The company sponsors NASCAR drivers Ty Dillon, Noah Gragson, and Matt Crafton. In the American Rally Association, BRCC-sponsored drivers like Travis Pastrana and Dave Carapetyan compete under the Black Rifle Coffee Motor Sports Team name. Pastrana, whose family is closely tied to the military, also has a personal endorsement deal with BRCC that began in 2022 after ending his partnership with longtime sponsor Red Bull; the two parties first collaborated for a rally car helicopter jump stunt in 2018. Other athletes supported by BRCC include off-road racer BJ Baldwin and skateboarder Bucky Lasek.


title: Black Rifle Coffee Company

text: In July 2022, the Dallas Cowboys were criticized for announcing a new partnership with BRCC a day after the Highland Park parade shooting on Independence Day. Black Rifle subsequently released a statement explaining the news was "timed to coincide with the Independence Day holiday" and that the partnership had been discussed long before the date.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Coitus reservatus ("coitus", "sexual intercourse, union" and "reservatus", "reserved, saved"), also known as sexual continence, is a form of sexual intercourse in which the man does not attempt to ejaculate within his partner, but instead attempts to remain at the plateau phase of intercourse for as long as possible, avoiding the seminal emission. It is distinct from death-grip syndrome wherein the man has no volition in his emissionless state.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Alice Stockham coined the term "karezza", derived from the Italian word ""carezza"" meaning "caress", to describe "coitus reservatus", but the idea was already in practice at the Oneida Community. Alan Watts believed, in error, that "karezza" was a Persian word. The concept of karezza is loosely akin to maithuna in Hindu Tantra and Sahaja in Hindu Yoga.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Control of ejaculation is contained in Taoist sexual practices (known as ""cai Yin pu Yang"" and ""cai Yang pu Yin""), as well as Indian Tantra (known as ""avagraha""), although conventional ejaculation is also endorsed in both.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Stockham writes, "... Karezza signifies 'to express affection in both words and action,' and while it fittingly denotes the union that is the outcome of deepest human affection, love's consummation, it is used technically throughout this work to designate a controlled sexual union." So that in practice, according to Stockham, it is more than just self-control, but mutual control where the penetrative partner helps the receptive partner and vice versa. According to Stockham this is the key to overcoming many difficulties encountered in trying to control sexual expression on an individual basis.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Stockham's contribution was to apply this same philosophy of orgasm control to women as much as to men. A form of birth control, the technique also prolongs sexual pleasure to the point of achieving mystical ecstasy, according to J. William Lloyd, a practitioner of Karezza, whose own experience of cosmic consciousness appears in "Cosmic Consciousness", a book written by the Canadian psychiatrist Richard M. Bucke, a friend of the American poet Walt Whitman. In this practice, orgasm is separated from ejaculation, making possible enjoyment of the pleasure of sexual intercourse without experiencing seminal ejaculation, while still experiencing orgasm.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Some would have the principles of karezza applied to masturbation, whereby a person attempts to delay orgasm as long as possible to prolong pleasure in a process known as "orgasmic brinkmanship", "surfing", or "edging," but this is different from the heterosexual practice of "karezza". In Latin literature, this is known as "coitus sine ejaculatione seminis".


