title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, many nationalist groups vied for unification or alignment with many different possible nationalities, all arguing that the Rus people would be better off uniting with that nation for security or staying within the nation of Hungary. Many of these groups utilized the ethnic makeup of the region, with ideas such as the Lemko-Boiko-Hutsul schema looking to prove the Slavic nature of the Rus, and therefore justifying union with Russia (or later a Ukrainian state) under the claim that the Rus were part of that Slavic cultural sphere. These Rus or Ruthenians would argue this point until the early 1900's when action would be taken.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In 1910, the population of Transcarpathia was 605,942, of which 330,010 (54.5%) were speakers of Ruthenian, 185,433 (30.6%) were speakers of Hungarian, 64,257 (10.6%) were speakers of German, 11,668 (1.9%) were speakers of Romanian, 6,346 (1%) were speakers of Slovak or Czech, and 8,228 (1.4%) were speakers of other languages.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: After World War I, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed and the region was briefly (in 1918 and 1919) claimed as part of the independent West Ukraine Republic. However, for most of this period the region was controlled by the newly formed independent Hungarian Democratic Republic, with a short period of West Ukrainian control.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On November 8, 1918, the first National Council (the Lubovňa Council, which later reconvened as the Prešov Council) was held in western Ruthenia. The first of many councils, it simply stated the desire of its members to separate from the newly formed Hungarian state but did not specify a particular alternative — only that it must involve the right to self-determination.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Other councils, such as the Carpatho-Ruthenian National Council meetings in Huszt (Khust) (November 1918), called for unification with the West Ukrainian People's Republic. Only in early January 1919 were the first calls heard in Ruthenia for union with Czechoslovakia.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Throughout November and the following few months, councils met every few weeks, calling for various solutions. Some wanted to remain part of the Hungarian Democratic Republic, but with greater autonomy; the most notable of these, the Uzhhorod Council (November 9, 1918), declared itself the representative of the Rusyn people and began negotiations with Hungarian authorities. These negotiations ultimately resulted in the passage of "Law no. 10" by the Hungarian government on December 21, 1918, thereby establishing the autonymous Rusyn province of Rus'ka Krajina from the Rusyn-inhabited parts of four eastern counties (Maramorosh County, Ugocha County, Bereg County, Ung County.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On February 5, 1919, a provisional government for Rus'ka Krajina was established. The "Rus'ka rada" (or Rusyn Council), was made up of 42 representatives from the four constituent counties and headed by a chairman, Orest Sabov, and vice-chairman, Avhustyn Shtefan. The following month, on March 4th, elections were held for a formal diet of 36 deputies. Upon election, the new diet requested the Hungarian government define the borders of the autonomous region, which had not yet been elaborated; without an established territory, the deputies argued that the diet was useless.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On March 21, 1919 the Democratic Republic of Hungary was replaced by the Hungarian Soviet Republic, which then announced the existence of a "Soviet Rus'ka Krajina". Elections organized by the new Hungarian government of a people's soviet (council) on April 6 and 7, 1919 led to Rus'ka Krajina then had two councils: the original diet, and the newly elected soviet. Representatives from both councils then decided to join, forming the "Uriadova rada" ("Governing Council) of Rus'ka Krajina.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Prior to this, in July 1918, Rusyn immigrants in the United States had convened and called for complete independence. Failing that, they would try to unite with Galicia and Bukovina; and failing that, they would demand autonomy, though they did not specify under which state. They approached the American government and were told that the only viable option was unification with Czechoslovakia. Their leader, Gregory Zatkovich, then signed the "Philadelphia Agreement" with Czechoslovak President Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, guaranteeing Rusyn autonomy upon unification with Czechoslovakia on 25 October 1918. A referendum was held among American Rusyn parishes in November 1918, with a resulting 67% in favor. Another 28% voted for union with Ukraine, and less than one percent each for Galicia, Hungary and Russia. Less than 2% desired complete independence.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In April 1919, Czechoslovak control on the ground was established, when Czechoslovak Army troops acting in coordination with Royal Romanian Army forces arriving from the east – both acting under French auspices – entered the area. In a series of battles they defeated and crushed the local militias of the newly formed Hungarian Soviet Republic, which had created the Slovak Soviet Republic and whose proclaimed aim was to "unite the Hungarian, Rusyn and Jewish toilers against the exploiters of the same nationalities". Communist sympathizers accused the Czechoslovaks and Romanians of atrocities, such as public hangings and the clubbing to death of wounded prisoners.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: This fighting prevented the arrival of Soviet aid, for which the Hungarian Communists hoped in vain; the Bolsheviks were also too preoccupied with their own civil war to assist. Transcarpathia, as well as a broader region, was occupied by Romania from April 1919 until July or August 1919, and then was again occupied by the Hungarian state.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In May 1919, a Central National Council convened in the United States under Zatkovich and voted unanimously to accept the admission of Carpathian Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia. Back in Ruthenia, on May 8, 1919, a general meeting of representatives from all the previous councils was held, and declared that "The Central Russian National Council... completely endorse the decision of the American Uhro-Rusin Council to unite with the Czech-Slovak nation on the basis of full national autonomy." Note that the Central Russian National Council was an offshoot of the and represented a Carpathian branch of the Russophiles movement that existed in the Austrian Galicia.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The Hungarian left-wing writer Béla Illés claimed that the meeting was little more than a farce, with various "notables" fetched from their homes by police, formed into a "National Assembly" without any semblance of a democratic process, and effectively ordered to endorse incorporation into Czechoslovakia. He further asserts that Clemenceau had personally instructed the French general on the spot to get the area incorporated into Czechoslovakia "at all costs", so as to create a buffer separating Soviet Ukraine from Hungary, as part of the French anti-Communist "Cordon sanitaire" policy, and that it was the French rather than the Czechoslovaks who made the effective decisions.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The Article 53, Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) granted the Carpathian Ruthenians autonomy, which was later upheld to some extent by the Czechoslovak constitution. Some rights were, however, withheld by Prague, which justified its actions by claiming that the process was to be a gradual one; and Ruthenians representation in the national sphere was less than that hoped for. Carpathian Ruthenia included former Hungarian territories of Ung County, Bereg County, Ugocsa County and Máramaros County.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: After the Paris Peace Conference, Transcarpathia became part of Czechoslovakia. Whether this was widely popular among the mainly peasant population, is debatable; clearly, however, what mattered most to Ruthenians was not which country they would join, but that they be granted autonomy within it. After their experience of Magyarization, few Carpathian Rusyns were eager to remain under Hungarian rule, and they desired to ensure self-determination. According to the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920, the former region of the Kingdom of Hungary, Ruthenian Land ("Ruszka Krajna"), was officially renamed to Subcarpathian Ruthenia ("Podkarpatská Rus").


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In 1920, the area was used as a conduit for arms and ammunition for the anti-Soviet Poles fighting in the Polish-Soviet War directly to the north, while local Communists sabotaged the trains and tried to help the Soviet side. During and after the war many Ukrainian nationalists in East Galicia who opposed both Polish and Soviet rule fled to Carpathian Ruthenia.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Zatkovich was appointed governor of the province by Masaryk on April 20, 1920 and resigned almost a year later, on April 17, 1921, to return to his law practice in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. The reason for his resignation was dissatisfaction with the borders with Slovakia. His tenure is a historical anomaly as the only American citizen ever acting as governor of a province that later became a part of the USSR.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In 1928, Czechoslovakia was divided into four provinces, Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and the Subcarpathian Rus'. In the period 1918–1938 the Czechoslovak government attempted to bring the Subcarpathian Rus', with 70% of the population illiterate, no industry, and a herdsman way of life, up to the level of the rest of Czechoslovakia. Thousands of Czech teachers, policemen, clerks and businessmen went to the region. The Czechoslovak government built thousands of kilometers of railways, roads, airports, and hundreds of schools and residential buildings.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The Rusyn people decided to join the new state of Czechoslovakia, a decision that happened parallel to other events that affected these proceedings. At the Paris Peace Conference, several other countries (including Hungary, Ukraine and Russia) laid claim to Carpathian Rus. The Allies, however, had few alternatives to choosing Czechoslovakia. Hungary had lost the war and therefore gave up its claims; Ukraine was seen as politically unviable; and Russia was in the midst of a civil war. Thus the only importance of Rusyns' decision to become part of Czechoslovakia was in creating, at least initially, good relations between the leaders of Carpathian Rus and Czechoslovakia. The Ukrainian language was not actively persecuted in Czechoslovakia during the interwar period, unlike in Poland and Romania. 73 percent of local parents voted against Ukrainian language education for their children in a referendum conducted in Sub-Carpathian Rus in 1937.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In November 1938, under the First Vienna Award—a result of the Munich Agreement—Czechoslovakia ceded southern Carpathian Rus to Hungary. The remainder of Subcarpathian Rus' received , with Andrej Bródy as prime minister of the autonomous government. After the resignation of the government following a local political crisis, Avhustyn Voloshyn became prime minister of the new government. In December 1938, Subcarpathian Rus' was renamed to Carpathian Ukraine.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Following the Slovak proclamation of independence on March 14, 1939 and the Nazis' seizure of the Czech lands on March 15, Carpathian Ukraine declared its independence as the Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine, with


