title: Kashmiri language

text: Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on. After the arrival of Islamic administrative rule in India, Kashmiri acquired many Persian loanwords. In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has been imported from Hindustani and Punjabi.


title: Kashmiri language

text: Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form "yodvai" (meaning "if"), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word "yadi" instead.


title: Kashmiri language

text: Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as "aham" and in Avestan Persian as "azam". This contrasts with the "m-" form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as "ma(-m)". However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with "m-" in words such as "ma-n" and "mai". However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is "ba/bi/bo" in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other "me" terms. 'Mine' is "myon" in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri ("aun" vs "me-"), Gujarati ("hu-n" vs "ma-ri"), Konkani ("hā̃v" vs "mhazo"), and Braj ("hau-M" vs "mai-M"). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too ("za" vs. "maa").


title: Kashmiri language

text: There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims. For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word .


title: Kashmiri language

text: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."


title: Kashmiri language

text: "I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."


title: Kashmiri language

text: One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The London Borough of Hackney ( ) is a London borough in Inner London. The historical and administrative heart of Hackney is Mare Street, which lies north-east of Charing Cross. The borough is named after Hackney, its principal district. Southern and eastern parts of the borough are popularly regarded as being part of east London, with the northwest belonging to north London. Its population is 281,120 inhabitants.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The London Plan issued by the Greater London Authority assigns whole boroughs to sub-regions for statutory monitoring, engagement and resource allocation purposes. The most recent (2011) iteration of this plan assigns Hackney to the ‘East’ sub-region, while the 2008 and 2004 versions assigned the borough to "North" and "East" sub-regions respectively. The modern borough was formed in 1965 by the merger of the Metropolitan Borough of Hackney with the much smaller Metropolitan Boroughs of Stoke Newington and Shoreditch.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Hackney is bounded by Islington to the west, Haringey to the north, Waltham Forest to the north-east, Newham to the east, Tower Hamlets to the south-east and the City of London to the south-west. Hackney was one of the host boroughs of the London Olympics in 2012, with several of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park venues falling within its boundaries.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In the 13th century the name appears as "Hackenaye" or "Hacquenye", but no certain derivation is advanced. The "Concise Oxford Dictionary of Place Names" (fourth edition) discusses the origin of the name. The first surviving records of the place name are as Hakney (1231) and Hakeneye (1242 and 1294). The "ey" suffix almost certainly refers to an island; the dictionary favours the interpretation that Hackney means "Haka's island", with Haka being a notable local person and the island (or inaccessible place surrounded by marshes) lying close to the River Lea. This was once a much wilder place than today.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Given the island context, the "hatch" option is unlikely to be correct, so the favoured "Haka's Island" or the "Island on the bend" seem more likely.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The place name will have originally referred to just the island or possibly both the island and the manor of the same name based around it. Subsequently, the name Hackney was applied to the whole ancient parish of Hackney.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In the Iron Age and probably until after the Roman period (as the Romans used tribal territories as administrative sub-divisions), the River Lea was considered to separate the territories of the Catuvellauni to the west of the river from the Trinovantes to the east.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The Romans built the Roman road, Ermine Street, which runs through the modern borough under the names Shoreditch High Street and Kingsland Road, among others.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In the Anglo-Saxon period, the River Lea separated the core territories of the East Saxons (on the east side) from the Middle Saxons (on the western, Hackney side) they often controlled. This continuity of this natural boundary from pre-Roman period may be a result of the differing Saxon groups taking control of pre-defined territories.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: After both areas were brought under the control of Alfred the Great, the river became the boundary between the historic counties of Middlesex (Hackney) and Essex (modern Newham, Waltham Forest and Redbridge).


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In the Tudor period, the lands of religious orders were seized by the Crown and put up for sale. Thus Hackney became a retreat for the nobility around Hackney Central and Homerton. Henry VIII's Palace was by Lea Bridge roundabout, where BSix Sixth Form College stands today. Sutton House, on Homerton High Street, is the oldest surviving dwelling in Hackney, originally built in 1535 as "Bryck Place" for Sir Ralph Sadleir, a diplomat. The village of Hackney flourished from the Tudor to late Georgian periods as a rural retreat.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The first documented "hackney coach"—the forerunner of the more generic "hackney carriage"—operated in London in 1621. Current opinion is that the name "hackney", to refer to a London taxi, is derived from the village name. (Hackney, associated with high-stepping horses and horse-drawn carriages, is the root of the French word "haquenée", a term used for a small breed of horse, and the Sardinian horse.) Construction of the railway in the 1850s ended Hackney's rural reputation by connecting it to other parts of the city and stimulating development.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: London's first Tudor theatres were built at Shoreditch. The Gunpowder Plot was first exposed nearby in Hoxton.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The parish church of St John-at-Hackney was built in 1789, replacing the nearby former 16th-century parish church dedicated to St Augustine (pulled down in 1798).


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Notable residents from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries included Robert Aske, William Cecil, Samuel Courtauld, Samuel Hoare, Joseph Priestley and Thomas Sutton.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Many grand houses stood in Stoke Newington and Stamford Hill; the latter neighbourhood became a center of Hackney's many Orthodox Jewish residents from the 1930s. Alfred Hitchcock made many of his first films in Hoxton at the Gainsborough Studios in Poole Street.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Following extensive post-war development and immigration since the late 20th century, population pressure has increased and the area's many Georgian and Victorian terraces are being gentrified, warehouses are being converted to housing, and new flats are being built. It was ranked as inner London's "greenest borough" and London Transport's "best bike borough 2006", with 62 parks and open spaces, covering . Seven Hackney parks have now achieved Green Flag status. One, Abney Park, became scheduled in 2009 as one of Britain's historic parks and garden at risk from neglect and decay. Hackney Marshes play host to the largest collection of football pitches in Europe. Part of it was used as a site for events of the 2012 Summer Olympics.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: There are 1,300 listed buildings in Hackney, including the Hackney Empire, Tudor Sutton House, and the Grade I medieval St Augustine's Tower, the borough's oldest building. The borough contains 25 conservation areas including Clapton Square and urban open-spaces including Clapton Common and Clissold Park. Conservation areas also protect large areas of Georgian and Victorian housing, and areas of industrial heritage.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The Borough is currently divided into 21 wards, which between them return 57 councillors. Fifteen of the wards return three councillors and the remaining six return two each, in a first past the post system of elections. Ward boundaries are regularly revised, with the last review being in 2014. Until the 2002 revision, the historic boundaries of Hackney and Stoke Newington were retained as a basis for the sub-division of the borough into wards, though the boundary between Hackney and Shoreditch was not re-used to the same degree.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Unlike most other English local authorities, the borough is now governed by a directly elected mayor who is also the political leader of the council. The mayor – currently Philip Glanville – is supported by a cabinet, councillors and a speaker who fulfils the civic and ceremonial duties previously undertaken by the (non-political) mayor.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The borough comprises two parliamentary constituencies: Hackney North and Stoke Newington (represented by Diane Abbott MP) and Hackney South and Shoreditch (represented by Meg Hillier MP); both are Privy Counsellors and Labour Party Members of Parliament. The borough is in the North East London Assembly constituency returning Sem Moema AM as the directly elected Assembly Member.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The constituent parts of the borough are Hackney, Shoreditch and Stoke Newington. Originally Ancient Parishes, these areas have had consistent boundaries since the mediaeval period.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Parishes in Middlesex were grouped into "Divisions", with Stoke Newington part of the Finsbury division and Hackney and Shoreditch part of the Tower division. The Tower Division was noteworthy in that the men of the area owed military service to the Tower of London.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The Ancient Parishes provided a framework for both civil (administrative) and ecclesiastical (church) functions, but during the nineteenth century there was a divergence into distinct civil and ecclesiastical parish systems. In London the Ecclesiastical Parishes sub-divided to better serve the needs of a growing population, while the Civil Parishes continued to be based on the same Ancient Parish areas.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The Metropolis Management Act 1855 merged the Civil Parishes of Hackney and Stoke Newington under a new Hackney District. This proved very unpopular, especially in more affluent Stoke Newington and after four unsuccessful attempts the two parishes regained their independence when they were separated by mutual consent under the Metropolis Management (Plumstead and Hackney) Act of 1893.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The London Government Act 1899 converted the three Civil Parishes into Metropolitan Boroughs based on the same boundaries. There were minor rationalisations, notably that Shoreditch absorbed part of the tiny Liberty of Norton Folgate (with the rest going to neighbouring Stepney), while Stoke Newington absorbed the South Hornsey exclaves of Hornsey.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Stoke Newington was smaller than the desired size for the new boroughs, and there were proposals to re-merge Stoke Newington and Hackney, or to detach the northern part of Hackney and join it with Stoke Newington. These proposals were rejected due to the experience of "intolerable and interminable feuds" between the districts when they were previously "forced together", and because the First Lord of the Treasury, Arthur Balfour recognised that there was "great ill-feeling and mutual ill-will... between the inhabitants of the two districts"; it was therefore decided to merge the bulk of South Hornsey, with a population about 20,000, with Stoke Newington. While this still created a borough of only about 50,000 inhabitants, and thus "the smallest borough in London, the anomaly would be a gradually diminishing one, because the population in this district was rapidly increasing. When dividing London up into boroughs they could not avoid creating some anomalies as to size."