title: Coitus reservatus

text: One purpose of karezza is the maintenance, and indeed, intensification of desire and enjoyment of sexual pleasure within the context of relationships. According to Stockham, it takes from two weeks to a month for the body to recover from ejaculation ... "Unless procreation is desired, let the final propagative orgasm be entirely avoided". Stockham advocated that the 'honeymoon period' of a relationship could be maintained in perpetuity by limiting the frequency of ejaculations, or, preferably avoiding them entirely.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Kalman Andras Oszlar writes, "Inasmuch as sexual togetherness is not limited into the physical world and does not mean quick wasting of sexual energies, by this we give free way to higher dimensions in the relationship." Affected by this, we may get into the state of flow, and in the course of this, the couple charges up with energy, while – with focused attention (Dhāraṇā) – the couple is submerging in that in which they are having pleasure. This state of mind is connected with the achieved beneficial effects by tantric restraint and transformation. At first, the definition of positive philosophy was defined by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, and since then it is referred beyond the professional line. According to the professor, the flow experience is an entirely focused and a motivationally intensified experience where in the course of this people can entirely focus and properly command their feelings for the best performance or learning.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: There is a slight difference between karezza and coitus reservatus. In coitus reservatus, unlike karezza, a woman can enjoy a prolonged orgasm while a man exercises self-control.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Like coitus interruptus, coitus reservatus is not a reliable form of preventing a sexually transmitted disease, as the penis leaks pre-ejaculate prior to ejaculation, which may contain all of the same infectious viral particles and bacteria as the semen. Although studies have not found sperm in pre-ejaculate fluid, the method is also unreliable for contraception because of the difficulty of controlling ejaculation beyond the point of no return. Additionally, it is possible for pre-ejaculate fluid to collect sperm from a previous ejaculation, leading to pregnancy even when performed correctly.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Claims of the semen retention community as well as those of the NoFap community are among the least accurate in respect to men's health.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Many theologians within Catholic tradition approve of coitus reservatus with very specific guidelines.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: This differs from non-penetrative, rubbing-only sex (mutual masturbation, or masturbation) and differs from "coitus interruptus", because coitus reservatus ends with no orgasm at all for both spouses if practiced within guidelines from John F. Harvey OSFS referenced above.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: The Oneida Community, founded in the 19th century by John Humphrey Noyes, experimented with coitus reservatus which was then called male continence in a religiously Christian communalist environment. The experiment lasted for about a quarter of a century and then Noyes went on to create Oneida silverware and establish the Oneida Silver Co. that grew into Oneida Limited. Noyes identified three functions of the sexual organs: the urinary, the propagative, and the amative. Noyes believed in the separation of the amative from the propagative, and he put amative sexual intercourse on the same footing with other ordinary forms of social interchange. Sexual intercourse as Noyes defines it is the insertion of the penis into the vagina; ejaculation is not a requirement for sexual intercourse.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Inspired by Ida Craddock's work Heavenly Bridegrooms, American occultist C. F. Russell developed his own curriculum of sex magick. In the 1960s, disciple Louis T. Culling published these in two works entitled "The Complete Magickal Curriculum of the Secret Order G.'.B.'.G.'." and "Sex Magick". The first two degrees are "Alphaism and Dianism". Culling writes that Dianism is "sexual congress without bringing it to climax" and that each participant is to regard their partner not as a "known earthly personality" but as a "visible manifestation of one's Holy Guardian Angel.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: AMORC does not recommend engaging in sexual practices of an occult nature. This has been so since their First Imperator H. Spencer Lewis, Ph.D. made it public knowledge.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: The "Fraternitas Rosae Crucis" led by Dr. R. Swinburne Clymer engages in sexual practices for the sake of race regeneration. Dr. Clymer is completely opposed to the practice of karezza or "coitus reservatus" and advocates instead a form of sex intercourse in which the couple experiences the orgasm at the same time.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: The Secretary of the FUDOSI instead approved the practice of karezza to establish harmony in the family as well as in the world by preventing the waste and misuse of sex energy.


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Dr. Arnold Krumm-Heller established the "Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua" (FRA), a Rosicrucian school in Germany with branches in South America, having the following formula of sexual conduct: ""Immissio Membri Virile In Vaginae Sine Ejaculatio Seminis"" (Introduce the penis in the vagina without ejaculating the semen). Samael Aun Weor experimented with that formula and developed the doctrine of "The Perfect Matrimony".