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Avhustyn Voloshyn as head of state, and was immediately occupied and annexed by Hungary, restoring provisionally the former counties of Ung, Bereg and partially Máramaros.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On March 23, 1939, Hungary annexed further territories disputed with Slovakia bordering with the west of the former Carpatho-Rus. The Hungarian invasion was followed by a few weeks of terror in which more than 27,000 people were shot dead without trial and investigation. Over 75,000 Ukrainians decided to seek asylum in the Soviet Union; of those almost 60,000 of them died in Gulag prison-camps. Others joined the remaining Czech troops from the Czechoslovak army-in-exile.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Upon liquidation of Carpatho-Ukraine, in the territory annexed the Governorate of Subcarpathia was installed and divided into three, the administrative branch offices of Ung (), Bereg () and Máramaros () governed from Ungvár, Munkács and Huszt respectively, having Hungarian and Rusyn language as official languages.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: <nowiki>Memoirs and historical studies provide much evidence that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Rusyn-Jewish relations were generally peaceful. In 1939, census records showed that 80,000 Jews lived in the autonomous province of Ruthenia. Jews made up approximately 14% of the prewar population, however this population was concentrated in the larger towns, especially </nowiki>Mukachevo, where they constituted 43% of the prewar population.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: After the German occupation of Hungary (19th March 1944) the pro-Nazi policies of the Hungarian government resulted in emigration and deportation of Hungarian-speaking Jews, and other groups living in the territory were decimated by war.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: During the Holocaust, 17 main ghettos were set up in cities in Carpathian Ruthenia, from which all Jews were taken to Auschwitz for extermination. Ruthenian ghettos were set up in May 1944 and liquidated by June 1944. Most of the Jews of Transcarpathia were killed, though a number survived, either because they were hidden by their neighbours, or were forced into labour battalions, which often guaranteed food and shelter.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The end of the war had a significant impact on the ethnic Hungarian population of the area: 10,000 fled before the arrival of Soviet forces. Many of the remaining adult men (25,000) were deported to the Soviet Union; about 30% of them died in Soviet labor camps. As a result of this development since 1938, the Hungarian and Hungarian-speaking population of Transcarpathia was recorded differently in various censuses and estimations from that time: 1930 census recorded 116,548 ethnic Hungarians, while the contested Hungarian census from 1941 shows as much as 233,840 speakers of Hungarian language in the region. Subsequent estimations are showing 66,000 ethnic Hungarians in 1946 and 139,700 in 1950, while the Soviet census from 1959 recorded 146,247 Hungarians.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The Soviet takeover of the region started with the East Carpathian Strategic Offensive in the fall of 1944. This offensive consisted of two parts: the Battle of the Dukla Pass in effort to support the Slovak National Uprising; and the Battle of Uzhgorod to break through to the Hungarian plains and encircle German troops in Transylvania. On 28 October 1944, upon conclusion of the offensive campaign, most of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was secured by the Workers-Peasants Red Army (RKKA).


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The Czechoslovak government delegation led by minister František Němec arrived in Khust to establish the provisional Czechoslovak administration, according to the treaties between the Soviet and Czechoslovak governments on 8 May 1944. According to the Soviet–Czechoslovak treaty, it was agreed that once any liberated territory of Czechoslovakia ceased to be a combat zone of the Red Army, those lands would be transferred to full control of the Czechoslovak state. However, after a few weeks, the Red Army and NKVD started to obstruct the Czechoslovak delegation's work. Communications between Khust and the government center in exile in London were obstructed and the Czechoslovak officials were forced to use underground radio.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On 14 November 1944 the underground radio "Vladislav" transmitted the following message from Khust to London: "The Red Army is subjugating everything to it. We are requesting information, whether it is discussed with the government. Our situation is critical. An open campaign is ongoing for uniting Subcarpathian Ukraine with the Soviet Union. Forced recruitment to the ranks of the Red Army. People are uneducated. Awaiting your recommendations. We urgently need instructions from the government."


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On 5 November 1944, in anticipation of Soviet rule, the Uzhgorod city council introduced Moscow time (2 hours ahead of Central European Time). According to Magdalena Lavrincova, this was perceived by many as a sign of the totalitarianism to come.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In November 1944, in Mukachevo, there was a meeting of representatives of Communist Party organization from local districts, who created an organization committee to call for a party conference. On 19 November 1944 at the conference in Mukachevo, the Communist Party of Zakarpattia Ukraine was established. The conference also decided to unite Carpathian Ruthenia with the Ukrainian SSR, to strengthen People's committees as organs of revolutionary authority, and to organize help for the Red Army. The conference also elected its central committee and its first secretary, Ivan Turyanytsia, and agreed to hold a congress of the People's committees on 26 November 1944.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The "National Council of Transcarpatho-Ukraine" was set up in Mukachevo under the protection of the Red Army. On November 26 this committee, led by Ivan Turyanitsa (a Rusyn who deserted from the Czechoslovak army) proclaimed the will of Ukrainian people to separate from Czechoslovakia and join Soviet Ukraine. After two months of conflicts and negotiations the Czechoslovak government delegation departed from Khust on February 1, 1945, leaving Carpathian Ukraine under Soviet control.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On 29 June 1945, Czechoslovakia signed a treaty with the Soviet Union, officially ceding the region. Between 1945 and 1947, the new Soviet authorities fortified the new borders, and in July 1947 declared Transcarpathia as a "restricted zone of the highest level", with checkpoints on the mountain passes connecting the region to mainland Ukraine.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In December 1944 the National Council of Transcarpatho-Ukraine set up a special people's tribunal in Uzhgorod to try and condemn all collaborationists with the previous regimes - both Hungary and Carpatho-Ukraine. The court was allowed to hand down either 10 years of forced labour, or the death penalty. Several Ruthenian leaders, including Andrej Bródy and Shtefan Fentsyk, were condemned and executed in May 1946. Avgustyn Voloshyn also died in prison. The extent of the repression showed to many Carpatho-Ruthenian activists how it would not have been possible to find an accommodation with the coming Soviet regime as it had been with all previous ones.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: After breaking the Greek Catholic Church in Eastern Galicia in 1946, Soviet authorities pushed for the return to Orthodoxy of Greek-Catholic parishes in Transcarpathia too, including by engineering an accident leading to the death of recalcitrant bishop Theodore Romzha on 1 November 1947. In January 1949 the Greek-Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo was declared illegal; remaining priests and nuns were arrested, and church properties were nationalised and parcelled for public use or lent to the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), the only accepted religious authority in the region.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Cultural institutions were also forbidden, including the Russophile Dukhnovych Society, the Ukrainophile Prosvita, and the Subcarpathian Scholarly Society. New books and publications were circulated, including the "Zakarpatska Pravda" (130,000 copies). The Uzhhorod National University was opened in 1945 and over 816 cinematographs were open by 1967. The Ukrainian language was the first language of instruction in schools throughout the region, followed by Russian, which was used in academia. Most new generations had a passive knowledge of Rusyn language, but no knowledge about local culture. XIX-century Rusyn intellectuals were labelled as "members of the reactionary class and instruments of Vatican obscurantism". The Rusyn anthem and hymn were banned from public performance. Carpatho-Rusyn folk culture and songs, which were promoted, were presented as part of Transcarpathian regional culture as a local variant of Ukrainian culture.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In 1924, the Comintern declared all East Slavic inhabitants of Czechoslovakia (Rusyns, Carpatho-Russians, Rusnaks) to be Ukrainians. Starting with the 1946 census, all Rusyns were recorded as Ukrainians; anyone clinging to the old label was considered a separatist and a potential counter-revolutionary.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In February 1945, the National Council confiscated 53,000 hectares of land from large landowners and redistribute it to 54,000 peasant households (37% of the population). Collectivisation of land started in 1946; around 2,000 peasants were arrested during protests in 1948-49 and sent for forced labour in the gulags. Collectivisation, including of mountain shepherds, was completed by May 1950. Central planning decisions set Transcarpatia to become a "land of orchards and vineyards" between 1955 and 1965, planting 98,000 hectares with little results. Attempt to cultivate tea and citrus also failed due to the climate. Most vineyards were uprooted twenty years later, during Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign in 1985–87.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The Soviet period also meant the upscaling of industrialization in Transcarpathia. State-owned lumber mills, chemical and food-processing plants widened, with Mukachevo's tobacco factory and Solotvyno's salt works as the biggest ones, providing steady employment to the residents of the region, beyond the traditional subsistence agriculture. And while traditional labour migration routes to the fields of Hungary or the factories of the United States were now closed, Carpathian Ruthens and Romanians could now move for seasonal work in Russia's North and East.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The inhabitants of the region grew steadily in the Soviet period, from 776,000 in 1946 to over 1.2 million in 1989. Uzhgorod's population increased five-fold, from 26,000 to 117,000, and Mukachevo likewise from 26,600 to 84,000. This population increase also reflected demographic changes. The arrival of the Red Army meant the departure of 5,100 Magyars and 2,500 Germans, while 15–20,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust also decided to move out before the borders were sealed. By 1945, around 30,000 Hungarians and Germans had been interned and sent for labour camps in Eastern Ukraine and Siberia; while amnestied in 1955, around 5,000 did not come back. In January 1946, 2,000 more Germans were deported. In return, a large number of Ukrainians and Russians moved to Transcarpathia, were they found jobs in the industry, the military, or the civilian administration. By 1989, around 170,000 Ukrainians (mainly from nearby Galizia) and 49,000 Russians were living in Transcarpatia, mainly in new residential blocks in the main towns of Uzhgorod and Mukachevo, where the dominant language had soon turned from Hungarian and Yiddish to Russian. They kept being considered newcomers ("novoprybuli") due to their disconnect from the Rusyn- and Hungarian-speaking countryside.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In July 1991 the Ukrainian SSR adopted a law about referendums that lasted until 2012. Soon after the August coup in Moscow (19–22), on 24 August 1991 the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) of the Ukrainian SSR proclaimed declaration about its independence and also prohibited the Communist Party in the republic. The local nomenklatura remained in confusion for several days following those events. The local People's Movement of Ukraine (Rukh) and other activists were organizing protests across the whole oblast (region). The local council of Uzhhorod city renamed the Lenin Square to People's Square. On 30 August 1991 during a protest in Uzhhorod a monument of Lenin was removed. Monuments of Lenin were also removed in other settlements, however this decision was not universally accepted and faced resistance in some instances. In Tiachiv, a municipality which also adopted the decision to remove the monument faced resistance from local "supporters of Lenin" of Roma ethnicity who clashed with Rukh activists. Due to support of the Zakarpattia regional council of the putsch organizers in Moscow (GKChP), the local "democratic forces" were requesting for the council to announce its dissolution. Among those "democratic forces" were members of the Uzhhorod city council, deputies of "Democratic platform" in the regional council, National Movement of Ukraine, Ukrainian Republican Party, Democratic Party of Ukraine, Hungarian Cultural Federation in Transcarpathia (KMKSZ), Shevchenko Association of Ukrainian Language and the regional branch of Prosvita.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Because of the situation in the region, on 26 August 1991 the deputy chairman of the regional council Yuriy Vorobets signed an order to hold an extraordinary session of the council on 30 August, but on 29 August the head of the council Mykhailo Voloshchuk (formerly the 1st secretary of the Zakarpattia regional communist party committee) postponed it by a separate order. On 28 August 1991 the demand for the extraordinary session was supported by the Zakarpattia Democratic League of Youth that previously was part of the Komsomol of Ukraine (LKSMU). To relieve the pressure, Voloshchuk approved a composition of provisional deputy commission for inspection of activity of officials during the putsch that consisted of 17 members mostly of the recently dissolved Communist Party and couple of Rukh members ( and Lyubov Karavanska). At the same time Voloshchuk was urgently seeking for other managing positions for other party officials who lost their job with recent liquidation of the party. Concurrently, the regional ispolkom (executive committee) suddenly registered 208 religious communities and transferred property ownership of 83 church buildings to them.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The government of Zakarpattia decided to bet on separatist actions. On 27 August 1991 the Mukachevo city council decided to ask the Zakarpattia regional council to adopt a decision about proclamation of the region as the "Zakarpattia autonomous land of Ukraine". In two days the Mukachevo Raion council has decided to ask the regional council to petition before the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) to "grant the Zakarpattia Oblast status of autonomous republic". The latter decision was supported by the Berehove Raion council, Uzhhorod city council and Svalyava Raion council. On 1 September 1991 in Mukachevo, the Association of Carpatho-Rusyns organized a picket with anti-Ukrainian slogans and accusations in "forceful Ukrainization of Rusyns". At the gathering were adopted statement with demand for autonomy and carrying out a regional referendum on the issue. On 15 September 1991 the same demand were put forward by KMKSZ. Those Rusyns questioned legality of Zakarpattia unification with the Ukrainian SSR in 1945.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: By the end of September 1991 in Zakarpattia Oblast has formed two opposing political camps. One camp pro-Ukrainian has united around the National Movement of Ukraine also included URP, DemPU, Party of Greens, Shevchenko Association of Ukrainian Language, regional branches of Prosvita, Memorial and others. The camp also supported by students of the Uzhhorod State University, several members of the Uzhhorod city council, Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, and small faction of deputies in the regional council. The pro-Ukrainian camp was seeking to reelect the regional council. The other camp consisted of sympathizers of the regional nomenklatura officials (and formerly communist) who were supported by Association of Carpatho-Rusyns, later it was joined by KMKSZ (Association of Hungarian Culture of Zakarpattia). The latter camp also was supported by the Zakarpattia eparchy of Russian Orthodox Church, selected members of the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo as well as by the majority of the regional council. The camp was aimed to prevent reelection of the regional council and obtain autonomous status for the region.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: On 27 September 1991 it was finally announced about the extraordinary session of the regional council. The leadership of the council planned to end its work the same day, but the session stretched until 31 October 1991 and the center of political life in Zakarpattia Oblast had relocated to the regional council and the People's Square in front of the council's building.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In December 1991 Zakarpattia became a part of independent Ukraine. A majority 92.59% of voters of Zakarpattia oblast approved the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. On the same day in Zakarpattia oblast a regional referendum also took place. 78 percent of voters voted for autonomy within Ukraine, which was not granted.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: According to a 2015 survey, 68% of the population of Zakarpattia Oblast adheres to Eastern Orthodoxy, while 19% are followers of the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church and 7% are Roman Catholics. Protestants and unaffiliated generic Christians make up 1% and 3% of the population respectively. Only one percent of the population does not follow any religion.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Carpathian Ruthenia is inhabited mainly by people who self-identify as Ukrainians, many of whom may refer to themselves as Rusyns, "Rusnak" or "Lemko". Places inhabited by Rusyns also span adjacent regions of the Carpathian Mountains, including regions of present-day Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. Ruthenian settlements exist in the Balkans as well.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: In the 19th century and the first part of the 20th, the inhabitants of Transcarpathia continued to call themselves "Ruthenians" (""Rusyny""). After Soviet annexation the ethnonym "Ukrainian", which had replaced "Ruthenian" in eastern Ukraine at the turn of the century, was also applied to Ruthenians/Rusyns of Transcarpathia. Most present-day inhabitants consider themselves ethnically Ukrainians, although in the most recent census 10,100 people (0.8% of Zakarpattia Oblast's 1.26 million) identified themselves as ethnically Rusyn.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The 1910 Austro-Hungarian census showed 185,433 speakers of the Hungarian language, while the Czechoslovak census of 1921 showed 111,052 ethnic Hungarians and 80,132 ethnic Jews, many of whom were speakers of the Hungarian language. Much of the difference in these censuses reflects differences in methodology and definitions rather than a decline in the region's ethnic Hungarian (Magyar) or Hungarian-speaking population. According to the 1921 census, Hungarians constituted about 17.9% of the region's total population.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: The end of World War II had a significant impact on the ethnic Hungarian population of the area: 10,000 fled before the arrival of Soviet forces. Many of the remaining adult men (25,000) were deported to the Soviet Union; about 30% of them died in Soviet labor camps. As a result of this development since 1938, the Hungarian and Hungarian-speaking population of Transcarpathia was recorded differently in various censuses and estimations from that time: 1930 census recorded 116,548 ethnic Hungarians, while the contested Hungarian census from 1941 shows as much as 233,840 speakers of Hungarian language in the region. Subsequent estimations are showing 66,000 ethnic Hungarians in 1946 and 139,700 in 1950, while the Soviet census from 1959 recorded 146,247 Hungarians.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: , about 170,000 (12–13%) inhabitants of Transcarpathia declare Hungarian as their mother tongue. Homeland Hungarians refer to Hungarians in Ukraine as "kárpátaljaiak".


