title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is used intravenously to reduce acutely raised intracranial pressure until more definitive treatment can be applied, e.g., after head trauma. While mannitol injection is the mainstay for treating high pressure in the skull after a bad brain injury, it is no better than hypertonic saline as a first-line treatment. In treatment-resistant cases, hypertonic saline works better. Intra-arterial infusions of mannitol can transiently open the blood–brain barrier by disrupting tight junctions.


title: Mannitol

text: It may also be used for certain cases of kidney failure with low urine output, decreasing pressure in the eye, to increase the elimination of certain toxins, and to treat fluid build up.


title: Mannitol

text: Intraoperative mannitol prior to vessel clamp release during renal transplant has been shown to reduce post-transplant kidney injury, but has not been shown to reduce graft rejection.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol acts as an osmotic laxative in oral doses larger than 20 g, and is sometimes sold as a laxative for children.


title: Mannitol

text: The use of mannitol, when inhaled, as a bronchial irritant as an alternative method of diagnosis of exercise-induced asthma has been proposed. A 2013 systematic review concluded evidence to support its use for this purpose at this time is insufficient.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is commonly used in the circuit prime of a heart lung machine during cardiopulmonary bypass. The presence of mannitol preserves renal function during the times of low blood flow and pressure, while the patient is on bypass. The solution prevents the swelling of endothelial cells in the kidney, which may have otherwise reduced blood flow to this area and resulted in cell damage.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol can also be used to temporarily encapsulate a sharp object (such as a helix on a lead for an artificial pacemaker) while it passes through the venous system. Because the mannitol dissolves readily in blood, the sharp point becomes exposed at its destination.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is also the first drug of choice to treat acute glaucoma in veterinary medicine. It is administered as a 20% solution intravenously. It dehydrates the vitreous humor and, therefore, lowers the intraocular pressure. However, it requires an intact blood-ocular barrier to work.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol increases blood glucose to a lesser extent than sucrose (thus having a relatively low glycemic index) so is used as a sweetener for people with diabetes, and in chewing gums. Although mannitol has a higher heat of solution than most sugar alcohols, its comparatively low solubility reduces the cooling effect usually found in mint candies and gums. However, when mannitol is completely dissolved in a product, it induces a strong cooling effect. Also, it has a very low hygroscopicity – it does not pick up water from the air until the humidity level is 98%. This makes mannitol very useful as a coating for hard candies, dried fruits, and chewing gums, and it is often included as an ingredient in candies and chewing gum. The pleasant taste and mouthfeel of mannitol also makes it a popular excipient for chewable tablets.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol can be used to form a complex with boric acid. This increases the acid strength of the boric acid, permitting better precision in volumetric analysis of this acid.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is the primary ingredient of mannitol salt agar, a bacterial growth medium, and is used in others.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is used as a cutting agent in various drugs that are used intranasally (snorted), such as cocaine. A mixture of mannitol and fentanyl (or fentanyl analogs) in ratio 1:10 is labeled and sold as "China white", a popular heroin substitute.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is contraindicated in people with anuria, severe hypovolemia, pre-existing severe pulmonary vascular congestion or pulmonary edema, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and active intracranial bleeding except during craniotomy.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is an isomer of sorbitol, another sugar alcohol; the two differ only in the orientation of the hydroxyl group on carbon 2. While similar, the two sugar alcohols have very different sources in nature, melting points, and uses.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is classified as a sugar alcohol; that is, it can be derived from a sugar (mannose) by reduction. Other sugar alcohols include xylitol and sorbitol. Mannitol and sorbitol are isomers, the only difference being the orientation of the hydroxyl group on carbon 2.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is commonly produced via the hydrogenation of fructose, which is formed from either starch or sucrose (common table sugar). Although starch is a cheaper source than sucrose, the transformation of starch is much more complicated. Eventually, it yields a syrup containing about 42% fructose, 52% glucose, and 6% maltose. Sucrose is simply hydrolyzed into an invert sugar syrup, which contains about 50% fructose. In both cases, the syrups are chromatographically purified to contain 90–95% fructose. The fructose is then hydrogenated over a nickel catalyst into a mixture of isomers sorbitol and mannitol. Yield is typically 50%:50%, although slightly alkaline reaction conditions can slightly increase mannitol yields.


title: Mannitol

text: Mannitol is one of the most abundant energy and carbon storage molecules in nature, produced by a plethora of organisms, including bacteria, yeasts, fungi, algae, lichens, and many plants. Fermentation by microorganisms is an alternative to the traditional industrial synthesis. A fructose to mannitol metabolic pathway, known as the mannitol cycle in fungi, has been discovered in a type of red algae ("Caloglossa leprieurii"), and it is highly possible that other microorganisms employ similar such pathways. A class of lactic acid bacteria, labeled heterofermentive because of their multiple fermentation pathways, convert either three fructose molecules or two fructose and one glucose molecule into two mannitol molecules, and one molecule each of lactic acid, acetic acid, and carbon dioxide. Feedstock syrups containing medium to large concentrations of fructose (for example, cashew apple juice, containing 55% fructose: 45% glucose) can produce yields mannitol per liter of feedstock. Further research is being conducted, studying ways to engineer even more efficient mannitol pathways in lactic acid bacteria, as well as the use of other microorganisms such as yeast and "E. coli" in mannitol production. When food-grade strains of any of the aforementioned microorganisms are used, the mannitol and the organism itself are directly applicable to food products, avoiding the need for careful separation of microorganism and mannitol crystals. Although this is a promising method, steps are needed to scale it up to industrially needed quantities.


title: Mannitol

text: Since mannitol is found in a wide variety of natural products, including almost all plants, it can be directly extracted from natural products, rather than chemical or biological syntheses. In fact, in China, isolation from seaweed is the most common form of mannitol production. Mannitol concentrations of plant exudates can range from 20% in seaweeds to 90% in the plane tree. It is a constituent of saw palmetto ("Serenoa").


title: Mannitol

text: Traditionally, mannitol is extracted by the Soxhlet extraction, using ethanol, water, and methanol to steam and then hydrolysis of the crude material. The mannitol is then recrystallized from the extract, generally resulting in yields of about 18% of the original natural product. Another method of extraction is using supercritical and subcritical fluids. These fluids are at such a stage that no difference exists between the liquid and gas stages, so are more diffusive than normal fluids. This is considered to make them much more effective mass transfer agents than normal liquids. The super- or subcritical fluid is pumped through the natural product, and the mostly mannitol product is easily separated from the solvent and minute amount of byproduct.


title: Mannitol

text: Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of olive leaves has been shown to require less solvent per measure of leaf than a traditional extraction – CO versus ethanol per olive leaf. Heated, pressurized, subcritical water is even cheaper, and is shown to have dramatically greater results than traditional extraction. It requires only water per of olive leaf, and gives a yield of 76.75% mannitol. Both super- and subcritical extractions are cheaper, faster, purer, and more environmentally friendly than the traditional extraction. However, the required high operating temperatures and pressures are causes for hesitancy in the industrial use of this technique.


title: Mannitol

text: Julije Domac elucidated the structure of hexene and mannitol obtained from Caspian manna. He determined the place of the double bond in hexene obtained from mannitol and proved that it is a derivative of a normal hexene. This also solved the structure of mannitol, which was unknown until then.


title: Mannitol

text: The three studies that initially found that high-dose mannitol was effective in cases of severe head injury were the subject of an investigation published in 2007. Although several authors are listed with Dr. Julio Cruz, it is unclear whether the authors had knowledge of how the patients were recruited. Further, the Federal University of São Paulo, which Cruz gave as his affiliation, has never employed him. As a result of doubt surrounding Cruz's work, an updated version of the Cochrane review excludes all studies by Julio Cruz, leaving only four studies. Due to differences in selection of control groups, a conclusion about the clinical use of mannitol could not be reached.


title: MasterChef (American season 9)

text: The ninth season of the American competitive reality television series "MasterChef" premiered on Fox on May 30, 2018, and concluded on September 19, 2018. Gordon Ramsay and Aarón Sánchez returned as from the previous season as judges, while former judge Joe Bastianich returned to the show as the third judge, replacing Christina Tosi. The season was won by English teacher Gerron Hurt, with professional grocery shopper Ashley Mincey and high school teacher Cesar Cano as co-runners-up.


title: MasterChef (American season 9)

text: This season introduced a new format to the show, as the three judges each selected eight contestants to give aprons to, and then the judges mentor their respective contestants throughout the competition.


title: MasterChef (American season 9)

text: Except where noted, source for all names, hometowns, and occupations: All ages and nicknames as given on air.


title: Herbivore

text: A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthparts adapted to rasping or grinding. Horses and other herbivores have wide flat teeth that are adapted to grinding grass, tree bark, and other tough plant material.


title: Herbivore

text: A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria.


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivore is the anglicized form of a modern Latin coinage, "herbivora", cited in Charles Lyell's 1830 "Principles of Geology". Richard Owen employed the anglicized term in an 1854 work on fossil teeth and skeletons. "Herbivora" is derived from Latin "herba" 'small plant, herb' and "vora", from "vorare" 'to eat, devour'.


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in general are known as primary consumers.