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In 1965 the three old boroughs were merged into the new London Borough of Hackney, which adopted a coat of arms that included elements representing its predecessors:


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The council displays, in Hackney Town Hall, a portrait of the Queen wearing the robes of the Most Venerable Order of St John of Jerusalem, of which she is Patron.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The borough was formed by the merger of the metropolitan boroughs of Hackney, Shoreditch and Stoke Newington, with the boundaries of these very closely based on the Ancient Parishes of the same name; these areas have been consistently defined for many centuries. Historically, the River Lea formed the boundary between the predecessor counties of Middlesex and Essex.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Within these parish areas are a large number of sub-districts, some of which have sub-districts of their own. These sub-districts are generally based on former hamlets that expanded and merged as the area urbanised. These sub-districts have never been administrative units so have never had any formal boundaries, however a degree of informal definition has developed.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The sub-districts typically take Metropolitan Borough\Ancient Parish boundaries where available, and can also have informal customary boundaries such as road and railways. Despite this, many areas have only a weakly or partially understood extent and it is not unusual for perceptions of place to overlap or change over time.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The area of the former parish and borough of Stoke Newington includes the Woodberry Down area, while the former parish and borough of Shoreditch includes Hoxton and Haggerston.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The former parish and borough of Hackney is much larger and includes Hackney Central, Hackney Downs, West Hackney, Dalston, De Beauvoir Town, Shacklewell, Stamford Hill, London Fields, Upper and Lower Clapton, Hackney Wick and Homerton.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The London Borough of Hackney covers an area of 19.06 square kilometres (7.4 sq mi), rising westward from the Lea to reach 30 metres (98 ft) above sea level at Clapton Common and Stamford Hill. The area around Victoria Park, in the south of the borough lies about 15 metres (49 ft) above sea level.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: After the Norman Conquest the area became part of the Forest of Middlesex, which covered much of the county, but this gives rise to misunderstanding, as in this context "Forest" is a legal term referring to royal hunting rights and had a weak correlation with woodland cover, especially in the early post-Conquest Period.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: By the time of the earliest reliable maps, in the 18th century, the area covered by the modern borough was an agricultural area characterised by enclosed farmland with small hamlets and very little woodland. There were a number of commons, most of which survived to become the basis of modern parks. Many of the major roads were present by this time, the road now known as the A10 was Roman, and others, like many in England, may be older.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: With the obvious exception of the urbanisation of the area, the greatest changes have been to the waterways and wetlands of the area. The River Lea, the area's primary geographic feature, has lost its grazing marshes and seen the River Lee Navigation created in 1770. This is an artificial channel of the river, passing through Hackney Cut and across the Hackney Marshes to straighten a meander of the natural river. In Roman times and for a long time after, the River Lea was an estuary, tidal as far as Hackney Wick.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: At Hackney Wick the Hackney Brook met the Lea; the confluence was very wide when flooded. Hackney Brook was fully culverted in 1860 by the Metropolitan Board of Works.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The New River was opened in 1613, diverting water from the Lea catchment to create a source of drinking water for London. The New River still passes through the borough, close to Finsbury Park and flows towards Islington. Another man-made feature, the Regents Canal also crosses the borough to the south of De Beauvoir Town in the west, joining the Hertford Union Canal below Victoria Park.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Much of Hackney retains an inner-city character, but in such places as Dalston large housing estates have been joined by newly developed gated communities. In South Hackney, near Victoria Park, terraced Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian housing still survives.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The Lea and Hackney Marshes are underlain by alluvium soils; and the higher ground between Homerton and Stamford Hill is formed on a widening bed of London Clay. Brickearth deposits are within tongues of clay extending beneath Clapton Common, Stamford Hill and Stoke Newington High Street. The centre and south-western districts lie on river terrace deposits of Taplow Gravel. Victoria Park and Well Street Common lie on flood plain gravel.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: This data was taken between 1971 and 2000 at the nearest national weather station in Greenwich; around south of Hackney Town Hall:


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In 1801, the civil parishes that form the modern borough had a total population of 14,609. This rose steadily throughout the 19th century, as the district became built up; reaching 95,000 in the middle of that century. When the railways arrived the rate of population growth increased — reaching nearly 374,000 by the turn of the century. This increase in population peaked before World War I, falling slowly in the aftermath until World War II began an exodus from London towards the new towns under the Abercrombie Plan for London (1944). The population is now rising again, and the 2001 census gives Hackney a population of 202,824.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The population is ethnically diverse. Of the resident population, 89,490 (44%) people describe themselves as White British. 24,861 (12%) are in other White ethnic groups, 50,009 (24%) are Black or Black British, 19,791 (9%) are Asian or Asian British, 8,501 (4%) describe themselves as 'Mixed', and 6,432 (3%) as Chinese or Other.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: There is also a large Turkish and Kurdish population resident in Hackney. Turkish and Kurdish communities are located in all parts of the borough, though there is a greater concentration in north and central Hackney.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: 132,931 (66%) of the resident population were British born. A further 10,095 (5%) were born in other parts of Europe, and the remaining 59,798 (29%) born elsewhere in the world.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: 2018 estimates are that Christianity is the biggest religion in Hackney, with 31% of residents identifying Christian; 13% identified as Muslim, 10% Jewish, and 7% belonged to other religions. A further 38% either have no religion, or did not submit a response. In numerical terms, Hackney has the second largest Jewish population of any local authority in the United Kingdom, after the London Borough of Barnet (and in percentage terms, third after Barnet and the Hertsmere borough of Hertfordshire).


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The largest rise of ethnic groups between 2001 and 2011 was "Other", which increased by 222%. This was followed by "Mixed", which rose by 84%.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: According to the GLA Population Estimate for 2018, 36.4% of the borough's population are White British, 18.1% are "Other White", 10.3% are of Black African heritage, and 6.4% are of Black Caribbean heritage. Hackney is also home to several smaller Asian communities.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The following shows the religious identity of residents residing in Hackney according to the census results.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In a 2007 report, every ward of Hackney was among the 10% most deprived in the country, with 47% of children living in low-income households.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Hackney had a reputation as one of the most crime-ridden London boroughs, and some of its streets have even been referred to as "Murder Mile", but cooperation between local police and council has resulted in the borough experiencing a bigger drop in crime than in any other London borough in the four-year period up to 2007 (28% reduction).


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In 2002, the borough entered into a 10-year contract with the Learning Trust, an independent collaborative body that organises education for Hackney's 27,000 pupils in over 70 schools, nurseries and play centres. The trust was set up in response to an OFSTED report that identified failings in the then existing system. Two of London's most successful City Academies are in Hackney with another two in development and plans to rebuild or renovate every other Hackney school by 2016.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: LBH regained responsibility for education in 2012, absorbing the Learning Trust under the new name "Hackney Learning Trust".


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Hackney has only one London Underground station, on the fringe of the borough. Manor House on the Piccadilly Line is located on its extreme north-western fringe on the boundary with Haringey.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: However, three London Overground lines serve Hackney: the North London Line crosses from west to east while the East London Line runs from Highbury & Islington and passes through Dalston Junction and on south through Haggerston, Hoxton, Shoreditch towards destinations south of the River Thames, including Clapham Junction, Crystal Palace, Croydon, and New Cross. Local services on the Lea Valley Lines passed into London Overground on 31 May 2015. Trains originate at London Liverpool Street and head towards either Enfield Town (via Bush Hill Park), Cheshunt (via Turkey Street) or Chingford (via Clapton).


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: It is proposed that Crossrail 2 will provide Hackney a new station at Dalston with the potential of the future ‘eastern branch’ with stops at Hackney Central and Hackney Wick.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: North London Line Travelling west to east — "Dalston Kingsland", "Hackney Central", "Homerton" and "Hackney Wick"


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: East London Line Travelling north to south — "Dalston Junction", "Haggerston", "Hoxton" and "Shoreditch High Street"


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Lea Valley Lines Travelling south to north – "London Fields, Hackney Downs, Rectory Road, Stoke Newington and Stamford Hill".


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: In March 2011, the main forms of transport that residents used to travel to work were: bus, minibus or coach, 16.9% of all residents aged 16–74; underground, metro, light rail, tram, 9.2%; bicycle, 9.2%; on foot, 7.5%; driving a car or van, 7.1%; train, 4.6%; work mainly at or from home, 3.5%.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: Hackney was formerly also twinned with Göttingen in Germany, Presnensky District in Russia, and Alexandra in South Africa, but this links are not active anymore.


title: London Borough of Hackney

text: The following people, military units, and organisations and groups have received the Freedom of the Borough of Hackney.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Unsupervised learning is a type of algorithm that learns patterns from untagged data. The hope is that through mimicry, which is an important mode of learning in people, the machine is forced to build a concise representation of its world and then generate imaginative content from it.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: In contrast to supervised learning where data is tagged by an expert, e.g. tagged as a "ball" or "fish", unsupervised methods exhibit self-organization that captures patterns as probability densities or a combination of neural feature preferences encoded in the machine's weights and activations. The other levels in the supervision spectrum are reinforcement learning where the machine is given only a numerical performance score as guidance, and semi-supervised learning where a small portion of the data is tagged.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Neural network tasks are often categorized as discriminative (recognition) or generative (imagination). Often but not always, discriminative tasks use supervised methods and generative tasks use unsupervised (see Venn diagram); however, the separation is very hazy. For example, object recognition favors supervised learning but unsupervised learning can also cluster objects into groups. Furthermore, as progress marches onward some tasks employ both methods, and some tasks swing from one to another. For example, image recognition started off as heavily supervised, but became hybrid by employing unsupervised pre-training, and then moved towards supervision again with the advent of dropout, relu, and adaptive learning rates.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: During the learning phase, an unsupervised network tries to mimic the data it's given and uses the error in its mimicked output to correct itself (i.e. correct its weights & biases). Sometimes the error is expressed as a low probability that the erroneous output occurs, or it might be expressed as an unstable high energy state in the network.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: In contrast to supervised methods' dominant use of backpropagation, unsupervised learning also employs other methods including: Hopfield learning rule, Boltzmann learning rule, Contrastive Divergence, Wake Sleep, Variational Inference, Maximum Likelihood, Maximum A Posteriori, Gibbs Sampling, and backpropagating reconstruction errors or hidden state reparameterizations. See the table below for more details.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: An energy function is a macroscopic measure of a network's activation state. In Boltzmann machines, it plays the role of the Cost function. This analogy with physics is inspired by Ludwig Boltzmann's analysis of a gas' macroscopic energy from the microscopic probabilities of particle motion p formula_1 e, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is temperature. In the RBM network the relation is p = e / Z, where p & E vary over every possible activation pattern and Z = formula_2 e . To be more precise, p(a) = e / Z, where a is an activation pattern of all neurons (visible and hidden). Hence, early neural networks bear the name Boltzmann Machine. Paul Smolensky calls -E the Harmony. A network seeks low energy which is high Harmony.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: This table shows connection diagrams of various unsupervised networks, the details of which will be given in the section Comparison of Network. Circles are neurons and edges between them are connection weights. As network design changes, features are added on to enable new capabilities or removed to make learning faster. For instances, neurons changes between deterministic (Hopfield) and stochastic (Boltzmann) to allow robust output, weights are removed within a layer (RBM) to hasten learning, or connections are allowed to become asymmetric (Helmholtz).


