title: History of erotic depictions

text: Among the oldest surviving examples of erotic depictions are Paleolithic cave paintings and carvings. Some of the more common images are of animals, hunting scenes and depictions of human genitalia. Nude human beings with exaggerated sexual characteristics are depicted in some Paleolithic paintings and artifacts (e.g. Venus figurines). Recently discovered cave art at Creswell Crags in England, thought to be more than 12,000 years old, includes some symbols that may be stylized versions of female genitalia. As there is no direct evidence of the use of these objects, it is speculated that they may have been used in religious rituals, or for a more directly sexual purpose.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Archaeologists in Germany reported in April 2005 that they had found what they believe is a 7,200-year-old scene depicting a male figurine bending over a female figurine in a manner suggestive of sexual intercourse. The male figure has been named Adonis von Zschernitz.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: A vast number of artifacts have been discovered from ancient Mesopotamia depicting explicit sexual intercourse. Glyptic art from the Sumerian Early Dynastic Period frequently shows scenes of frontal sex in the missionary position. In Mesopotamian votive plaques from the early second millennium BC, the man is usually shown entering the woman from behind while she bends over, drinking beer through a straw. Middle Assyrian lead votive figurines often represent the man standing and penetrating the woman as she rests on top of an altar. Scholars have traditionally interpreted all these depictions as scenes of ritual sex, but they are more likely to be associated with the cult of Inanna, the goddess of sex and prostitution. Many sexually explicit images were found in the temple of Inanna at Assur, which also contained models of male and female sexual organs, including stone phalli, which may have been worn around the neck as an amulet or used to decorate cult statues, and clay models of the female vulva.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Depictions of sexual intercourse were not part of the general repertory of ancient Egyptian formal art, but rudimentary sketches of sexual intercourse have been found on pottery fragments and in graffiti. The Turin Erotic Papyrus (Papyrus 55001) is a by Egyptian papyrus scroll discovered at Deir el-Medina, the last two-thirds of which consist of a series of twelve vignettes showing men and women in various sexual positions. The men in the illustrations are "scruffy, balding, short, and paunchy" with exaggeratedly large genitalia and do not conform to Egyptian standards of physical attractiveness, but the women are nubile and they are shown with objects from traditional erotic iconography, such as convolvulus leaves and, in some scenes, they are even holding items traditionally associated with Hathor, the goddess of love, such as lotus flowers, monkeys, and sistra. The scroll was probably painted in the Ramesside period (1292-1075 BC) and its high artistic quality indicates that was produced for a wealthy audience. No other similar scrolls have yet been discovered.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The ancient Greeks often painted sexual scenes on their ceramics, many of them famous for being some of the earliest depictions of same-sex relations and pederasty. Greek art often portrays sexual activity, but it is impossible to distinguish between what to them was illegal or immoral since the ancient Greeks did not have a concept of pornography. Their art simply reflects scenes from daily life, some more sexual than others. Carved phalli can be seen in places of worship such as the temple of Dionysus on Delos, while a common household item and protective charm was the herm, a statue consisting of a head on a square plinth with a prominent phallus on the front. The Greek male ideal had a small penis, an aesthetic the Romans later adopted. The Greeks also created the first well-known instance of lesbian eroticism in the West, with Sappho's "Hymn to Aphrodite" and other homoerotic works.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: There are numerous sexually explicit paintings and sculptures from the ruined Roman buildings in Pompeii and Herculaneum but the original purposes of the depictions can vary. On one hand, in the Villa of the Mysteries, there is a ritual flagellation scene that is clearly associated with a religious cult and this image can be seen as having religious significance rather than sexual. On the other hand, graphic paintings in a brothel advertise sexual services in murals above each door. In Pompeii, phalli and testicles engraved in the sidewalks were created to aid visitors in finding their way by pointing to the prostitution and entertainment district as well as general decoration. The Romans considered depictions of sex to be decoration in good taste, and indeed the pictures reflect the sexual mores and practices of their culture, as on the Warren Cup. Sex acts that were considered taboo (such as oral sex) were depicted in baths for comic effect. Large phalli were often used near entryways, for the phallus was a good-luck charm, and the carvings were common in homes. One of the first objects excavated when the complex was discovered was a marble statue showing the god Pan having sex with a goat, a detailed depiction of bestiality considered so obscene that it was not on public display until the year 2000 and remains in the Secret Museum, Naples.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The Moche of Peru are another ancient people that sculpted explicit scenes of sex into their pottery. At least 500 Moche ceramics have sexual themes.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Rafael Larco Hoyle speculates that their purpose was very different from that of other early cultures. He states that the Moche believed that the world of the dead was the exact opposite of the world of the living. Therefore, for funeral offerings, they made vessels showing sex acts such as masturbation, fellatio and anal sex that would not result in offspring. The hope was that in the world of the dead, they would take on their opposite meaning and result in fertility. The erotic pottery of the Moche is depicted in Hoyle's book "Checan".


title: History of erotic depictions

text: There has been a long tradition of erotic painting in the East. India, Japan, China, Persia and other lands produced copious quantities of art celebrating the human faculty of love. The works depict love between men and women as well as same-sex love. One of the most famous ancient sex manuals was the "Kama Sutra", written by in India during the first few centuries CE. Another notable treatise on human sexuality is "The Perfumed Garden" by the Tunisian , dating to the 15th century.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In Japan, erotic art found its widest success in the medium of woodblock printing, in the style known as , to which many classical woodblock artists, such as and , contributed a large number of works. Erotic painted hand scrolls were also very popular. appeared in the 13th century, and continued to grow in popularity, despite occasionally attempts by the authorities to clamp down on their production, the first instance of which being a ban on erotic books known as issued by the Tokugawa shogunate in 7 (1722). only ceased to be produced in the 19th century, following the invention and wider spread of photography, which mainly usurped the medium.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The Chinese tradition of erotic art was also extensive, with examples dating back as far as the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). The erotic art of China reached its peak during the latter part of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In both China and Japan, eroticism played a prominent role in the development of the novel. "The Tale of Genji", sometimes considered the world's first novel, was produced in the 11th century by Heian period noblewoman , and featured the depiction of many erotic affairs by its protagonist. The more explicit 16th century Chinese novel "The Plum in the Golden Vase", often called one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, was in contrast suppressed as pornography for much of its history, where "The Tale of" was celebrated from its inception.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Erotic scenes in medieval illuminated manuscripts also appeared, but were seen only by those who could afford the extremely expensive hand-made books. Most of these drawings occur in the margins of books of hours. Many medieval scholars think that the pictures satisfied the medieval cravings for both erotic pictures and religion in one book, especially since it was often the only book someone owned. Other scholars think the drawings in the margins were a kind of moral caution, but the depiction of priests and other ranking officials engaged in sex acts suggests political origins as well.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: It was not until the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg that sexually explicit images entered into any type of mass circulation in the western world. Before that time, erotic images, being hand made and expensive, were limited to upper class males. Even the British Museum had a Secretum filled with a collection of ancient erotica donated by the upper class doctor, George Witt in 1865. The remains of the collection, including his scrapbooks, still reside in Cupboard 55, though the majority of it has recently been integrated with the museum's other collections.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Prints became very popular in Europe from the middle of the fifteenth century, and because of their compact nature, were very suitable for erotic depictions that did not need to be permanently on display. Nudity and the revival of classical subjects were associated from very early on in history of the print, and many prints of subjects from mythological subjects were clearly in part an excuse for erotic material; the engravings of Giovanni Battista Palumba in particular. An earthier eroticism is seen in a printing plate of 1475-1500 for an "Allegory of Copulation" where a young couple are having sex, with the woman's legs high in the air, at one end of a bench, while at the other end a huge penis, with legs and wings and a bell tied around the bottom of the glans, is climbing onto the bench. Although the plate has been used until worn out, then re-engraved and heavily used again, none of the contemporary impressions printed, which probably ran into the hundreds, have survived.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The loves of classical gods, especially those of Jupiter detailed in Ovid provided many subjects where actual sex was the key moment in the story, and its depiction was felt to be justified. In particular, Leda and the Swan, where the god appeared as a swan and seduced the woman, was depicted very explicitly; it seems that this—rather strangely—was considered more acceptable because he appeared as a bird. For a period ending in the early 16th century the boundaries of what could be depicted in works for display in the semi-privacy of a Renaissance palace seemed uncertain. Michelangelo's "Leda" was a fairly large painting showing sex in progress, and one of the hundreds of illustrations to the book the "Hypnerotomachia Poliphili" of 1499 shows Leda and the Swan having sex on top of a triumphal car watched by a crowd.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In the 16th century an attempt to print erotic material caused a scandal when the well-known Italian artist Marcantonio Raimondi published "I Modi" in 1524, an illustrated book of 16 "postures" or sexual positions. Raimondi was subsequently imprisoned by the Pope Clement VII and all copies of the illustrations were destroyed. Raimondi based the engravings on a series of erotic paintings that Giulio Romano was doing as a commission for the Palazzo del Te in Mantua. Though the two depictions were very similar, only Raimondi was prosecuted because his engravings were capable of being seen by the public. Romano did not know of the engravings until Pietro Aretino, considered a founder of pornography, came to see the original paintings while Romano was still working on them. Aretino then composed sixteen explicit sonnets ("both in your cunt and your behind, my prick will make me happy, and you happy and blissful") to go with the paintings and secured Raimondi's release from prison. "I Modi" was then published a second time in 1527, with the poems and the pictures, making this the first time erotic text and images were combined, though the papacy once more seized all the copies it could find. Raimondi escaped prison that time, but the censorship was so strict that no complete editions of the original printings have ever been found. The text in existence is only a copy of a copy that was discovered 400 years later.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In the 17th century, numerous examples of pornographic or erotic literature began to circulate. These included "L'Ecole des Filles", a French work printed in 1655 that is considered to be the beginning of pornography in France. It consists of an illustrated dialogue between two women, a 16-year-old and her more worldly cousin, and their explicit discussions about sex. The author remains anonymous to this day, though a few suspected authors served light prison sentences for supposed authorship of the work. In his famous diary, Samuel Pepys records purchasing a copy for solitary reading and then burning it so that it would not be discovered by his wife; "the idle roguish book, "L'escholle de filles"; which I have bought in plain binding… because I resolve, as soon as I have read it, to burn it."