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Memoirs and historical studies provide much evidence that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Rusyn-Jewish relations were generally peaceful. In 1939, census records showed that 80,000 Jews lived in the autonomous province of Ruthenia. Jews made up approximately 14% of the prewar population, however this population was concentrated in the larger towns, especially Mukachevo, where they constituted 43% of the prewar population. Most of them perished during the Holocaust.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: See Carpathian Germans for more information (mainly Germans from Bohemia, Moravia and the territories from present-day central and eastern Germany) about their settlement in the 16th to 18th centuries.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Czechs in Carpathian Ruthenia are ethnoculturally distinct from other West Slavic groups like the Slovaks, as they originated from Czech-speaking groups from Bohemia and Moravia instead of Slovakia.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: There are approximately 25,000 ethnic Romani in present-day Transcarpathia. Some estimates point to a number as high as 50,000 but a true count is hard to obtain as many Roma cannot afford ID documents for themselves and their children. Additionally, many Romani will claim to be Hungarian or Romanian when interviewed by Ukrainian authorities.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: They are by far the poorest and least-represented ethnic group in the region and face intense prejudice. The years since the fall of the Soviet Union have not been kind to the Romani of the region, as they have been particularly hard hit by the economic problems faced by peoples all over the former USSR. Some Romani in western Ukraine live in major cities such as Uzhhorod and Mukachevo, but most live in ghettos on the outskirts of cities. These ghettos are known as "taberi" and can house up to 300 families. These encampments tend to be fairly primitive with no running water or electricity.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Today some 30,000 Romanians live in this region, mostly in northern Maramureș, around the southern towns of Rahău/Rakhiv and Teceu Mare/Tiachiv and close to the border with Romania. However, there also are Romanians in Carpathian Ruthenia living outside Maramureș, mostly in the village of Poroshkovo. They are usually called in Romanian and live closer to Poland and Slovakia than Romania.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: There are a few Greeks in Carpathian Ruthenia. They are also known as Carpatho-Greeks and Greek-Carpathians.


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: For urban European readers in the 19th century, Ruthenia was one origin of the 19th century's imaginary "Ruritania" the most rural, most rustic and deeply provincial tiny province lost in forested mountains that could be imagined. Conceived sometimes as a kingdom of central Europe, Ruritania was the setting of several novels by Anthony Hope, especially "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1894).


title: Carpathian Ruthenia

text: Recently a writer named Vesna Goldsworthy, in "Inventing Ruritania: the imperialism of the imagination" (1998) has theorized on the origins of the ideas that underpin Western perceptions of the "Wild East" of Europe, especially of Ruthenian and other rural Slavs in the upper Balkans. The ideas are supposed by this writer to be highly applicable to Transcarpathia, who describes "an innocent process: a cultural great power seizes and exploits the resources of an area, while imposing new frontiers on its mind-map and creating ideas which, reflected back, have the ability to reshape reality.” The viewpoint does not have wide academic support.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Dr. Feelgood (stylized as ) is the fifth studio album by American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe, released on September 1, 1989. "Dr. Feelgood" topped the "Billboard" 200 chart, making it the band's only album to claim this position. It was the first album Mötley Crüe recorded after their quest for sobriety and rehabilitation in 1989. In addition to being Mötley Crüe's best selling album, it is highly regarded by music critics and fans as the band's best studio album. This was also the band's last album to be recorded with lead singer Vince Neil until the 1997 album "Generation Swine".


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Producer Bob Rock found working with the Crüe difficult, describing them as "four L.A. bad asses who used to drink a bottle of wine and want to kill each other." To minimize conflict and allow production to proceed smoothly, Rock had each member record their parts separately.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: The lyrics of "Don't Go Away Mad (Just Go Away)" feature a reference to "Too Young to Fall in Love" from the band's 1983 album "Shout at the Devil".


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: The intro track "T.n.T. (Terror 'n Tinseltown)" features a sample of a woman saying "Dr Davis, telephone please". This was the same sample used by the band Queensrÿche for their song "Eyes of a Stranger" which was off of their album "" released one year prior to "Dr. Feelgood".