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivory is usually limited to animals that eat plants. Fungi, bacteria, and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed plant pathogens (plant diseases), while fungi and microbes that feed on dead plants are described as saprotrophs. Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed parasitic plants. There is, however, no single exclusive and definitive ecological classification of consumption patterns; each textbook has its own variations on the theme.


title: Herbivore

text: The understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: fossilized plants, which may preserve evidence of defence (such as spines), or herbivory-related damage; the observation of plant debris in fossilised animal faeces; and the construction of herbivore mouthparts.


title: Herbivore

text: Although herbivory was long thought to be a Mesozoic phenomenon, fossils have shown that plants were being consumed by arthropods within less than 20 million years after the first land plants evolved. Insects fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.


title: Herbivore

text: During the next 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs, such as roots and seeds. There is no evidence of any organism being fed upon until the middle-late Mississippian, . There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between the time each organ evolved and the time organisms evolved to feed upon them; this may be due to the low levels of oxygen during this period, which may have suppressed evolution. Further than their arthropod status, the identity of these early herbivores is uncertain.


title: Herbivore

text: Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivory among four-limbed terrestrial vertebrates, the tetrapods, developed in the Late Carboniferous (307–299 million years ago). Early tetrapods were large amphibious piscivores. While amphibians continued to feed on fish and insects, some reptiles began exploring two new food types, tetrapods (carnivory) and plants (herbivory). The entire dinosaur order ornithischia was composed of herbivorous dinosaurs. Carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation. In contrast, a complex set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials.


title: Herbivore

text: Arthropods evolved herbivory in four phases, changing their approach to it in response to changing plant communities.Tetrapod herbivores made their first appearance in the fossil record of their jaws near the Permio-Carboniferous boundary, approximately 300 million years ago. The earliest evidence of their herbivory has been attributed to dental occlusion, the process in which teeth from the upper jaw come in contact with teeth in the lower jaw is present. The evolution of dental occlusion led to a drastic increase in plant food processing and provides evidence about feeding strategies based on tooth wear patterns. Examination of phylogenetic frameworks of tooth and jaw morphologes has revealed that dental occlusion developed independently in several lineages tetrapod herbivores. This suggests that evolution and spread occurred simultaneously within various lineages.


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivores form an important link in the food chain because they consume plants to digest the carbohydrates photosynthetically produced by a plant. Carnivores in turn consume herbivores for the same reason, while omnivores can obtain their nutrients from either plants or animals. Due to a herbivore's ability to survive solely on tough and fibrous plant matter, they are termed the primary consumers in the food cycle (chain). Herbivory, carnivory, and omnivory can be regarded as special cases of consumer–resource interactions.


title: Herbivore

text: Two herbivore feeding strategies are grazing (e.g. cows) and browsing (e.g. moose). For a terrestrial mammal to be called a grazer, at least 90% of the forage has to be grass, and for a browser at least 90% tree leaves and twigs. An intermediate feeding strategy is called "mixed-feeding". In their daily need to take up energy from forage, herbivores of different body mass may be selective in choosing their food. "Selective" means that herbivores may choose their forage source depending on, e.g., season or food availability, but also that they may choose high quality (and consequently highly nutritious) forage before lower quality. The latter especially is determined by the body mass of the herbivore, with small herbivores selecting for high-quality forage, and with increasing body mass animals are less selective. Several theories attempt to explain and quantify the relationship between animals and their food, such as Kleiber's law, Holling's disk equation and the marginal value theorem (see below).


title: Herbivore

text: Kleiber's law describes the relationship between an animal's size and its feeding strategy, saying that larger animals need to eat less food per unit weight than smaller animals. Kleiber's law states that the metabolic rate (q) of an animal is the mass of the animal (M) raised to the 3/4 power: q=M


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivores employ numerous types of feeding strategies. Many herbivores do not fall into one specific feeding strategy, but employ several strategies and eat a variety of plant parts.


title: Herbivore

text: Optimal Foraging Theory is a model for predicting animal behavior while looking for food or other resources, such as shelter or water. This model assesses both individual movement, such as animal behavior while looking for food, and distribution within a habitat, such as dynamics at the population and community level. For example, the model would be used to look at the browsing behavior of a deer while looking for food, as well as that deer's specific location and movement within the forested habitat and its interaction with other deer while in that habitat.


title: Herbivore

text: This model has been criticized as circular and untestable. Critics have pointed out that its proponents use examples that fit the theory, but do not use the model when it does not fit the reality. Other critics point out that animals do not have the ability to assess and maximize their potential gains, therefore the optimal foraging theory is irrelevant and derived to explain trends that do not exist in nature.


title: Herbivore

text: Holling's disk equation models the efficiency at which predators consume prey. The model predicts that as the number of prey increases, the amount of time predators spend handling prey also increases, and therefore the efficiency of the predator decreases. In 1959, S. Holling proposed an equation to model the rate of return for an optimal diet: Rate (R )=Energy gained in foraging (Ef)/(time searching (Ts) + time handling (Th))


title: Herbivore

text: Where s=cost of search per unit time f=rate of encounter with items, h=handling time, e=energy gained per encounter


title: Herbivore

text: In effect, this would indicate that a herbivore in a dense forest would spend more time handling (eating) the vegetation because there was so much vegetation around than a herbivore in a sparse forest, who could easily browse through the forest vegetation. According to the Holling's disk equation, a herbivore in the sparse forest would be more efficient at eating than the herbivore in the dense forest.


title: Herbivore

text: The marginal value theorem describes the balance between eating all the food in a patch for immediate energy, or moving to a new patch and leaving the plants in the first patch to regenerate for future use. The theory predicts that absent complicating factors, an animal should leave a resource patch when the rate of payoff (amount of food) falls below the average rate of payoff for the entire area. According to this theory, an animal should move to a new patch of food when the patch they are currently feeding on requires more energy to obtain food than an average patch. Within this theory, two subsequent parameters emerge, the Giving Up Density (GUD) and the Giving Up Time (GUT). The Giving Up Density (GUD) quantifies the amount of food that remains in a patch when a forager moves to a new patch. The Giving Up Time (GUT) is used when an animal continuously assesses the patch quality.


title: Herbivore

text: Interactions between plants and herbivores can play a prevalent role in ecosystem dynamics such community structure and functional processes. Plant diversity and distribution is often driven by herbivory, and it is likely that trade-offs between plant competitiveness and defensiveness, and between colonization and mortality allow for coexistence between species in the presence of herbivores. However, the effects of herbivory on plant diversity and richness is variable. For example, increased abundance of herbivores such as deer decrease plant diversity and species richness, while other large mammalian herbivores like bison control dominant species which allows other species to flourish.  Plant-herbivore interactions can also operate so that plant communities mediate herbivore communities. Plant communities that are more diverse typically sustain greater herbivore richness by providing a greater and more diverse set of resources.


title: Herbivore

text: Coevolution and phylogenetic correlation between herbivores and plants are important aspects of the influence of herbivore and plant interactions on communities and ecosystem functioning, especially in regard to herbivorous insects. This is apparent in the adaptations plants develop to tolerate and/or defend from insect herbivory and the responses of herbivores to overcome these adaptations. The evolution of antagonistic and mutualistic plant-herbivore interactions are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur. Plant phylogeny has been found to facilitate the colonization and community assembly of herbivores, and there is evidence of phylogenetic linkage between plant beta diversity and phylogenetic beta diversity of insect clades such as butterflies. These types of eco-evolutionary feedbacks between plants and herbivores are likely the main driving force behind plant and herbivore diversity.


title: Herbivore

text: Abiotic factors such as climate and biogeographical features also impact plant-herbivore communities and interactions. For example, in temperate freshwater wetlands herbivorous waterfowl communities change according to season, with species that eat above-ground vegetation being abundant during summer, and species that forage below-ground being present in winter months. These seasonal herbivore communities differ in both their assemblage and functions within the wetland ecosystem. Such differences in herbivore modalities can potentially lead to trade-offs that influence species traits and may lead to additive effects on community composition and ecosystem functioning. Seasonal changes and environmental gradients such as elevation and latitude often affect the palatability of plants which in turn influences herbivore community assemblages and vice versa. Examples include a decrease in abundance of leaf-chewing larvae in the fall when hardwood leaf palatability decreases due to increased tannin levels which results in a decline of arthropod species richness, and increased palatability of plant communities at higher elevations where grasshoppers abundances are lower. Climatic stressors such as ocean acidification can lead to responses in plant-herbivore interactions in relation to palatability as well.


title: Herbivore

text: The myriad defenses displayed by plants means that their herbivores need a variety of skills to overcome these defenses and obtain food. These allow herbivores to increase their feeding and use of a host plant. Herbivores have three primary strategies for dealing with plant defenses: choice, herbivore modification, and plant modification.


title: Herbivore

text: Feeding choice involves which plants a herbivore chooses to consume. It has been suggested that many herbivores feed on a variety of plants to balance their nutrient uptake and to avoid consuming too much of any one type of defensive chemical. This involves a tradeoff however, between foraging on many plant species to avoid toxins or specializing on one type of plant that can be detoxified.


title: Herbivore

text: Herbivore modification is when various adaptations to body or digestive systems of the herbivore allow them to overcome plant defenses. This might include detoxifying secondary metabolites, sequestering toxins unaltered, or avoiding toxins, such as through the production of large amounts of saliva to reduce effectiveness of defenses. Herbivores may also utilize symbionts to evade plant defenses. For example, some aphids use bacteria in their gut to provide essential amino acids lacking in their sap diet.


title: Herbivore

text: Plant modification occurs when herbivores manipulate their plant prey to increase feeding. For example, some caterpillars roll leaves to reduce the effectiveness of plant defenses activated by sunlight.


title: Herbivore

text: A plant defense is a trait that increases plant fitness when faced with herbivory. This is measured relative to another plant that lacks the defensive trait. Plant defenses increase survival and/or reproduction (fitness) of plants under pressure of predation from herbivores.