title: History of erotic depictions

text: During the Enlightenment, many of the French free-thinkers began to exploit pornography as a medium of social criticism and satire. Libertine pornography was a subversive social commentary and often targeted the Catholic Church and general attitudes of sexual repression. The market for the mass-produced, inexpensive pamphlets soon became the bourgeoisie, making the upper class worry, as in England, that the morals of the lower class and weak-minded would be corrupted since women, slaves and the uneducated were seen as especially vulnerable during that time. The stories and illustrations (sold in the galleries of the Palais Royal, along with the services of prostitutes) were often anti-clerical and full of misbehaving priests, monks and nuns, a tradition that in French pornography continued into the 20th century. In the period leading up to the French Revolution, pornography was also used as political commentary; Marie Antoinette was often targeted with fantasies involving orgies, lesbian activities and the paternity of her children, and rumours circulated about the supposed sexual inadequacies of Louis XVI. During and after the Revolution, the famous works of the Marquis de Sade were printed. They were often accompanied by illustrations and served as political commentary for their author.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The English answer to this was "Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure" (later abridged and renamed "Fanny Hill") written in 1748 by John Cleland. While the text satirised the literary conventions and fashionable manners of 18th century England, it was more scandalous for depicting a woman, the narrator, enjoying and even reveling in sexual acts with no dire moral or physical consequences. The text is hardly explicit as Cleland wrote the entire book using euphemisms for sex acts and body parts, employing 50 different ones just for the term penis. Two small earthquakes were credited to the book by the Bishop of London and Cleland was arrested and briefly imprisoned, but "Fanny Hill" continued to be published and is one of the most reprinted books in the English language. However, it was not legal to own this book in the United States until 1963 and in the United Kingdom until 1970.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In 1839, Louis Daguerre presented the first practical process of photography to the French Academy of Sciences. Unlike earlier photographic methods, his daguerreotypes had stunning quality and detail and did not fade with time. Artists adopted the new technology as a new way to depict the nude form, which in practice was the feminine form. In so doing, at least initially, they tried to follow the styles and traditions of the art form. Traditionally, an académie was a nude study done by a painter to master the female (or male) form. Each had to be registered with the French government and approved or they could not be sold. Soon, nude photographs were being registered as académie and marketed as aids to painters. However, the realism of a photograph as opposed to the idealism of a painting made many of these intrinsically erotic.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The daguerreotypes were not without drawbacks, however. The main difficulty was that they could only be reproduced by photographing the original picture since each image was an original and the all-metal process does not use negatives. In addition, the earliest daguerreotypes had exposure times ranging from three to fifteen minutes, making them somewhat impractical for portraiture. Unlike earlier drawings, action could not be shown. The poses that the models struck had to be held very still for a long time. Because of this, the standard pornographic image shifted from one of two or more people engaged in sex acts to a solitary woman exposing her genitals. Since one picture could cost a week's salary, the audience for these nudes mostly consisted of artists and the upper echelon of society. It was cheaper to hire a prostitute and experience the sex acts than it was to own a picture of them in the 1840s. Stereoscopy was invented in 1838 and became extremely popular for daguerreotypes, including the erotic images. This technology produced a type of three dimensional view that suited erotic images quite well. Although thousands of erotic daguerreotypes were created, only around 800 are known to survive; however, their uniqueness and expense meant that they were once the toys of rich men. Due to their rarity, the works can sell for more than 10,000 GBP.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In 1841, William Fox Talbot patented the calotype process, the first negative-positive process, making possible multiple copies. This invention permitted an almost limitless number of prints to be produced from a glass negative. Also, the reduction in exposure time made a true mass market for pornographic pictures possible. The technology was immediately employed to reproduce nude portraits. Paris soon became the centre of this trade. In 1848 only thirteen photography studios existed in Paris; by 1860, there were over 400. Most of them profited by selling illicit pornography to the masses who could now afford it. The pictures were also sold near train stations, by traveling salesmen and women in the streets who hid them under their dresses. They were often produced in sets (of four, eight or twelve), and exported internationally, mainly to England and the United States. Both the models and the photographers were commonly from the working class, and the artistic model excuse was increasingly hard to use. By 1855, no more photographic nudes were being registered as académie, and the business had gone underground to escape prosecution.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The Victorian pornographic tradition in the UK had three main elements: French photographs, erotic prints (sold in shops in Holywell Street, a long vanished London thoroughfare, swept away by the Aldwych), and printed literature. The ability to reproduce photographs in bulk assisted the rise of a new business individual, the porn dealer. Many of these dealers took advantage of the postal system to send out photographic cards in plain wrappings to their subscribers. Therefore, the development of a reliable international postal system facilitated the beginnings of the pornography trade. Victorian pornography had several defining characteristics. It reflected a very mechanistic view of the human anatomy and its functions. Science, the new obsession, was used to ostensibly study the human body. Consequently, the sexuality of the subject is often depersonalised, and is without any passion or tenderness. At this time, it also became popular to depict nude photographs of women of exotic ethnicities, under the umbrella of science. Studies of this type can be found in the work of Eadweard Muybridge. Although he photographed both men and women, the women were often given props like market baskets and fishing poles, making the images of women thinly disguised erotica. Parallel to the British printing history, photographers and printers in France frequently turned to the medium of postcards, producing great numbers of them. Such cards came to be known in the US as "French postcards".


title: History of erotic depictions

text: During the Victorian period, illegal pornographic periodicals such as "The Pearl", which ran for eighteen issues between 1879 and 1880, circulated clandestinely among circles of elite urban gentlemen. In 1880, halftone printing was used to reproduce photographs inexpensively for the first time. The invention of halftone printing took pornography and erotica in new directions at the beginning of the 20th century. The new printing processes allowed photographic images to be reproduced easily in black and white, whereas printers were previously limited to engravings, woodcuts and line cuts for illustrations. This was the first format that allowed pornography to become a mass market phenomena, it now being more affordable and more easily acquired than any previous form.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: First appearing in France, the new magazines featured nude (often, burlesque actresses were hired as models) and semi-nude photographs on the cover and throughout; while these would now be termed softcore, they were quite shocking for the time. The publications soon either masqueraded as "art magazines" or publications celebrating the new cult of naturism, with titles such as "Photo Bits", "Body in Art", "Figure Photography", "Nude Living" and "Modern Art for Men." "Health and Efficiency", started in 1900, was a typical naturist magazine in Britain.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Another early form of pornography were comic books known as Tijuana bibles that began appearing in the U.S. in the 1920s and lasted until the publishing of glossy colour men's magazines commenced. These were crude hand drawn scenes often using popular characters from cartoons and culture.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In the 1940s, the word "pinup" was coined to describe pictures torn from men's magazines and calendars and "pinned up" on the wall by U.S. soldiers in World War II. While the '40s images focused mostly on legs, by the '50s, the emphasis shifted to breasts. Betty Grable and Marilyn Monroe were two of the most popular pinup models. In the second half of the 20th century, pornography evolved into the men's magazines such as "Playboy" and "Modern Man" of the 1950s. In fact, the beginning of the modern men's glossy magazine (or girlie magazine) can be traced to the 1953 purchase by Hugh Hefner of a photograph of Marilyn Monroe to use as the centerfold of his new magazine "Playboy". Soon, this type of magazine was the primary medium in which pornography was consumed.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In postwar Britain digest magazines such as "Beautiful Britons", "Spick" and "Span", with their interest in nylons and underwear


title: History of erotic depictions

text: and the racier "Kamera" published by Harrison Marks were incredibly popular. The creative force behind "Kamera" was Harrison Marks' partner Pamela Green. These magazines featured nude or semi-nude women in extremely coy or flirtatious poses with no hint of pubic hair.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: "Penthouse", started by Bob Guccione in England in 1965, took a different approach. Women looked indirectly at the camera, as if they were going about their private idylls. This change of emphasis was influential in erotic depictions of women. "Penthouse" was also the first magazine to publish pictures that included pubic hair and full frontal nudity, both of which were considered beyond the bounds of the erotic and in the realm of pornography at the time. In the late 1960s, magazines began to move into more explicit displays often focusing on the buttocks as standards of what could be legally depicted and what readers wanted to see changed. By the 1970s, they were focusing on the pubic area and eventually, by the 1990s, featured sexual penetration, lesbianism and homosexuality, group sex, masturbation, and fetishes in the more hard-core magazines such as "Hustler".