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Steven Tyler of Aerosmith sings backing vocals on "Sticky Sweet". "Nikki and Tommy and I hung out a lot," said Tyler, who was in Vancouver around the same time, recording "Pump". "Of course, we're all akin by our old drinking and drugging days."


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: "Dr. Feelgood" has sold more than 6 million copies in the U.S., and went Gold in the U.K. In various interviews, members of Mötley Crüe stated that it was their most solid album from a musical standpoint, due in no small part to their collective push for sobriety.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Reviews for "Dr. Feelgood" have been highly positive. Critics remarked the renewed energy and entertaining values that permeate the album, bringing the listeners "in a world of everlasting party", where they "savored the joys of trashy, unapologetically decadent fun". Bob Rock's meticulous production was universally praised, in particular for affording "the band the ability to write stronger melodic hooks without losing the hard rock sound they so coveted" and for the power of the guitar riffs.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Canadian journalist Martin Popoff wrote that "Dr. Feelgood" is an album "made by a dumb band trying really hard" while a BBC Music reviewer declared it "a glitzy flashy experience... ultimately shallow and narcissistic". Other critics stated that Mötley Crüe are not "out to win humanitarian awards or impress us with lyrical muscle", but to rock "...hard"! "Dr. Feelgood", wrote Mick Wall in a review of 2009's reissue, "was the first time Mötley Crüe actually became well-known for music. Until then, their unthinking mash-up of glam and metal had made them a hoot onstage but a disappointment on record... Though pushed close by last year's shock return with the weighty "Saints of Los Angeles", [the album is] the best Mötley Crüe have ever released."


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: "Dr. Feelgood" and "Kickstart My Heart" were nominated for Grammy awards for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1990 and 1991, but lost both years to Living Colour. Mötley Crüe won the best Hard rock/Heavy metal album of the year at the American Music Awards in January 1991 for "Dr. Feelgood".


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich recruited Bob Rock to produce their self-titled 1991 album after being impressed with Rock's production work on "Dr. Feelgood". Rock would later produce Metallica's subsequent albums, until "St. Anger", where he also played that album's bass parts.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: As of October 14, 2008, the album, minus the opening track "T.N.T. (Terror 'N Tinseltown)" because of length and playability, has become downloadable content for the "Rock Band" video game series. The tracks "Dr. Feelgood" and "Kickstart My Heart" were also released as downloadable content for the video game "Rocksmith 2014" in 2015.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: "Dr. Feelgood" and "Kickstart My Heart" are available in the soundtrack of 2009 video game, "Brütal Legend"


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: To mark the twentieth anniversary of the album, Mötley Crüe performed the album in its entirety at Crüe Fest 2.


title: Dr. Feelgood (album)

text: Dr. Feelgood: The Videos is a video album released in 1990 and features all the music videos from the album, concert footage, interviews and recording session footage.


title: Wiki software

text: Wiki software (also known as a wiki engine or a wiki application), is collaborative software that runs a wiki, which allows the users to create and collaboratively edit pages or entries via a web browser. A wiki system is usually a web application that runs on one or more web servers. The content, including previous revisions, is usually stored in either a file system or a database. Wikis are a type of web content management system, and the most commonly supported off-the-shelf software that web hosting facilities offer.


title: Wiki software

text: There are dozens of actively maintained wiki engines. They vary in the platforms they run on, the programming language they were developed in, whether they are open-source or proprietary, their support for natural language characters and conventions, and their assumptions about technical versus social control of editing.


title: Wiki software

text: The first generally recognized "wiki" application, WikiWikiWeb, was created by American computer programmer Ward Cunningham in 1994 and launched on c2.com in 1995. "WikiWikiWeb" was also the name of the wiki that ran on the software, and in the first years of wikis' existence there was no great distinction made between the contents of wikis and the software they ran on, possibly because almost every wiki ran on its own customized software.


title: Wiki software

text: Wiki software originated from older version control systems used for documentation and software in the 1980s. By the mid-1990s these generally had web browser interfaces. However, they lacked the ability to easily create links between internal pages without writing HTML code. For WikiWikiWeb, the CamelCase naming convention was used to indicate internal links, without requiring HTML code.


title: Wiki software

text: By the time MediaWiki appeared, this convention had been largely abandoned in favor of explicitly marking links in edited source code with double square brackets. Page names thus did not interrupt the flow of English and could follow standard English capitalization convention. Case-insensitivity on the first letter but not subsequent letters supported standard English capitalization conventions and let writers author their pages in ordinary English, with the linking of particular words and phrases afterward. This proved to be the critical change that allowed ordinary authors of English to write wiki pages, and non-technical users to read them. This policy was extended to other natural languages, avoiding the use of unusual-looking text or awkward capitalization that violates the language's own rules.


title: Wiki software

text: Over the next 10 years, many more wiki applications were written, in a variety of programming languages. After 2005, there began to be a move toward increasing consolidation and standardization: many less-popular wiki applications were gradually abandoned, and fewer new applications were created. Relatively few of the wiki engines currently in use were created after 2006.


title: Wiki software

text: Some content management systems, such as Microsoft SharePoint, have also adopted wiki-like functionality.


title: Wiki software

text: In general new wiki engines have not followed the data formats (wiki markup languages) of the existing engines, making them of limited use for those who have already invested in large knowledge bases in existing software. As a rule newer wiki projects have not succeeded in attracting large numbers of users from the existing wiki software base.


title: Wiki software

text: The most well-known data format arguably is MediaWiki's, and correspondingly has been reimplemented in other wikis:


title: Wiki software

text: None of these alternatives support the extensions available under standard MediaWiki, some of which extend or alter its data format.


title: Wiki software

text: In 2007 a project named (Wiki)Creole to create a standardized markup language for wikis was completed. As of 2022, the effort has had significant technical success, gaining support through implementation in many engines, but limited social success as it is still relatively unused and unknown, having few cross-markup conversion tools for migrating existing knowledge bases to it and no major engines using it as their native markup syntax.


title: Wiki software

text: There are essentially three types of usage for wiki software: public-facing wikis with a potentially large community of readers and editors, private enterprise wikis for data management by corporations and other organizations, and personal wikis, meant to be used by a single person to manage notes, and usually run on a desktop. Some wiki software is specifically geared for one of the usage types, while other software can be used for all three, but contains functionality, either in its core or through plugins, that help with one or more of the usage types.


title: Wiki software

text: Public wikis are usually open to the public to read, edit and comment on some or all of the article space of each wiki. Many offer registration to offer further access and controls to each user and a few have, in-part commercialised aspects or further access, such as the popular wiki farm, Fandom.


title: Wiki software

text: MediaWiki is by far the most dominant software as it powers Wikipedia, consistently and by a large margin, the most visited public wiki, it also powers many other public wikis as well. Other wiki engines used regularly for public wikis include MoinMoin and PmWiki, along with many others.


title: Wiki software

text: Other Internet websites, based on wiki software, include encyclopedias such as Sensei's Library, Parlia, and WikiTree.


title: Wiki software

text: Enterprise wiki software is software intended to be used in a corporate (or organizational) context, especially to enhance internal knowledge sharing. It tends to have a greater emphasis on features like access control, integration with other software, and document management. Most proprietary wiki applications specifically market themselves as enterprise solutions, including Socialtext, Jive, Traction TeamPage, Notion, and Nuclino.


title: Wiki software

text: Increasingly offerings appear which use the name 'wiki' but do not offer basic elements common to established wikis, like Wiki Markup and Link-first workflow as in Confluence (since 2018), or Version Control of Full Text Search Microsoft Teams.


title: Wiki software

text: In addition, some open source wiki applications also describe themselves as enterprise solutions, including XWiki, Foswiki, TWiki, and BlueSpice. Some open-source wiki applications, though they do not specifically bill themselves as enterprise solutions, have marketing materials geared for enterprise users, like Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware and MediaWiki. Many other wiki applications have also been used within enterprises.


title: Wiki software

text: Among the many companies and government organizations that use wikis internally are Adobe Systems, Amazon.com, Intel, Microsoft, and the United States intelligence community.


title: Wiki software

text: Within organizations, wikis may either add to or replace centrally managed content management systems. Their decentralized nature allows them, in principle, to disseminate needed information across an organization more rapidly and more cheaply than a centrally controlled knowledge repository. Wikis can also be used for document management, project management, customer relationship management, enterprise resource planning, and many other kinds of data management.


title: Wiki software

text: Software that is specifically designed for running personal wikis includes Tomboy, PmWiki, and ConnectedText (now discontinued). Other, more general, wiki applications have components geared for individual users, including MoinMoin (which offers a "DesktopEdition"), and TiddlyWiki.


title: Wiki software

text: Most wiki software uses a special syntax, known as wiki markup, for users to format the text, instead of requiring them to enter in HTML. Some wiki applications also include a WYSIWYG editor, either instead of or in addition to the wiki markup editing.


title: Wiki software

text: Based on the atomic property of database systems, any edit should be traced. On wiki software, the chronology of edits (e.g. published by Internet users) in any given article may be locally saved with a common .xml file extension by people having administrator rights.


title: Wiki software

text: There are a variety of wiki hosting services, otherwise known as wiki farms, that host users' wikis on a server. Some wiki software is only available in hosted form: PBworks, Wetpaint and Wikispaces are all examples of wiki hosting services that run on code that is only available on those sites. Other wiki software is available in both hosted and downloadable form, including Confluence, Socialtext, MediaWiki and XWiki.


title: Wiki software

text: Wiki software can include features that come with traditional content management systems, such as calendars, to-do lists, blogs and discussion forums. All of these can either be stored via versioned wiki pages, or simply be a separate piece of functionality. Software that supports blogs with wiki-style editing and versioning is sometimes known as "bliki" software.


title: Wiki software

text: Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware is an example of wiki software that is designed to support such features at its core. Many of the enterprise wiki applications, such as TWiki, Confluence and SharePoint, also support such features, as do open-source applications like MediaWiki and XWiki, via plugins.