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Of the networks bearing people's names, only Hopfield worked directly with neural networks. Boltzmann and Helmholtz came before artificial neural networks, but their work in physics and physiology inspired the analytical methods that were used.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Here, we highlight some characteristics of select networks. The details of each are given in the comparison table below.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: The classical example of unsupervised learning in the study of neural networks is Donald Hebb's principle, that is, neurons that fire together wire together. In Hebbian learning, the connection is reinforced irrespective of an error, but is exclusively a function of the coincidence between action potentials between the two neurons. A similar version that modifies synaptic weights takes into account the time between the action potentials (spike-timing-dependent plasticity or STDP). Hebbian Learning has been hypothesized to underlie a range of cognitive functions, such as pattern recognition and experiential learning.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Among neural network models, the self-organizing map (SOM) and adaptive resonance theory (ART) are commonly used in unsupervised learning algorithms. The SOM is a topographic organization in which nearby locations in the map represent inputs with similar properties. The ART model allows the number of clusters to vary with problem size and lets the user control the degree of similarity between members of the same clusters by means of a user-defined constant called the vigilance parameter. ART networks are used for many pattern recognition tasks, such as automatic target recognition and seismic signal processing.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Two of the main methods used in unsupervised learning are principal component and cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is used in unsupervised learning to group, or segment, datasets with shared attributes in order to extrapolate algorithmic relationships. Cluster analysis is a branch of machine learning that groups the data that has not been labelled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, cluster analysis identifies commonalities in the data and reacts based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. This approach helps detect anomalous data points that do not fit into either group.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: A central application of unsupervised learning is in the field of density estimation in statistics, though unsupervised learning encompasses many other domains involving summarizing and explaining data features. It can be contrasted with supervised learning by saying that whereas supervised learning intends to infer a conditional probability distribution conditioned on the label of input data; unsupervised learning intends to infer an a priori probability distribution .


title: Unsupervised learning

text: Some of the most common algorithms used in unsupervised learning include: (1) Clustering, (2) Anomaly detection, (3) Approaches for learning latent variable models. Each approach uses several methods as follows:


title: Unsupervised learning

text: One of the statistical approaches for unsupervised learning is the method of moments. In the method of moments, the unknown parameters (of interest) in the model are related to the moments of one or more random variables, and thus, these unknown parameters can be estimated given the moments. The moments are usually estimated from samples empirically. The basic moments are first and second order moments. For a random vector, the first order moment is the mean vector, and the second order moment is the covariance matrix (when the mean is zero). Higher order moments are usually represented using tensors which are the generalization of matrices to higher orders as multi-dimensional arrays.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: In particular, the method of moments is shown to be effective in learning the parameters of latent variable models. Latent variable models are statistical models where in addition to the observed variables, a set of latent variables also exists which is not observed. A highly practical example of latent variable models in machine learning is the topic modeling which is a statistical model for generating the words (observed variables) in the document based on the topic (latent variable) of the document. In the topic modeling, the words in the document are generated according to different statistical parameters when the topic of the document is changed. It is shown that method of moments (tensor decomposition techniques) consistently recover the parameters of a large class of latent variable models under some assumptions.


title: Unsupervised learning

text: The Expectation–maximization algorithm (EM) is also one of the most practical methods for learning latent variable models. However, it can get stuck in local optima, and it is not guaranteed that the algorithm will converge to the true unknown parameters of the model. In contrast, for the method of moments, the global convergence is guaranteed under some conditions.


title: President of the United Nations General Assembly

text: The president of the United Nations General Assembly is a position voted by representatives in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on a yearly basis. The president is the chair and presiding officer of the General Assembly.


text: The session of the assembly is scheduled for every year starting in September—any special, or emergency special, assemblies over the next year will be headed by the president of the UNGA.


text: The presidency rotates annually between the five geographic groups: African, Asia-Pacific, Eastern European, Latin American and Caribbean, and Western European and other States.


text: Because of their powerful stature globally, some of the largest, most powerful countries have never held the presidency, such as the People's Republic of China, France, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In particular, it is customary that no permanent member of the United Nations Security Council ever serves as UNGA president.


text: The only modern countries that had a national elected as president of UNGA twice are Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Hungary and Nigeria; all the other member states had been represented only once by their nationals holding this office, and Germany had a national elected once as Federal Republic of Germany and once as German Democratic Republic. This does not include special and emergency special sessions of UNGA.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky (; – ) was a Russian composer, one of the group known as "The Five". He was an innovator of Russian music in the Romantic period. He strove to achieve a uniquely Russian musical identity, often in deliberate defiance of the established conventions of Western music.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Many of his works were inspired by Russian history, Russian folklore, and other national themes. Such works include the opera "Boris Godunov", the orchestral tone poem "Night on Bald Mountain" and the piano suite "Pictures at an Exhibition".


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: For many years, Mussorgsky's works were mainly known in versions revised or completed by other composers. Many of his most important compositions have posthumously come into their own in their original forms, and some of the original scores are now also available.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The family name derives from a 15th- or 16th-century ancestor, Roman Vasilyevich Monastyryov, who appears in the Velvet Book, the 17th-century genealogy of Russian boyars. Roman Vasilyevich bore the nickname "Musorga" (from , meaning 'music maker'), and was the grandfather of the first Mussorgsky. The composer could trace his lineage to Rurik, the legendary 9th-century founder of the Russian state.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In Mussorgsky family documents, the spelling of the name varies: "Musarskiy", "Muserskiy", "Muserskoy", "Musirskoy", "Musorskiy", and "Musurskiy". The baptismal record gives the composer's name as "Muserskiy".


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In early (up to 1858) letters to Mily Balakirev, the composer signed his name "Musorskiy" (). The "g" made its first appearance in a letter to Balakirev in 1863. Mussorgsky used this new spelling (, "Musorgskiy") to the end of his life, but occasionally reverted to the earlier "Musorskiy". The addition of the "g" to the name was likely initiated by the composer's elder brother Filaret to obscure the resemblance of the name's root to an unsavory Russian word:


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky apparently did not take the new spelling seriously, and played on the "rubbish" connection in letters to Vladimir Stasov and to Stasov's family, routinely signing his name "Musoryanin", roughly "garbage-dweller" (compare "dvoryanin": "nobleman").


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The first syllable of the name originally received the stress (i.e., MÚS-ər-skiy), and does so to this day in Russia, including the composer's home district. The mutability of the second-syllable vowel in the versions of the name mentioned above gives evidence that this syllable did not receive the stress.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The addition of the "g" and the accompanying shift in stress to the second syllable (i.e., Mu-SÓRK-skiy), sometimes described as a Polish variant, was supported by Filaret Mussorgsky's descendants until his line ended in the 20th century. Their example was followed by many influential Russians, such as Fyodor Shalyapin, Nikolay Golovanov, and Tikhon Khrennikov, who, perhaps dismayed that the great composer's name was "reminiscent of garbage", supported the erroneous second-syllable stress that has also become entrenched in the West.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The Western convention of doubling the first "s", which is not observed in scholarly literature (e.g., "The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians"), likely arose because in many Western European languages a single intervocalic /s/ often becomes voiced to /z/ (as in "music"), unlike in Slavic languages where the intervocalic /s/ is always unvoiced. Doubling the consonant thus reinforces its voiceless sibilant /s/ sound.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: 'Modest' is the Russian form of the name 'Modestus' which means 'moderate' or 'restrained' in Late Latin. He was called "Modinka" (), diminutive form with the stressed O, by his close friends and relatives.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky was born in Karevo, Toropets Uyezd, Pskov Governorate, Russian Empire, south of Saint Petersburg. His wealthy and land-owning family, the noble family of Mussorgsky, is reputedly descended from the first Ruthenian ruler, Rurik, through the sovereign princes of Smolensk. His mother Julia Chirikova (1813–1865) was the daughter of a comparatively non-rich nobleman. Modest's paternal grandmother Irina used to be a serf that could be sold without land in his grandfather's estate. At age six, Mussorgsky began receiving piano lessons from his mother, herself a trained pianist. His progress was sufficiently rapid that three years later he was able to perform a John Field concerto and works by Franz Liszt for family and friends. At 10, he and his brother were taken to Saint Petersburg to study at the elite German language Petrischule (St. Peter's School). While there, Modest studied the piano with . In 1852, the 12-year-old Mussorgsky published a piano piece titled "Porte-enseigne Polka" at his father's expense.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky's parents planned the move to Saint Petersburg so that both their sons would renew the family tradition of military service. To this end, Mussorgsky entered the Cadet School of the Guards at age 13. Sharp controversy had arisen over the educational attitudes at the time of both this institute and its director, a General Sutgof. All agreed the Cadet School could be a brutal place, especially for new recruits. More tellingly for Mussorgsky, it was likely where he began his eventual path to alcoholism. According to a former student, singer and composer Nikolai Kompaneisky, Sutgof "was proud when a cadet returned from leave drunk with champagne."