title: Coitus reservatus

text: English novelist Aldous Huxley, in his last novel "Island" wrote that Maithuna, the Yoga of Love is "the same as what Roman Catholicism means by "coitus reservatus"." Getting to the point by discussing "coitus reservatus", Alan W. Watts in "Nature, Man and Woman" notes: "...I would like to see someone make a case for the idea that the Apostles really did hand down an inner tradition to the Church, and that through all these centuries the Church has managed to guard it from the public eye. If so, it has remained far more secret and "esoteric" than in any of the other great spiritual traditions of the world, so much so that its existence is highly doubtful..." The Welsh writer Norman Lewis, in his celebrated account of life in Naples in 1944, claimed that San Rocco was the patron saint of coitus reservatus: "I recommended him to drink -- as the locals did -- marsala with the yolk of eggs stirred into it, and to wear a medal of San Rocco, patron of coitus reservatus, which could be had in any religious-supplies shop". The psychologist Havelock Ellis writes: ""Coitus Reservatus", – in which intercourse is maintained even for very long periods, during which a woman may orgasm several times while the penetrative partner succeeds in holding back orgasm – so far from being injurious to a woman, is probably the form of coitus which gives her the maximum gratification and relief".


title: Coitus reservatus

text: Alice Stockham was taken to court and forced to give up teaching the practice of karezza in the United States. Like many other sex reformers, Dr. Stockham was arrested by Anthony Comstock, who sent a variety of spiritual marriage reformers to jail for long terms, including Paschal Beverly Randolph, who had been a personal friend of Abraham Lincoln. Ida Craddock committed suicide after being repeatedly jailed for peddling pornography. The Oneida Community was attacked in the press and Noyes was forced to flee to Canada due to a warrant being issued for his arrest on a statutory rape charge on June 22, 1879. From there, he advised others to follow St. Paul's plan of either marriage or celibacy, and to obey the commandments against adultery and fornication.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Andrea Rita Dworkin (September 26, 1946 – April 9, 2005) was an American radical feminist writer and activist best known for her analysis of pornography. Her feminist writings, beginning in 1974, span 30 years. They are found in a dozen solo works: nine books of non-fiction, two novels, and a collection of short stories. Another three volumes were co-written or co-edited with US Constitutional law professor and feminist activist, Catharine A. MacKinnon.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: The central objective of Dworkin's work is analyzing Western society, culture, and politics through the prism of men's sexual violence against women in a patriarchal context. She wrote on a wide range of topics including the lives of Joan of Arc, Margaret Papandreou, and Nicole Brown Simpson; she analyzed the literature of Charlotte Brontë, Jean Rhys, Leo Tolstoy, Kōbō Abe, Tennessee Williams, James Baldwin, and Isaac Bashevis Singer; she brought her own radical feminist perspective to her examination of subjects historically written or described from men's point of view, including fairy tales, homosexuality, lesbianism, virginity, , the Holocaust, biological superiority, and racism. She interrogated premises underlying concepts such as freedom of the press and civil liberties. She theorized the sexual politics of intelligence, fear, courage, and integrity. She described a male supremacist political ideology manifesting in and constituted by rape, battery, prostitution, and pornography.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Andrea Dworkin was born on September 26, 1946, in Camden, New Jersey, to Harry Dworkin and Sylvia Spiegel. Her father was the grandson of a Russian Jew who fled Russia when he was 15 years old in order to escape military service, and her mother was the child of Jewish immigrants from Hungary. She had one younger brother, Mark. Her father was a school teacher and dedicated socialist, whom she credited with inspiring her passion for social justice. Her relationship with her mother was strained, but Dworkin later wrote that her mother's belief in legal birth control and abortion, "long before these were respectable beliefs", inspired her later activism.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Though she described her Jewish household as being in many ways dominated by the memory of the Holocaust, it nonetheless provided a happy childhood until she reached the age of nine, when an unknown man molested her in a movie theater. When Dworkin was ten, her family moved from the city to the suburbs of Cherry Hill, New Jersey (then known as Delaware Township), which she later wrote she "experienced as being kidnapped by aliens and taken to a penal colony". In sixth grade, the administration at her new school punished her for refusing to sing "Silent Night" (as a Jew, she objected to being forced to sing Christian religious songs at school). She said she "probably would have become a rabbi" if women could have while she was in high school and she "would have liked" being a Talmudic scholar.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin began writing poetry and fiction in the sixth grade. Around that time, she was undecided about whether to become a lawyer or a writer, because of her interest then in abortion, and chose writing because she could "do it in a room alone" and "nobody could stop me". Throughout high school, she read avidly, with encouragement from her parents. She was particularly influenced by Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, Henry Miller, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Che Guevara, and the Beat poets, especially Allen Ginsberg, and has included among writers she "admired most" Jean Genet, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron. She graduated in 1964 from what is now Cherry Hill High School West.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 1965, while a freshman at Bennington College, Dworkin was arrested during an anti-Vietnam War protest at the United States Mission to the United Nations and sent to the New York Women's House of Detention, known for housing renowned leftist women. After writing to the Commissioner of Corrections Anna Cross, Dworkin testified that the doctors in the House of Detention gave her an internal examination which was so rough that she bled for days afterwards. She spoke in public and testified before a grand jury about her experience, and the media coverage of her testimony made national and international news. The grand jury declined to make an indictment in the case, but Dworkin's testimony contributed to public outrage over the mistreatment of inmates. The prison was closed seven years later.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Soon after testifying before the grand jury, Dworkin left Bennington College on the liner "Castel Felice" to live in Greece and to pursue her writing. She traveled from Paris to Athens on the Orient Express, and went to live and write on the island of Crete. While there, she wrote a series of poems titled "(Vietnam) Variations", a collection of poems and prose poems that she printed on the island in a book called "Child", and a novel in a style resembling magical realism called "Notes on Burning Boyfriend"—a reference to Norman Morrison, a pacifist who had burned himself to death in protest of the Vietnam War. She also wrote several poems and dialogues which she hand-printed after returning to the United States in a book called "Morning Hair".