title: Wiki software

text: Some wiki applications let users embed scripting-style calls into wiki pages, which are processed by the wiki's parser and run either when the page is saved or when it is displayed. XWiki and MediaWiki are examples of such applications.


title: Wiki software

text: Specifically XWiki offers support for the following scripting languages: Groovy, Velocity, Ruby, Python, PHP or more generally any JSR223 scripting language.


title: Wiki software

text: Wiki software can let users store data via the wiki, in a way that can be exported via the Semantic Web, or queried internally within the wiki. A wiki that allows such annotation is known as a semantic wiki. The current best-known semantic wiki software is Semantic MediaWiki, a plugin to MediaWiki.


title: Wiki software

text: Some wiki software have special handling for accessing by mobile devices, such as mobile phones. This is usually done by displaying conservative HTML coding.


title: Wiki software

text: Various approaches to providing wiki functionality when the user is not online have been tried. For users who need to simply read the wiki's content when offline, a copy of the content can often be made easily; in the case of Wikipedia, CD-ROMs and printed versions have been made of parts of Wikipedia's content.


title: Wiki software

text: Allowing offline editing, however (where the changes are synchronized when the user is back online), is a much more difficult process. One approach to doing this is using a distributed revision control system as a backend of the wiki, in peer-to-peer style. With this approach, there is no central store of the wiki's content; instead, every user keeps a complete copy of the wiki locally, and the software handles merging and propagating of changes when they are made. This is the approach taken by the ikiwiki engine (which can use the distributed revision control system Git as its back-end), and Code Co-op (a distributed revision control system that includes a wiki component).


title: Wiki software

text: Wiki software can be distributed. XWiki is able to function in this way. Smallest Federated Wiki promotes a federation of wiki servers,


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Almeida began his acting career in theatre during the 1980s, he started his film career appearing on the 1982 action film "The Soldier", and later achieved recognition for playing Andrea Bonanno in the 1987 Italian film "Good Morning, Babylon". He achieved international fame with his portrayals of Félix Cortez in the 1994 thriller "Clear and Present Danger" and Bucho in the 1995 action thriller "Desperado". Several years later, he became popular for playing Ramon Salazar on the Fox thriller drama series "24", between 2003 and 2004, and Hernan Reyes in the 2011 film "Fast Five".


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Fluent in several languages, Almeida has worked in several countries in Europe and the Americas, in many film and stage productions, winning some international awards in films like "Retrato de Família", "Adão e Eva" and "O Xangô de Baker Street". His other well-known films include "The Honorary Consul" (1983), "Only You" (1994), "La Cucaracha" (1998), "One Man's Hero" (1999), "Behind Enemy Lines" (2001), "Whore" (2004), "The Death and Life of Bobby Z" (2007), "Che: Part Two" (2008), "The Burning Plain" (2008), and "The Gilded Cage" (2013).


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Almeida was born on 15 March 1957 in São Sebastião da Pedreira, Lisbon, Portugal, the son of João Baptista de Almeida and Maria Sara Portugal. At the age of eighteen, after attending a theater course at the Lisbon Conservatory (School of Theatre and Cinema) for two years, he left Portugal to continue his studies after the Conservatory was temporarily closed following the 1974 democratic revolution. He spent a year in Vienna, moving again, in 1976, to New York City where he studied at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute, a school for the performing arts.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: After his beginning in theater, Almeida started his film career in 1982 appearing in "The Soldier". His first significant role came in a 1983 film, "The Honorary Consul". He made appearances in TV series such as "Miami Vice", and made his breakthrough four years later when he appeared in "Good Morning, Babylon", a film directed by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani that opened the Cannes Film Festival in 1987. Being fluent in six languages, Almeida continued his acting career in several countries such as Portugal, England, Spain, France, Italy, Brazil, Argentina, and Germany, working in numerous films.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: In 1994, Almeida played Félix Cortez, a former colonel of Cuban military intelligence in the Tom Clancy thriller, "Clear and Present Danger", co-starring Harrison Ford, Willem Dafoe and Anne Archer. The film debuted at number one in the box office, earning a reported $20.5 million in the United States.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: "Clear and Present Danger" was a great success and was nominated for two Academy Awards. Later in 1994, Almeida starred in the romantic comedy "Only You", in which he plays a suave Italian businessman named Giovanni. According to "The New York Times", the film director and producer Norman Jewison said: "I interviewed many actors for the role... There was one Italian actor, fairly prominent, that I met in L.A. and again in New York and in Rome. And I wanted to meet several other Italian actors in Italy." When the production moved from Pittsburgh to Italy last fall, however, none of the country's actors seemed right for what Jewison called "the clichéd Italian gigolo, the guy that women from the Midwest always meet." After the interview with Almeida, Jewison recalled: "Howard Feuer, the casting director, said, 'Joaquim's not that tall. He's not that handsome. He's no Rossano Brazzi here.' I said, 'But listen to his voice.' There's a machoness. Especially when he lowers it, whispers, leans across the table and pours you another glass of wine. He can be extremely intimate with his voice."


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: In 1995, Almeida appeared with Antonio Banderas and Salma Hayek in the Robert Rodriguez's action thriller "Desperado". This film is the sequel to Rodriguez's independent film "El Mariachi" and the second entry in the "Mexico Trilogy". Joaquim de Almeida portrays the main villain Bucho, a wealthy but casually bloodthirsty drug kingpin, who rules a seedy Mexican border town. Almeida replaced Raúl Juliá as Bucho, following Juliá's death in 1994. "Desperado" was screened out of competition at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival. He won a Portuguese Golden Globe for Best Actor in his next film, the 1995 Portuguese drama "Adão e Eva" ("Adam and Eve"), where he played the main female character career rival Francisco.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: In 1997 he appeared in the miniseries "Nostromo" and starred in the Luís Galvão Teles' drama "Elles" ("Women"). The following year, he co-starred with Eric Roberts in the Jack Perez thriller "La Cucaracha" (1998). The film premiered at the Austin Film Festival where it won the Feature Film Award.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: In 2001, Almeida starred in the Brazilian comedy "O Xangô de Baker Street", where he plays the legendary British detective Sherlock Holmes. The film is based on a book written in 1995 by celebrated Brazilian author/actor/entrepreneur Jô Soares about a case involving Sherlock Holmes and his loyal friend Doctor Watson, who are invited to Brazil by its Emperor, Pedro II, to find the thief of a priceless Stradivarius owned by his lover. Almeida's outstanding portrayal of the iconic fictional character earned him another Portuguese Golden Globe for best actor, his third, and was nominated for Cinema Brazil Grand Prize award for best actor. In 2001, he had a supporting role in the war film "Behind Enemy Lines" as Admiral Juan Miguel Piquet, the commander of NATO's naval forces, starring alongside Owen Wilson and Gene Hackman. The film, based on the Mrkonjić Grad incident, is centered on the story of an American naval flight officer, played by Owen Wilson, who was shot down over Bosnia, who ends up uncovering a massacre during the Bosnian conflict.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: In 2004, he starred with Daryl Hannah and Denise Richards in "Yo Puta", a gritty docu-style prostitution tale — in which interviews with real-life prostitutes are interspersed – that is based on a bestselling book by Spaniard Isabel Pisano that tracks the slow descent of a girl into the sex business.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: That same year, he joined the cast of "24" as Ramon Salazar, the ruthless leader of a drug cartel who is put into—and later broken out of—prison by Jack Bauer. In 2007, Joaquim de Almeida limns a brutal foreman named Baxter, in the Antonio Cuadri's "El corazón de la tierra", a heady romance with a social conscience.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Later in 2004, Almeida portrayed a Spanish-born photo journalist named Michael in the romantic drama "La Cucina", a film about several mostly separated storylines in which couples, friends and associates meet for a night of cooking and befriending.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: In 2008, he starred in "Che: Part Two", a biographical film about the Argentine doctor-turned-international revolutionary Ernesto Guevara. Almeida played President René Barrientos, a former Bolivian politician who served as his country's Vice President in 1964 and as its President from 1964 to 1969.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Later that year, Almeida appeared in "The Burning Plain" as local man named Nick Martinez, starring alongside Charlize Theron and Kim Basinger. He also provided his voice for the animated show "The Batman" as the voice of the villain Bane, and reprised his role in all of his appearances in the show except one in which Ron Perlman voices the character for one line.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: On 16 July 2010, Almeida was confirmed for the role of antagonist Hernan Reyes in the 2011 action film "Fast Five" directed by Justin Lin and co-starring Vin Diesel, Paul Walker and Dwayne Johnson. The film took $3.8 million in receipts during launch midnight showings marking the best ever opening for a Universal title and "The Fast and The Furious" franchise. "Fast Five" became the highest-grossing film of 2011 for 15 days before being replaced on 30 May 2011.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Between 2013 and 2020, Almeida starred in "The Gilded Cage, Our Brand is Crisis, The Hitman's Bodyguard," and "Downsizing."