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Music remained important to him, however. Sutgof's daughter was also a pupil of Gerke, and Mussorgsky was allowed to attend lessons with her. His skills as a pianist made him much in demand by fellow-cadets; for them he would play dances interspersed with his own improvisations. In 1856 Mussorgsky – who had developed a strong interest in history and studied German philosophy – graduated from the Cadet School. Following family tradition he received a commission with the Preobrazhensky Regiment, the foremost regiment of the Russian Imperial Guard.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In October 1856 the 17-year-old Mussorgsky met the 22-year-old Alexander Borodin while both men served at a military hospital in Saint Petersburg. The two were soon on good terms. Borodin later remembered,


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: More portentous was Mussorgsky's introduction that winter to Alexander Dargomyzhsky, at that time the most important Russian composer after Mikhail Glinka. Dargomyzhsky was impressed with Mussorgsky's pianism. As a result, Mussorgsky became a fixture at Dargomyzhsky's soirées. There, a critic Vladimir Stasov later recalled, he began "his true musical life."


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Over the next two years at Dargomyzhsky's, Mussorgsky met several figures of importance in Russia's cultural life, among them Stasov, César Cui (a fellow officer), and Mily Balakirev. Balakirev had an especially strong impact. Within days he took it upon himself to help shape Mussorgsky's fate as a composer. He recalled to Stasov, "Because I am not a theorist, I could not teach him harmony (as, for instance Rimsky-Korsakov now teaches it) ... [but] I explained to him the form of compositions, and to do this we played through both Beethoven symphonies [as piano duets] and much else (Schumann, Schubert, Glinka, and others), analyzing the form." Up to this point Mussorgsky had known nothing but piano music; his knowledge of more radical recent music was virtually non-existent. Balakirev started filling these gaps in Mussorgsky's knowledge.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In 1858, within a few months of beginning his studies with Balakirev, Mussorgsky resigned his commission to devote himself entirely to music. He also suffered a painful crisis at this time. This may have had a spiritual component (in a letter to Balakirev the young man referred to "mysticism and cynical thoughts about the Deity"), but its exact nature will probably never be known. In 1859, the 20-year-old gained valuable theatrical experience by assisting in a production of Glinka's opera "A Life for the Tsar" on the Glebovo estate of a former singer and her wealthy husband; he also met Konstantin Lyadov (father of Anatoly Lyadov) and enjoyed a formative visit to Moscow – after which he professed love of "everything Russian". Mussorgsky and his brother were also inspired by the gothic script, they were using an "M" personal sign instead of , very similar to the symbols of the early Rurikids.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: By this time, Mussorgsky had freed himself from the influence of Balakirev and was largely teaching himself. In 1863 he began an opera – "Salammbô" – on which he worked between 1863 and 1866 before losing interest in the project. During this period, he returned to Saint Petersburg and supported himself as a low-grade civil servant while living in a six-man "commune". In a heady artistic and intellectual atmosphere, he read and discussed a wide range of modern artistic and scientific ideas – including those of the provocative writer Chernyshevsky, known for the bold assertion that, in art, "form and content are opposites". Under such influences he came more and more to embrace the idea of artistic realism and all that it entailed, whether this concerned the responsibility to depict life "as it is truly lived"; the preoccupation with the lower strata of society; or the rejection of repeating, symmetrical musical forms as insufficiently true to the unrepeating, unpredictable course of "real life".


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: "Real life" affected Mussorgsky painfully in 1865, when his mother died; at this point, the composer had his first serious bout of alcoholism, which forced him to leave the commune to stay with his brother. The 26-year-old was, however, on the point of writing his first realistic songs (including "Hopak" and "Darling Savishna", both of them composed in 1866 and among his first "real" publications the following year). The year 1867 was also the one in which he finished the original orchestral version of his "Night on Bald Mountain" (which, however, Balakirev criticised and refused to conduct, with the result that it was never performed during Mussorgsky's lifetime).


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky's career as a civil servant was by no means stable or secure: though he was assigned to various posts and even received a promotion in these early years, in 1867 he was declared 'supernumerary' – remaining 'in service', but receiving no wages. Decisive developments were occurring in his artistic life, however. Although it was in 1867 that Stasov first referred to the 'kuchka' (, lit. "bunch", English: 'The Five') of Russian composers loosely grouped around Balakirev, Mussorgsky was by then ceasing to seek Balakirev's approval and was moving closer to the older Alexander Dargomyzhsky. Inside "The Five" and its close companions, Mussorgsky was nicknamed as 'Humour', Balakirev was 'Power', and Rimsky-Korsakov was 'Sincerity'.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Since 1866 Dargomyzhsky had been working on his opera "The Stone Guest", a version of the "Don Juan" story with a Pushkin text that he declared would be set "just as it stands, so that the inner truth of the text should not be distorted", and in a manner that abolished the 'unrealistic' division between aria and recitative in favour of a continuous mode of syllabic but lyrically heightened declamation somewhere between the two.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Under the influence of this work (and the ideas of Georg Gottfried Gervinus, according to whom "the highest natural object of musical imitation is emotion, and the method of imitating emotion is to mimic speech"), Mussorgsky in 1868 rapidly set the first eleven scenes of Nikolai Gogol's "The Marriage" ("Zhenitba"), with his priority being to render into music the natural accents and patterns of the play's naturalistic and deliberately humdrum dialogue. This work marked an extreme position in Mussorgsky's pursuit of naturalistic word-setting: he abandoned it unorchestrated after reaching the end of his 'Act 1', and though its characteristically 'Mussorgskyian' declamation is to be heard in all his later vocal music, the naturalistic mode of vocal writing more and more became merely one expressive element among many.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: A few months after abandoning "Zhenitba", the 29-year-old Mussorgsky was encouraged to write an opera on the story of Boris Godunov. This he did, assembling and shaping a text from Pushkin's play and Karamzin's history. He completed the large-scale score the following year while living with friends and working for the Forestry Department. In 1871, however, the finished opera was rejected for theatrical performance, apparently because of its lack of any 'prima donna' role. Mussorgsky set to work producing a revised and enlarged 'second version'. During the next year, which he spent sharing rooms with Rimsky-Korsakov, he made changes that went beyond those requested by the theatre. In this version the opera was accepted, probably in May 1872, and three excerpts were staged at the Mariinsky Theatre in 1873. It is often asserted that in 1872 the opera was rejected a second time, but no specific evidence for this exists.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: By the time of the first production of "Boris Godunov" in February 1874, Mussorgsky had taken part in the ill-fated "Mlada" project (in the course of which he had made a choral version of his "Night on Bald Mountain") and had begun "Khovanshchina". Though far from being a critical success – and in spite of receiving only a dozen or so performances – the popular reaction in favour of "Boris" made this the peak of Mussorgsky's career.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: From this peak a pattern of decline becomes increasingly apparent. At this point in time the Balakirev circle was disintegrating, something Mussorgsky was especially bitter about. He wrote to Vladimir Stasov, "[T]he Mighty Handful has degenerated into soulless traitors." In drifting away from his old friends, Mussorgsky had been seen to fall victim to 'fits of madness' that could well have been alcoholism-related. His friend Viktor Hartmann had died, and his relative and recent roommate Arseny Golenishchev-Kutuzov (who furnished the poems for the song-cycle "Sunless" and would go on to provide those for the "Songs and Dances of Death") had moved away to get married. Mussorgsky engaged a new and prominent personal private physician about 1870, Dr. George Leon Carrick, sometime Secretary and later President of the St. Petersburg Physicians' Society and a cousin of Sir Harry Lauder.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: While Mussorgsky suffered personally from alcoholism, it was also a behavior pattern considered typical for those of Mussorgsky's generation who wanted to oppose the establishment and protest through extreme forms of behavior. One contemporary notes, "an intense worship of Bacchus was considered to be almost obligatory for a writer of that period. It was a showing off, a 'pose,' for the best people of the [eighteen-]sixties." Another writes, "Talented people in Russia who love the simple folk cannot but drink." Mussorgsky spent day and night in a Saint Petersburg tavern of low repute, the Maly Yaroslavets, accompanied by other bohemian dropouts. He and his fellow drinkers idealized their alcoholism, perhaps seeing it as ethical and aesthetic opposition. This bravado, however, led to little more than isolation and eventual self-destruction.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: For a time Mussorgsky was able to maintain his creative output: his compositions from 1874 include "Sunless", the "Khovanshchina" Prelude, and the piano suite "Pictures at an Exhibition" (in memory of Hartmann); he also began work on another opera based on Gogol, "The Fair at Sorochyntsi" (for which he produced another choral version of "Night on Bald Mountain").