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: After living in Crete, Dworkin returned to Bennington College for two years, where she continued to study literature and participated in campaigns against the college's student conduct code, for contraception on campus, for the legalization of abortion, and against the Vietnam War. She graduated with a Bachelor's degree in literature in 1968. It was during those years that she produced two books of poetry, "Child" (1965) and "Morning Hair" (1967).


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: After graduation, Dworkin moved to Amsterdam to interview Dutch anarchists in the Provo movement, which used theatrical street happenings to instigate change. While there, she became involved with one of the anarchists, Cornelius (Iwan) Dirk de Bruin, and they married. Soon after, she says that de Bruin began to abuse her severely, punching and kicking her, burning her with cigarettes, beating her on her legs with a wooden beam, and banging her head against the floor until he knocked her unconscious.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: After she left de Bruin late in 1971, Dworkin said, her ex-husband attacked, persecuted, and harassed her, beating her and threatening her whenever he found where she was hiding. She found herself desperate for money, often homeless, thousands of miles from her family, later remarking that "I often lived the life of a fugitive, except that it was the more desperate life of a battered woman who had run away for the last time, whatever the outcome." Due to poverty, Dworkin turned to prostitution for a period. Ricki Abrams, a feminist and fellow expatriate, sheltered Dworkin in her home and helped her find places to stay on houseboats, a communal farm, and in deserted buildings. Dworkin tried to work up the money to return to the United States.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Abrams introduced Dworkin to early radical feminist writing from the United States, and Dworkin was notably inspired by Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics", Shulamith Firestone's "The Dialectic of Sex", and Robin Morgan's "Sisterhood Is Powerful". She and Abrams began to work together on "early pieces and fragments" of a radical feminist text on the hatred of women in culture and history, including a completed draft of a chapter on the pornographic counterculture magazine "Suck", which was published by a group of fellow expatriates in the Netherlands.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin later wrote that she eventually agreed to help smuggle a briefcase of heroin through customs in return for $1,000 and an airplane ticket, thinking that if she was successful she could return home with the ticket and the money, and if caught she would at least escape her ex-husband's abuse by going to prison. The deal for the briefcase fell through, but the man who had promised Dworkin the money gave her the airline ticket anyway, and she returned to the United States in 1972.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Before she left Amsterdam, Dworkin spoke with Abrams about her experiences in the Netherlands, the emerging feminist movement, and the book they had begun to write together. Dworkin agreed to complete the book—which she eventually titled "Woman Hating"—and publish it when she reached the United States. In her memoirs, Dworkin relates that during that conversation, she vowed to dedicate her life to the feminist movement:


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In New York City, Dworkin worked again as an anti-war organizer, participated in demonstrations for lesbian rights and against apartheid in South Africa. The feminist poet Muriel Rukeyser hired her as an assistant (Dworkin later said, "I was the worst assistant in the history of the world. But Muriel kept me on because she believed in me as a writer.") Dworkin also joined a feminist consciousness raising group, and soon became involved in radical feminist organizing, focusing on campaigns against men's violence against women. In addition to her writing and activism, Dworkin gained notoriety as a speaker, mostly for events organized by local feminist groups. She became well known for passionate, uncompromising speeches that aroused strong feelings in both supporters and critics, and inspired her audience to action, such as her speech at the first Take Back the Night march in November 1978, and her 1983 speech at the Midwest Regional Conference of the National Organization for Changing Men (now the National Organization for Men Against Sexism) titled "I Want a Twenty-Four Hour Truce During Which There Is No Rape."


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 1974, two occasions brought them together. First, Andrea and John Stoltenberg were introduced by a mutual friend, a theater director, at a meeting of the then-fledgling Gay Academic Union. Later in 1974, not attending together, they both walked out of a poetry reading—a benefit for the War Resisters League in Greenwich Village—due to the misogynist content. It was then they began their decades-long intellectual and personal relationship. Moving in together, their agreement was that while they would always live together, they could have relationships outside of their partnership. They planned never to marry unless one of two things occurred. As Andrea stated to The New York Times in 1985, "unless one of us is terminally ill or jailed for political activity.<nowiki>"</nowiki> About that piece, John said the "editor refused to allow the writer to identify us as gay and lesbian, as we had asked." They married in 1998 due to her ill health, specifically painful osteoarthritis. Their life of thirty-one years together ended in April of 2005 with Dworkin's sudden death from heart disease, an enlarged heart. Since then, he has lived with his husband in Washington, DC.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In Martin Duberman’s biography, "Andrea Dworkin: the Feminist as Revolutionary", John is quoted describing the sexual dimension of their relationship. Andrea’s relationship with a woman, Joanne, was unwinding though the last half of the decade, and John maintained gay relationships with men throughout their time together. But their love was expressed sexually on occasion, intimately and with affection and passion.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Stoltenberg began writing a series of essays, books, and articles examining manhood and masculinity from a radical feminist perspective. Although Dworkin publicly wrote, "I love John with my heart and soul", and Stoltenberg described Dworkin as "the love of my life", she continued to publicly identify herself as lesbian, and he as gay. Stoltenberg, recounting the perplexity that their relationship seemed to cause people in the press, summarized the relationship by saying, "So I state only the simplest facts publicly: yes, Andrea and I live together and love each other and we are each other's life partner, and yes we are both out."


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin and Stoltenberg were married in 1998; after her death Stoltenberg said, "It's why we never told anybody really that we married, because people get confused about that. They think, Oh, she's yours. And we just did not want that nonsense." For additional details, see also "John Stoltenberg § Personal life".