title: Herbivore

text: Defense can be divided into two main categories, tolerance and resistance. Tolerance is the ability of a plant to withstand damage without a reduction in fitness. This can occur by diverting herbivory to non-essential plant parts, resource allocation, compensatory growth, or by rapid regrowth and recovery from herbivory. Resistance refers to the ability of a plant to reduce the amount of damage it receives from herbivores. This can occur via avoidance in space or time, physical defenses, or chemical defenses. Defenses can either be constitutive, always present in the plant, or induced, produced or translocated by the plant following damage or stress.


title: Herbivore

text: Physical, or mechanical, defenses are barriers or structures designed to deter herbivores or reduce intake rates, lowering overall herbivory. Thorns such as those found on roses or acacia trees are one example, as are the spines on a cactus. Smaller hairs known as trichomes may cover leaves or stems and are especially effective against invertebrate herbivores. In addition, some plants have waxes or resins that alter their texture, making them difficult to eat. Also the incorporation of silica into cell walls is analogous to that of the role of lignin in that it is a compression-resistant structural component of cell walls; so that plants with their cell walls impregnated with silica are thereby afforded a measure of protection against herbivory.


title: Herbivore

text: Chemical defenses are secondary metabolites produced by the plant that deter herbivory. There are a wide variety of these in nature and a single plant can have hundreds of different chemical defenses. Chemical defenses can be divided into two main groups, carbon-based defenses and nitrogen-based defenses.


title: Herbivore

text: Plants have also changed features that enhance the probability of attracting natural enemies to herbivores. Some emit semiochemicals, odors that attract natural enemies, while others provide food and housing to maintain the natural enemies' presence, e.g. ants that reduce herbivory.


title: Herbivore

text: A given plant species often has many types of defensive mechanisms, mechanical or chemical, constitutive or induced, which allow it to escape from herbivores.


title: Herbivore

text: According to the theory of predator–prey interactions, the relationship between herbivores and plants is cyclic. When prey (plants) are numerous their predators (herbivores) increase in numbers, reducing the prey population, which in turn causes predator number to decline. The prey population eventually recovers, starting a new cycle. This suggests that the population of the herbivore fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the food source, in this case, the plant.


title: Herbivore

text: Several factors play into these fluctuating populations and help stabilize predator-prey dynamics. For example, spatial heterogeneity is maintained, which means there will always be pockets of plants not found by herbivores. This stabilizing dynamic plays an especially important role for specialist herbivores that feed on one species of plant and prevents these specialists from wiping out their food source. Prey defenses also help stabilize predator-prey dynamics, and for more information on these relationships see the section on Plant Defenses. Eating a second prey type helps herbivores' populations stabilize. Alternating between two or more plant types provides population stability for the herbivore, while the populations of the plants oscillate. This plays an important role for generalist herbivores that eat a variety of plants. Keystone herbivores keep vegetation populations in check and allow for a greater diversity of both herbivores and plants. When an invasive herbivore or plant enters the system, the balance is thrown off and the diversity can collapse to a monotaxon system.


title: Herbivore

text: The back and forth relationship of plant defense and herbivore offense drives coevolution between plants and herbivores, resulting in a "coevolutionary arms race". The escape and radiation mechanisms for coevolution, presents the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants, has been the driving force behind speciation.


title: Herbivore

text: While much of the interaction of herbivory and plant defense is negative, with one individual reducing the fitness of the other, some is beneficial. This beneficial herbivory takes the form of mutualisms in which both partners benefit in some way from the interaction. Seed dispersal by herbivores and pollination are two forms of mutualistic herbivory in which the herbivore receives a food resource and the plant is aided in reproduction. Plants can also be indirectly affected by herbivores through nutrient recycling, with plants benefiting from herbivores when nutrients are recycled very efficiently. Another form of plant-herbivore mutualism is physical changes to the environment and/or plant community structure by herbivores which serve as ecosystem engineers, such as wallowing by bison. Swans form a mutual relationship with the plant species that they forage by digging and disturbing the sediment which removes competing plants and subsequently allows colonization of other plant species.


title: Herbivore

text: When herbivores are affected by trophic cascades, plant communities can be indirectly affected. Often these effects are felt when predator populations decline and herbivore populations are no longer limited, which leads to intense herbivore foraging which can suppress plant communities. With the size of herbivores having an effect on the amount of energy intake that is needed, larger herbivores need to forage on higher quality or more plants to gain the optimal amount of nutrients and energy compared to smaller herbivores. Environmental degradation from white-tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus") in the US alone has the potential to both change vegetative communities through over-browsing and cost forest restoration projects upwards of $750 million annually. Another example of a trophic cascade involved plant-herbivore interactions are coral reef ecosystems. Herbivorous fish and marine animals are important algae and seaweed grazers, and in the absence of plant-eating fish, corals are outcompeted and seaweeds deprive corals of sunlight.


title: Herbivore

text: Agricultural crop damage by the same species totals approximately $100 million every year. Insect crop damages also contribute largely to annual crop losses in the U.S. Herbivores also affect economics through the revenue generated by hunting and ecotourism. For example, the hunting of herbivorous game species such as white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbits, antelope, and elk in the U.S. contributes greatly to the billion-dollar annually, hunting industry. Ecotourism is a major source of revenue, particularly in Africa, where many large mammalian herbivores such as elephants, zebras, and giraffes help to bring in the equivalent of millions of US dollars to various nations annually.


title: 2019 Ballon d'Or

text: The 2019 Ballon d'Or (French: "Ballon d'Or") was the 64th annual ceremony of the Ballon d'Or, presented by France Football, and recognising the best footballers in the world for 2019. Lionel Messi won the men's award for a record sixth time in his career.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Daniel Olmo Carvajal (born 7 May 1998) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for Bundesliga club RB Leipzig and the Spain national team. He can play as either an attacking midfielder or a winger.


title: Dani Olmo

text: After a period at FC Barcelona, he made his professional debut for Dinamo Zagreb in Croatia in 2015. He made 124 total appearances for the club, scoring 34 goals and winning the league five times and the cup three times. In 2020, he joined RB Leipzig, where he won the DFB-Pokal in 2022.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo won the 2019 UEFA European Championship with the Spain under-21 team, and a silver medal at the 2020 Olympic tournament. He made his senior international debut in 2019 and was part of the team that reached the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Born in Terrassa, Barcelona, Catalonia, Olmo arrived in FC Barcelona's youth academy aged nine, from neighbours RCD Espanyol.


title: Dani Olmo

text: In a surprise move, Olmo joined Dinamo Zagreb on 31 July 2014, aged 16. He made his first team debut against Lokomotiva Zagreb on 7 February 2015, as a 76th-minute substitute for Paulo Machado in a 2–1 home win. On 22 September, he scored his first goal in a 7–1 win at Oštrc Zlatar in the first round of the cup.


title: Dani Olmo

text: On 22 August 2016, Olmo signed a new four-year contract. He scored three goals in four games as the team came runners-up in the cup, including one in the 3–1 loss to Rijeka in the final on 31 May; four days earlier he scored his first league goal in a 5–2 home win over the same team – already champions – on the final day.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo provided Izet Hajrović with an assist for the third goal and scored the fourth in the Europa League 4–1 victory over Fenerbahçe on 20 September 2018. On 17 December, Olmo was named the best player of Prva HNL for 2018. In the same month, he finished 11th in "Tuttosport"'s Golden Boy award, ahead of the likes of Kylian Mbappé and Josip Brekalo. On 14 February 2019, he scored the only goal in a Europa League round of 32 game against Viktoria Plzeň, that ended in a 2–1 loss. On 3 June, he was named the best player and best young player of the 2018–19 Prva HNL season.


title: Dani Olmo

text: On 18 September 2019, he made his Champions League debut in a 4–0 home win over Atalanta. He scored his first goal in the competition on 22 October in a 2–2 away draw with Shakhtar Donetsk. He scored the only Dinamo's goal in a 1–4 home defeat to Manchester City on 11 December, as Dinamo finished at the bottom of the group.


title: Dani Olmo

text: On 25 January 2020, Olmo moved to Bundesliga club RB Leipzig, signing a four-year contract. He made his debut a week later, in a 2–2 draw with Borussia Mönchengladbach coming on for Tyler Adams in 69th minute. On 4 February he scored the only goal in a 3–1 DFB-Pokal defeat to Eintracht Frankfurt, having come on for Amadou Haidara at half time.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo made his first start for Leipzig on 9 February 2020, in a game against Bayern Munich that ended as a goalless draw, coming off for Patrik Schick in the 69th minute. On 12 June, he scored both goals in a 2–0 victory over 1899 Hoffenheim. On 13 August, he scored the opening goal in a 2–1 victory over Atlético Madrid at Estádio José Alvalade, as Leipzig progressed to the Champions League semi-final for the first time in the history of the club.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo played four games in RB Leipzig's victory in the DFB-Pokal in 2021–22, scoring to conclude a 2–0 home win over Hansa Rostock in the last 16 on 19 January. He was a 69th-minute substitute for Kevin Kampl in the final on 21 May, and scored in the penalty shootout win after a 1–1 draw with SC Freiburg; with two minutes of extra time remaining, he was tackled in the penalty area by Nicolas Höfler and Kampl was sent off from the substitutes' bench for demanding a penalty kick. On 30 July, again on for Kampl, he scored a consolation goal in a 5–3 loss to Bayern Munich in the 2022 DFL-Supercup.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo was part of the Spanish squad at the 2015 European Under-17 Championship in Bulgaria; he netted in the penalty shoot-out as they were eliminated by Germany in the quarter-finals, but then had his attempt saved by Will Huffer as Spain lost to England by the same means in a play-off for that year's World Cup for the category. Towards the end of 2017, Dinamo Zagreb director Tomislav Svetina said that the club was doing all it could to get the teenager Croatian citizenship. Olmo himself showed a desire to switch to Croatia at the international level. However, in October 2018, he made his debut for the Spain U21 side.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo was part of Spain's squad that won the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship in Italy and San Marino, playing four matches, assisting one goal and scoring three, including one in the final which caused him to be named Man of the Match.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo earned his first senior team call-up in November 2019, for Euro 2020 qualifiers against Malta and Romania, after Spain had already qualified for the tournament. He debuted on 15 November as a substitute for Álvaro Morata in the 66th minute and scored three minutes later in the 7–0 home victory over Malta. Fellow debutant Pau Torres also scored, making it the first time that two Spaniards scored on their first cap in 30 years.