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In the years that followed, Mussorgsky's decline became increasingly steep. Although now part of a new circle of eminent personages that included singers, medical men and actors, he was increasingly unable to resist drinking, and a succession of deaths among his closest associates caused him great pain. At times, however, his alcoholism would seem to be in check, and among the most powerful works composed during his last six years are the four "Songs and Dances of Death". His civil service career was made more precarious by his frequent 'illnesses' and absences, and he was fortunate to obtain a transfer to a post (in the Office of Government Control) where his music-loving superior treated him with great leniency – even allowing him to spend three months touring twelve cities as a singer's accompanist in 1879.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The decline could not be halted, however. In 1880 he was finally dismissed from government service. Aware of his destitution, one group of friends organised a stipend designed to support the completion of "Khovanshchina"; another group organised a similar fund to pay him to complete "The Fair at Sorochyntsi". However, neither work was completed (although "Khovanshchina", in piano score with only two numbers uncomposed, came close to being finished).


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In early 1881 a desperate Mussorgsky declared to a friend that there was 'nothing left but begging', and suffered four seizures in rapid succession. Mussorgsky also suffered from delirium tremens during this period. Though he found a comfortable room in a good hospital – and for several weeks even appeared to be rallying – the situation was hopeless. Repin painted the famous red-nosed portrait in what were to be the last days of the composer's life: a week after his 42nd birthday, he was dead. He was interred at the Tikhvin Cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in Saint Petersburg.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky, like others of 'The Five', was perceived as an extremist by the Emperor and much of his court. This may have been the reason Tsar Alexander III personally crossed off "Boris Godunov" from the list of proposed pieces for the Imperial Opera in 1888.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky's works, while strikingly novel, are stylistically Romantic and draw heavily on Russian musical themes. He has been the inspiration for many Russian composers, including most notably Dmitri Shostakovich (in his late symphonies) and Sergei Prokofiev (in his operas).


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: In 1868/1869 he composed the opera "Boris Godunov", about the life of the Russian tsar, but it was rejected by the Mariinsky Opera. Mussorgsky thus edited the work, making a final version in 1874. The early version is considered darker and more concise than the later version, but also more crude. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov re-orchestrated the opera in 1896 and revised it in 1908. The opera has also been revised by other composers, notably Shostakovich, who made two versions, one for film and one for stage.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The opera "Khovanshchina" was unfinished and unperformed when Mussorgsky died, but it was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and received its premiere in 1886 in Saint Petersburg. This opera, too, was revised by Shostakovich. "The Fair at Sorochyntsi", another opera, was left incomplete at his death but a dance excerpt, the Gopak, is frequently performed.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky's most imaginative and frequently performed work is the cycle of piano pieces describing paintings in sound called "Pictures at an Exhibition". This composition, best known through an orchestral arrangement by Maurice Ravel, was written in commemoration of his friend, the architect Viktor Hartmann.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky's single-movement orchestral work "Night on Bald Mountain" enjoyed broad popular recognition in the 1940s when it was featured, in tandem with Schubert's 'Ave Maria', in the 1940 Walt Disney animated film "Fantasia".


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Among the composer's other works are a number of songs, including three song cycles: "The Nursery" (1872), "Sunless" (1874) and "Songs and Dances of Death" (1877); plus "Mephistopheles' Song of the Flea" and many others. Important early recordings of songs by Mussorgsky were made by tenor Vladimir Rosing in the 1920s and 1930s. Other recordings have been made by Boris Christoff between 1951 and 1957 and by Sergei Leiferkus in 1993.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Contemporary opinions of Mussorgsky as a composer and person varied from positive to ambiguous to negative. Mussorgsky's eventual supporters, Vladimir Stasov and Mily Balakirev, initially registered strongly negative impressions of the composer. Stasov wrote Balakirev, in an 1863 letter, "I have no use for Mussorgsky. His views may tally with mine, but I have never heard him express an intelligent idea. All in him is flabby, dull. He is, it seems to me, a thorough idiot", and Balakirev agreed: "Yes, Mussorgsky is little short of an idiot."


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mixed impressions are recorded by Rimsky-Korsakov and Tchaikovsky, colleagues of Mussorgsky who, unlike him, made their living as composers. Both praised his talent while expressing disappointment with his technique. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that Mussorgsky's scores included


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: While preparing an edition of "Sorochintsï Fair", Anatoly Lyadov remarked: "It is easy enough to correct Mussorgsky's irregularities. The only trouble is that when this is done, the character and originality of the music are done away with, and the composer's individuality vanishes."


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Western perceptions of Mussorgsky changed with the European premiere of "Boris Godunov" in 1908. Before the premiere, he was regarded as an eccentric in the West. Critic Edward Dannreuther, wrote, in the 1905 edition of "The Oxford History of Music", "Mussorgsky, in his vocal efforts, appears wilfully eccentric. His style impresses the Western ear as barbarously ugly." However, after the premiere, views on Mussorgsky's music changed drastically. Gerald Abraham, a musicologist, and an authority on Mussorgsky: "As a musical translator of words and all that can be expressed in words, of psychological states, and even physical movement, he is unsurpassed; as an absolute musician he was hopelessly limited, with remarkably little ability to construct pure music or even a purely musical texture."


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: Mussorgsky's tone poem "Night on Bald Mountain" was used in the 1940 animated film "Fantasia", accompanied by an animation of Chernobog summoning evil spirits on a mountain. It segues into "Ave Maria" by Franz Schubert. The piece is also quoted at the start of the music video for the Beastie Boys song 'Intergalactic'.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer performed and recorded an arrangement of Mussorgsky's "Pictures at an Exhibition" on 1971, featuring lyrics by Greg Lake, and released it as a live album of the same name.


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The first 20 seconds of Michael Jackson's 1995 song "HIStory" relied on "The Pictures at an Exhibition", "The Bogatyr Gates (In the Capital in Kiev)" fragment in orchestrated version. The opening theme of 'Pictures at an Exhibition' was also used as the theme music for the satirical sitcom The New Statesman (1987 TV series).


title: Modest Mussorgsky

text: The 2020 film "" starring Dan Stevens as Alexander Lemtov, a flamboyant singer representing Russia, had a non-typical Russian character development as an obvious cultural reference to Modest Mussorgsky, also known domestically for encouraging a female opera singer to compose a classical song "Letter After the Ball".


title: Girls Trip

text: Girls Trip is a 2017 American comedy film starring Regina Hall, Queen Latifah, Tiffany Haddish, and Jada Pinkett Smith. The film is directed by Malcolm D. Lee and written by Kenya Barris and Tracy Oliver, from a story by the pair and Erica Rivinoja, who based the script off their own experiences with their female friends. Along with Lee, the film was produced by Will Packer under his Will Packer Productions banner. It follows a group of four friends who go to New Orleans to attend the Essence Music Festival in order to reconnect after a long time.


title: Girls Trip

text: The cast was announced in June 2016, with principal photography taking place that month in New Orleans, Louisiana. The film also filmed during the 2016 Essence Music Festival, casting over 5000 background actors.


title: Girls Trip

text: "Girls Trip" premiered at the American Black Film Festival in Miami on June 14, 2017 and was theatrically released in the United States by Universal Pictures on July 21, 2017. It received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics, with many praising the cast performances and the film's originality. It was chosen by "Time" magazine as one of its top ten films of 2017. It was also a massive commercial success, grossing $140 million worldwide on its $19 million production budget including over $100 million domestically, the first comedy of 2017 to do so. It was also the first time a film written by an African-American female screenwriter had crossed the $100 million mark at the box office.


title: Girls Trip

text: The film received multiple awards and nominations from various award and critic organizations, including Outstanding Motion Picture and Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture for Haddish at the 49th NAACP Image Awards. It received seven nominations at the 18th Black Reel Awards, with Haddish winning two awards for her performance.


title: Girls Trip

text: In an attempt to reconnect with her friends from college, lifestyle guru Ryan Pierce, dubbed "the next Oprah," decides to invite her friends on a girls' trip to Essence Music Festival in New Orleans, where she will be the keynote speaker. Known as the "Flossy Posse," the group includes Sasha, a former journalist from "Time" magazine who now owns a floundering gossip site and is struggling financially; Lisa, a nurse and uptight single mother who has not had a boyfriend since her divorce years earlier; and Dina, a happy-go-lucky, impulsive party animal who was fired from her job after harming a co-worker who accidentally ate her lunch.


title: Girls Trip

text: Shortly after arriving, Sasha receives a photo of Ryan's husband Stewart kissing another woman. The friends are reluctant to tell Ryan initially, but Ryan admits she is already aware of the situation and informs her friends that the two are in couple's therapy to address Stewart's infidelity. After Dina confronts Stewart at their hotel with a broken bottle, the Flossy Posse are ejected and settles into a one-star motel instead. At the Essence Fest later that night, they run into an old friend Julian, a musician performing at the festival who Ryan flirts with. He later gives up his hotel suite so that the women have somewhere decent to stay.


title: Girls Trip

text: The next day, Ryan and Stewart host a cooking demonstration together at the music festival that goes awry when Stewart's mistress, Simone, shows up. A potential investor is impressed, however, and a business meeting is set up for Ryan and Stewart with their agent, Elizabeth, who then introduces Ryan and Stewart to Bethany Marshall. Dina serves the women absinthe right before the meeting, causing them to hallucinate. At her meeting, Ryan thinks the waitress is Stewart's mistress; Lisa thinks her kids are at the club with her; Dina thinks she is flying; and Sasha thinks she is making out with an attractive man who is actually a lamp. The girls eventually pull Ryan out of the meeting and decide to go to a club to dance the absinthe off. They run into Simone and her friends and engage in a dance off before getting in a bar fight. Julian picks them up before they can get arrested and takes them back to their hotel.


title: Girls Trip

text: Ryan and Stewart are offered a massive deal from the chain store Best Mart, whose representative wants to hire them as spokespeople. Ryan goes out to celebrate with the girls at one of Julian's shows. Simone shows up and tells Sasha that she is pregnant. She offers to give Sasha's blog exclusive content to her affair with pictures as well. Stewart once again goes to Ryan to convince her to stay with him to finalize their deal. Simone goes public with the affair, and Ryan accuses Sasha of being the one who leaked the pictures. The fight spills out into the relationship of all the women and they all part on bad terms.