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: From 1974 through 1983, Dworkin wrote prolifically, producing four volumes developing her overall thesis about the practice, meaning, and function of patriarchal, misogynist violence. In 1977, she became an associate of the Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press. Between 1985 and 1997, she produced eight more books: three of them with Catharine A. MacKinnon either as co-author or editor and two collections of formerly unpublished essays and speeches. Her two final books came out in the first years of the new century, the latter being a memoir.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin was a strong opponent of President Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton during the scandal centered on his behavior toward Monica Lewinsky, whom she supported. She also expressed support for Paula Jones and Juanita Broaddrick.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In June 2000, she published "", in which she compared the oppression of women to the persecution of Jews, discussed the sexual politics of Jewish identity and antisemitism, and called for the establishment of a women's homeland as a response to the oppression of women.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Also that same month, Dworkin published articles in the "New Statesman" and in "The Guardian", stating that one or more men had raped her in her hotel room in Paris the previous year, putting GHB in her drink to disable her. Her articles ignited public controversy when writers such as Catherine Bennett and Julia Gracen published doubts about her account, polarizing opinion between skeptics and supporters such as Catharine MacKinnon, Katharine Viner, and Gloria Steinem. Her reference to the incident was later described by Charlotte Raven as a "widely disbelieved claim", better seen as "a kind of artistic housekeeping." Emotionally fragile and in failing health, Dworkin mostly withdrew from public life for two years following the articles.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 2002, Dworkin published her autobiography, "Heartbreak: The Political Memoir of a Feminist Militant". She soon began to speak and write again, and in an interview with Julie Bindel in 2004 said, "I thought I was finished, but I feel a new vitality. I want to continue to help women." She published three more articles in "The Guardian" and began work on a new book, "Writing America: How Novelists Invented and Gendered a Nation", on the role of novelists such as Ernest Hemingway, Zora Neale Hurston, William Faulkner, and Eudora Welty in the development of American political and cultural identity, which was left unfinished when she died. Andrea's outline and proposal for the book was made public on June 15, 2022.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: During her final years, Dworkin suffered fragile health, and she revealed in her last column for "The Guardian" that she had been weakened and nearly crippled for the past several years by her weight and severe osteoarthritis in the knees. Shortly after returning from Paris in 1999, she had been hospitalized with a high fever and blood clots in her legs. A few months after being released from the hospital, she became increasingly unable to bend her knees, and underwent surgery to replace her knees with titanium and plastic prosthetics. She wrote, "The doctor who knows me best says that osteoarthritis begins long before it cripples—in my case, possibly from homelessness, or sexual abuse, or beatings on my legs, or my weight. John, my partner, blames "Scapegoat", a study of Jewish identity and women's liberation that took me nine years to write; it is, he says, the book that stole my health. I blame the drug-rape that I experienced in 1999 in Paris." When a newspaper interviewer asked her how she would like to be remembered, she said, "In a museum, when male supremacy is dead. I'd like my work to be an anthropological artifact from an extinct, primitive society." She died in her sleep at her home in Washington, D.C., on April 9, 2005, at the age of 58. The cause of death was later determined to be acute myocarditis.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin is known for her role as a speaker, writer, and activist in the feminist anti-pornography movement. In February 1976, she took a leading role in organizing public pickets of "Snuff" in New York City and, during the fall, joined Adrienne Rich, Grace Paley, Gloria Steinem, Shere Hite, Lois Gould, Barbara Deming, Karla Jay, Letty Cottin Pogrebin, Robin Morgan, and Susan Brownmiller in attempts to form a radical feminist antipornography group. Members of this group would go on to found Women Against Pornography in 1979, but by then Dworkin had begun to distance herself from the group over differences in approach. She spoke at the first Take Back the Night march in November 1978, and joined 3,000 women in a march through the red-light district of San Francisco.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 1981, Dworkin published "", which analyzes contemporary and historical pornography as an industry of woman-hating dehumanization. She argues that it is implicated in violence against women, both in its production (through the abuse of the women used to star in it), and in the social consequences of its consumption by encouraging men to eroticize the domination, humiliation, and abuse of women. Dworkin, who joined "The American Heritage Dictionary" Usage Panel, also argued in "Pornography" that this denigration of women is built into linguistic norms.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 1980, Linda Boreman (who had appeared in the pornographic film "Deep Throat" as "Linda Lovelace") made public statements that her ex-husband Chuck Traynor had beaten and raped her, and violently coerced her into making that and other pornographic films. Boreman made her charges public for the press corps at a press conference, with Dworkin, feminist lawyer Catharine MacKinnon, and members of Women Against Pornography. After the press conference, Dworkin, MacKinnon, Gloria Steinem, and Boreman began discussing the possibility of using federal civil rights law to seek damages from Traynor and the makers of "Deep Throat". Boreman was interested, but backed off after Steinem discovered that the statute of limitations for a possible suit had passed.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin and MacKinnon, however, continued to discuss civil rights litigation as a possible approach to combating pornography. In the fall of 1983, MacKinnon secured a one-semester appointment for Dworkin at the University of Minnesota, to teach a course in literature for the Women's Studies program and co-teach (with MacKinnon) an interdepartmental course on pornography, where they hashed out details of a civil rights approach. With encouragement from community activists in south Minneapolis, the Minneapolis city government hired Dworkin and MacKinnon to draft an antipornography civil rights ordinance as an amendment to the Minneapolis city civil rights ordinance.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: The amendment defined pornography as a civil rights violation against women, and allowed women who claimed harm from pornography to sue the producers and distributors in civil court for damages. The law was passed twice by the Minneapolis city council, but vetoed both times by Mayor Don Fraser, who considered the wording of the ordinance to be too vague. Another version of the ordinance passed in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1984, but was overturned as unconstitutional under the First Amendment by the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals in the case "American Booksellers v. Hudnut". Dworkin continued to support the civil rights approach in her writing and activism, and supported anti-pornography feminists who organized later campaigns in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1985), and Bellingham, Washington (1988), to pass versions of the ordinance by voter initiative.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: On January 22, 1986, Dworkin testified for half an hour before the Attorney General's Commission on Pornography (also known as the "Meese Commission") in New York City, and answered questions from commissioners after completing her testimony. Dworkin's testimony against pornography was praised and reprinted in the Commission's final report, and Dworkin and MacKinnon marked its release by holding a joint press conference. The Meese Commission subsequently successfully demanded that convenience store chains remove from shelves men's magazines such as "Playboy" (Dworkin wrote that the magazine "in both text and pictures promotes both rape and child sexual abuse") and "Penthouse". The demands spread nationally and intimidated some retailers into withdrawing photography magazines, among others. The Meese Commission's campaign was eventually quashed with a First Amendment admonishment against prior restraint by the United States District Court for the District of Columbia in "Meese v. Playboy" (639 F.Supp. 581).