title: Dani Olmo

text: On 24 May 2021, Olmo was included in Luis Enrique's 24-man squad for the UEFA Euro 2020. On 28 June, in the extra time of the round of 16 fixture against Croatia, he provided Morata and Mikel Oyarzabal with assists to set the score at 4–3 and 5–3 respectively. On 2 July, after the quarter-final 1–1 draw with Switzerland went to a penalty shoot-out, Olmo successfully converted his as Spain won 3–1. On 6 July, in the semi-final fixture against Italy, he provided Morata with an assist for an equalizer; however, another 1–1 draw went to another shoot-out with Olmo missing his penalty and Italy winning 4–2.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo was included in Luis de la Fuente's 22-man squad for the 2020 Summer Olympics, on 29 June 2021. On Spain's road to Olympic silver, Olmo contributed an assist in the 1–1 draw with Argentina, and a goal and an assist in the 5–2 victory over Ivory Coast. He was named a starter in the final that Spain lost 2–1 to Brazil.


title: Dani Olmo

text: Olmo's father, Miquel, is a retired footballer. As a forward, he played professionally for lower-league teams. Dani's older brother Carlos is also a footballer and plays as a defender; he spent several years in Croatia, for Dinamo's reserves and also for Lokomotiva Zagreb. Olmo speaks Croatian fluently.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: Elena Ceaușescu (; ; 7 January 1916 – 25 December 1989) was a Romanian communist politician who was the wife of Nicolae Ceaușescu, General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party and leader of the Socialist Republic of Romania. She was also the Deputy Prime Minister of Romania.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: She was born Lenuța Petrescu into a peasant family in Petrești commune, Dâmbovița County, in the historical region of Wallachia. Her father worked as a ploughman. She was able to acquire only an elementary school level education. After elementary school, she moved along with her brother to Bucharest, where she worked as a laboratory assistant before finding employment in a textile factory. She joined the Bucharest branch of the Romanian Communist Party in 1939 and met 21-year-old Nicolae Ceaușescu. Ceaușescu was instantly attracted to her which, reportedly, made him never look at another woman in a romantic manner. Their relationship was interrupted by Ceaușescu's frequent stints in prison, and they married on 23 December 1947.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: After the Communists took power, Elena Ceaușescu worked as a secretary in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was an unimportant figure until her husband became Communist Party General Secretary.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: Elena Ceaușescu frequently accompanied her husband on official visits abroad. During a state visit to the People's Republic of China in June 1971, she took note of how Jiang Qing, Chairman Mao Zedong's wife, maintained a position of power. Most likely inspired by this, she began to engineer her own political rise in Romania. In July 1971, after a mini-cultural revolution launched by her husband, she was elected a member of the Central Commission on Socio-Economic Forecasting. Starting in July 1972, Elena Ceaușescu started getting various offices at senior levels in the Romanian Communist Party. In July 1972, she became a full member of the Romanian Communist Party Central Committee. In June 1973, she became a member of the Politburo of the Romanian Communist Party, becoming the second most important and influential person after her husband. She was deeply involved in party administration alongside her husband, and was one of the few spouses of a Communist Party leader to have a high political profile of her own. In June 1973, after having been nominated by Emil Bodnăraș, she was elected to the party's executive committee. In November 1974, at the 11th Party Congress, she was made a member of the (renamed) political executive committee, and in January 1977, she became a member of the highest party body, the Permanent Bureau of the Political Executive Committee. In March 1975, she was elected to the Great National Assembly, the country's national legislature, holding the seat for Pitești, Argeș County, the most important industrial region of the country, until her death in 1989. In March 1980, she was made a First Deputy Prime Minister, a state title she held until she was executed in the Romanian Revolution.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: From the early 1980s onward, Elena was the object of a personality cult as intense as that of her husband, which exalted her as the "Mother of the Nation". By all accounts, her vanity and desire for honours exceeded that of her husband. As with her husband, Romanian Television was under strict orders to take great care portraying her on screen. For instance, she was never supposed to be shown in profile because of her large nose and overall homely appearance.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: Ceaușescu fled with her husband on 22 December 1989, after the events in Timișoara led to the Romanian Revolution, but she and her husband were captured in the town of Târgoviște. At the show trial that took place, she answered only a few questions since her husband took a protective role, asked her to calm down, and shook his head each time her mouth opened to reply in anger.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: On the afternoon of 25 December 1989 in Târgoviște, they were turned over to a firing squad and executed. Her arms, and those of her husband, were tied behind their backs. Their actual execution happened so quickly that a military journalist videoing the trial captured only the last round of bullets and the crumpled bodies on the floor. The aftermath, including echoes of the final volley, the pall of smoke, and the bodies immediately afterward, were also caught on camera. She was 73 years old. She was the only woman ever executed by the modern state of Romania.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: Ceaușescu was outlived by her mother, a near centenarian at the time of her death, her brother Gheorghe Petrescu (also an important figure in the party) and her three children: Valentin (b. 1948), Zoia (1949–2006) and Nicu (1951–1996). Nicu was an important member of the Romanian Communist Party, unlike his siblings. Elena Ceaușescu was buried in Ghencea Cemetery.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: After graduating from primary school in her village and moving to Bucharest, Ceaușescu continued her education in the 1950s through night courses at the local Politechnic, obtaining a bachelor's degree in chemistry. Later, she was promoted as a scientist, and was also awarded a PhD in chemistry.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: Since the Revolutions of 1989, several scientists have claimed that Ceaușescu had forced them to write papers in her name, and that the university gave her the honour of the doctorate solely because of her political position.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: According to a 1984 report by Radio Free Europe: "It is rumoured that, at the time when she wanted to receive her doctorate from the Bucharest Faculty of Chemistry, she met with strong opposition from the Romanian chemist Costin D. Nenițescu, the Dean of the faculty. She was forced instead to present her thesis to and Ioan Ursu at the University of Iași, where she met with complete success."


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: She was sometimes nicknamed Codoi, referring to her alleged mispronunciation of the name of the chemical compound CO (C for carbon, O for oxygen, and "" being Romanian for "two"). She was mocked by many, including an official who called her by this nickname during her show trial. Contributing to the humorous effect, "" is an actual word in Romanian, meaning "big tail".In 1957, she was hired as a research scientist at ICECHIM (National Institute for Chemical Research). In the early 1960s, she was reported to be secretary of the party committee of the Bucharest Central Institute of Chemical Researches, and when her husband took over the party leadership in March 1965, she was listed as the institute's director. In December of the same year, she was elected a member of the newly established National Council of Scientific Research, and in September 1966, she was awarded the Order of Scientific Merit First Class. In March 1974, she was made a member of the Romanian Academy's Section for Chemical Sciences. Ceaușescu was given many honorary awards for scientific achievement in the field of polymer chemistry during the period when her husband ruled Romania. She is named as co-inventor on a number of patents, but many scientists claim she has forced them to hand over to her these patents.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: A group of Romanian scientists are trying to revoke Ceaușescu's scientific credentials and argue that her work is still being cited in modern, genuine scientific papers and influences current research despite Ceaușescu reportedly being "barely literate in science". In 1978, during Nicolae Ceaușescu's state visit to the United Kingdom, The Royal Institute of Chemistry admitted Elena Ceaușescu into membership as a Fellow. The Royal Society of Chemistry, the Royal Institute's successor later clarified that Ceaușescu's membership had been revoked during the Romanian Revolution of 1989. Also, patents under her name are still kept by the European Patent Office.