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Magazines for every taste and fetish were soon created due to the low cost of producing them. Magazines for the gay community flourished, the most notable and one of the first being "Physique Pictorial", started in 1951 by Bob Mizer when his attempt to sell the services of male models; however, Athletic Model Guild photographs of them failed. It was published in black and white, in a very clear yet photographic manner celebrating the male form and was published for nearly 50 years. The magazine was innovative in its use of props and costumes to depict the now standard gay icons like cowboys, gladiators and sailors.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Production of erotic films commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture. Two of the earliest pioneers were Frenchmen Eugène Pirou and Albert Kirchner. Kirchner (under the name "Léar") directed the earliest surviving erotic film for Pirou. The 7-minute 1896 film "Le Coucher de la Mariee" had Louise Willy performing a bathroom striptease. Other French filmmakers also considered that profits could be made from this type of risqué films, showing women disrobing.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Also in 1896 "Fatima's Coochie-Coochie Dance" was released as a short kinetoscope film featuring a gyrating belly dancer named Fatima. Her gyrating and moving pelvis was censored, one of the earliest films to be censored. At the time, there were numerous risqué films that featured exotic dancers. In the same year, "The May Irwin Kiss" contained the very first kiss on film. It was a 20-second film loop, with a close-up of a nuzzling couple followed by a short peck on the lips ("the mysteries of the kiss revealed"). The kissing scene was denounced as shocking and pornographic to early moviegoers and caused the Roman Catholic Church to call for censorship and moral reform - because kissing in public at the time could lead to prosecution. A tableau vivant style is used in short film "The Birth of the Pearl" (1901) featuring an unnamed long-haired young model wearing a flesh-colored body stocking in a direct frontal pose that provides a provocative view of the female body. The pose is in the style of Botticelli's The Birth of Venus.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Because Pirou is nearly unknown as a pornographic filmmaker, credit is often given to other films for being the first. In "Black and White and Blue" (2008), one of the most scholarly attempts to document the origins of the clandestine 'stag film' trade, Dave Thompson recounts ample evidence that such an industry first had sprung up in the brothels of Buenos Aires and other South American cities by around the start of the 20th century, and then quickly spread through Central Europe over the following few years; however, none of these earliest pornographic films is known to survive. According to Patrick Robertson's "Film Facts", "the earliest pornographic motion picture which can definitely be dated is "A L'Ecu d'Or ou la bonne auberge"" made in France in 1908; the plot depicts a weary soldier who has a tryst with a servant girl at an inn. The Argentinian "El Satario" might be even older; it has been dated to somewhere between 1907 and 1912. He also notes that "the oldest surviving pornographic films are contained in America's Kinsey Collection. One film demonstrates how early pornographic conventions were established. The German film "Am Abend" (1910) is "a ten-minute film which begins with a woman masturbating alone in her bedroom, and progresses to scenes of her with a man performing straight sex, fellatio and anal penetration."


title: History of erotic depictions

text: In Austria, Johann Schwarzer formed his Saturn-Film production company which was able to produce 52 erotic productions between 1906 and 1911, when the company was dissolved by the censorship authorities and the films destroyed.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Soon illegal stag films or blue films, as they were called, were produced underground by amateurs for many years starting in the 1940s. Processing the film took considerable time and resources, with people using their bathtubs to wash the film when processing facilities (often tied to organized crime) were unavailable. The films were then circulated privately or by traveling salesman but being caught viewing or possessing them put one at the risk of prison.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The post-war era saw developments that further stimulated the growth of a mass market. Technological developments, particularly the introduction of the 8mm and super-8 film gauges, resulted in the widespread use of amateur cinematography. Entrepreneurs emerged to supply this market. In the UK, the productions of Harrison Marks were "soft core", but considered risqué in the 1950s. On the continent, such films were more explicit. Lasse Braun was as a pioneer in quality colour productions that were, in the early days, distributed by making use of his father's diplomatic privileges. Pornography was first legalized in Denmark July 1969, soon followed by the Netherlands the same year and Sweden in 1971, and this led to an explosion of commercially produced pornography in those countries, with the Color Climax Corporation quickly becoming the leading pornographic producer for the next couple of decades. Now that being a pornographer was a legitimate occupation, there was no shortage of businessmen to invest in proper plant and equipment capable of turning out a mass-produced, cheap, but quality product. Vast amounts of this new pornography, both magazines and films, were smuggled into other parts of Europe, where it was sold "under the counter" or (sometimes) shown in "members only" cinema clubs.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: The first explicitly pornographic film with a plot that received a general theatrical release in the U.S. is generally considered to be "Mona the Virgin Nymph" (also known as "Mona"), a 59-minute 1970 feature by Bill Osco and Howard Ziehm, who went on to create the relatively high-budget hardcore/softcore (depending on the release) cult film "Flesh Gordon". The 1971 film "Boys in the Sand" represented a number of pornographic firsts. As the first generally available gay pornographic film, the film was the first to include on-screen credits for its cast and crew (albeit largely under pseudonyms), to parody the title of a mainstream film (in this case, "The Boys in the Band"), and to be reviewed by "The New York Times". In 1972, pornographic films hit their public peak in the United States with both "Deep Throat" and "Behind the Green Door" being met with public approval and becoming social phenomena.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: "The Devil in Miss Jones" followed in 1973 and many predicted that frank depictions of sex onscreen would soon become commonplace, with William Rotsler saying in 1973, "Erotic films are here to stay. Eventually they will simply merge into the mainstream of motion pictures and disappear as a labeled sub-division. Nothing can stop this". In practice, a combination of factors put an end to big budget productions and the mainstreaming of pornography, and in many places it never got close - with "Deep Throat" not approved in its uncut form in the UK until 2000, and not shown publicly until June 2005.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: By 1982, most pornographic films were being shot on the cheaper and more convenient medium of videotape. Many film directors resisted this shift at first because of the different image quality that video tape produced; however, those who did change soon were collecting most of the industry's profits since consumers overwhelmingly preferred the new format. The technology change happened quickly and completely when directors realised that continuing to shoot on film was no longer a profitable option. This change moved the films out of the theaters and into people's private homes. This was the end of the age of big budget productions and the mainstreaming of pornography. It soon went back to its earthy roots and expanded to cover every fetish possible since filming was now so inexpensive. Instead of hundreds of pornographic films being made each year, thousands now were, including compilations of just the sex scenes from various videos.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: Erotic CD-ROMs were popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s because they brought an unprecedented element of interactiveness and fantasy. However, their poor quality was a drawback and when the Internet became common in households their sales declined. About the same time as the video revolution, the Internet became the preferred source of pornography for many people, offering both privacy in viewing and the chance to interact with people. The recent influx of widely available technology such as digital cameras, both moving and still, has blurred the lines between erotic films, photographs and amateur and professional productions.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: It allows easy access to both formats, making the production of them easily achieved by anyone with access to the equipment. Much of the pornography available today is produced by amateurs. Digital media is revolutionary in that it allows photographers and filmmakers to manipulate images in ways previously not possible, heightening the drama or eroticism of a depiction.


title: History of erotic depictions

text: High-definition video shows signs of changing the image of pornography as the technology is increasingly used for professional productions. The porn industry was one of the first to adopt the technology and it may have been a deciding factor in the format competition between HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Additionally, the clearer sharper images it provides have prompted performers to get cosmetic surgery and professional grooming to hide imperfections that are not visible on other video formats. Other adaptations have been different camera angles and techniques for close-ups and lighting.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Chatham Islands ( ) (Moriori: Rēkohu, 'Misty Sun'; ) are an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about east of New Zealand's South Island. They are administered as part of New Zealand. The archipelago consists of about ten islands within an approximate radius, the largest of which are Chatham Island and Pitt Island (Rangiauria). They include New Zealand's easternmost point, the Forty-Fours. Some of the islands, formerly cleared for farming, are now preserved as nature reserves to conserve some of the unique flora and fauna.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The islands were uninhabited when the Moriori people arrived around 1500 CE and developed a peaceful way of life. In 1835 members of the Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama Māori iwi from the North Island of New Zealand invaded the islands and nearly exterminated the Moriori, enslaving the survivors. Later during the period of European colonisation of New Zealand, the New Zealand Company claimed that the British Crown had never included the Chatham Islands as being under its control. The company proposed that it should be sold to the Germans to be a German colony with a contract drawn up for the sale of the Islands of £10,000 in 1841. However, the sale failed and the Chatham Islands officially became part of the Colony of New Zealand in 1842. In 1863 the resident magistrate declared the Moriori released from slavery.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Chatham Islands had a resident population of Waitangi is the main port and settlement. The local economy depends largely on conservation, tourism, farming, and fishing. The Chatham Islands Council provides local administration – its powers resemble those of New Zealand's unitary authorities. The Chatham Islands have their own time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.