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Beginning in 2016, Almeida starred for two seasons as the drug kingpin Don Epifanio Vargas in the USA Network crime drama "Queen of the South", opposite Alice Braga. He garnered Imagen Awards nominations as Best Actor in both 2017 and 2018 for his portrayal of Don Epifanio, and after the character was killed by Braga's character in the last episode of Season Two, Almeida also appeared during Season Three. The show wrapped up its 5th season in 2021.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Almeida has two children, a son Lourenço Gonçalves Baptista de Almeida from Cecília Gonçalves (born 1993) and a daughter Ana de Tavares Risques Baptista de Almeida, with his partner Maria Risques Pereira.


title: Joaquim de Almeida

text: Almeida is fluent in six languages; Portuguese (his mother tongue), English, French, Italian, Spanish and German.


title: Frilled shark

text: The frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) and the southern African frilled shark ("Chlamydoselachus africana") are the two extant species of shark in the family "Chlamydoselachidae". The frilled shark is considered a living fossil, because of its primitive, anguilliform (eel-like) physical traits, such as a dark-brown color, amphistyly (the articulation of the jaws to the cranium), and a –long body, which has dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins located towards the tail. The common name, "frilled shark", derives from the fringed appearance of the six pairs of gill slits at the shark's throat.


title: Frilled shark

text: The two species of frilled shark are distributed throughout regions of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, usually in the waters of the outer continental shelf and of the upper continental slope, where the sharks usually live near the ocean floor, near biologically productive areas of the ecosystem. To live on a diet of cephalopods, smaller sharks, and bony fish, the frilled shark practices diel vertical migration to feed at night at the surface of the ocean. When hunting food, the frilled shark moves like an eel, bending and lunging to capture and swallow whole prey with its long and flexible jaws, which are equipped with 300 recurved, needle-like teeth.


title: Frilled shark

text: Reproductively, the two species of frilled shark, "C. anguineus" and "C. africana", are aplacental viviparous animals, born of an egg, without a placenta to the mother shark. Contained within egg capsules, the shark embryos develop in the body of the mother shark; at birth, the infant sharks emerge from their egg capsules in the uterus, where they feed on yolk. Although it has no distinct breeding season, the gestation period of the frilled shark can be up to 3.5 years long, to produce a litter of 2–15 shark pups. Usually caught as bycatch in commercial fishing, the frilled shark has some economic value as a meat and as fishmeal; and has been caught from depths of , although its occurrence is uncommon below ; whereas in Suruga Bay, Japan, the frilled shark commonly occurs at depths of .


title: Frilled shark

text: The zoologist Ludwig Döderlein first identified, described, and classified the frilled shark as a discrete species of shark. After three years (1879–1881) of marine research in Japan, Döderlein took two specimen sharks to Vienna, but lost the taxonomic manuscript of the research. Three years later, in the "Bulletin of the Essex Institute" (vol. XVI, 1884) the zoologist Samuel Garman published the first taxonomy of the frilled shark, based upon his observations, measurements, and descriptions of a –long female shark from Sagami Bay, Japan. In the article "An Extraordinary Shark" Garman classified the new species of shark within its own genus and family, and named it "Chlamydoselachus anguineus" (eel-like shark with frills). The Graeco–Latin nomenclature of the frilled shark derives from the Greek "chlamy" (frill) and "selachus" (shark), and the Latin "anguineus" (like an eel); besides its common name, the frilled shark also is known as the "lizard shark" and as the "scaffold shark".


title: Frilled shark

text: The frilled-shark is considered a "living fossil", because its family lineage dates to the Carboniferous period. Initially, marine scientists considered the frilled shark a living, evolutionary representative of the extinct elasmobranchii subclass of cartilaginous fish (rays, sharks, skates, sawfish), because the shark's body featured primitive anatomic traits, such as long jaws with trident-shaped, multi-cusp teeth; "amphistyly", the direct articulation of the jaws to the cranium, at a point behind the eyes; and a quasi-cartilaginous notochord (a proto-spinal-column) composed of indistinct vertebrae. From that anatomy, Garman proposed that the frilled shark was related to the cladodont sharks of the "Cladoselache" genus that existed during the Devonian period (419–359 mya) in the Palaeozoic era (541–251 mya). In contrast to Garman's thesis, the ichthyologist Theodore Gill and the paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope, suggested that the frilled shark's evolutionary tree indicated relation to the Hybodontiformes (hybodonts), which were the dominant species of shark during the Mesozoic era (252–66 mya); and Cope categorized the "Chlamydoselachus anguineus" species to the fossil genus "Xenacanthus" that existed from the late Devonian period to the end of the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era.


title: Frilled shark

text: The anatomic traits of body, muscle, and skeleton phylogenically include the frilled shark to the neoselachian clade (modern sharks and rays) which relates it to the cow shark, in the order "Hexanchiformes". In addition, a genetic analysis conducted by researchers in 2016 may also suggest that the species is part of the order "Hexanchiformes". Nonetheless, as a systematist of biology, the ichthyologist Shigeru Shirai proposed the "Chlamydoselachiformes" taxonomic order exclusively for the "C. anguinesis" and the "C. africana" species of frilled sharks. As a marine animal, the frilled shark is a living fossil because of its relatively unchanged anatomy and physique, since first appearing in the primeval seas of the Late Cretaceous (c. 95 mya) and the Late Jurassic (150 mya) epochs. In evolutionary terms, the frilled shark is an animal species of recent occurrence in the natural history of the Earth; the earliest discoveries of the fossilized teeth of the "Chlamydoselachus anguineus" species of shark date to the early Pleistocene epoch (2.58–11.70 mya). In 2009, marine biologists identified, described, and classified the "Chlamydoselachus africana" (southern African frilled shark) of the Atlantic waters of southern Angola and of southern Namibia as a species of frilled shark different from the "Chlamydoselachus anguineus" identified in 1884.


title: Frilled shark

text: The habitats of the frilled shark include the waters of the outer continental shelf and the upper-to-middle continental slope, favoring upwellings and other biologically productive areas. Usually, the shiver lives close to the ocean floor, yet its diet of cephalopods, smaller sharks, and bony fish, indicates that the frilled shark practices diel vertical migration, and swims up to feed at night at the surface of the ocean. In their Atlantic- and Pacific-ocean habitats, frilled sharks practice spatial segregation determined by the individual size, the sex, and the reproductive condition of each shark in the shiver. In Suruga Bay, on the Pacific coast of Honshu, Japan, the frilled shark is most common at the depth of , except in the August-to-November period, when the temperature at the water-layer exceeds , and then the sharks swim into deeper, cooler water.


title: Frilled shark

text: In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the frilled shark occurs off northern Norway, northern Scotland, and western Ireland, ranging from France to Morocco, the archipelago of Madeira, and the coast of Mauritania, in northwest Africa. In the central Atlantic Ocean, the frilled shark has been caught along the region of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, ranging from north of the Azores islands to the Rio Grande Rise, off southern Brazil, and the Vavilov Ridge, off West Africa. Frilled sharks tend to be very solitary organisms, interacting with multiple individuals of their kind is rare. However, in the late 2000s a large capture was made over an underwater seamount of the Mid-Atlantic ridge, hauling in over 30 frilled sharks. The mass capture of a wide variety of male and female specimens emphasized these seamounts as a location for the mating of the species. In the western Atlantic, the frilled shark occurs in the waters of New England and Georgia, in the US, and in the waters of Suriname, in the northeastern coast of South America.


title: Frilled shark

text: In the western Pacific Ocean, the frilled shark ranges from southeastern Honshu, Japan, north to Taiwan, off the coast of China, to the coast of New South Wales, Australia, and the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand. In the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, the frilled shark occurs in the regional waters of Hawaii and the coast of California, in the US, and the northern coast of Chile, in western South America. Although it has been caught at the depth of , the frilled shark usually does not occur deeper than .


title: Frilled shark

text: The eel-like bodies of "C. anguineus" and "C. africana" differ anatomically; "C. anguineus" has a longer head and shorter gill slits, a spinal column with more vertebrae (160–171 vs. 147), and a lower-intestine spiral valve with more turns (35–49 vs. 26–28) than does "C. africana". The skin color of either species ranges from uniformly dark-brown to uniformly grey. In addition, "C. anguineus" has smaller pectoral fins than "C. africana", and the mouth is narrower. The recorded, maximum body-length of a male frilled shark is , and the recorded, maximum body-length of a female frilled shark is .


title: Frilled shark

text: The head of the frilled shark is broad and flat, with a short, rounded snout. The nostrils are vertical slits, separated by a flap of skin that forms the incurrent opening and the excurrent opening. The moderately large eyes are horizontal ellipsoids, which have no nictitating membrane, which is a protective, third-eyelid. Ligaments articulate the long jaws to the cranium, and the corners of the mouth have neither furrows nor folds. The jaws contain 300 trident-shaped teeth, each needle-tooth has a cusp and two cusplets; the rows of teeth are widely spaced, with 19–28 tooth rows in the upper jaw, and 21–29 tooth rows in the lower jaw. Frilled sharks are able to open jaws and devour food sources that are considerably greater than that of their size, this is a physical trait that is present in gulper eels and viperfish. At the throat, there are six pairs of long gill slits; the first pair of gill slits form a collar, while the extended tips of the gill filaments create a fleshy frill, hence, the "frilled shark" name of this fish.


title: Frilled shark

text: The pectoral fins are short and rounded; the single, small dorsal fin has a rounded margin, and is positioned at the far end of the body, approximately opposite the anal fin. The pelvic and the anal fins are large, broad, and rounded, and are positioned to the tail-end of the frilled shark's body. The very long caudal fin is a triangular tail that has neither a lower lobe nor a ventral notch in the upper lobe, and has a margin equipped with sharp, chisel-shaped dermal denticles, which the shark can enlarge. The underside of the shark's eel-like body features a pair of long, thick folds of skin, separated by a groove, which run the length of the belly; the function of the ventral skin-folds is unknown. In the female frilled shark, the mid-section is of the body longer, with the pelvic fins located closer to the anal fin.


title: Frilled shark

text: A cartilaginous skeleton and a large liver (filled with low-density lipids) are the mechanical means with which the frilled shark controls and maintains its buoyancy in the deep waters of the ocean. The shark has an open, lateral-line organ system featuring mechanoreceptor hair cells in grooves exposed to the ocean environment; such a basal clade configuration enhances the frilled shark's perception and detection of changes in the movement, the vibration, and the pressure of the surrounding water. Like all animals, the frilled shark is afflicted by parasites, such as the "Monorygma" tapeworm, the trematoda flatworm, the "Otodistomum veliporum", and the "Mooleptus rabuka" nematode; and by predators, such as other sharks, as indicated by missing tail-tips lost to a hungry attacker.


