title: History of animation

text: Spanish filmmaker Segundo de Chomón made many trick films for French film company Pathé. By 1906, he used stop motion in several short films, including "La maison ensorcelée" and "Le théâtre de Bob" (both released in the USA in April 1906). Blackton's "The Haunted Hotel" (23 February 1907) contains stop motion elements that are very similar to those in "La maison ensorcelée". If the release dates are correct (and if translated titles have not been mixed up), Blackton must have been inspired by De Chomón's work rather than vice versa, but it has been believed that "The Haunted Hotel"was a big hit in France and other European countries, and would have been the film that inspired local filmmakers, including Émile Cohl, to start working with the innovative animation technique. De Chomon also made the related short film "Hôtel électrique" (1908), which includes a short scene with pixilation.


title: History of animation

text: In 1907, the French artist Émile Cohl started his filmmaking career with "Japon de faintasie", with imaginative use of stop motion techniques. His next short can be regarded as the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation methods: the 1908 "Fantasmagorie". The film largely consists of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There are also sections of live action where the animator's hands enters the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, which gave the picture a blackboard look. Cohl later went to Fort Lee, New Jersey near New York City in 1912, where he worked for French studio Éclair and spread its animation technique to the US.


title: History of animation

text: During the 1910s larger-scale animation studios began to come into being. From then onwards, solo artists faded from the public eye. The first known professional female animator, Bessie Mae Kelley, began her career in 1917.


title: History of animation

text: Starting with a short 1911 film of his most popular character "Little Nemo", successful newspaper cartoonist Winsor McCay gave much more detail to his hand-drawn animations than any animation previously seen in cinemas. His 1914 film "Gertie the Dinosaur" featured an early example of character development in drawn animation. It was also the first film to combine live-action footage with animation. Originally, McCay used the film in his vaudeville act: he would stand next to the screen and speak to Gertie who would respond with a series of gestures. At the end of the film McCay would walk behind the projection screen, seamlessly being replaced with a prerecorded image of himself entering the screen, getting on the cartoon dinosaur's back and riding out of frame. McCay personally hand-drew almost every one of the thousands of drawings for his films. Other noteworthy titles by McCay are "How a Mosquito Operates" (1912) and "The Sinking of the Lusitania" (1918).


title: History of animation

text: Between 1915 and 1916 Dudley Buxton, and Anson Dyer produced a series of 26 topical cartoons, during WWI, utilising mainly cutout animation, released as the John Brown's animated sketchbook, The episodes included the shelling of Scarborough by German battleships, and The Sinking of the Lusitania, No.4 (June 1915)


title: History of animation

text: Around 1913 Raoul Barré developed the peg system that made it easier to align drawings by perforating two holes below each drawing and placing them on two fixed pins. He also used a "slash and tear" technique to not have to draw the complete background or other motionless parts for every frame. The parts where something needed to be changed for the next frame were carefully cut away from the drawing and filled in with the required change on the sheet below. After Barré had started his career in animation at Edison Studios, he founded one of the first film studios dedicated to animation in 1914 (initially together with Bill Nolan). Barré Studio had success with the production of the adaptation of the popular comic strip "Mutt and Jeff" (1916–1926). The studio employed several animators who would have notable careers in animation, including Frank Moser, Gregory La Cava, Vernon Stallings, Tom Norton and Pat Sullivan.


title: History of animation

text: In 1914, John Bray opened John Bray Studios, which revolutionized the way animation was created. Earl Hurd, one of Bray's employees, patented the cel technique. This involved animating moving objects on transparent celluloid sheets. Animators photographed the sheets over a stationary background image to generate the sequence of images. This, as well as Bray's innovative use of the assembly-line method, allowed John Bray Studios to create Colonel Heeza Liar, the first animated series. Many aspiring cartoonists started their careers at Bray, including Paul Terry (later of Heckle and Jeckle fame), Max Fleischer (later of Betty Boop and Popeye fame), and Walter Lantz (later of Woody Woodpecker fame). The cartoon studio operated from circa 1914 until 1928. Some of the first cartoon stars from the Bray studios were Farmer Alfalfa (by Paul Terry) and Bobby Bumps (by Earl Hurd).


title: History of animation

text: Newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst founded International Film Service in 1916. Hearst lured away most of Barré Studio's animators, with Gregory La Cava becoming the head of the studio. They produced adaptations of many comic strips from Heart's newspapers in a rather limited fashion, giving just a little motion to the characters while mainly using the dialog balloons to deliver the story. The most notable series is "Krazy Kat", probably the first of many anthropomorphic cartoon cat characters and other talking animals. Before the studio stopped in 1918, it had employed some new talents, including Vernon Stallings, Ben Sharpsteen, Jack King, John Foster, Grim Natwick, Burt Gillett and Isadore Klein.