title: Chatham Islands

text: mainland point to the Chatham Islands, Cape Turnagain in the North Island, is distant. The two largest islands, Chatham Island and Pitt Island (Rangiauria), constitute most of the total area of , with a dozen scattered islets making up the rest.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The islands sit on the Chatham Rise, a large, relatively shallowly submerged (no more than deep at any point) part of the Zealandia continent that stretches east from near the South Island. The Chatham Islands, which emerged only within the last four million years, are the only part of the Chatham Rise showing above sea level.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The islands are hilly, with coastal areas including cliffs, dunes, beaches, and lagoons. Pitt is more rugged than Chatham; its highest point () is on a plateau near the southernmost point of the main island, south of Lake Te Rangatapu. The plateau is dotted with numerous lakes and lagoons, flowing mainly from the island's nearby second-highest point, Maungatere Hill, at . Notable are the large Te Whanga Lagoon, and Huro and Rangitahi. Chatham has a number of streams, including Te Awainanga and Tuku.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Chatham and Pitt are the only inhabited islands; the remaining smaller islands function as conservation reserves with restricted or prohibited access. The livelihoods of the inhabitants depend on agriculture - the islands export coldwater crayfish - and, increasingly, on tourism.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Chatham Islands – the only part of the Chatham Rise above sea level – form part of the now largely submerged continent of Zealandia. This location positions the Chatham Islands far from the Australian-Pacific plate boundary that dominates the geology of mainland New Zealand. The islands' stratigraphy consists of a Mesozoic schist basement, typically covered by marine sedimentary rocks. Both these sequences are intruded by a series of basalt eruptions. Volcanic activity has occurred multiple times since the Cretaceous, but currently there is no active volcanism near any part of the Chatham Rise.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Chatham Islands have an oceanic climate (Koppen: "Cfb") characterised by a narrow temperature range and relatively frequent rainfall. Their isolated position far from any sizeable landmass renders the record high temperature for the main settlement (Waitangi) just . The climate is cool, wet and windy, with average high temperatures between in summer, and between in July (in the Southern Hemisphere winter). Snow falls extremely rarely, the fall recorded near sea level in July 2015 marked the first such reading for several decades. Under the Trewartha climate classification, the Chatham Islands have a humid subtropical climate (Cf) for the lack of cold weather during the winter and a daily mean temperature above for 8 months or more.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The International Date Line lies to the east of the Chathams, even though the islands lie east of 180° longitude. The Chathams observe their own time, 45 minutes ahead of New Zealand time, including during periods of daylight-saving time; the Chatham Standard Time Zone is distinctive as one of very few that differ from others by a period other than a whole hour or half-hour. (New Zealand Time orients itself to 180° longitude.)


title: Chatham Islands

text: The natural vegetation of the islands was a mixture of forest, scrubby heath, and swamp, but today most of the land is fern or pasture-covered, although there are some areas of dense forest and areas of peat bogs and other habitats. Of interest are the akeake trees, with branches trailing almost horizontally in the lee of the wind. The ferns in the forest understory include "Blechnum discolor".


title: Chatham Islands

text: The islands are home to a rich bio-diversity including about fifty endemic plants adapted to the cold and the wind, such as Chatham Islands forget-me-not ("Myosotidium hortensia"), Chatham Islands sow-thistle "(Embergeria grandifolia)", rautini ("Brachyglottis huntii"), Chatham Islands kakaha ("Astelia chathamica"), soft speargrass ("Aciphylla dieffenbachii"), and Chatham Island akeake or Chatham Island tree daisy ("Olearia traversiorum").


title: Chatham Islands

text: The islands are a breeding ground for huge flocks of seabirds and are home to a number of endemic birds, some of which are seabirds and others which live on the islands. The best known species are the magenta petrel (IUCN classification CR]) and the black robin (IUCN classification EN), both of which came perilously close to extinction before drawing the attention of conservation efforts. Other endemic species are the Chatham oystercatcher, the Chatham gerygone, Chatham pigeon, Forbes' parakeet, the Chatham snipe and the shore plover. The endemic Chatham shag (IUCN classification CR), Pitt shag (IUCN classification EN) and the Chatham albatross (IUCN classification VU) are at risk of capture by a variety of fishing gear, including fishing lines, trawls, gillnets, and pots.


title: Chatham Islands

text: A number of species have gone extinct since human settlement, including the Chatham raven, the Chatham fernbird and the three endemic species of flightless rails, the Chatham rail, Dieffenbach's rail, and Hawkins's rail.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Also, a number of marine mammals are found in the waters of the Chathams, including New Zealand sea lions, leopard seals, and southern elephant seals. Many whale species are attracted to the rich food sources of the Chatham Rise.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Much of the natural forest of these islands has been cleared for farming, but Mangere and Rangatira Islands are now preserved as nature reserves to conserve some of these unique flora and fauna. Another threat to wildlife comes from introduced species which prey on the indigenous birds and reptiles, whereas on Mangere and Rangatira, livestock has been removed and native wildlife is recovering.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Most lakes have been affected by agricultural run-off, but water quality has improved and river quality is generally classed as 'A'.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The first human inhabitants of the Chathams were Polynesian tribes who probably settled the islands around 1500 CE (though possibly as late as 1550), and in their isolation became the Moriori. It was formerly believed that the Moriori migrated directly from the more northerly Polynesian islands. However, linguistic research in the early 2000s instead concluded that the ancestral Moriori were Māori wanderers from New Zealand:


title: Chatham Islands

text: Scholarship over the past 40 years has radically revised the model offered a century earlier by Smith: the Moriori as a pre-Polynesian people have gone (the term Moriori is now a technical term referring to those ancestral Māori who settled the Chatham Islands).'


title: Chatham Islands

text: The plants cultivated by the Māori arrivals were ill-suited for the colder Chathams, so the Moriori lived as hunter-gatherers and fishermen. While their new environment deprived them of the resources with which to build ocean-going craft for long voyages, the Moriori invented what was known as the "waka kōrari", a semi-submerged craft, constructed of flax and lined with air bladders from kelp. This craft was used to travel to the outer islands on 'birding' missions. The Moriori society was a peaceful society and bloodshed was outlawed by the chief Nunuku-whenua after generations of warfare. Arguments were solved by consensus or by duels rather than warfare, but at the first sign of bloodshed, the fight was over. It has been estimated that the population numbered about 2,000 prior to European contact.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The name "Chatham Islands" comes from William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The ship of the Vancouver Expedition, whose captain was William R. Broughton, landed on the Island on 29 November 1791, claimed possession for Great Britain and named the islands after the First Lord of the Admiralty, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham. Broughton's men shot and killed a Moriori resident of Kaingaroa, named Torotoro (or Tamakororo). Chatham Islands date their anniversary on 29 November, and observe it on the nearest Monday to 30 November.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Sealers and whalers soon started hunting in the surrounding ocean with the islands as their base. It is estimated that 10 to 20 percent of the indigenous Moriori soon died from diseases introduced by foreigners. The sealing and whaling industries ceased activities about 1861, while fishing remained as a major economic activity.


title: Chatham Islands

text: On 19 November and 5 December 1835, about 900 Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama previously resident in Te Whanganui-A-Tara (Wellington) and led by the chief Matioro arrived on the brig "Lord Rodney". The first mate of the ship had been 'kidnapped and threatened with death' unless the captain took the Māori settlers on board. The group, which included men, women and children, brought with them 78 tonnes of seed potato, 20 pigs and seven large "waka".


title: Chatham Islands

text: The incoming Māori were received and initially cared for by the local Moriori. Soon, Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama began to "takahi", or walk the land, to lay claim to it. When it became clear that the visitors intended to stay, the Moriori withdrew to their marae at te Awapatiki. There, after holding a "hui" (consultation) to debate what to do about the Māori settlers, the Moriori decided to keep with their policy of non-aggression.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama in turn saw the meeting as a precursor to warfare on the part of Moriori and responded. The Māori attacked and in the ensuing action killed over 260 Moriori. A Moriori survivor recalled: "[The Māori] commenced to kill us like sheep... [We] were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed – men, women and children – indiscriminately". A Māori chief, Te Rakatau Katihe, said in the Native Land Court in 1870: "We took possession ... in accordance with our custom, and we caught all the people. Not one escaped. Some ran away from us, these we killed; and others also we killed – but what of that? It was in accordance with our custom. I am not aware of any of our people being killed by them."


title: Chatham Islands

text: After the killings, Moriori were forbidden to marry Moriori, or to have children with each other. Māori kept Moriori slaves until 1863, following a proclamation by the resident magistrate. Many Moriori women had children by their Māori masters. A number of Moriori women eventually married either Māori or European men. Some were taken away from the Chathams and never returned. Ernst Dieffenbach, who visited the Chathams on a New Zealand Company ship in 1840, reported that the Moriori were the virtual slaves of Māori and were severely mistreated, with death being a blessing. By the time the slaves were released in 1863, only 160 remained, hardly 10% of the 1835 population.


title: Chatham Islands

text: In early May 1838 (some reports say 1839 but this is contradicted by ship records) the French whaling vessel "Jean Bart" anchored off Waitangi to trade with the Māori. The number of Māori boarding frightened the French, escalating into a confrontation in which the French crew were killed and the "Jean Bart" was run aground at Ocean Bay, to be ransacked and burned by Ngāti Mutunga. When word of the incident reached the French naval corvette "Heroine" in the Bay of Islands in September 1838, it set sail for the Chathams, accompanied by the whalers "Adele" and "Rebecca Sims". The French arrived on 13 October and, after unsuccessfully attempting to entice some Ngāti Tama aboard, proceeded to bombard Waitangi. The next morning about a hundred armed Frenchmen went ashore, burning buildings, destroying "waka", and seizing pigs and potatoes. The attacks mostly affected Ngāti Tama, weakening their position relative to Ngāti Mutunga.


title: Chatham Islands

text: In 1840, Ngāti Mutunga decided to attack Ngāti Tama at their "pā". They built a high staging next to the "pā" so they could fire down on their former allies. Fighting was still in progress when the New Zealand Company ship "Cuba" arrived as part of a scheme to buy land for settlement. The Treaty of Waitangi, at that stage, did not apply to the islands. The company negotiated a truce between the two warring tribes. In 1841, the New Zealand Company had proposed to establish a German colony on the Chathams. The proposal was discussed by the directors and John Ward signed an agreement with Karl Sieveking of Hamburg on 12 September 1841. The price was set at £10,000. However, when the Colonial Office said that the islands were to be part of the colony of New Zealand and any Germans settling there would be treated as aliens, Joseph Somes claimed that Ward had been acting on his own initiative. The proposed leader John Beit and the expedition went to Nelson instead.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The company was then able to purchase large areas of land at Port Hutt (which the Māori called "Whangaroa") and Waitangi from Ngāti Mutunga and also large areas of land from Ngāti Tama. This did not stop Ngāti Mutunga from trying to get revenge for the death of one of their chiefs. They were satisfied after they killed the brother of a Ngāti Tama chief. The tribes agreed to an uneasy peace which was finally confirmed in 1842.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Reluctant to give up slavery, Matioro and his people chartered a brig in late 1842 and sailed to Auckland Island. While Matioro was surveying the island, two of the chiefs who had accompanied him decided the island was too inhospitable for settlement, and set sail before he had returned, stranding him and his followers until Pākehā settlers arrived in 1849.