title: Elena Ceaușescu

text: Elena Ceaușescu was an Honorary Doctor of several universities and was a member of some academic societies in the United States and countries in Asia, Europe, and Africa.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Michael Peter Fay (born May 30, 1975) is an American who was sentenced to six strokes of the cane in Singapore in 1994 for theft of road signs and vandalizing 18 cars over a ten-day period in September 1993, which caused a temporary strain in relations between Singapore and the United States. Fay pled guilty, but he later claimed that he was advised that such a plea would preclude caning and that his confession was false, that he never vandalized any cars, and that the only crime he committed was stealing road signs.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Although caning is a routine court sentence in Singapore, Fay's case garnered some controversy and was widely covered in the media in the United States, as it was believed to be the first judicial corporal punishment involving an American citizen. The number of cane strokes in Fay's sentence was ultimately reduced from six to four after United States officials requested leniency. He was caned on May 5, 1994.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Fay was born in St. Louis, Missouri. His mother, Randy, divorced his father, George, when he was eight. As a child, he was diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Although Fay mostly lived with his father after the divorce, he later moved to Singapore to live with his mother and stepfather, Marco Chan, and was enrolled in the Singapore American School in Woodlands.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: In October 1993, "The Straits Times", Singapore's main English-language newspaper, reported that car vandalism in Singapore was on the rise. Fay and his friends damaged their neighbours' cars at apartment blocks with hot tar, paint remover, red spray paint, and hatchets, and had eggs pelted at them. Taxi drivers complained that their tires were slashed. In the city center, cars were found with deep scratches and dents. One man complained that he had to refinish his car six times in six months.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: The Singapore police eventually arrested 16-year-old Andy Shiu Chi Ho, a Chinese citizen from Hong Kong. He was not caught vandalizing cars, but was charged with driving his father's car without a license. After questioning Shiu, the police questioned several foreign students from the Singapore American School, including 18-year-old Fay, and charged them with more than 50 counts of vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing the cars in addition to stealing road signs. He later maintained that he had been advised such a plea would preclude caning and that his confession was false, that he never vandalized any cars, and that the only crime he committed was stealing signs.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Under the 1966 Vandalism Act, originally passed to curb the spread of political graffiti and which specifically penalized vandalism of government property, Fay was sentenced on March 3, 1994, to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,814 or £2,114 at the time), and six strokes of the cane. Shiu, who pleaded not guilty, was sentenced to eight months in prison and 12 strokes of the cane.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Fay's lawyers appealed, arguing that the Vandalism Act provided caning only for forms of graffiti vandalism, and that the damaged cars had been cheaply restored to their original condition.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Following Fay's sentence, the case received coverage by the American, Singaporean and international media.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Some U.S. news outlets launched scathing attacks on Singapore's judicial system for what they considered an "archaic punishment", while others turned the issue into one of Singapore asserting "Asian values" towards "western decadence". "The New York Times", "The Washington Post" and the "Los Angeles Times" ran editorials and op-eds condemning the punishment. "USA Today" reported that caning involved "bits of flesh fly[ing] with each stroke." It was claimed that the punishment had to be carried out by "trained warders holding high grades" in martial arts.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: However, Singapore also found supporters among the foreign media and the American public; a survey of 23,000 people conducted by the National Polling Network (now merged with the Pew Research Center) found that up to 60% "favored whipping and other harsh sentences as an acceptable deterrent to crime in the USA". The support stemmed largely from an appreciation of Singapore's low-crime rate environment, and a belief that this was made possible by its strict laws. Some, including a number of U.S. legislators, even suggested that the U.S. could learn from Singapore and adopt caning in its sentences.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Despite the widespread endorsement among Americans, the Clinton administration ultimately expressed its objection to Singapore's decision to cane Fay. The official position of the United States government was that although it recognized Singapore's right to punish Fay within the due process of law, the punishment of caning was "excessive" for a teenager who committed a non-violent crime.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: On March 3, the day the sentence was passed, Chargé d'Affaires Ralph Boyce at the United States Embassy in Singapore had also said that the punishment was too severe for the offence. The embassy claimed that, while the graffiti and physical damage to the cars was not permanent, caning could leave Fay with permanent physical scars.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Bill Clinton, the then President of the United States, also called Fay's punishment "extreme" and "mistaken", and pressured the Singapore government to grant Fay clemency from caning. Two dozen United States senators signed a letter to the Singapore government also appealing for clemency.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: The Singapore government stood its ground and defended the sentence and the country's right to uphold its own laws. On March 3, in response to Boyce's comments on Fay's sentence, the Ministry of Home Affairs said that it was Singapore's tough laws that kept the country orderly and relatively crime-free, unlike "in cities like New York City, where even police cars are not spared the acts of vandals". Various Singaporean ministers also spoke publicly about the case throughout the episode. In April during a local television program, Lee Kuan Yew, then Senior Minister, said that the U.S. was neither safe nor peaceful because it did not dare to restrain or punish those who did wrong, adding, "If you like it this way, that is your problem. But, that is not the path we choose".


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Nevertheless, on May 4 that year, the Singapore government via Ong Teng Cheong, then the country's President, announced that the number of cane strokes would be reduced from six to four out of consideration for President Clinton as it valued the good historical relations between both countries. Shiu's sentence was later also reduced, from 12 strokes to six, after a similar clemency appeal. Fay was caned on May 5, 1994, at the Queenstown Remand Centre.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Describing the caning day, Fay told Reuters he did not know the time had come for punishment when he was taken from his cell. He said he was bent over a trestle so his buttocks stuck out, with his hands and feet buckled to the structure. He was naked except for a protective rubber pad fixed to his back. The flogger, a doctor, and prison officials were also present.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Fay told Reuters the caner walked sharply forward three steps to build power. "They go 'Count one'—you hear them yell it really loud—and a few seconds later they come, I guess I would call it charging at you with a rattan cane." He noted that a prison officer guided him through the ordeal saying: "OK Michael, three left; OK Michael, two left; OK one more, you're almost done." Fay reported that when the fourth stroke was delivered he was immediately unbuckled from the trestle and taken to a cell to recover. The caning, which Fay estimated took one minute, left a "few streaks of blood" running down his buttocks, and seven weeks later, left three dark-brown scar patches on his right buttock and four lines each about half-an-inch wide on his left buttock. He said that the wounds hurt for about five days after which they itched as they healed. "The first couple of days it was very hard to sit," Fay reported, but he said he was able to walk after the caning.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: After his release from prison in June 1994, Fay returned to the United States to live with his biological father. He gave several television interviews, including one with his American lawyer on CNN with Larry King on June 29, 1994, in which he admitted taking road signs but denied vandalizing cars. While he did not detail his experience, he claimed that he was "ill-treated" at times during questioning, but had shaken hands with the caning operative after his four strokes had been administered and the prison guards when he was released.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: Several months after returning to the United States, Fay suffered burns to his hands and face after a butane incident. He was subsequently admitted to the Hazelden rehabilitation program for butane abuse. He claimed that sniffing butane "made [him] forget what happened in Singapore." In 1996, he was cited in Florida for a number of violations, including careless driving, reckless driving, not reporting a crash, and having an open bottle of alcohol in a car. Later, in 1998, still in Florida, Fay was arrested for possession of marijuana and drug paraphernalia, charges to which he confessed but was acquitted because of technical errors in his arrest.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: During an interview with China's CCTV in June 2004, Lee Kuan Yew, then Senior Minister of Singapore, said that Fay assaulted his father upon his return to the United States, which was suppressed by the American media. In June 2010, Fay's case was recalled in international news, after another foreigner in Singapore, Swiss national Oliver Fricker, was sentenced to five months in jail and three strokes of the cane for trespassing a rail depot to vandalise a metro train that is a part of the country's Mass Rapid Transit.


title: Michael P. Fay

text: It was reported by a Singaporean news outlet in August 2018 that Fay was working as a casino manager in Cincinnati, Ohio.


title: Veterans Day

text: Veterans Day (originally known as Armistice Day) is a federal holiday in the United States observed annually on November 11, for honoring military veterans of the United States Armed Forces (who were discharged under conditions other than dishonorable). It coincides with other holidays including Armistice Day and Remembrance Day which are commemorated in other countries that mark the anniversary of the end of World War I. Major hostilities of World War I were formally ended at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918 when the Armistice with Germany went into effect. At the urging of major U.S. veteran organizations, Armistice Day was renamed Veterans Day in 1954.


title: Veterans Day

text: Veterans Day is distinct from Memorial Day, a U.S. public holiday in May. Veterans Day commemorated the service of all U.S. veterans, while Memorial Day honors those who have "died" while in military service. Another military holiday that also occurs in May, Armed Forces Day, honors those "currently serving" in the U.S. military. Additionally, Women Veterans Day is recognized by a growing number of U.S. states that specifically honor women who have served in the U.S. military.


title: Veterans Day

text: On November 11, 1919, President Woodrow Wilson issued a message to his countrymen on the first Armistice Day, in which he expressed what he felt the day meant to Americans:


title: Veterans Day

text: The United States Congress adopted a resolution on June 4, 1926, requesting that President Calvin Coolidge issue annual proclamations calling for the observance of November 11 with appropriate ceremonies. A Congressional Act (52 Stat. 351; 5 U.S. Code, Sec. 87a) approved May 13, 1938, made November 11 in each year a legal holiday: "a day to be dedicated to the cause of world peace and to be thereafter celebrated and known as 'Armistice Day'".


title: Veterans Day

text: In 1945, World War II veteran Raymond Weeks from Birmingham, Alabama, had the idea to expand Armistice Day to celebrate all veterans, not just those who died in World War I. Weeks led a delegation to Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, who supported the idea of National Veterans Day. Weeks led the first national celebration in 1947 in Alabama and annually until his death in 1985. President Reagan honored Weeks at the White House with the Presidential Citizenship Medal in 1982 as the driving force for the national holiday. Elizabeth Dole, who prepared the briefing for President Reagan, determined Weeks as the "Father of Veterans Day".


title: Veterans Day

text: US representative Ed Rees from Emporia, Kansas, presented a bill establishing the holiday through Congress. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, also from Kansas, signed the bill into law on May 26, 1954. It had been eight and a half years since Weeks held his first Armistice Day celebration for all veterans.


title: Veterans Day

text: Congress amended the bill on June 1, 1954, replacing "Armistice" with "Veterans," and it has been known as Veterans Day since.


title: Veterans Day

text: The National Veterans Award was also created in 1954. Congressman Rees of Kansas received the first National Veterans Award in Birmingham, Alabama, for his support in offering legislation to make Veterans Day a federal holiday.


title: Veterans Day

text: Although originally scheduled for celebration on November 11 of every year, starting in 1971 in accordance with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, Veterans Day was moved to the fourth Monday of October (October 25, 1971; October 23, 1972; October 22, 1973; October 28, 1974; October 27, 1975; October 25, 1976, and October 24, 1977). In 1978, it was moved back to its original celebration on November 11. While the legal holiday remains on November 11, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then federal government employees and a number of organizations will instead take the day off on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively.


title: Veterans Day

text: Because it is a federal holiday, some American workers and many students have Veterans Day off from work or school. When Veterans Day falls on a Saturday then either Saturday or the preceding Friday may be designated as the holiday, whereas if it falls on a Sunday it is typically observed on the following Monday. When it falls on the weekend many private companies offer it as a floating holiday where employees can choose some other day. A Society for Human Resource Management poll in 2010 found that 21 percent of employers planned to observe the holiday in 2011.


title: Veterans Day

text: Non-essential federal government offices are closed. No mail is delivered. All federal workers are paid for the holiday; those who are required to work on the holiday sometimes receive holiday pay for that day in addition to their wages.


title: Veterans Day

text: In his Armistice Day address to Congress, Wilson was sensitive to the psychological toll of the lean War years: "Hunger does not breed reform; it breeds madness," he remarked. As Veterans Day and the birthday of the United States Marine Corps (November 10, 1775) are only one day apart, that branch of the Armed Forces customarily observes both occasions as a 96-hour liberty period.


title: Veterans Day

text: Election Day is a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls the following week, is a federal holiday. The National Commission on Federal Election Reform called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote. They state this as a way to honor voting by exercising democratic rights.


title: Veterans Day

text: While the holiday is commonly printed as "Veteran's Day" or "Veterans' Day" in calendars and advertisements, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs website states that the attributive (no apostrophe) rather than the possessive case is the official spelling "because it is not a day that 'belongs' to veterans, it is a day for honoring all veterans."