title: History of animation

text: In 1915, Max Fleischer applied for a patent (granted in 1917) for a technique which became known as rotoscoping: the process of using live-action film recordings as a reference point to more easily create realistic animated movements. The technique was often used in the "Out of the Inkwell" series (1918–1929) for John Bray Productions (and others). The series resulted from experimental rotoscoped images of Dave Fleischer performing as a clown, evolving into a character who became known as Koko the Clown.


title: History of animation

text: In 1919, Otto Messmer of Pat Sullivan Studios created Felix the Cat. Pat Sullivan, the studio head took all of the credit for Felix, a common practice in the early days of studio animation. Felix the Cat was distributed by Paramount Studios and attracted a large audience, eventually becoming one of the most recognized cartoon characters in film history. Felix was the first cartoon to be merchandised.


title: History of animation

text: The first known animated feature film was "El Apóstol" by Quirino Cristiani, released on 9 November 1917 in Argentina. This successful 70-minute satire utilized a cardboard cutout technique, reportedly with 58,000 frames at 14 frames per second. Cristiani's next feature Sin dejar rastros was released in 1918, but it received no press coverage and poor public attendance before it was confiscated by the police for diplomatic reasons. None of Cristiani's feature films survived.


title: History of animation

text: A number of key events occurred in the 1920s, including the development of the first animations with synchronized sound, and the founding of the Walt Disney Studio. The decade also saw the first appearance of Mickey Mouse in "Steamboat Willie" (1928).


title: History of animation

text: In the early 1920s, the absolute film movement with artists such as Walter Ruttmann, Hans Richter, Viking Eggeling and Oskar Fischinger made short abstract animations which proved influential. Although some later abstract animation works by, for instance, Len Lye and Norman McLaren would be widely appreciated, the genre largely remained a relatively obscure avant-garde art form, while direct influences or similar ideas would occasionally pop up in mainstream animation (for instance in Disney's "Toccata and Fugue in D Minor" in "Fantasia" (1940) – on which Fischinger originally collaborated until his work was scrapped, and partly inspired by the works of Lye – and in "The Dot and the Line" (1965) by Chuck Jones).


title: History of animation

text: From May 1924 to September 1926, Dave and Max Fleischer's Inkwell Studios produced 19 sound cartoons, part of the "Song Car-Tunes" series, using the Phonofilm "sound-on-film" process. The series also introduced the "bouncing ball" above lyrics to guide audiences to sing along to the music. "My Old Kentucky Home" from June 1926 was probably the first film to feature a bit of synchronized animated dialogue, with an early version of Bimbo mouthing the words "Follow the ball, and join in, everybody". The Bimbo character was further developed in Fleischer's "Talkartoons" (1929–1932).


title: History of animation

text: Paul Terry's "Dinner Time", from his "Aesop's Fables" (1921–1936) series, premiered on 1 September 1928 with a synchronized soundtrack with dialogue. Terry was urged to add the novelty against his wishes by the new studio owner Van Beuren. Although the series and its main character Farmer Al Falfa had been popular, audiences were not impressed by this first episode with sound.


title: History of animation

text: The earliest surviving animated feature film is the 1926 silhouette-animated "Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed (Adventures of Prince Achmed)", which used colour-tinted film. It was directed by German Lotte Reiniger and her husband Carl Koch. Walter Ruttmann created visual background effects. French/Hungarian collaborator Berthold Bartosch and/or Reiniger created depth of field by putting scenographic elements and figures on several levels of glass plates with illumination from below and the camera vertically above. Later on a similar technique became the basis of the multiplane camera.


title: History of animation

text: Between 1920 and 1922, cartoonists Walt Disney, Ub Iwerks and Fred Harman worked at the Slide Company (soon renamed as Kansas City Film Ad Company), which produced cutout animation commercials. Disney started experimenting with drawn animation techniques in his parents' garage and managed to sell a series that satirized current local topics to the owner of the three local Newman Theatres as weekly "Newman Laugh-O-Grams" in 1921. With his short-lived own company Laugh-O-Gram Films, Inc., Disney together with Iwerks, Fred's brother Hugh Harman, Rudolph Ising and Carman Maxwell produced a series of circa seven-minute modernized fairy tale cartoons, inspired by Terry's "Aesop's Fables". The studio went bankrupt in 1923, but had already made the unsold 12-minute film "Alice's Wonderland", featuring a live-action girl (Virginia Davis) interacting with numerous cartoon characters, including the Felix-inspired Julius the Cat (who had already appeared in the Laugh-O-Gram fairy tales, without a name). When Disney moved to Hollywood, he managed to close a deal with New York film distributor Margaret J. Winkler, who had just lost the rights to Felix the Cat and "Out of the Inkwell". To make the "Alice Comedies" series (1923–1927), Iwerks also moved to Hollywood, later followed by Ising, Harman, Maxwell and Film Ad colleague Friz Freleng. The series was successful enough to last 57 episodes, but Disney eventually preferred to create a new fully animated series. Oswald the Lucky Rabbit followed in 1927 and became a hit, but after failed negotiations for continuation in 1928, Charles Mintz took direct control of production and Disney lost his character and most of his staff to Mintz.