title: Chatham Islands

text: An all-male group of German Moravian missionaries arrived in 1843. When a group of women were sent out to join them three years later, several marriages ensued; a few members of the present-day population can trace their ancestry back to those missionary families.


title: Chatham Islands

text: In 1865, the Māori leader Te Kooti was exiled on the Chatham Islands along with a large group of Māori rebels called the Hauhau, followers of Pai Mārire who had murdered missionaries and fought against government forces mainly on the East Coast of the North Island of New Zealand. The rebel prisoners were paid one shilling a day to work on sheep farms owned by the few European settlers. Sometimes they worked on road and track improvements. They were initially guarded by 26 guards, half of whom were Māori. They lived in "whare" along with their families. The prisoners helped build a redoubt of stone surrounded by a ditch and wall. Later, they built three stone prison cells. In 1868 Te Kooti and the other prisoners commandeered a schooner and escaped back to the North Island.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The economy of the Chatham Islands, then dominated by the export of wool, suffered under the international depression of the 1880s, only rebounding with the building of fish freezing plants at the island villages of Ōwenga and Kaingaroa in 1910. Construction of the first wharf at Waitangi began in 1931 with completion in 1934. On 25 November 1940, during the Second World War, a German raider captured and then sank the Chatham Islands supply ship, the Holmwood, so the wharf saw little use by ships. A flying-boat facility was built soon after at Te Whanga Lagoon and a flying boat service continued till 1966 when it was replaced with conventional aircraft.


title: Chatham Islands

text: After the Second World War, the island economy suffered again from its isolation and government subsidies became necessary. This led to many young Chatham Islanders leaving for the mainland. There was a brief crayfish boom which helped stabilize the economy in the late 1960s and early 1970s. From the early 2000s cattle became a major component of the local economy.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Moriori community is organised as the Hokotehi Moriori Trust. The Moriori have received recognition from the Crown and the New Zealand government and some of their claims against those institutions for the generations of neglect and oppression have been accepted and acted on. Moriori are recognised as the original people of Rekohu. The Crown also recognised the Ngāti Mutunga Māori as having indigenous status in the Chathams by right of around 160 years of occupation.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The population of the islands is around 600, including members of both ethnic groups. In January 2005, the Moriori celebrated the opening of the new Kopinga Marae (meeting house).


title: Chatham Islands

text: Modern descendants of the 1835 Māori conquerors claimed a share in ancestral Māori fishing rights. This claim was granted. Now that the primordial population, the Moriori, have been recognised to be former Māori—over the objections of some of the Ngāti Mutunga—they too share in the ancestral Māori fishing rights. Both groups have been granted fishing quotas.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Chatham Islands covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Chatham and Pitt Islands are inhabited and had a population of 663 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 63 people (10.5%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 51 people (8.3%) since the 2006 census. There were 276 households. There were 354 males and 312 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.13 males per female. The median age was 41.9 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 111 people (16.7%) aged under 15 years, 129 (19.5%) aged 15 to 29, 339 (51.1%) aged 30 to 64, and 84 (12.7%) aged 65 or older.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Ethnicities were 74.2% European/Pākehā, 66.1% Māori, 1.4% Pacific peoples, 0.9% Asian, and 2.7% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Although some people objected to giving their religion, 48.4% had no religion, 33.5% were Christian and 7.7% had other religions.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Of those at least 15 years old, 51 (9.2%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 147 (26.6%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $36,000, compared with $31,800 nationally. 108 people (19.6%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 318 (57.6%) people were employed full-time, 108 (19.6%) were part-time, and 9 (1.6%) were unemployed.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The town of Waitangi is the main settlement with 177 residents in the 2018 Census. There are other villages such as Owenga, Te One, and Kaingaroa, where there are two primary schools. A third school is on Pitt Island. There are also the fishing villages of Owenga and Port Hutt.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Waitangi facilities include a hospital with resident doctor, bank, several stores, and engineering and marine services. The main shipping wharf is located here.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Visitors to the Chathams usually arrive by air from Auckland, Christchurch or Wellington (around 1.5 – 2 hours from Christchurch on a Convair 580) to Tuuta Airport on Chatham Island. While freight generally arrives by ship (2 days sailing time), the sea journey takes too long for many passengers, and is not always available.


title: Chatham Islands

text: There is no scheduled public transport but accommodation providers are normally able to arrange transport.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Tasman Empire Airways Ltd (TEAL) initially serviced the Chathams by air using flying boats. With the withdrawal of TEAL, the RNZAF maintained an infrequent service with Short Sunderland flying boats. NZ4111 was damaged on takeoff from Te Whanga Lagoon on 4 November 1959 and remains as a wreck on the island. The last flight by RNZAF flying boats was on 22 March 1967. For many years Bristol Freighter aircraft served the islands, a slow and noisy freight aircraft converted for carrying passengers by installing a removable passenger compartment equipped with airline seats and a toilet in part of the cargo hold. The air service primarily served to ship out high-value export crayfish products.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The grass landing field at Hapupu, at the northern end of the Island, proved a limiting factor, as few aircraft apart from the Bristol Freighter had both the range to fly to the islands and the ruggedness to land on the grass airstrip. Although other aircraft did use the landing field occasionally, they would often require repairs to fix damage resulting from the rough landing. Hapupu is also the site of the JM Barker (Hapupu) National Historic Reserve (one of only two in New Zealand) where there are momori rakau (Moriori tree carvings).


title: Chatham Islands

text: In 1981, after many years of requests by locals and the imminent demise of the ageing Bristol Freighters, the construction of a sealed runway at Karewa, Tuuta Airport, allowed more modern aircraft to land safely. The Chathams' own airline, Air Chathams, now operates services to Auckland on Thursdays, Wellington on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays and Christchurch on Tuesdays. The timetable varies seasonally, but generally planes depart the Chathams around 10.30 am (Chathams Time) and arrive in the mainland around noon. There they refuel and reload, and depart again at around 1 pm back to the Chathams. Air Chathams operates twin turboprop Convair 580 aircraft in combi (freight and passenger) configurations and Fairchild Metroliners.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The ship "Rangatira" provided a freight service from Timaru to the Chatham Islands from March 2000 to August 2015. The MV "Southern Tiare" provides a freight service between Napier, Timaru and the Chathams.


title: Chatham Islands

text: There is a small section of tar sealed road between Waitangi and Te One, but the majority of the islands' roads are gravel.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Chatham Islands are within a single electorate which sends one member to Parliament. Until the 1990s, the Chatham Islands were in the Lyttelton electorate, but since then they have formed part of the Rongotai general electorate, which otherwise lies in south Wellington. Paul Eagle is the MP for Rongotai. The Te Tai Tonga Māori electorate (held since 2011 by Rino Tirikatene) includes the Chatham Islands; before the seats were reformed in 1996 the archipelago was part of Western Maori.


title: Chatham Islands

text: For local government purposes, the Chatham Islands and the adjoining sea is known as the Chatham Islands Territory and is administered by the Chatham Islands Council, which was established by the Chatham Islands Council Act 1995 (Statute No 041, Commenced: 1 November 1995). These succeeded, respectively, the Chatham Islands County, which was established in 1901, and the Chatham Islands County Council, which was established in 1926. The Council is a territorial authority that has many of the functions, duties and powers of a district council and of a regional council, making it in effect a unitary authority with slightly fewer responsibilities than other unitary authorities. The Council comprises a directly-elected mayor and eight councillors, one of whom is also deputy mayor. Certain regional council functions are being administered by Environment Canterbury, the Canterbury Regional Council.


title: Chatham Islands

text: In the 2010 local government elections, Chatham Islands had New Zealand's highest rate of returned votes, with 71.3 per cent voting.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Policing is carried out by a sole-charge constable appointed by the Wellington police district, who has often doubled as an official for many government departments, including court registrar (Department for Courts), customs officer (New Zealand Customs Service) and immigration officer (Department of Labour – New Zealand Immigration Service).


title: Chatham Islands

text: A District Court judge sent from either the North Island or the South Island presides over court sittings, but urgent sittings may take place at the Wellington District Court.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Because of the isolation and small population, some of the rules governing daily activities undergo a certain relaxation. For example, every transport service operated solely on Great Barrier Island, the Chatham Islands or Stewart Island / Rakiura need not comply with section 70C of the Transport Act 1962 (the requirements for drivers to maintain driving-hours logbooks). Drivers subject to section 70B must nevertheless keep record of their driving hours in some form.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The Canterbury District Health Board is responsible for providing publicly funded health services for the island. Prior to July 2015, this was the responsibility of the Hawke's Bay District Health Board.