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: A random variable formula_17 follows the hypergeometric distribution if its probability mass function (pmf) is given by


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: A random variable distributed hypergeometrically with parameters formula_13, formula_14 and formula_12 is written formula_28 and has probability mass function formula_29 above.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: This identity can be shown by expressing the binomial coefficients in terms of factorials and rearranging the latter, but it


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: also follows from the symmetry of the problem. Indeed, consider two rounds of drawing without replacement. In the first round, formula_14 out of formula_13 neutral marbles are drawn from an urn without replacement and coloured green. Then the colored marbles are put back. In the second round, formula_12 marbles are drawn without replacement and colored red. Then, the number of marbles with both colors on them (that is, the number of marbles that have been drawn twice) has the hypergeometric distribution. The symmetry in formula_14 and formula_12 stems from the fact that the two rounds are independent, and one could have started by drawing formula_12 balls and colouring them red first.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The classical application of the hypergeometric distribution is sampling without replacement. Think of an urn with two colors of marbles, red and green. Define drawing a green marble as a success and drawing a red marble as a failure (analogous to the binomial distribution). If the variable "N" describes the number of all marbles in the urn (see contingency table below) and "K" describes the number of green marbles, then "N" − "K" corresponds to the number of red marbles. In this example, "X" is the random variable whose outcome is "k", the number of green marbles actually drawn in the experiment. This situation is illustrated by the following contingency table:


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: Now, assume (for example) that there are 5 green and 45 red marbles in the urn. Standing next to the urn, you close your eyes and draw 10 marbles without replacement. What is the probability that exactly 4 of the 10 are green? "Note that although we are looking at success/failure, the data are not accurately modeled by the binomial distribution, because the probability of success on each trial is not the same, as the size of the remaining population changes as we remove each marble."


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: Intuitively we would expect it to be even more unlikely that all 5 green marbles will be among the 10 drawn.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: As expected, the probability of drawing 5 green marbles is roughly 35 times less likely than that of drawing 4.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The probability of drawing any set of green and red marbles (the hypergeometric distribution) depends only on the numbers of green and red marbles, not on the order in which they appear; i.e., it is an exchangeable distribution. As a result, the probability of drawing a green marble in the formula_45 draw is


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: This is an ex ante probability—that is, it is based on not knowing the results of the previous draws.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: If "n" is larger than "N"/2, it can be useful to apply symmetry to "invert" the bounds, which give you the following:


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The hypergeometric test uses the hypergeometric distribution to measure the statistical significance of having drawn a sample consisting of a specific number of formula_15 successes (out of formula_12 total draws) from a population of size formula_13 containing formula_14 successes. In a test for over-representation of successes in the sample, the hypergeometric p-value is calculated as the probability of randomly drawing formula_15 or more successes from the population in formula_12 total draws. In a test for under-representation, the p-value is the probability of randomly drawing formula_15 or fewer successes.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The test based on the hypergeometric distribution (hypergeometric test) is identical to the corresponding one-tailed version of Fisher's exact test. Reciprocally, the p-value of a two-sided Fisher's exact test can be calculated as the sum of two appropriate hypergeometric tests (for more information see).


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The test is often used to identify which sub-populations are over- or under-represented in a sample. This test has a wide range of applications. For example, a marketing group could use the test to understand their customer base by testing a set of known customers for over-representation of various demographic subgroups (e.g., women, people under 30).


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The following table describes four distributions related to the number of successes in a sequence of draws:


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The model of an urn with green and red marbles can be extended to the case where there are more than two colors of marbles. If there are "K" marbles of color "i" in the urn and you take "n" marbles at random without replacement, then the number of marbles of each color in the sample ("k", "k"..., "k") has the multivariate hypergeometric distribution. This has the same relationship to the multinomial distribution that the hypergeometric distribution has to the binomial distribution—the multinomial distribution is the "with-replacement" distribution and the multivariate hypergeometric is the "without-replacement" distribution.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The properties of this distribution are given in the adjacent table, where "c" is the number of different colors and formula_88 is the total number of marbles.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: Suppose there are 5 black, 10 white, and 15 red marbles in an urn. If six marbles are chosen without replacement, the probability that exactly two of each color are chosen is


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: Election audits typically test a sample of machine-counted precincts to see if recounts by hand or machine match the original counts. Mismatches result in either a report or a larger recount. The sampling rates are usually defined by law, not statistical design, so for a legally defined sample size "n", what is the probability of missing a problem which is present in "K" precincts, such as a hack or bug? This is the probability that "k" = 0. Bugs are often obscure, and a hacker can minimize detection by affecting only a few precincts, which will still affect close elections, so a plausible scenario is for "K" to be on the order of 5% of "N". Audits typically cover 1% to 10% of precincts (often 3%), so they have a high chance of missing a problem. For example, if a problem is present in 5 of 100 precincts, a 3% sample has 86% probability that "k" = 0 so the problem would not be noticed, and only 14% probability of the problem appearing in the sample (positive "k"):


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The sample would need 45 precincts in order to have probability under 5% that "k" = 0 in the sample, and thus have probability over 95% of finding the problem:


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: In hold'em poker players make the best hand they can combining the two cards in their hand with the 5 cards (community cards) eventually turned up on the table. The deck has 52 and there are 13 of each suit.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: For this example assume a player has 2 clubs in the hand and there are 3 cards showing on the table, 2 of which are also clubs. The player would like to know the probability of one of the next 2 cards to be shown being a club to complete the flush.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: There are 4 clubs showing so there are 9 clubs still unseen. There are 5 cards showing (2 in the hand and 3 on the table) so there are formula_92 still unseen.


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The probability that one of the next two cards turned is a club can be calculated using hypergeometric with formula_93 and formula_94. (about 31.64%)


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The probability that both of the next two cards turned are clubs can be calculated using hypergeometric with formula_95 and formula_94. (about 3.33%)


title: Hypergeometric distribution

text: The probability that neither of the next two cards turned are clubs can be calculated using hypergeometric with formula_97 and formula_94. (about 65.03%)


title: Melora Walters

text: Melora Walters (born October 21, 1959) is an American actress. She is best known for her starring roles as Wanda Henrickson in the television series "Big Love" and Kathy Kone in "PEN15", and has appeared in several Paul Thomas Anderson films.


title: Melora Walters

text: She married cinematographer Alex Vendler on June 21, 2008. She filed for divorce in 2010. She has two children from her previous marriage with Dylan Walsh. Some of her filmmaking influences are Ingmar Bergman, Federico Fellini, François Truffaut, John Cassavetes and Jean-Luc Godard.


title: Melora Walters

text: Walters directed and wrote the script for the film "Waterlily Jaguar". She starred in an episode of "".


title: Dermatology

text: Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with the skin. It is a speciality with both medical and surgical aspects. A dermatologist is a specialist medical doctor who manages diseases related to skin, hair, nails, and some cosmetic problems.


title: Dermatology

text: Attested in English in 1819, the word "dermatology" derives from the Greek δέρματος ("dermatos"), genitive of δέρμα ("derma"), "skin" (itself from δέρω "dero", "to flay") and -λογία "-logia". Neo-Latin "dermatologia" was coined in 1630, an anatomical term with various French and German uses attested from the 1730s.


title: Dermatology

text: In 1708, the first great school of dermatology became a reality at the famous Hôpital Saint-Louis in Paris, and the first textbooks (Willan's, 1798–1808) and atlases (Alibert's, 1806–1816) appeared in print around the same time.


title: Dermatology

text: After earning a medical degree (M.D. or D.O.), the length of training in the United States for a general dermatologist to be eligible for board certification by the American Academy of Dermatology, American Board of Dermatology, or American Osteopathic Board of Dermatology is four years. This training consists of an initial medical, transitional, surgical, or pediatric intern year followed by a three-year dermatology residency. Following this training, one- or two-year post-residency fellowships are available in immunodermatology, phototherapy, laser medicine, Mohs micrographic surgery, cosmetic surgery, dermatopathology, or pediatric dermatology. While these dermatology fellowships offer additional subspecialty training, many dermatologist proficiently provide these services without subspecialty fellowship training. For the past several years, dermatology residency positions in the United States have been one of the most competitive to obtain.


title: Dermatology

text: The United States has been experiencing a national shortage of dermatologists for more than a decade. A study published by the "Journal of the American Medical Association" reported fewer than 3.4 dermatologists for every 100,000 people.