title: Girls Trip

text: Dina and Lisa make up quickly. After Sasha decides to take down her blog, disgusted with the celebrity gossip racket, Dina and Lisa reunite with her. As Ryan begins to give her keynote speech on the last day of the music festival and denies that the picture of Stewart and Simone is real, she sees her friends walk into the room. Ryan breaks from her scripted remarks, admitting the picture and affair are real. The speech is a success and when the women reunite after the show, Ryan apologizes to Sasha. Ryan's agent arrives and tells Ryan that the deal with Best Mart is still on but with her alone. Ryan decides to take Sasha as her business partner the way they planned to be years ago. A series of events shows the girls happily reunited and Ryan beginning a relationship with Julian.


title: Girls Trip

text: Amongst the cast, multiple celebrities and musicians make cameos, most notably Diddy, Ne-Yo, Mariah Carey, and New Edition (who perform "If It Isn't Love").


title: Girls Trip

text: In February 2014, Universal announced that director Malcolm D. Lee and producer Will Packer would collaborate on a film tentatively titled "Girls Trip", with "South Park" writer Erica Rivinoja attached to script. In May 2016, Universal set a release date of August 11, 2017 for the film. It was also reported that Regina Hall would star, and Kenya Barris and Tracy Oliver were rewriting the script. Oliver told "The Hollywood Reporter" that she wanted to break down the barriers of respectability politics and portray "Black women being carefree and having fun just like everybody else. I think we need to show all aspects of black lives. I love "Moonlight", I love "Hidden Figures", but I also want to see some people who are having fun and just showing female friends hanging out." Queen Latifah and Jada Pinkett Smith joined the cast in early June 2016, and Larenz Tate joined later that month. The film's release date was changed to July 21, 2017, as principal photography began in late June 2016 in New Orleans, and included filming at the 2016 Essence Music Festival.


title: Girls Trip

text: A teaser trailer for the film was released on January 31, 2017. A red band trailer for the film was released on February 9, 2017.


title: Girls Trip

text: "Girls Trip" grossed $115.2 million in the United States and Canada and $24.9 million in other territories for a total gross of $140.9 million, against a net production budget of $20–28 million. "Deadline Hollywood" calculated the film made a net profit of $66.1 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.


title: Girls Trip

text: "Girls Trip" opened alongside "Dunkirk" and "Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets" on July 21, 2017, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 2,583 theaters, with industry experts saying it could debut as high as $30 million. It made $11.7 million on its first day, including $1.7 million from Thursday night previews at 2,195 theaters. The film grossed $31.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind "Dunkirk" and marked the largest opening of director Malcolm D. Lee's career; 52% of its opening weekend audience was African-American, with an overall 60% being women over 25. In its second week the film dropped just 37% and grossed $19.6 million, finishing 3rd at the box office behind "Dunkirk" and newcomer "The Emoji Movie", and in its third week the film made $11.4 million, finishing 4th. On August 17, the film crossed the $100 million mark domestically, becoming the first comedy of 2017 to do so.


title: Girls Trip

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 177 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critics consensus reads: ""Girls Trip" is the rare R-rated comedy that pushes boundaries to truly comedic effect—and anchors its laughs in compelling characters brought to life by a brilliantly assembled cast." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 71 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, and PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 82% overall positive score, with 67% saying they would definitely recommend it.


title: Girls Trip

text: For "Variety", Peter Debruge wrote "When it comes to Hollywood studio comedies, most of the time, we are lucky to get one unforgettable set piece, whereas "Girls Trip" screenwriters Kenya Barris and Tracy Oliver deliver at least half a dozen. And rather than simply letting an effective joke stand, they double down, milking it for all it's worth." For CinemaBlend, Mike Reyes wrote "While there's still plenty of time worn clichés in "Girls Trip", there is a genuine sense of friendship, and comedy throughout, that make the film one of this summer's most surprising comedies. You can believe that these four women are the best of friends, which is something that's not always easy or focused on in a comedy of this type. "Girls Trip" has an energy that's undeniable, eventually winning audience members over with a theme of friendship that's well built in the context of the film."


title: Girls Trip

text: In January 2019, Pinkett-Smith discussed a potential sequel to "Girls Trip", stating "I'm ready for more Flossy Posse, trust me. I'm ready to have some fun with my girls!", and giving Rio de Janeiro or South Africa as potential locations for the film. In April 2019 Latifah confirmed that a sequel was "definitely happening," but Haddish stated just days later that talks had stalled.


title: Girls Trip

text: In March 2020, Haddish confirmed Tracy Oliver had a treatment "ready to go", and would begin working on the script. Haddish added "We might decide not to even make it "Girls Trip", maybe we'll do a different story just in case no one wants to make "Girls Trip 2"".


title: Gang Starr

text: Gang Starr was an American hip hop duo, consisting of Texas record producer DJ Premier and Massachusetts rapper Guru. For the entirety of their association, they were based out of Brooklyn, New York. Gang Starr was at its height from 1989 to 2003, and are considered one of the best MC-and-producer duos in hip hop history. They are recognized for being one of the pioneers of jazz rap. Some of their top hits include "Mass Appeal", "Take It Personal", "Moment of Truth", "Full Clip" and "Above The Clouds".


title: Gang Starr

text: The original Gang Starr group was founded in Morehouse College by three friends from Boston, Massachusetts: Guru (then known as MC Keithy E.) who was planned to be a rapper/singer, Big Shug as the main MC and DJ Suave D (Shug's younger brother Dana) as their DJ. After Shug was imprisoned, Suave D quit the group, leaving Guru to enlist the services of MC Damo D-Ski and DJ 1, 2 B-Down (also known as Mike Dee) with various producers, such as Donald D, J.V. Johnson or The 45 King helping out. Their earliest recordings were in 1986 where they made various demos. In 1987 and 1988, Gang Starr released three 12" vinyl singles on Wild Pitch Records.


title: Gang Starr

text: In 1989, the group split for the second time and the only member willing to continue under the name was Guru. He got in touch with Houston, Texas native DJ Premier (then known as Waxmaster C) who sent him a beat tape, which Guru liked. He invited DJ Premier to join Gang Starr, relocate with him to Brooklyn and in that same year they released their first single "Words I Manifest" along with the album "No More Mr. Nice Guy" (1989). In 1990, the group was signed to the Chrysalis record label by then A&R director Duff Marlowe, a former DJ and "Los Angeles Times" rap music critic. The label offered Guru and Premier unlimited artistic license and major-label distribution worldwide, a platform the group used to become one of the most influential hip hop acts of that decade. During their career Gang Starr helped pioneer the New York City hardcore hip hop sound. The Gang Starr catalog, especially "Step in the Arena" (1991), "Daily Operation" (1992), "Hard to Earn" (1994) and "Moment of Truth" (1998) are well respected among underground rap fans and critics. Their track "Jazz Thing" was featured on the soundtrack to Spike Lee's film "Mo' Better Blues". Gang Starr provided a track, "Battle", for the sound track of the 2002 movie "8 Mile".


title: Gang Starr

text: After several albums and tours, in late 2002 DJ Premier left Europe to go back to the United States. Once again Guru was faced with continuing alone and became involved in a European tour in 2003–04 with an alternate DJ. In 2006, Guru indicated in several interviews that Gang Starr had reached its end.


title: Gang Starr

text: In February 2010, Guru suffered a heart attack, went into a coma, and died on April 19, 2010. DJ Solar, a long-time collaborator of Guru, said Guru chose not to go public with the diagnosis of myeloma that was made in 2000. Guru appeared to have fallen out with DJ Premier seven years prior to his death and did "not wish my ex-DJ to have anything to do with my name, likeness, events, tributes, etc." There is speculation that the letter was not written by Guru, but was composed by Solar. The validity of the statement was questioned by Guru's family and his contemporaries.


title: Gang Starr

text: Soon after DJ Premier stated that there was a "posthumous Gang Starr CD/DVD project in the works," and most likely to have been released in 2014, but nothing was released. DJ Premier confirmed in late 2015 that he was working on a Gang Starr biopic with the cooperation of Guru's sister, Patricia Elam.


title: Gang Starr

text: In 2019, DJ Premier released a new single under the Gang Starr name entitled "Family and Loyalty" featuring J. Cole, to be followed with a new album titled "One of the Best Yet", which was released on November 1 that year.


title: Gang Starr

text: The Gang Starr Foundation was a loose collective of various people who have worked closely with the group, through either Guru's now defunct Ill Kid label, DJ Premier's production work or the management company that Gang Starr was represented by, Empire Management. Members of the foundation included Big Shug, Afu-Ra, Jeru the Damaja, Krumbsnatcha, Bumpy Knuckles, and Group Home.


title: Gang Starr

text: Each episode title of the first season of the Netflix series "Luke Cage", based on the Marvel Comics character, was named after a Gang Starr song.


title: Wild horse

text: The wild horse (Equus ferus) is a species of the genus "Equus", which includes as subspecies the modern domesticated horse ("Equus ferus caballus") as well as the endangered Przewalski's horse ("Equus ferus przewalskii"). The European wild horse known as the tarpan that went extinct in the late 1800s has previously been classified as a subspecies of wild horse ("Equus ferus ferus"), but more recent studies have cast doubt on whether those horses were truly wild or if they actually were feral horses or hybrids.