title: Chatham Islands

text: There are three schools on the Chathams, at Kaingaroa, Te One, and Pitt Island. Pitt Island and Kaingaroa are staffed by sole charge principals, while Te One has three teachers and a principal. The schools cater for children from year 1 to 8. There is no secondary school. The majority of secondary school-aged students leave the island for boarding schools in mainland New Zealand. A small number remain on the island and obtain their secondary education by correspondence.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Most of the Chatham Island economy is based on fishing and crayfishing, with only a fragment of the economic activity in adventure tourism. This economic mix has been stable for the past 50 years, as little infrastructure or population is present to engage in higher levels of industrial or telecommunications activity.


title: Chatham Islands

text: Two 225 kW wind turbines and diesel generators provide power on Chatham Island, at costs of five to ten times that of electricity on the main islands of New Zealand. During 2014, 65% of the electricity was generated from diesel generators, the balance from wind. For heating, electricity comes second to wood and, in 2013, solar power contributed about a third as much as mains-generated electricity.


title: Chatham Islands

text: A 1.5 kW wireless link opened in 1913, a public radio link to the mainland was built in 1953 and an island phone system in 1965. In 2003 a digital microwave system was installed for 110 phones in Ōwenga.


title: Chatham Islands

text: The islands were linked as part of the Rural Broadband Initiative in 2014, when satellite bandwidth was increased, and broadband is now provided by Wireless Nation, though Farmside provide some coverage.


title: Chatham Islands

text: As at 2019, there was no mobile phone coverage on the islands. In December 2021, five 4G cellular towers were turned on to enable mobile phone coverage on Chatham and Pitt Island and deliver faster broadband. The main tower is positioned on Target Hill, which transmits to the other four towers through a microwave radio link; it is backhauled by Eutelsat 172B to a network in Wellington. The upgraded network delivers greater bandwidth than the previous link, and provides reliable broadband.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Jonathan David Bellion (born December 26, 1990) is an American singer and songwriter. He was born and raised in Lake Grove, New York on Long Island. He is best known for his song "All Time Low," along with his writing and producing credits. Bellion has released four mixtapes and two studio albums. His first, "The Human Condition", was released on June 10, 2016, and it debuted at number five on the US "Billboard" 200. He released his second studio album, "Glory Sound Prep", on November 9, 2018.


title: Jon Bellion

text: He is currently signed to Visionary Music Group and Capitol Records. Bellion also opened the concerts from the third leg of Twenty One Pilots' Emotional Roadshow World Tour, which also featured guest Judah and the Lion.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion was born and raised in Lake Grove, New York. He is of Italian descent and his family comes from Naples. Torn between his love for basketball and music throughout high school, Bellion made the choice to pursue his music career in his junior year. After high school, he enrolled in the music program at the private Five Towns College in Dix Hills, New York. At the age of 19, he decided to drop out of college and focus on writing professionally. He worked under songwriter and Warner Brothers A&R executive Kara DioGuardi for a year and signed a deal through her personal publishing company. Through this experience, Bellion learned how to write songs for different artists, in genres such as rock and hip hop.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion's first mixtape, "Scattered Thoughts Vol. 1" was released in early 2011 via his Facebook page and reached over 11,000 downloads. Bellion signed with Visionary Music Group in 2012 and released a cover of Drake's "The Motto" on VMG's YouTube page.


title: Jon Bellion

text: In 2012, Bellion wrote the chorus to the song "The Monster" by Eminem featuring Rihanna. This song won a Grammy Award in the 2015 Grammy Awards for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration. Bellion also co-wrote and produced the song "Trumpets" by Jason Derulo in 2012, which was not released until 2013 in the UK and 2014 in the US.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion released his second free project, titled "Translations Through Speakers" on February 20, 2013, his third, "The Separation" on December 10 of the same year and his fourth free project, "The Definition" on September 23, 2014, with the single "Luxury" Bellion also headlined his first national tour called The Beautiful Mind Tour in October 2014.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion released several singles in early 2015, including "Woodstock (Psychedelic Fiction)", "All Time Low", and "Woke the F*ck Up" through Capitol Records. On March 31, 2015, Bellion announced his second national tour, The Definition Tour. The tour began on May 26 and concluded on July 2. Bellion was also featured on "Beautiful Now", a song on Zedd's album "True Colors", which was released on May 15, 2015. Bellion was also featured on American rapper B.o.B's album "Psycadelik Thoughtz" on the song "Violence".


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion released several acoustic versions of his songs, including one of "All Time Low" on February 26, 2016, and one of "Human" on March 4, 2016.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion confirmed that his debut album "The Human Condition" was set to be released on June 10, 2016. He released three promotional singles from the album: "Guillotine", on April 13, 2016, "80's Films", on May 27, 2016, and "Maybe IDK" on June 2, 2016. The lead single from the album, "All Time Low" was released on May 13, 2016 and became his most successful single to date, reaching number 16 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified Double-platinum in the US and Australia. On June 10, "The Human Condition" was officially released. Bellion states that the album is simply about being human, explaining, "Us as humans all have the same problems. We struggle with pride and tons of different issues that nobody really wants to talk about. So I figured if I'm the honest one showing how human I am, it will make people feel better about themselves." In his music, Jon talks a lot about God. He doesn't just talk about a vague idea of faith; he makes sure to emphasize God specifically. Bellion also says the sonics and album artwork for "The Human Condition" were created in order to get the attention of Disney/Pixar, saying, "It's like a giant business plan for Disney Pixar because it's always been my dream to score a movie for them. So basically if my debut album blows up, John Lasseter [of Disney Pixar] and these guys will hopefully see these images and be like 'Wait a second this is not one of our movies, what is this?'" The artwork for the album was created by visual development artist David Ardinaryas Lojaya. During "The Human Condition" tour, Bellion announced that a representative from Pixar met him at one of his shows. He was invited to the Pixar Campus and said he might be involved with a Pixar film in the near future.


title: Jon Bellion

text: In June 2017, Bellion was picked as Elvis Duran's Artist of the Month and was featured on NBC's "Today" show hosted by Kathie Lee Gifford and Hoda Kotb and broadcast nationally where he performed "All Time Low" live. Bellion was the opening act for the US leg of rock duo Twenty One Pilots' 2017 Emotional Roadshow World Tour. The 33-show tour began on January 17 in Providence, Rhode Island and ended on March 5 in Louisville, Kentucky.


title: Jon Bellion

text: On October 13, 2017, Bellion released his mixtapes "Translations Through Speakers", "The Separation" and "The Definition" on digital stores as well as releasing a collection containing the three mixtapes entitled "Growth".


title: Jon Bellion

text: On January 25, Bellion teased a snippet of an upcoming song on an Instagram video. On April 16, Bellion began teasing his next album with 4 pictures captioned with "GSP". He later changed the name of his Instagram to his band/group "Beautiful Mind". On June 23, Bellion released a behind the scenes video of his previous album's last track, "Hand of God".


title: Jon Bellion

text: On October 9, Bellion posted a photo to his Twitter account from "GSP Staff", stating: "Tomorrow, Headmaster Stormzy requests your presence for an orientation ceremony in the main atrium. Time: 3:00 pm EST." The following day he announced the studio album "Glory Sound Prep" on his Twitter account, which was set to be released on November 9. On October 17, he released a preview on his social media accounts of the first single from the album, "Conversations with My Wife", which was released on October 19. The following week, he released a preview on his social media accounts of the second single, "JT", and released it on October 26. "Stupid Deep", the third single off of the album, was released on November 2.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion was cast for a voice role in the film as Male Frieza soldier but had to step down to a lesser role due to scheduling conflict . Bellion is featured in a song with American DJ Illenium, titled "Good Things Fall Apart", which released on May 13, 2019. He also released a single titled "Crop Circles" on May 30, 2019. Bellion embarked on The "Glory Sound Prep" Tour which began on June 12 and concluded on November 12 of the same year. He helped produce and write singles such as "Stacy" and "Life Must Go On" by Quinn XCII, as well as "Liar" and "Shameless" by Camila Cabello, "Graveyard" by Halsey, and "Memories" by Maroon 5, "Holy" by Justin Bieber, featuring Chance the Rapper. Bellion co-wrote multiple songs on Justin Bieber's Justice album, including the hit song "Ghost", which Bellion says he wrote about his late grandmother. The song reached #1 on the US Pop Radio. He also co-wrote and co-produced "Vulnerable" from Selena Gomez's 2020 album "Rare" and co-wrote "Daisies" by Katy Perry.


title: Jon Bellion

text: On June 8, 2021, Bellion took to Twitter where he tweeted "New music" before quickly deleting the tweet. He then changed his social media into a "blacked-out" state a couple weeks later. Jon was featured on Lawrence's song "False Alarms" released July 22, 2021. Bellion released his first single in over 2 years, "I Feel It" (with Burna Boy) on September 17, 2021.


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion officially started his own record label in July 2019 called Beautiful Mind Records and signed the pop/soul band, Lawrence. Lawrence was the opener for most of his shows on the Glory Sound Prep Tour. He helped write and produce three singles off of their 2021 debut album "Hotel TV": "Casualty", "It's Not All About You", and "The Weather".