title: Dermatology

text: In the UK, a dermatologist is a medically qualified practitioner who has gone on to specialize in medicine and then subspecialize in dermatology. This involves:


title: Dermatology

text: Upon successful completion of the four-year training period, the doctor becomes an accredited dermatologist and is able to apply for a consultant hospital post as a consultant dermatologist.


title: Dermatology

text: Dermatologists have been leaders in the field of cosmetic surgery. Some dermatologists complete fellowships in surgical dermatology. Many are trained in their residency on the use of botulinum toxin, fillers, and laser surgery. Some dermatologists perform cosmetic procedures including liposuction, blepharoplasty, and face lifts. Most dermatologists limit their cosmetic practice to minimally invasive procedures. Despite an absence of formal guidelines from the American Board of Dermatology, many cosmetic fellowships are offered in both surgery and laser medicine.


title: Dermatology

text: A dermatopathologist is a pathologist or dermatologist who specializes in the pathology of the skin. This field is shared by dermatologists and pathologists. Usually, a dermatologist or pathologist completes one year of dermatopathology fellowship. This usually includes six months of general pathology and six months of dermatopathology. Alumni of both specialties can qualify as dermatopathologists. At the completion of a standard residency in dermatology, many dermatologists are also competent at dermatopathology. Some dermatopathologists qualify to sit for their examinations by completing a residency in dermatology and one in pathology.


title: Dermatology

text: Trichology specializes in diseases, which manifest with hair loss, hair abnormalities, hypertrichosis and scalp changes. Trichoscopy is a medical diagnostic method that is used by dermatologists with a special interest in trichology.


title: Dermatology

text: This field specializes in the treatment of immune-mediated skin diseases such as lupus, bullous pemphigoid, pemphigus vulgaris, and other immune-mediated skin disorders. Specialists in this field often run their own immunopathology labs. Immunodermatology testing is essential for the correct diagnosis and treatment of many diseases affecting epithelial organs including skin, mucous membranes, gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. The various diseases often overlap in clinical and histological presentation and, although the diseases themselves are not common, may present with features of common skin disorders such as urticaria, eczema and chronic itch. Therefore, the diagnosis of an immunodermatological disease is often delayed. Tests are performed on blood and tissues that are sent to various laboratories from medical facilities and referring physicians across the United States.


title: Dermatology

text: The dermatologic subspecialty called Mohs surgery focuses on the excision of skin cancers using a technique that allows intraoperative assessment of most of the peripheral and deep tumor margins. Developed in the 1930s by Dr. Frederic E. Mohs, the procedure is defined as a type of CCPDMA processing. Physicians trained in this technique must be comfortable with both pathology and surgery, and dermatologists receive extensive training in both during their residency. Physicians who perform Mohs surgery can receive training in this specialized technique during their dermatology residency, but many seek additional training either through formal preceptorships to become fellows of the American Society for Mohs Surgery or through one-year Mohs surgery fellowship training programs administered by the American College of Mohs Surgery. In 2020, the American Board of Dermatology (ABD) received approval from the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) to establish a board-certification exam in the subspecialty of Micrographic Dermatologic Surgery (Mohs Surgery). The exam was first offered in October 2021 to any US board-certified dermatologist who practices Mohs surgery, regardless of whether they received their training in dermatology residency or as part of a fellowship.


title: Dermatology

text: This technique requires the integration of the same doctor in two different capacities - surgeon and pathologist. In case either of the two responsibilities is assigned to another doctor or qualified health-care professional, it is not considered to be Mohs surgery.


title: Dermatology

text: Physicians can qualify for this specialization by completing both a pediatric residency and a dermatology residency. Or they might elect to complete a post-residency fellowship. This field encompasses the complex diseases of the neonates, hereditary skin diseases or genodermatoses, and the many difficulties of working with the pediatric population.


title: Dermatology

text: Teledermatology is a form of dermatological practice in which telecommunication technologies are used to exchange medical information and treatment through audio, visual, and data communication, including photos of dermatologic conditions, between dermatologists and nondermatologists who are evaluating patients, along with dermatologists directly with patients via distance. In India, during the severe coronavirus situations, some dermatologists have initiated online consultation with their patients using some of popular apps, such as Practo, Apollo Pharmacy, Skin Beauty Pal, Lybrate, etc. This subspecialty deals with options to view skin conditions over a large distance to provide knowledge exchange, to establish second-opinion services for experts, or to use this for follow-up of individuals with chronic skin conditions. Teledermatology can reduce wait times by allowing dermatologists to treat minor conditions online while serious conditions requiring immediate care are given priority for appointments.


title: Dermatology

text: Dermatoepidemiology is the study of skin disease at the population level. One of its aspects is the determination of the global burden of skin diseases.


title: Dermatology

text: From 1990 to 2013, skin disease constituted about 2% of total global disease disability as measured in disability-adjusted life-years.


title: Dermatology

text: Most dermatologic pharmacology can be categorized based on the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification system, specifically the ATC code D.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: Animals as Leaders is an American instrumental progressive metal band from Washington, D.C. It currently consists of guitarists Tosin Abasi and Javier Reyes and drummer Matt Garstka, having been formed by Abasi in 2007. They are a prominent band within the djent scene. Prosthetic Records released the band's eponymous debut album in 2009. They went on to release the albums "Weightless" (2011), "The Joy of Motion" (2014), "The Madness of Many" (2016), and "Parrhesia" (2022).


title: Animals as Leaders

text: Animals as Leaders formed after guitarist Tosin Abasi's previous metalcore band, Reflux, disbanded. The heavy metal record label Prosthetic Records saw Abasi's guitar work and asked him to create a solo album for them. Abasi initially declined, feeling such an endeavor would be "...egotistical and unnecessary." Abasi decided to take a year off to study music, as he felt he was unable to reach his peak at guitar playing. After Abasi had completed his course, he took up the label on the offer of a solo project. The name "Animals as Leaders" was inspired by Daniel Quinn's 1992 novel "Ishmael", which addresses anthropocentrism. Abasi coined the name as a reminder "that we're all essentially animals".


title: Animals as Leaders

text: The project's first album, "Animals as Leaders", was recorded in early 2008. Abasi recorded most guitar and bass tracks on the album; a few guitar solos, drums and various synthesized effects were programmed by engineer Misha Mansoor of Periphery and Haunted Shores. The album was released April 28, 2009, by Prosthetic Records.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: In 2010, the band toured extensively, including the 2010 Summer Slaughter Tour with such acts as Decapitated, Vital Remains, Carnifex, The Faceless, All Shall Perish, The Red Chord, Cephalic Carnage, Veil of Maya, and Decrepit Birth and since Summer Slaughter have toured with more mainstream acts like Circa Survive and Dredg. They uploaded a non-album digital single called "Wave of Babies" to iTunes later that year.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: The band embarked on a tour alongside Circa Survive, Dredg, and Codeseven from mid-2010 to early 2011, and in early 2011, toured alongside Underoath, Thursday, and A Skylit Drive to promote Underoath's latest release, "Ø (Disambiguation)".


title: Animals as Leaders

text: On May 26, 2011, Animals as Leaders took part in a Red Cross benefit show titled "Josh Barnett Presents The Sun Forever Rising" at the House of Blues in West Hollywood, California. Shortly thereafter, they headlined their first tour, which included opening acts Intronaut, Dead Letter Circus, Last Chance to Reason, and Evan Brewer. On July 27, 2011, during a show at the Masquerade in Atlanta, Georgia, Tosin Abasi announced that they were recording the show for a live DVD.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: The band has been billed as the first support of Between the Buried and Me on their European tour in September 2011, also with the French band Doyle. That same year, as a follow-up to their self-titled album, the band released their LP, entitled "Weightless", on November 8 in the United States, November 4 in Europe, and November 7 in the UK.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: In Spring 2012, Animals as Leaders embarked on a headlining tour of Europe, then returned to North America to open for Thrice. Navene Koperweis left Animals as Leaders that March. Prosthetic Records then announced on March 23 that drummer Matt Garstka would join them on tour.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: "We see nothing but great potential with Matt, and look forward to performing with him on the upcoming tours," Abasi says. "We feel very excited for the future of AAL, which is brighter than ever. I'm beyond excited for our fans to hear some of the new music we already have brewing for the future!"


title: Animals as Leaders

text: On November 28, 2012, Misha Mansoor, the producer for the first Animals as Leaders album, announced that he had begun writing riffs with Tosin Abasi, intending to start recording on their third album. Two days later, it was confirmed that Mansoor was recording the band after the completion of two songs. On February 14, 2014, the band announced their third studio album, "The Joy of Motion", which was released via Sumerian Records on March 25, 2014.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: On February 2, 2016, they revealed on Instagram that they were working on their fourth studio album. On September 22, they revealed that the album would be titled "The Madness of Many", and would be released on November 11, 2016. On September 30, they released a single from the album, "The Brain Dance". On October 18, they released another song from the album, "Arithmophobia". This song features extensive use of odd metered rhythm, hence its name.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: On September 1, 2021, the band released "Monomyth" as a single. It was elected by "Loudwire" as the 20th best metal song of 2021.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: On November 18, 2021, the band announced their fifth studio album titled "Parrhesia" and released a single from the album, "The Problem of Other Minds." The album was released on March 25, 2022.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: Animals as Leaders is a progressive metal band whose style draws from progressive rock, jazz fusion, funk, and electronica. Drummer Matt Garstka has called the band's style "metal fusion". They are a prominent band within the djent scene. The band is notable for its absence of a bass player, who is "replaced" by two eight-string guitarists.


title: Animals as Leaders

text: Abasi and Reyes are also members of the supergroup TRAM, alongside former Mars Volta wind instrumentalist Adrián Terrazas-González and Suicidal Tendencies drummer Eric Moore. Reyes also has his own side-project, Mestis.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX Transportation , known colloquially as simply CSX, is a Class I freight railroad operating in the Eastern United States and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The railroad operates approximately 21,000 route miles () of track. The company operates as the leading subsidiary of CSX Corporation, a Fortune 500 company headquartered in Jacksonville, Florida.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX Corporation (the parent of CSX Transportation) was formed in 1980 from the merger of Chessie System and Seaboard Coast Line Industries, two holding companies which controlled a number of railroads operating in the Eastern United States. Initially only a holding company itself, the subsidiaries that made up CSX Corporation were gradually merged, with this process completed in 1987. CSX Transportation formally came into existence in 1986, as the successor of Seaboard System Railroad. In 1999, CSX Transportation acquired approximately half of Conrail, in a joint purchase with competitor Norfolk Southern Railway. Later, in 2022, it acquired Pan Am Railways, extending its reach into much of Northern New England.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX and its chief competitor, the Norfolk Southern Railway, have a duopoly on the transcontinental freight rail lines in the Northeastern and Southern United States (South Atlantic and East South Central states).