title: Wild horse

text: Przewalski's horse had reached the brink of extinction but was reintroduced successfully into the wild. The tarpan became extinct in the 19th century but is theorized to have been present on the steppes of Eurasia at the time of domestication. However, other subspecies of "Equus ferus" may have existed and could have been the stock from which domesticated horses are descended. Since the extinction of the tarpan, attempts have been made to reconstruct its phenotype using domestic horses, resulting in horse breeds such as the Heck horse. However, the genetic makeup and foundation bloodstock of those breeds is substantially derived from domesticated horses, so these breeds possess domesticated traits.


title: Wild horse

text: The term "wild horse" is also used colloquially in reference to free-roaming herds of feral horses, for example the mustang in the United States, and the brumby in Australia. These feral horses are untamed members of the domestic horse subspecies ("Equus ferus caballus"), not to be confused with the truly "wild" horse subspecies extant into modern times.


title: Wild horse

text: Evidence supports "E. ferus" as having evolved in North America about 1.1 - 1.2 million years ago. Around 800,000 - 900,000 years ago, "E. ferus" migrated west to Eurasia via the Bering Land Bridge, and south to South America via the Isthmus of Panama as part of the Great American Interchange. By the mid-late Pleistocene, it had an extremely large range across the Americas, Eurasia, and North Africa, across which it was abundant. There have been several fossil horse taxa from throughout this range, such as "Equus lambei" and "Amerhippus", that were formerly considered distinct species, but genetic and morphological analysis supports them as being conspecific with "E. ferus".


title: Wild horse

text: By the latest Pleistocene or early Holocene, American populations had disappeared as part of the Quaternary extinction event, leaving only the Old World populations. It remained widespread there and was ultimately also domesticated around 3600 B.C., but wild populations continued to decline. The last completely wild populations of the tarpan went extinct in Eastern Europe and the southern parts of Russia around the late 19th century, and the Przewalski's horse of Central Asia became extinct in the wild in 1969. However, over the past few centuries feral horses have been introduced to all continents except Antarctica, and Przewalski's horses have been reintroduced to their former habitats in Mongolia.


title: Wild horse

text: In general, wild horses are grazers that prefer to inhabit open areas, such as steppes and grasslands. They may have seasonal food preferences, as seen in the Przewalski's subspecies. Horses may fall prey to native predators where they live, such as wolves, cougars, and spotted hyenas.


title: Wild horse

text: The latter two are the only never-domesticated "wild" groups that survived into historic times. However, other subspecies of "Equus ferus" may have existed.


title: Wild horse

text: In the Late Pleistocene epoch, there were several other subspecies of "E.ferus" which have all since gone extinct. The exact categorization of "Equus"' remains into species or subspecies is a complex matter and the subject of ongoing work.


title: Wild horse

text: The horse family Equidae and the genus "Equus" evolved in North America during the Pliocene, before the species migrated across Beringia into the Eastern Hemisphere. Studies using ancient DNA, as well as DNA of recent individuals, suggest the presence of two equine species in Late Pleistocene North America, a caballine species, suggested to be conspecific with the wild horse, and "Haringtonhippus francisci", the "New World stilt-legged horse"; the latter has been taxonomically assigned to various names, and appears to be outside the grouping containing all extant equines. In South America there appear to have been several species of equine, "Equus" ("Amerhippus") "neogeus," which had previously thought to represent 5 taxa due to morphological variability, and several species of "Hippidion," which also lie outside the group containing all living horses. (It had previously been suggested to have been nested within "Equus" based on incomplete sequence data)


title: Wild horse

text: Currently, three subspecies that lived during recorded human history are recognized. One subspecies is the widespread domestic horse ("Equus ferus caballus"), as well as two wild subspecies: the recently extinct European wild horse ("E. f. ferus") and the endangered Przewalski's horse ("E. f. przewalskii").


title: Wild horse

text: Genetically, the pre-domestication horse, "E. f. ferus", and the domesticated horse, "E. f. caballus", form a single homogeneous group (clade) and are genetically indistinguishable from each other. The genetic variation within this clade shows only a limited regional variation, with the notable exception of Przewalski's horse. Przewalski's horse has several unique genetic differences that distinguish it from the other subspecies, including 66 instead of 64 chromosomes, unique Y-chromosome gene haplotypes, and unique mtDNA haplotypes.


title: Wild horse

text: Besides genetic differences, osteological evidence from across the Eurasian wild horse range, based on cranial and metacarpal differences, indicates the presence of only two subspecies in postglacial times, the tarpan and Przewalski's horse.


title: Wild horse

text: At present, the domesticated and wild horses are considered a single species, with the valid scientific name for the horse species being "Equus ferus." The wild tarpan subspecies is "E. f. ferus", Przewalski's horse is "E. f. przewalskii", and the domesticated horse is "E. f. caballus". The rules for the scientific naming of animal species are determined in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, which stipulates that the oldest available valid scientific name is used to name the species. Previously, when taxonomists considered domesticated and wild horse two subspecies of the same species, the valid scientific name was "Equus caballus" Linnaeus 1758, with the subspecies labeled "E. c. caballus" (domesticated horse), "E. c. ferus" Boddaert, 1785 (tarpan) and "E. c. przewalskii" Poliakov, 1881 (Przewalski's horse). However, in 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature decided that the scientific names of the wild species have priority over the scientific names of domesticated species, therefore mandating the use of "Equus ferus" for the horse, independent of the position of the domesticated horse.


title: Wild horse

text: Przewalski's horse occupied the eastern Eurasian Steppes, perhaps from the Urals to Mongolia, although the ancient border between tarpan and Przewalski's distributions has not been clearly defined. Przewalski's horse was limited to Dzungaria and western Mongolia in the same period, and became extinct in the wild during the 1960s, but was reintroduced in the late 1980s to two preserves in Mongolia. Although researchers such as Marija Gimbutas theorized that the horses of the Chalcolithic period were Przewalski's, more recent genetic studies indicate that Przewalski's horse is not an ancestor to modern domesticated horses.


title: Wild horse

text: In 2018, a DNA study revealed that the horses belonging to the Botai culture were Przewalski's horses, raising the question of whether these animals were an isolated population, if extant Przewalski horses today represent feral descendants, or if the domestication attempt at Botai failed. A 2021 study argued that the Botai horses were most likely not domesticated, thus the question remains unresolved.


title: Wild horse

text: Przewalski's horse is still found today, though it is an endangered species and for a time was considered extinct in the wild. Roughly 2000 Przewalski's horses are in zoos around the world. A small breeding population has been reintroduced in Mongolia. As of 2005, a cooperative venture between the Zoological Society of London and Mongolian scientists has resulted in a population of 248 animals in the wild.


title: Wild horse

text: Przewalski's horse has some biological differences from the domestic horse; unlike domesticated horses and the tarpan, which both have 64 chromosomes, Przewalski's horse has 66 chromosomes due to a Robertsonian translocation. However, the offspring of Przewalski and domestic horses are fertile, possessing 65 chromosomes.


title: Wild horse

text: Horses that live in an untamed state but have ancestors that have been domesticated are called "feral horses". For instance, when the Spanish reintroduced the horse to the Americas, beginning in the late 15th century, some horses escaped, forming feral herds; the best-known being the mustang. Similarly, the brumby descended from horses strayed or let loose in Australia by English settlers. Isolated populations of feral horses occur in a number of places, including Bosnia, Croatia, New Zealand, Portugal, Scotland and a number of barrier islands along the Atlantic coast of North America from Sable Island off Nova Scotia, to Cumberland Island, off the coast of Georgia. Even though these are often referred to as "wild" horses, they are not truly "wild" if wildness is defined as having no domesticated ancestors.


title: Wild horse

text: In 1995, British and French explorers encountered a new population of horses in the Riwoche Valley of Tibet, unknown to the rest of the world, but apparently used by the local Khamba people. It was speculated that the Riwoche horse might be a relict population of wild horses, but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses, which is in line with news reports indicating that they are used as pack and riding animals by the local villagers. These horses only stand tall and are said to resemble the images known as "horse no 2" depicted in cave paintings alongside images of Przewalski's horse.


title: Hadron

text: In particle physics, a hadron (; ; "stout, thick") is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction. They are analogous to molecules that are held together by the electric force. Most of the mass of ordinary matter comes from two hadrons: the proton and the neutron, while most of the mass of the protons and neutrons is in turn due to the binding energy of their constituent quarks, due to the strong force.


title: Hadron

text: Hadrons are categorized into two broad families: baryons, made of an odd number of quarks (usually three quarks) and mesons, made of an even number of quarks (usually two quarks: one quark and one antiquark). Protons and neutrons (which make the majority of the mass of an atom) are examples of baryons; pions are an example of a meson. "Exotic" hadrons, containing more than three valence quarks, have been discovered in recent years. A tetraquark state (an exotic meson), named the Z(4430), was discovered in 2007 by the Belle Collaboration and confirmed as a resonance in 2014 by the LHCb collaboration. Two pentaquark states (exotic baryons), named and , were discovered in 2015 by the LHCb collaboration. There are several more exotic hadron candidates and other colour-singlet quark combinations that may also exist.


title: Hadron

text: Almost all "free" hadrons and antihadrons (meaning, in isolation and not bound within an atomic nucleus) are believed to be unstable and eventually decay into other particles. The only known possible exception is free protons, which appear to be stable, or at least, take immense amounts of time to decay (order of 10 years). By way of comparison, free neutrons are the longest-lived unstable particle, and decay with a half-life of about 879 seconds. Experimentally, hadron physics is studied by colliding hadrons, e.g. protons, with each other or the nuclei of dense, heavy elements, such as lead or gold, and detecting the debris in the produced particle showers. A similar process occurs in the natural environment, in the extreme upper-atmosphere, where muons and mesons such as pions are produced by the collisions of cosmic rays with rarefied gas particles in the outer atmosphere.