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion has stated on multiple occasions that Kanye West is one of his biggest inspirations. "I loved everything but it was Kanye West who really changed everything for me." Bellion has also stated that he was inspired by Eminem, Pharrell Williams, Coldplay, John Mayer, André 3000, and Paul Simon. Bellion has also made it known that he is a big fan of J Dilla and Disney Pixar, drawing inspiration from the musician and computer animation film studio for both "The Definition" and "The Human Condition". Bellion explains that he loves how Pixar movies are "simple yet presented in a way that is groundbreaking". Bellion credits much of his musical development and success to his bandmates whom he met while in college, expressing his love for them in his "Beautiful Mind Documentary" stating, "everybody in my band has taught me something, and has gotten me to where I am because of them" continuing "I surround myself with people better than me at something, you will very rarely see somebody around me, especially musically, who I don't look up to".


title: Jon Bellion

text: Bellion announced that he was married during the early months of 2018. His song "Conversations with My Wife" from his 2018 album "Glory Sound Prep" alluded to his marriage and its attributes, leading his fanbase to question the relationship status that Bellion seldom discussed publicly.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: Jajangmyeon () or jjajangmyeon () is a Korean noodle dish topped with a thick sauce made of "chunjang", diced pork, and vegetables. Variants of the dish use seafood, or other meats.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: "Jajangmyeon" was introduced in the late nineteenth century, when workers from the Shandong province of China were sent by the Chinese military to Korea. It was offered in 1905 at "Gonghwachun" (), a Chinese restaurant in Incheon Chinatown run by an immigrant from the Shandong region. The restaurant is now the Jajangmyeon Museum.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: Both the name and dish originate from the Chinese "zhájiàngmiàn" (). The common features of both are pork, long wheat noodles, and a sauce made from fermented soybean paste. However, "jajangmyeon" uses both starch flurry and caramel coloring, resulting in a thicker and darker sauce when compared to "zhájiàngmiàn". Yong Chen, an associate history professor at the University of California, Irvine, has said that although the dish "began as the Northern Chinese noodle-and-ground pork dish "zhájiàngmiàn", today it is thoroughly Korean."


title: Jajangmyeon

text: In the mid-50s in South Korea, immediately after the Korean War, "jajangmyeon" was sold at low prices so that anyone could eat it without burden. The new Korean-style jajangmyeon began to gain explosive popularity among the many merchants visiting the port of Incheon, which was the center of trade, and the many dock workers working in the fish market, and quickly spread throughout the country.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: "Jajang" (; alternatively spelled "jjajang" ) is derived from the Chinese word "zhájiàng" (), which means "fried sauce". "Myeon" () means "noodles". The Chinese characters are pronounced "jak" () and "jang" () in Korean, but the noodle dish is called "jajangmyeon", not "jakjangmyeon", because its origin is not the Sino-Korean word, but a transliteration of the Chinese pronunciation. As the Chinese pronunciation of "zhá" sounded like "jja" (rather than "ja") to Korean ears, the dish is known in South Korea as "jjajangmyeon", and the vast majority of Korean Chinese restaurants use this spelling.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: For many years, until 22 August 2011, the National Institute of Korean Language did not recognize the word "jjajangmyeon" as an accepted idiomatic transliteration. The reason "jjajangmyeon" did not become the standard spelling was due to the transliteration rules for foreign words announced in 1986 by the Ministry of Education, which stated that the foreign obstruents should not be transliterated using doubled consonants except for some established usages. The lack of acknowledgment faced tough criticism from the supporters of the spelling "jjajangmyeon", such as Ahn Do-hyeon, a Sowol Poetry Prize winning poet. Later, "jjajangmyeon" was accepted as an alternative standard spelling alongside "jajangmyeon" in the National Language Deliberation Council and, on 31 August, included as a standard spelling in the Standard Korean Language Dictionary.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: "Jajangmyeon" uses thick, hand-made or machine-pulled noodles made from wheat flour, salt, baking soda, and water. The sauce, jajang, is made with fried "chunjang" with other ingredients, such as soy sauce (or oyster sauce), meat (usually pork, but sometimes beef), seafood (usually squid or shrimp), fragrants (scallions, ginger, and garlic), vegetables (usually onions, zucchini or Korean zucchini, or cabbage), stock, and starch slurry.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: When served, "jajangmyeon" may be topped with julienned cucumber, scallions, egg garnish, boiled or fried egg, blanched shrimp or stir-fried bamboo shoot slices. The dish is usually served with "danmuji" (yellow pickled radish), sliced raw onions, and "chunjang" sauce for dipping the onions.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: Variations of the jajangmyeon dish include "gan-jjajang", "jaengban-jjajang", "yuni-jjajang", and "samseon-jjajang".


title: Jajangmyeon

text: There can be combinations. For example. "samseon-gan-jjajang" may refer to seafood jajangmyeon made without adding water.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: Dishes such as "jajang-bap" and "jajang-tteok-bokki" also exist. "Jajang-bap" is essentially the same dish as "jajangmyeon", but served with rice instead of noodles. "Jajang-tteok-bokki" is "tteok-bokki" served with "jajang" sauce instead of the usual spicy sauce. Bul jajangmyeon is a spicy variation of jajangmyeon.


title: Jajangmyeon

text: Instant "jajangmyeon" products, such as Chapagetti, Chacharoni, and Zha Wang, are instant noodle versions of "jajangmyeon" consisting of dried noodles that are boiled in the same manner as "ramyeon", using dried vegetable pieces that are drained and mixed with "jajang" powder or liquid "jajang" sauce, as well as a small amount of water and oil.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The University of South Carolina (USC, South Carolina, or Carolina) is a public research university in Columbia, South Carolina. It has seven satellite campuses throughout the state and its main campus covers over in downtown Columbia not far from the South Carolina State House. The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities with Highest Research Activity". It also houses the largest collection of Robert Burns and Scottish literature materials outside Scotland, and the world's largest Ernest Hemingway collection.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Founded in 1801 as South Carolina College, Columbia is the flagship institution of the University of South Carolina System and offers more than 350 programs of study, leading to bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees from 14 degree-granting colleges and schools. The university has a total enrollment of approximately 52,000 students, with over 35,000 on the main Columbia campus as of fall 2019, making it the largest university in South Carolina. USC also has several thousand future students in feeder programs at surrounding technical colleges. Professional schools on the Columbia campus include business, engineering, law, medicine, pharmacy, and social work.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The university was founded as South Carolina College on December 19, 1801, by an act of the South Carolina General Assembly initiated by Governor John Drayton in an effort to promote harmony between the Lowcountry and the Backcountry. On January 10, 1805, having an initial enrollment of nine students, the college commenced classes with a traditional classical curriculum. The first president was the Baptist minister and theologian Reverend Jonathan Maxcy. He was an alumnus of Brown University, with an honorary degree from Harvard University. Before coming to the college, Maxcy had served as the second president of Brown and the third president of Union College. Maxcy's tenure lasted from 1804 through 1820.


title: University of South Carolina

text: When South Carolina College opened its doors in 1805, the building now known as Rutledge College was the only building on campus. Located one block southeast of the State Capitol, it served as an administrative office, academic building, residence hall, and chapel. However, the master plan for the original campus called for a total of eleven buildings, all facing a large lush gathering area. In 1807, the original President's House was the next building to be erected. The building now known as DeSaussure College followed shortly thereafter, and the remaining eight buildings were constructed over the next several decades. When completed, all eleven buildings formed a U-shape open to Sumter Street. This modified quadrangle became known as the Horseshoe.


title: University of South Carolina

text: As with other southern universities in the antebellum period, the most important organizations for students were the two literary societies, the Clariosophic Society and the Euphradian Society. These two societies, which arose from a split in an earlier literary society known as the Philomathic, grew to encapsulate the majority of the student body from the 1820s onward.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The college became a symbol of the South in the antebellum period as its graduates were on the forefront of secession from the Union. With the generous support of the General Assembly, South Carolina College acquired a reputation as the leading institution of the South and attracted several noteworthy scholars, including Francis Lieber, Thomas Cooper, and Joseph LeConte.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Slavery and slave labor played a fundamental role in the foundation and construction of the University of South Carolina. Many of the primary buildings in the central heart of campus, known today as the horseshoe, were built not only by slave labor but also of slave-made brick. Slave labor played a large role in the maintenance operational duties of early campus activities. This includes maintenance, cleaning of student tenements and faculty duplexes, and the preparation of meals.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Seventy-two students were present for classes in January 1862 and the college functioned until a call by the Confederate government for South Carolina to fill its quota of 18,000 soldiers. A system of conscription began on March 20 for all men between the ages of 18 and 45, but many students volunteered. With the depletion of students, professors issued a notice that the college would open to those under 18 years old. Nine students showed up for class.


title: University of South Carolina

text: On June 25, with the consent of the state government, Confederate authorities took possession of the college buildings and converted them into a hospital. The trustees passed a resolution on December 2, 1863, that officially closed the college. By February 1865, Sherman's army had reached the outskirts of Columbia; the college was spared destruction by Union forces because of its use as a hospital. In addition, a company of the 25th Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment was stationed on campus on February 17 to protect it from harm or pillaging.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The Union army took possession of the college on May 24, 1865. Although the college's future appeared bleak under military control, U.S. General John Porter Hatch sent a letter on June 19 to the remaining professors that it should reopen as soon as possible. The appointment of Benjamin Franklin Perry as provisional governor of South Carolina on June 30 by President Andrew Johnson restored civilian rule to the state. Perry reinstated the trustees to their positions and the board met on September 20 to authorize the college to reopen on the first Monday of January in 1866. In a message to the legislature in October, Perry sought to convert the college into a university because with the state in an impoverished situation, it would provide a more practical education. There was little opposition; the General Assembly changed the college into the University of South Carolina on December 19, 1865.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The University Act of 1869 reorganized the university and provided it with generous financial support. An amendment was added to the act by W. J. Whipper, a black representative from Beaufort, that would prevent racial discrimination from the admissions policy of the university. The legislature further proved its seriousness towards racial equality by electing two black trustees, Benjamin A. Bozeman and Francis Lewis Cardozo, to the governing board of the university on March 9, 1869. A normal school was established by the legislature on the campus of the university as well as a preparatory school for black students, since most former slaves were ill-prepared for academic work. In addition, to encourage enrollment by blacks, tuition and other fees were abolished. On October 7, 1873, Henry E. Hayne, the Secretary of State of South Carolina, became the first black student when he registered for the fall session in the medical college of the university.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The Horseshoe is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and most of its buildings reflect the federal style of architecture in vogue in the early days of the nation. Among them is the South Caroliniana Library, which was designed by Robert Mills and is the first freestanding academic library in the United States.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Over the years the 11 original buildings on the Horseshoe survived a fire, an earthquake, and the Civil War, but in 1939 McKissick Museum replaced the original President's House. The President's House would eventually return to the Horseshoe after extensive remodeling of one of its original buildings, which was dedicated as such in 1952.