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In her testimony and replies to questions from the commissioners, Dworkin denounced the use of criminal obscenity prosecutions against pornographers, stating, "We are against obscenity laws. We do not want them. I want you to understand why, whether you end up agreeing or not." She argued that obscenity laws were largely ineffectual, that when they were effectual they only suppressed pornography from public view while allowing it to flourish out of sight, and that they suppressed the wrong material, or the right material for the wrong reasons, arguing that "Obscenity laws are also woman-hating in their very construction. Their basic presumption is that it's women's bodies that are dirty."


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Instead she offered five recommendations for the Commission, recommending (1) that "the Justice Department instruct law-enforcement agencies to keep records of the use of pornography in violent crimes", (2) a ban on the possession and distribution of pornography in prisons, (3) that prosecutors "enforce laws against pimping and pandering against pornographers", (4) that the administration "make it a Justice Department priority to enforce RICO (the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act) against the pornography industry", and (5) that Congress adopt federal anti-pornography civil rights legislation which would provide for civil damages for harm inflicted on women. She suggested that the Commission consider "creating a criminal conspiracy provision under the civil rights law, such that conspiring to deprive a person of their civil rights by coercing them into pornography is a crime, and that conspiring to traffic in pornography is conspiring to deprive women of our civil rights." Dworkin compared her proposal to the Southern Poverty Law Center's use of civil rights litigation against the Ku Klux Klan.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin also submitted into evidence a copy of Boreman's book "Ordeal", as an example of the abuses that she hoped to remedy, saying "The only thing atypical about Linda is that she has had the courage to make a public fight against what has happened to her. And whatever you come up with, it has to help her or it's not going to help anyone." Boreman had testified in person before the Commission, but the Commissioners had not yet seen her book.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 1992, the Supreme Court of Canada made a ruling in "R. v. Butler" which incorporated some elements of Dworkin and MacKinnon's legal work on pornography into the existing Canadian obscenity law. In "Butler", the Court held that Canadian obscenity law violated Canadian citizens' rights to free speech under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms if enforced on grounds of morality or community standards of decency; but that obscenity law could be enforced constitutionally against some pornography on the basis of the Charter's guarantees of sex equality. The Court's decision cited extensively from briefs prepared by the Women's Legal Education and Action Fund (LEAF), with the support and participation of Catharine MacKinnon.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin opposed LEAF's position, arguing that feminists should not support or attempt to reform criminal obscenity law. In 1993, copies of Dworkin's book "Pornography" were held for inspection by Canada Customs agents, fostering an urban legend that Dworkin's own books had been banned from Canada under a law that she herself had promoted. However, the "Butler" decision did not adopt Dworkin and MacKinnon's ordinance, Dworkin did not support the decision, and her books (which were released shortly after they were inspected) were held temporarily as part of a standard procedural measure, unrelated to the "Butler" decision.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Published in 1974, "Woman Hating: A Radical Look at Sexuality" was Dworkin's first book outlining many foundational points comprising her developing feminist philosophy. She identifies the book a revolutionary act, an expression of a "commitment to ending male dominance" in all its cultural and social manifestations. The introduction offers a complex understanding of women's lives. She describes the impossibility of a revolution for women if women with privilege and comfort are not willing to give up each in solidarity with women not so entitled. She recognizes that women occupy multiple positions: of oppression, privilege, and peril, such that one may stand on the freedom of other women and men, or be in more danger for one's ethnicity than one's sex.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: The guts of the book, its primary thesis, is that a male supremacist ideology requires female subordination and negation. She endeavors to reveal how it suffuses society, how it becomes mythic, religious. She extracts and analyzes themes in Western fairy tales and pornography, in Pauline Reage's "Story of O", in "The Image" by Jean de Berg. Whether in literature for children or adults, in cultural products portending to be fantasy, she finds the same epistemology: women are either Good or Evil. Either way they are to be ruled by men, spheres of existence severely limited, in mobility such as through foot binding, or snuffed out entirely, such as through witch burning.