title: Frilled shark

text: In New Zealand, the Takatika Grit, in the Chatham Islands, yielded frilled-shark, bird, and conifer-cone fossils that dated to the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (66.043 ± 0.011 mya) which suggested that the sharks lived inland, in shallow bodies of water far from the ocean. The shallow-water frilled shark had larger, stronger teeth, suitable for eating mollusks; scarcity and plenty of food are indicated in the tooth's morphology of sharper points (cusps) oriented into the mouth. From the Late Paleocene epoch (66–56 mya) until the contemporary era, other species of sharks out-matched the "Chlamydoselachus" sharks in competition for feeding grounds and living space, which restricted their geographic distribution to the deep-water ocean. Regarding the frilled shark's survival of the mass-extinction event which occurred at the Cretaceous–Paleogene time-boundary, one hypothesis proposes that the sharks survived in bodies of shallow water, both inland and on the continental shelf; afterwards, the frilled shark migrated to deep-water habitats.


title: Frilled shark

text: The frilled shark eats a diet of cephalopods, sea slugs, smaller sharks, and bony fish; 60 percent of the diet is composed of squid varieties, such as the "Chiroteuthis", the "Histioteuthis", and the "Onychoteuthis", the "Sthenoteuthis" and the "Todarodes"; and other sharks, as indicated by the stomach contents of a –long frilled shark which had swallowed a Japanese catshark ("Apristurus japonicus"). The high tendency to primarily consume the squids in their habitat can be supported by the frequent observation of beak remnants left behind during digestive processes. Because frilled sharks live on the ocean floor, they may also feed on carrion floating down from the surface.


title: Frilled shark

text: In hunting and eating prey that are tired or exhausted or dying (after spawn), the frilled shark's physiology suggests that it may curve its anguilline body, and brace its rear fins against the water, for leverage to effect a rapid-strike bite that captures the prey. The wide gape of the distended, long jaws allows devouring whole prey that are more than half the size of the frilled shark, itself. The jaws' 300 recurved teeth (19–28 upper rows and 21–29 lower rows) readily snag and capture the soft body and tentacles of a cephalopod, especially with the rows of trident-shaped teeth are rotated outwards, when the jaws are open and protruded. Moreover, unlike the strong bite of sharks with an underslung jaw attached below the cranium, the frilled shark has a relatively weak bite, because of the limited leverage and force possible with long jaws that are directly articulated to the cranium, at a point behind the eyes.


title: Frilled shark

text: The behavior of captive specimen sharks suggests that the frilled shark also hunts with its mouth open, by using the dark-and-light contrast of white teeth and darkness to lure prey into its gaping maw; and also hunts with negative pressure, to suck prey into its maw. Forensic examination of frilled sharks' revealed little-to-no food in their stomachs, which suggests that the frilled shark either has a fast-rate of digestion or goes hungry in the long intervals between feedings.


title: Frilled shark

text: The extant species of frilled shark, "C. anguineus" and "C. africana", do not have a defined breeding season, because their oceanic habitats register no seasonal influence from the ocean's surface; the male shark reaches sexual maturity when he is long, and the female shark reaches sexual maturity when she is long. The mature female shark has two ovaries and a uterus, which is in the right side of her body; ovulation occurs fortnightly; and pregnancy ceases vitellogenesis (yolk formation) and the production of new ova. Both ovulated eggs and early-stage shark embryos are enclosed in chondrichthyes, ellipsoid egg-cases made of a thin, golden-brown membrane.


title: Frilled shark

text: Reproductively, the frilled shark is an ovoviviparous animal born from an encapsulated egg retained within the mother shark's uterus. During gestation, the shark embryos develop in membranous egg-cases contained within the body of the mother shark, when the infant sharks emerge from their egg capsules in the uterus they feed on yolk until birth. The frilled-shark embryo is long, has a pointed head, slightly developed jaws, nascent external gills, and possesses all fins. The growth of the jaw for elasmobranchs seem to begin early in the embryonic stage, however, it has been observed not to be the case for frilled sharks. The elongation of the jaws seemed to begin later in embryonic development. This leads to some studies suggesting that the terminal position of their mouth, due to anterior elongation of the jaw, is a derived trait instead of ancestral. When the embryo is long, the mother shark expels the egg capsule, at which developmental stage the frilled shark's external gills are developed. Throughout embryonic development, the size of the yolk sac remains constant, until the shark embryo is long, whereupon the sac shrinks until disappearing when the embryo has grown to in length. In the course of pregnancy, the embryo's average rate-of-growth is per month until birth, when the shark pups are long, therefore, the frilled shark's gestation period can be as long as 3.5 years; at birth, a frilled shark's litter comprises 2–15 pups, with an average litter comprises 6.0 pups.


title: Frilled shark

text: In pursuit of food, the frilled shark usually is a bycatch of commercial fishing, accidentally caught in the nets used for trawl-, gillnet-, and longline-fishing. In Japan, at Suruga Bay, the frilled shark is usually caught in the gillnets used to catch sea bream and gnomefish, and in the trawl nets used to catch shrimp in the mid-waters of the ocean. Despite being a nuisance fish that damages fishing nets, the economic and commercial value of the frilled shark is as fishmeal and as meat.


title: Frilled shark

text: In 2004, marine biologists first observed the frilled shark ("Chlamydoselachus anguineus") at the depth of , in its deep-water habitat at the Blake Plateau, off the southeastern coast of the U.S. In 2007, a Japanese fisherman caught a –long female frilled shark at the surface of the ocean and delivered it to the Awashima Marine Park, at Shizuoka city, where the shark died after hours of captivity. In 2014, a trawler fishing-boat caught a –long frilled shark in –deep water at Lakes Entrance, Victoria, Australia; later, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed that the shark was a "Chlamydoselachus anguineus", an eel-like shark with a frill.


title: Frilled shark

text: In 2016, consequent to the depletion of food sources caused by commercial overfishing of the feeding areas of the shark's deep-water habitat, and because of the shark's slow rate of reproduction, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the frilled shark as a fish species under near-threat of extinction, and then reclassified it as a species of Least Concern of extinction. In 2018, the New Zealand Threat Classification System identified the frilled shark as an animal "At Risk — Naturally Uncommon", not easily found living in the wild.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Friedrich Ebert (; 4 February 187128 February 1925) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the first president of Germany from 1919 until his death in office in 1925.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Ebert was elected leader of the SPD on the death in 1913 of August Bebel. In 1914, shortly after he assumed leadership, the party became deeply divided over Ebert's support of war loans to finance the German war effort in World War I. A moderate social democrat, Ebert was in favour of the "Burgfrieden", a political policy that sought to suppress squabbles over domestic issues among political parties during wartime in order to concentrate all forces in society on the successful conclusion of the war effort. He tried to isolate those in the party opposed to the war and advocated a split.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Ebert was a pivotal figure in the German Revolution of 1918–19. When Germany became a republic at the end of World War I, he became its first chancellor. His policies at that time were primarily aimed at restoring peace and order in Germany and suppressing the left. To accomplish these goals, he allied himself with conservative and nationalistic political forces, in particular the leadership of the military under General Wilhelm Groener and the right-wing "Freikorps". With their help, Ebert's government crushed a number of socialist, communist and anarchist uprisings as well as those from the right, including the Kapp Putsch, a legacy that has made him a controversial historical figure.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Ebert was born in Heidelberg in the German Empire, on 4 February 1871, the seventh of nine children of the tailor Karl Ebert (1834–1892) and his wife Katharina ("née" Hinkel; 1834–1897). Three of his siblings died at a young age. Although he wanted to attend university, this proved impossible due to his family's lack of funds. Instead, he trained as a saddle-maker from 1885 to 1888. After he became a journeyman in 1889 he travelled, according to the German custom, from place to place in Germany, seeing the country and learning fresh details of his trade. In Mannheim, he was introduced by an uncle to the Social Democratic Party, joining it in 1889. Although Ebert studied the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, he was less interested in ideology than in practical and organisational issues that would improve the lot of the workers then and there. Ebert was placed on a police "black list" due to his political activities, so he kept changing his place of residence. Between 1889 and 1891, he lived in Kassel, Braunschweig, Elberfeld-Barmen, Remscheid, Quakenbrück and Bremen, where he founded and chaired local chapters of the "Sattlerverband" (Association of Saddlers).


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: After settling in Bremen in 1891, Ebert made a living doing odd jobs. In 1893, he obtained an editorial post on the socialist "Bremer Bürgerzeitung". In May 1894, he married Louise Rump (1873–1955), daughter of a manual labourer, who had been employed as a housemaid and in labelling boxes and who was active in union work. He then became a pub owner that became a centre of socialist and union activity and was elected party chairman of the Bremen SPD. In 1900, Ebert was appointed a trade-union secretary ("Arbeitersekretär") and elected a member of the "Bremer Bürgerschaft" (comitia of citizens) as the representative of the Social Democratic Party. In 1904, Ebert presided over the national convention of the party in Bremen and became better known to a wider public. He became a leader of the "moderate" wing of the Social Democratic Party and in 1905 Secretary-General of the SPD, at which point he moved to Berlin. At the time, he was the youngest member of the "Parteivorstand" (party executive).