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX Corporation was formed on November 1, 1980, as a merger between Chessie System and Seaboard Coast Line Industries.


title: CSX Transportation

text: The name came about during merger talks between Chessie System and SCL, commonly called "Chessie" and "Seaboard". The company chairmen said it was important for the new name to include neither of those names because it was a partnership. Employees were asked for suggestions, most of which consisted of combinations of the initials. At the same time a temporary shorthand name was needed for discussions with the Interstate Commerce Commission. "CSC" was chosen but belonged to a trucking company in Virginia. "CSM" (for "Chessie-Seaboard Merger") was also taken. The lawyers decided to use "CSX", and the name stuck. In the public announcement, it was said that "CSX is singularly appropriate. C can stand for Chessie, S for Seaboard, and X, which actually has no meaning." However, an August 9, 2016, article on the "Railway Age" website stated that " ... the 'X' was for 'Consolidated' ". A fourth letter had to be added to CSX when used as a reporting mark because reporting marks that end in X means that the car is owned by a leasing company or private car owner.


title: CSX Transportation

text: The originator of SCL was the former Seaboard Air Line Railroad, which previously merged with the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad in 1967 to form the Seaboard Coast Line. In later years, it merged with the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, as well as several smaller subsidiaries such as the Clinchfield Railroad, Atlanta & West Point Railroad, Monon Railroad and the Georgia Railroad. From the late 1970s onward, these railroads were known collectively as the Family Lines. In 1982, they were merged into a single railroad, the Seaboard System Railroad.


title: CSX Transportation

text: The origin of the Chessie System was the former Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, which had merged with the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, and the Western Maryland Railway.


title: CSX Transportation

text: Despite the merger in 1980, CSX was a paper railroad (meaning no CSX painted locomotives or rolling stock) until 1986. In that year, Seaboard System changed its name to CSX Transportation. On April 30, 1987, the B&O merged into the C&O. With the Western Maryland having already merged into the C&O, this left the C&O as the sole operating railroad under the Chessie System banner. Finally, on August 31, 1987, C&O/Chessie System merged into CSX Transportation, bringing all of the major CSX railroads under one banner.


title: CSX Transportation

text: On June 23, 1997, CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway (NS) filed a joint application with the Surface Transportation Board for authority to purchase, divide, and operate the assets of the Conrail, which had been created in 1976 by bringing together several ailing Northeastern railway systems into a government-owned corporation. On June 6, 1998, the STB approved the CSX–NS application and set August 22, 1998, as the effective date of its decision. CSX acquired 42 percent of Conrail's assets, and NS received the remaining 58 percent. As a result of the transaction, CSX's rail operations grew to include some of the Conrail system (predominantly lines that had belonged to the former New York Central Railroad). CSX began operating its trains on its portion of the Conrail network on June 1, 1999. CSX now serves much of the Eastern United States, with a few routes into nearby Canadian cities.


title: CSX Transportation

text: In actuality, not all of Conrail was eliminated. There were a few parts of Conrail that both CSX and NS wanted, and neither wanted to allow the other to have total control over. Those small pieces remained owned by the renamed "Conrail Shared Assets," (later "Conrail Shared Assets Operations") so that the pieces were effectively owned and operated by a separate railroad owned by both railroads, thus neither railroad would control those pieces.


title: CSX Transportation

text: In 2014, Canadian Pacific Railway approached CSX with an offer to merge the two companies, but CSX declined, and in 2015 Canadian Pacific made an attempt to purchase and merge with Norfolk Southern, but NS declined to do so as well.


title: CSX Transportation

text: In 2017, CSX announced Hunter Harrison would become its new chief executive officer; a settlement with activist investor Paul Hilal and Mantle Ridge. CSX added five new directors to their board, including Harrison and Mantle Ridge founder Paul Hilal. Mantle Ridge owns 4.9% of CSX. Harrison quickly moved to convert CSX rail operations to precision railroading. On December 14, 2017, CSX announced that Hunter Harrison was on medical leave. Two days after the announcement, Harrison died, one day after being hospitalized for complications of an ongoing illness. CSX initially saw a 10% drop in its stock price, but turned around to hit a new 52-week high less than a month later (January 2018). Harrison's successors have continued the shift to precision railroading, with most hump yards converted to flat yards, low volume shipping lanes eliminated and reductions in rolling stock and work force.


title: CSX Transportation

text: On November 30, 2020, CSX Transportation's parent company CSX Corporation announced on social media that they had come to an agreement with Pan Am Systems to purchase New England based Class II Pan Am Railways, pending regulatory approval from the Surface Transportation Board. The STB approved the purchase on April 14, 2022. As part of the acquisition, Norfolk Southern Railway will gain trackage rights over several CSX lines, and Pan Am Southern, 50 percent owned by Pan Am Railways, will be operated by the Berkshire and Eastern Railroad, a new Genesee & Wyoming subsidiary formed explicitly for this purpose. CSX completed the purchase on June 1, 2022.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX operated the Juice Train which consisted of Tropicana cars that carried fresh orange juice between Bradenton, Florida, and the Greenville section of Jersey City, New Jersey. The northbound train was originally designated on CSX as K650 during the 1990s, and Q740 in the 2000s. The Juice Train has previously been studied as a model of efficient rail transportation that can compete with trucks and other modes in the perishable-goods trade. The train was abolished in 2017 north of Tampa, Florida, and now mixed freight trains deliver the cars to their respective destinations. It still operates between Bradenton and Tampa however, but is designated as local O823.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX operates Coke Express unit trains. They carry coke for steelmaking, power generation and other various uses, running between Pittsburgh and Chicago, and other places in the Rust Belt.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX has rebuilt a significant number of locomotives. Some of the EMD GP38-2, GP40-2, and SD40-2 have been rebuilt to Dash 3 standards with updated Wabtec Electronically Controlled Air Brakes, air conditioning, automated starting controls, a crash safe cab, a new electronic control stand, and Positive Train Control (PTC). In 2019, 25 SD70AC locomotives were rebuilt at the CSX Huntington Heavy Repair Facility, with rebuilt prime movers, in-cab electronic and comfort improvements, New York Air Brake CCB II airbrake systems, and new Mitsubishi drive controls. CSX has also partnered with Wabtec to rebuild GE locomotives at their Fort Worth facility with prime movers upgraded to the FDL Advantage spec and new electronic controls such as the Wabtec Trip Optimizer Zero-to-Zero system.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX has also obtained a few EMD F40PH-2s—nos. 9992, 9993, 9998, and 9999 (All locomotives except 9999 have been renumbered to CSX 1, 2, and 3 and were repainted into a heritage Baltimore and Ohio Railroad scheme)—that were retired from Amtrak for executive office car service and geometry trains. Another locomotive, ex-MARC GP40WH-2 no. 9969 was acquired for the same purpose.


title: CSX Transportation

text: With the arrival of Hunter Harrison, CSX has begun to store many locomotives. By the end of 2017, CSX plans to store or retire all of the GE CW40-8, CW40-9, CW60AC, CW60AH, CW46AH, EMD SD50, SD50-2, SD50-3, SD60, SD60M, SD60I, SD70M, SD70AC, and SD70AE (SD70ACe) units. Most of the GE C40-8, B40-8, and B20-8 units stored in Corbin, Kentucky, have already been retired and sold off. Even with the passing of Harrison, his replacement, James Foote, confirmed the locomotives would still be retired.


title: CSX Transportation

text: CSX ordered ten SD70ACe-T4s in August 2018, which were delivered in July the following year. They are classified as ST70AHs. CSX also has a contract with Wabtec for modernizing their fleet of CW44s. The modernized locomotives, nearly thirty in number as of June 2020, are being classified as CM44AC.


title: CSX Transportation

text: On April 30, 2019, CSX unveiled locomotives 911 and 1776, two locomotives created to honor the first responders and veterans. Another special unit, CSX 3194, was unveiled on August 22, 2019, in honor of the law enforcement.


title: CSX Transportation

text: Because of Ross Rowland running Chesapeake and Ohio 614 above the speed limits, in 1995, CSX started a new liability insurance requirement of $200 million to introduce their official policy, "no steam on its own wheels", banning the operation of steam locomotives and other antique rail equipment on their trackage due to safety concerns, and increased risk.


title: CSX Transportation

text: In hump yards, trains are slowly pushed over a small hill as cars are uncoupled at the crest of the hill and allowed to roll down the hump into the appropriate tracks for outbound trains.