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: The last section explores androgyny in myths and religions across the globe to "discern another ontology, one which discards the fiction that there are two polar distinct sexes." She was not alone in this endeavor. Dworkin's exploration exists in a Western literary lineage that includes "", by Virginia Woolf, and "Woman on the Edge of Time", by Marge Piercy. In the final chapter, she examines sexual similarities, hermaphroditism, parthenogenesis, pansexuality, homosexuality, transsexuality, transvestism, bestiality, incest, the family, and children. About this chapter she reflects on her own theorizing as problematic, existing outside of girls' and women's lived experience: "I think there are a lot of things really wrong with the last chapter of "Woman Hating"", said Dworkin in an interview with Cindy Jenefsky for her book, "Without Apology: Andrea Dworkin's Art and Politics". She identifies factors which influenced the chapter: 'years of reading Freud and trying to figure out abstractly what all this was about'... [A]t the time "Woman Hating" was written, [there were] roots in the counterculture and the sexual liberation movement."


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: Dworkin's work from the early 1980s onward contained frequent condemnations of incest and pedophilia as one of the chief forms of violence against women, arguing once that "incest is a crime committed against someone, a crime from which many victims never recover." In the early 1980s, she had a public row with her formerly admired friend Allen Ginsberg, with whom she shared godparent status of a mutual friend's child. The intense disagreement was over his support for child pornography and pedophilia, in which Ginsberg said, "The right wants to put me in jail." Dworkin responded, "Yes, they're very sentimental; I'd kill you."


title: Andrea Dworkin

text: In 1983, Dworkin published "Right-Wing Women: The Politics of Domesticated Females", an examination of women's reasons for collaborating with conservative men for the limitation of women's freedom. In the preface to the British edition, Dworkin stated that the New Right in the United States focused especially on preserving male authority in the family, the promotion of fundamentalist versions of orthodox religion, combating abortion, and undermining efforts to combat domestic violence, but that it also had, for the first time, "succeeded in getting "women as women" (women who claim to be acting in the interests of women as a group) to act effectively on behalf of male authority over women, on behalf of a hierarchy in which women are subservient to men, on behalf of women as the rightful property of men, on behalf of religion as an expression of transcendent male supremacy." Taking this as her problem, Dworkin asked, "Why do right-wing women agitate for their own subordination? How does the Right, controlled by men, enlist their participation and loyalty? And why do right-wing women truly hate the feminist struggle for equality?" In one review, it was described as being premised on agreement between feminists and right-wing women on the existence of domination by men in sex and class, but disagreement on strategy.