title: University of South Carolina

text: During the 20th century: the campus began to spread out dramatically from the Horseshoe. Today it includes the student union, 24 residence halls, numerous academic buildings, Longstreet Theatre, the Koger Center for the Arts, the Carolina Coliseum, the Colonial Life Arena, Carolina Stadium, and various facilities for Olympic sports. (Williams-Brice Stadium is located approximately one mile off campus.) Recent additions to the campus are the Strom Thurmond Wellness and Fitness Center, the Greek Village, the Green Quad, the Honors College Residence Hall, the Public Health Research Center, the Graduate Columbia hotel, the Colonial Life Arena and Carolina Stadium. In, 2017, a new School of Law building opened on Senate Street, and the Darla Moore School of Business opened its new home at the corner of Assembly and Greene in 2014.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The campus continues to expand west toward the Congaree River in support of its research initiatives (see below). Three separate sites, each specializing in its own research area, will initially cover spread over six city blocks and will eventually grow to . This new district of campus, named Innovista, will mix university and private research buildings, parking garages, and commercial and residential units. At the center will be a public plaza called Foundation Square.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The University of South Carolina also operates a transit system under Parking Services called Carolina Shuttle which operates 7 routes and 14 buses including converted buses that use more energy-efficient biodiesel. The system operates during the Fall and Spring semesters, with limited operation during the summer, reading days, and holidays. Service is free for the university's students, faculty and staff. A new system called "Cocky's Caravan" was added in 2008 as a weekend service, shuttling students from main areas on campus to the local entertainment district Five Points. In 2011, Cocky's Caravan was shut down and replaced by a partnership with Checker Yellow Cab known as "Carolina Cab" that offers students free rides from Five Points to their homes within of campus.


title: University of South Carolina

text: South Carolina Japanese Language Supplementary School ()/Matsuba Gakuen (), a weekend supplementary school for Japanese children, is held on the campus of this university as of 1989.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Classified as "more selective", the University of South Carolina admitted 62% of those who applied to be freshmen. When admitting freshmen, the university puts emphasis on the rigor of high school study and scores on standardized test, SAT or ACT. It also considers class rank, extracurricular activities, and an optional personal statement. For the freshman enrollment of 2022, half the class had SAT scores between 1150–1360, or ACT scores between 26–31.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Founded in 1978, the South Carolina Honors College offers academically gifted undergraduates the advantages of a small liberal arts college with the resources and academic depth of a comprehensive research university. After gaining acceptance to the University of South Carolina, students must apply separately to the Honors College and demonstrate significant academic achievement. In 2019, entering freshmen had an average weighted GPA of 4.71 and a midrange SAT score (critical reading and math) of 1460–1530.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Over 400 courses are offered exclusively to Honors College students. Students are required to complete a Senior Thesis under the direction of a faculty advisor in order to graduate from the college with Honors. Since 1994, Honors College students have won more than 278 national awards and fellowships.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The Honors College offers housing for freshmen and sophomores in the new Honors College residence hall, on the former site of the university's "Towers" dormitories. Upperclassmen have the opportunity to live in the Honors Residence Hall or in Honors College student housing on the historic horseshoe.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The University of South Carolina is classified as a research institution of "very high research activity". The university was awarded $278.6 million in research funding in the 2019 fiscal year, a record amount for the school and an increase of 8% over the year prior.


title: University of South Carolina

text: During his tenure as president of the University of South Carolina, John Palms articulated a "Cathedrals of Excellence" budgeting philosophy. Palms advocated the money from fundraising be channeled into the school's best programs, rather than spread the funds evenly. The strategy would pay off in the long term when these programs became nationally prominent, making a name for the University of South Carolina and attracting grant money. His primary goal was for the university to be admitted to the Association of American Universities – an association of the leading 62 research universities in the United States and Canada.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Former President Andrew Sorensen raised even larger sums for research, including a $300 million grant for colorectal cancer. In the spirit of Palms' budget, the board of directors moved to transform university land on Assembly Street into an "innovation district" called Innovista that will develop four areas: biomedicine, nanotechnology, environmental science and alternative fuels.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Innovista is a partnered development with the City of Columbia. The campus will house offices and private research firms among the university offices and labs, as well as residences and retail. Innovista is planned to add five million square feet of floor space to the metro area and is intended to set Columbia on a more urban path.


title: University of South Carolina

text: In May 2009, the University of South Carolina was selected by the U.S. Department of Energy as one of 31 universities nationwide to house an Energy Frontier Research Center that is expected to bring $12.5 million in federal funding, the largest single award in the university's history, to the College of Engineering and Computing. President Pastides commented on the grant, "This award solidifies the university's position as a leader in alternative-fuel research."


title: University of South Carolina

text: The University of South Carolina is a member of the SEC Academic Consortium. Now renamed the SECU, the initiative was a collaborative endeavor designed to promote research, scholarship and achievement amongst the member universities in the Southeastern conference. The SECU formed its mission to serve as a means to bolster collaborative academic endeavors of Southeastern Conference universities. Its goals include highlighting the endeavors and achievements of SEC faculty, students and its universities and advancing the academic reputation of SEC universities.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Over 34,500 students attend the Columbia campus of the University of South Carolina, coming from all 46 South Carolina counties. In addition, students from all 50 states and more than 100 foreign countries are represented here. (Almost 16,000 students study at the regional campuses of the University of South Carolina System.)


title: University of South Carolina

text: The University of South Carolina campus is home to 25 residence halls; the most recently completed hall opened in the fall of 2011. The housing on campus is under the supervision of Department of Student Housing.


title: University of South Carolina

text: University Housing provides over 6,200 on-campus housing units. Rent includes all utilities. Freshman Centers typically feature double rooms and a central bathroom on each floor per unit. Notable freshmen centers include the 11-story Columbia Hall, 10-story Bates House and Patterson Hall, as well as South Tower which has 18 floors. Apartment style units in the modern housing units, which are often referred to as the "Quads", are the most requested type of housing among upper-level students. All are air-conditioned featuring two-, three-, and four-private bedroom floor plans with a living/dining area, kitchen, and bath. Undergraduates may choose housing in a specific "living and learning community". The concept is to create a better social and learning environment by housing students with similar academic or career interests together. Learning communities enhance students' living experience by providing active learning experiences, faculty-student interactions, and opportunities to explore diversity, community service, undergraduate research, and study abroad; some of these centers are the Carolina International House at Maxcy College, Galen Health Fellows, the Rhodos community, Green Quad, Capstone, and Preston Residential College.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Nine-story Patterson Hall, with a capacity of approximately 600 freshmen, is the university's largest residence hall. The tallest and most notable landmark on the Columbia campus is the 18-story Capstone House. Top of Carolina Dining Room is on the 18th floor and was the only revolving restaurant on an American college campus. In the fall of 2004, the $29 million West Quad (now Green Quad) opened and became one of only four in the world to be certified by the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program. The complex includes three four-story buildings. West Quad, which was built with a significant amount of recycled materials, ranging from the cement blocks and copper roof to the interior carpet, is also intended to encourage students to learn more about their environment.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Since campus academic enrollment exceeds the capacity of on-campus housing, the university is adding more residence halls, most of which will be suite-style. As a result, some students live in popular off-campus housing.


title: University of South Carolina

text: The university's student government is composed of the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. A 50-member Student Senate is led by the student body speaker of the Senate. The Student Senate enacts referendums, resolutions, and bills to enhance the student body in non-academic fields, maintains a budget for student life programs and organizations, confirms nominations for cabinet positions, and makes recommendations for change within the university. Student government is operated entirely by students with a Constitutional Council (its version of a Supreme Court) and Elections Commission. Authority derives from the Student Government Constitution, a document written and adopted with the inception of student government and overseen by the President of the University of South Carolina and the university's board of trustees.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Carolina Productions is a student organization responsible for providing diverse educational programs, entertainment, and special events for the university. It is composed of seven commissions, each of which concentrates on separate programming.


title: University of South Carolina

text: Honor societies include Alpha Epsilon Delta, Alpha Kappa Delta, Alpha Lambda Delta, Alpha Phi Sigma, Beta Alpha Psi, Carolina Scholars Association, Chi Sigma Iota, Eta Sigma Delta, Gamma Beta Phi, Golden Key, Kappa Delta Epsilon Society, McNair Scholars Association, Mortar Board, Mu Sigma Rho, National Residence Hall Honorary, National Society of Collegiate Scholars, Omicron Delta Kappa, Order of Omega, Phi Alpha Theta, Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Lambda Sigma, Phi Sigma Pi, Phi Sigma Tau, Pi Tau Sigma, Psi Chi, Rho Chi, Sigma Alpha Lambda, Sigma Delta Pi, Sigma Iota Rho, Tau Sigma, and Tau Beta Pi.