title: Hadron

text: The term "hadron" is a new Greek word introduced by L.B. Okun and in a plenary talk at the 1962 International Conference on High Energy Physics at CERN. He opened his talk with the definition of a new category term:


title: Hadron

text: According to the quark model, the properties of hadrons are primarily determined by their so-called "valence quarks". For example, a proton is composed of two up quarks (each with electric charge , for a total of + together) and one down quark (with electric charge ). Adding these together yields the proton charge of +1. Although quarks also carry color charge, hadrons must have zero total color charge because of a phenomenon called color confinement. That is, hadrons must be "colorless" or "white". The simplest ways for this to occur are with a quark of one color and an antiquark of the corresponding anticolor, or three quarks of different colors. Hadrons with the first arrangement are a type of meson, and those with the second arrangement are a type of baryon.


title: Hadron

text: Massless virtual gluons compose the overwhelming majority of particles inside hadrons, as well as the major constituents of its mass (with the exception of the heavy charm and bottom quarks; the top quark vanishes before it has time to bind into a hadron). The strength of the strong force gluons which bind the quarks together has sufficient energy () to have resonances composed of massive () quarks (≥ ). One outcome is that short-lived pairs of virtual quarks and antiquarks are continually forming and vanishing again inside a hadron. Because the virtual quarks are not stable wave packets (quanta), but an irregular and transient phenomenon, it is not meaningful to ask which quark is real and which virtual; only the small excess is apparent from the outside in the form of a hadron. Therefore, when a hadron or anti-hadron is stated to consist of (typically) 2 or 3 quarks, this technically refers to the constant excess of quarks vs. antiquarks.


title: Hadron

text: Like all subatomic particles, hadrons are assigned quantum numbers corresponding to the representations of the Poincaré group: (), where is the spin quantum number, the intrinsic parity (or P-parity), the charge conjugation (or C-parity), and is the particle's mass. Note that the mass of a hadron has very little to do with the mass of its valence quarks; rather, due to mass–energy equivalence, most of the mass comes from the large amount of energy associated with the strong interaction. Hadrons may also carry flavor quantum numbers such as isospin (G parity), and strangeness. All quarks carry an additive, conserved quantum number called a baryon number (), which is for quarks and for antiquarks. This means that baryons (composite particles made of three, five or a larger odd number of quarks) have  = 1 whereas mesons have  = 0.


title: Hadron

text: Hadrons have excited states known as resonances. Each ground state hadron may have several excited states; several hundreds of resonances have been observed in experiments. Resonances decay extremely quickly (within about 10 seconds) via the strong nuclear force.


title: Hadron

text: In other phases of matter the hadrons may disappear. For example, at very high temperature and high pressure, unless there are sufficiently many flavors of quarks, the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) predicts that quarks and gluons will no longer be confined within hadrons, "because the strength of the strong interaction diminishes with energy". This property, which is known as asymptotic freedom, has been experimentally confirmed in the energy range between 1 GeV (gigaelectronvolt) and 1 TeV (teraelectronvolt). All free hadrons except ("possibly") the proton and antiproton are unstable.


title: Hadron

text: Baryons are hadrons containing an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3). Most well known baryons such as the proton and neutron have three valence quarks, but pentaquarks with five quarks – three quarks of different colors, and also one extra quark-antiquark pair – have also been proven to exist. Because baryons have an odd number of quarks, they are also all fermions, "i.e.", they have half-integer spin. As quarks possess baryon number "B" = , baryons have baryon number "B" = 1. Pentaquarks "also" have "B" = 1, since the extra quark's and antiquark's baryon numbers cancel.


title: Hadron

text: Each type of baryon has a corresponding antiparticle (antibaryon) in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks. For example, just as a proton is made of two up-quarks and one down-quark, its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up-antiquarks and one down-antiquark.


title: Hadron

text: As of August 2015, there are two known pentaquarks, and , both discovered in 2015 by the LHCb collaboration.


title: Hadron

text: Mesons are hadrons containing an even number of valence quarks (at least 2). Most well known mesons are composed of a quark-antiquark pair, but possible tetraquarks (4 quarks) and hexaquarks (6 quarks, comprising either a dibaryon or three quark-antiquark pairs) may have been discovered and are being investigated to confirm their nature. Several other hypothetical types of exotic meson may exist which do not fall within the quark model of classification. These include glueballs and hybrid mesons (mesons bound by excited gluons).


title: Hadron

text: Because mesons have an even number of quarks, they are also all bosons, with integer spin, "i.e.", 0, +1, or −1. They have baryon number Examples of mesons commonly produced in particle physics experiments include pions and kaons. Pions also play a role in holding atomic nuclei together via the residual strong force.


title: XO (record label)

text: XO (also known as XO Records) is a Canadian record label founded by singer the Weeknd, his managers Wassim Slaiby and Amir "Cash" Esmailian, and his creative director La Mar Taylor. Slaiby also serves as the label's CEO. As of 2012, it operates as a subsidiary of Universal Music Group, and is distributed through Republic Records.


title: XO (record label)

text: The label's current acts include the Weeknd, Belly, Nav and Chxrry22. The label has had six projects debut at number one on the "Billboard" 200: "Beauty Behind The Madness", "Starboy", "My Dear Melancholy", "Bad Habits", "After Hours" and "Good Intentions", with the latter two both achieving this in the first half of 2020.


title: XO (record label)

text: In 2011, the Weeknd, Wassim Slaiby, Amir Esmailian and La Mar Taylor founded XO as an unofficial imprint to release The Weeknd's three mixtapes; "House of Balloons", "Thursday", and "Echoes of Silence". The mixtapes earned the Weeknd a following and recognition from mainstream publications, and helped grow the record label's reputation through various performances, song references and business ventures.


title: XO (record label)

text: To this day, it’s still unconfirmed as to what the meaning of “XO”  really is. Many fans argued that it means the idea of hugs and kisses whereas other fans argued that it means ecstasy and oxycontin. During The Weeknd’s early uprising of his career, there were times when he produced music, he did it under the influence of drugs. “There were songs on my first record that were seven minutes long."


title: XO (record label)

text: When the Weeknd signed with Republic Records in 2012, XO was assumed as a subsidiary label. In 2015, rappers Belly and Derek Wise were signed to XO. In 2016, rapper Nav joined the label's roster. XO signed hip hop duo 88Glam in 2017, following the independent release of their self-titled mixtape. The duo left the label in 2020. Singer Black Atlass joined in 2018, he left the label in 2022. Singer Chxrry22 joined in 2022, becoming the first female artist signed to XO.


title: XO (record label)

text: As of the 6th of June,2018, The Weeknd announced his new radio show “Memento Mori” run by his record label XO on Apple Music 1. The first show aired on the 8th of June,2018, where The Weeknd would play a mixture of songs that have influenced him in the music scene. Often, He would invite his fellow XO members as well for other musicians as guests to host their own episodes in the scene to share their own taste in music. Each episode is run in the span of 2 - 3 hours.


title: XO (record label)

text: XO has officially released twelve studio albums, three EPs, and three compilation albums (including two greatest hits albums). Unofficially, the label has released twelve mixtapes.


title: Ruby Soho (wrestler)

text: Dori Elizabeth Prange ( ; born January 9, 1991) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW) where she performs under the ring name Ruby Soho. She is also known for her time in WWE, where she performed under the ring name Ruby Riott. Prange has also worked in World Wonder Ring Stardom (aka, "Stardom") as Heidi Lovelace, and extensively on the U.S. independent circuit for promotions such as Shimmer Women Athletes, Shine Wrestling, Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) and IWA Mid-South.


title: Ruby Soho (wrestler)

text: In 2010, Prange began training with Billy Roc at his School of Roc. She would make her debut for Juggalo Championship Wrestling, at the "Arena Chicks at the Gathering!" event under the ring name Heidi Lovelace, where she defeated C.J. Lane. Lovelace made her debut for Shimmer Women Athletes competing in Volume 51, where she teamed up with December in a losing effort to Pink Flash Kira and Sweet Cherrie in a tag-team match.


title: Ruby Soho (wrestler)

text: On May 16, 2012, Prange received a tryout in Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) against Taeler Hendrix, which she failed to win. Prange made her debut for the promotion under the ring name Heidi Lovelace on the May 23 episode of "OVW episode 666", where she lost to C.J Lane. On September 1 at OVW's "Saturday Night Special", Lovelace defeated Taeler Hendrix in a no disqualifications match, earning a future championship match against her. Lovelace defeated Hendrix for OVW Women's Championship on September 15 during a live event in Elizabethtown, Kentucky. After winning the Women's Championship, Lovelace had victories over Jessie Belle Smoothers, Epiphany, Josette Bynum and Scarlett Bordeaux. On the November 14 episode of "OVW episode 691", Lovelace dropped the Women's Championship to Taryn Terrell after the special guest referee Taeler Hendrix cost her the match. Since January 2013, Hendrix received gifts from a secret admirer which she thought was either Dylan Bostic or Ryan Howe. The conclusion of that story ended on the April 27 episode of "OVW" when Heidi announced that it was her sending the gifts to Hendrix. On the May 4 episode of "OVW", Lovelace tried to express her feelings to Hendrix but ended up alone with Hendrix confused. On the May 31 episode of "OVW", Lovelace (after being told by Hendrix that Trina has something against the two of them) confronted Trina and challenged her to a match for the Women's Title on the "Saturday Night Special", which Trina accepted. The following day at OVW's "Saturday Night Special", Trina reversed Lovelace's attempt of a hurricanrana into a powerbomb to retain her title.