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Meanwhile, Ebert had run for a seat in the "Reichstag" (parliament of Germany) several times in constituencies where the SPD had no chance of winning: 1898 Vechta (Oldenburg), 1903 and 1906 Stade (Province of Hanover). However, in 1912, he was elected to the "Reichstag" for the constituency of Elberfeld-Barmen (today part of Wuppertal). This was the election that also made the SPD the strongest party in the "Reichstag" with 110 out of a total of 397 members, surpassing the Centre Party. On the death of August Bebel on 13 August 1913, Ebert was elected as joint party chairman at the convention in Jena on 20 September with 433 out of 473 votes. His co-chairman was Hugo Haase.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: When the July Crisis of 1914 erupted, Ebert was on vacation. After war was declared in early August, Ebert travelled to Zürich with party treasurer Otto Braun and the SPD's money to be in a position to build up a foreign organisation if the SPD should be outlawed in the German Empire. He returned on 6 August and led the SPD "Reichstag" members to vote almost unanimously in favour of war loans, accepting that the war was a necessary patriotic, defensive measure, especially against the autocratic regime of the Tsar in Russia. In January 1916, Haase resigned. Under the leadership of Ebert and other "moderates" such as Philipp Scheidemann, the SPD party participated in the "Burgfrieden", an agreement among the political parties in the "Reichstag" to suppress domestic policy differences for the duration of the war in order to concentrate the energies of the country solely on bringing the conflict to a successful conclusion for Germany. This positioned the party in favour of the war with the aim of a compromise peace, a stance that eventually led to a split in the SPD, with those radically opposed to the war leaving the SPD in early 1917 to form the USPD. Similar policy disputes caused Ebert to end his parliamentary alliance with several left-wing members of the "Reichstag" and start to work closely with the Centre Party and the Progress Party in 1916. Later those kicked out by Ebert called themselves "Spartacists". Beginning in 1916, Ebert shared the leadership of his "Reichstag" delegates with Scheidemann. Although he opposed a policy of territorial gains secured through military conquest on the western front (aside from Luxembourg which was German speaking and could be easily incorporated), Ebert supported the war effort overall as a defensive struggle. Ebert experienced the traumatic loss of having two of his four sons killed in the war: Heinrich died in February 1917 in Macedonia, whereas Georg was killed in action in May 1917 in France. In June 1917, a delegation of social democrats led by Ebert travelled to Stockholm for talks with socialists from other countries about a conference that would have sought to end the war without any annexations of territory on the western front except for Luxembourg and giving back most of Alsace and Loraine with blessings from the German government. The initiative failed, however.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: In January 1918, when the workers in munition factories in Berlin went on strike, Ebert joined the strike leadership, but worked hard to get the strikers back to work. He was pilloried by a few politicians from the extremist left as a "traitor to the working class", and from the right as a "traitor to the fatherland". Kaiser Wilhelm II and most politicians from both sides considered him an upstanding person and hero for getting them back to work non violently.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: As the war continued, the military Supreme Command (OHL), nominally headed by Paul von Hindenburg, but effectively controlled by his subordinate Erich Ludendorff, became the "de facto ruler" of Germany. When it became clear that the war was lost in late summer and fall of 1918, Ludendorff started to favour the "parliamentisation" of the German Empire, i.e. a transfer of power to those parties that held the majority in the Reichstag (SPD, Centre Party and Progress Party). The goal was to shift the blame for the military defeat from the OHL to the politicians of the majority parties.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff suddenly informed Paul von Hintze, the German Foreign Minister, that the Western Front could collapse at any moment and that a ceasefire had to be negotiated without delay. However, he suggested that the request for the ceasefire should come from a new government sanctioned by the Reichstag majority. In his view, a "revolution from above" was needed. Chancellor Georg von Hertling and Kaiser Wilhelm II agreed, although the former resigned. Scheidemann and a majority of SPD deputies were opposed to joining "a bankrupt enterprise", but Ebert convinced his party, arguing that "we must throw ourselves into the breach" and "it is our damned duty to do it". In early October, the Kaiser appointed a liberal, Prince Maximilian of Baden, as chancellor to lead peace negotiations with the Allies. The new government for the first time included ministers from the SPD: Phillip Scheidemann and Gustav Bauer. The request for a ceasefire went out on 4 October. On 5 October, the government informed the German public about these events. However, there was then a delay, as the American President Wilson initially refused to agree to the ceasefire. His diplomatic notes seemed to indicate that the changes to the German government were insufficient and the fact that Wilhelm II remained head of state was a particular obstacle. Ebert did not favour exchanging the monarchy for a republic, but like many others, he was worried about the danger of a socialist revolution, which seemed more likely with every day that passed. On 28 October, the constitution was changed to transfer power to the Reichstag. At this point, the majority parties of the Reichstag, including Ebert's SPD, were quite satisfied with the state of affairs; what they now needed was a period of calm to deal with the issue of negotiating an armistice and a peace treaty.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: The plans of the new German government were thrown into disarray when a confrontation between officers and crews on board the German fleet at Wilhelmshaven on 30 October set in motion a train of events that would result in the German Revolution of 1918–19 that spread over a substantial part of the country over the next week. Against the backdrop of a country falling into anarchy, the SPD led by Ebert on 7 November demanded a more powerful voice in the cabinet, an extension of parliamentarism to the state of Prussia and the renunciation of the throne by both the Emperor and his oldest son, Crown Prince Wilhelm. Ebert had favoured retaining the monarchy under a different ruler, but at this time told Prince Maximilian von Baden, "If the Kaiser does not abdicate, the social revolution is inevitable. But I do not want it, I even hate it like sin." On the left, the Spartacists (numbering around 100 in Berlin) and a group of around 80 to 100 popular labour leaders from Berlin known as Revolutionary Stewards ("Revolutionäre Obleute") prepared for a revolution in the capital.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: On 9 November, the revolution reached Berlin as the larger companies were hit by a general strike called by the Spartacists and the Revolutionary Stewards, but also supported by the SPD and the mainstream unions. Workers' and soldiers' councils were created, and important buildings occupied. As the striking masses marched on the centre of Berlin, the SPD, afraid of losing its influence on the revolution, announced that it was resigning from the government of Prince Maximilian.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Meanwhile, Prince Maximilian had failed to convince Emperor Wilhelm II, who was at the army headquarters at Spa, Belgium, of the need to abdicate. Wilhelm had resigned himself to the loss of the imperial crown, but still thought he could remain king of Prussia. However, under the imperial constitution, the imperial crown was tied to the Prussian crown. When Maximilian failed to convince him of the unreality of giving up one crown and not the other, he unilaterally and untruthfully announced that Wilhelm had in fact abdicated both titles and that the Crown Prince had agreed to relinquish his right of succession. Shortly thereafter, the SPD leadership arrived at the chancellery and Ebert asked Prince Maximilian to hand over the government to him. After a short meeting of the cabinet, the chancellor resigned and, in an unconstitutional move, handed his office over to Ebert, who thus became Chancellor of Germany and Minister President of Prussia. He was the first socialist, the second politician and the second commoner to hold either office. Ebert left the government of Prince Maximilian mostly unchanged, but appointed SPD operatives for the Prussian Minister of War and for the military commander of the Berlin area.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Ebert's first action as chancellor was to issue a series of proclamations asking the people to remain calm, stay out of the streets and to restore peace and order. It failed to work. Ebert then had lunch with Scheidemann at the Reichstag and, when asked to do so, refused to speak to the masses gathered outside. Scheidemann however seized upon the opportunity, and in hopes of forestalling whatever the Communist leader Karl Liebknecht was telling his followers at the now-former royal palace, proclaimed Germany a republic. A furious Ebert promptly reproached him: "You have no right to proclaim the Republic!" By this he meant that the decision was to be left to an elected national assembly, even if that decision might be the restoration of the monarchy. Later that day, Ebert even asked Prince Maximilian to stay on as regent, but was refused.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: Since Wilhelm II had not actually abdicated on 9 November, Germany legally remained a monarchy until the Emperor signed his formal abdication on 28 November. But when Wilhelm handed over supreme command of the army to Paul von Hindenburg and left for the Netherlands on the morning of 10 November, the country was effectively without a head of state.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: An entirely Socialist provisional government based on workers' councils was about to take power under Ebert's leadership. It was called the Council of the People's Deputies ("Rat der Volksbeauftragten"). Ebert found himself in a quandary. He had succeeded in bringing the SPD to power, and he was now in a position to put into law social reforms and improve the lot of the working class. Yet as a result of the revolution, he and his party were forced to share power with those on the left whom he despised: the Spartacists and the Independents. In the afternoon of 9 November, he grudgingly asked the USPD to nominate three ministers for the future government. Yet that evening a group of several hundred followers of the Revolutionary Stewards occupied the Reichstag building and were holding an impromptu debate. They called for the election of soldiers' and workers' councils the next day with an eye to name a provisional government: the Council of the People's Deputies. In order to keep control of events and against his own anti-revolutionary convictions, Ebert decided that he needed to co-opt the workers' councils and thus become the leader of the revolution while at the same time serving as the formal head of the German government.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: On 10 November, the SPD, led by Ebert, managed to ensure that a majority of the newly elected workers' and soldiers' councils came from among their own supporters. Meanwhile, the USPD agreed to work with him and share power in the Council of the People's Deputies, the new revolutionary government. Ebert announced the pact between the two socialist parties to the assembled councils who were eager for a unified socialist front and approved the parity of three members each coming from SPD and USPD. Ebert and Haase for the USPD were to be the joint chairmen. That same day, Ebert received a telephone call from OHL chief of staff Wilhelm Groener, who offered to cooperate with him. According to Groener, he promised Ebert the loyalty of the military in exchange for some demands: a fight against Bolshevism, an end to the system of soldiers' and workers' councils, a national assembly and a return to a state of law and order. This initiated a regular communication between the two that involved daily telephone conversations over a secret line, according to Groener. The agreements between the two became known as the Ebert–Groener pact.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: In domestic policy, a number of social reforms were quickly introduced by the Council of the People's Deputies under Ebert's leadership, including unemployment benefits, the eight-hour workday, universal suffrage for everyone over the age of 20, the right of farmhands to organise, and increases in workers' old-age, sick and unemployment benefits.


title: Friedrich Ebert

text: A decree of 12 November 1918 established the Reich Office for Economic Demobilization, with the purpose of carrying the German economy over "to peace conditions". On 22 November 1918, a regulation was issued by the Reich Food Office for election to "peasants' and workers' councils" which were subscribed to "by all agricultural associations". On 23 November 1918, the Reich Office for Economic Demobilization issued twelve regulations which set forth rules governing duration of the working day, sick leaves, paid vacations, "and other aspects of labour relations within the German economy". A decree of the Office for Economic Demobilization made on 9 December 1918 provided that the state governments "should require the communes and communal unions to establish departments for general vocational guidance and for placement of apprentices".