title: History of animation

text: Disney and Iwerks developed Mickey Mouse in 1928 to replace Oswald. A first film entitled "Plane Crazy" failed to impress a test audience and did not raise sufficient interest of potential distributors. After some live-action movies with synchronized sound had become successful, Disney put the new Mickey Mouse cartoon "The Gallopin' Gaucho" on hold to start work on a special sound production which would launch the series more convincingly. Much of the action in the resulting "Steamboat Willie" (November 1928) involves the making of sounds, for instance with Mickey using livestock aboard the boat as musical instruments. The film became a huge success and Mickey Mouse would soon become the most popular cartoon character in history.


title: History of animation

text: Bosko was created in 1927 by Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising, specifically with talkies in mind. They were still working for Disney at the time, but they left in 1928 to work on the "Oswald the Lucky Rabbit" cartoons at Universal for about a year, and then produced "Bosko, the Talk-Ink Kid" pilot in May 1929 to shop for a distributor. They signed with Leon Schlesinger productions and started the "Looney Tunes" series for Warner Bros. in 1930. Bosko was the star of 39 Warner Bros. cartoons before Harman and Ising took Bosko to MGM after leaving Warner Bros.. After two MGM cartoons, the character received a dramatic make-over that was much less appreciated by audiences. Bosko's career ended in 1938.


title: History of animation

text: While the global economy suffered under the Great Depression through the 1930s, animation continued to flourish. Early color processes came into use, along with the use of the multiplane camera. In 1937, "Snow White" debuted in theatres—the first full-length traditionally animated feature film.


title: History of animation

text: The multi-colored lithograph technique of the early European animated film loops for home use seems not to have been applied to theatrically release animated films. While the original prints of "The Adventures of Prince Achmed" featured film tinting, most theatrically released animated films before 1930 were plain black and white. Effective color processes thus were a welcome innovation in Hollywood and seemed especially suitable for cartoons.


title: History of animation

text: A cartoon segment in the feature film "King of Jazz" (April 1930), made by Walter Lantz and Bill Nolan, was the first animation presented in two-strip Technicolor.


title: History of animation

text: "Fiddlesticks", released together with "King of Jazz", was the first Flip the Frog film and the first project Ub Iwerks worked on after he had left Disney to set up his studio. In England, the cartoon was released in Harris Color, a two-color process, probably as the first theatrically released standalone animated cartoon to boast both sound and color.


title: History of animation

text: When the "Silly Symphonies" series, started in 1929, was less popular than Disney had hoped, he turned to new technological innovation to improve the impact of the series. In 1932 he worked with the Technicolor company to create the first full-color animation "Flowers and Trees", debuting the three-strip technique (the first use in live-action movies came circa two years later). The cartoon was successful and won an Academy Award for Short Subjects, Cartoons. Disney temporarily had an exclusive deal for the use of Technicolor's full-color technique in animated films. He even waited a while before he produced the ongoing Mickey Mouse series in color, so the "Silly Symphonies" would have their special appeal to audiences. After the exclusive deal lapsed in September 1935, full-color animation soon became the industry standard.


title: History of animation

text: "Silly Symphonies" inspired many cartoon series that boasted various other color systems until Technicolor was not exclusive to Disney anymore, including Ub Iwerks' ComiColor Cartoons (1933–1936), Van Beuren Studios' "Rainbow Parade" (1934–1936), Fleischer's "Color Classics" (1934–1941), Charles Mintz's "Color Rhapsody" (1936–1949), MGM's "Happy Harmonies" (1934–1938) George Pal's "Puppetoons" (1932–1948), and Walter Lantz's "Swing Symphony" (1941–1945).


title: History of animation

text: To create an impression of depth, several techniques were developed. The most common technique was to have characters move between several backgrounds and/or foreground layers that could be moved independently, corresponding to the laws of perspective (e.g. the further away from the camera, the slower the speed).


title: History of animation

text: Lotte Reiniger had already designed a type of multiplane camera for "Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed" and her collaborator Berthold Bartosch used a similar setup for his intricately detailed 25-minute film "L'Idée" (1932).


title: History of animation

text: In 1933, Ub Iwerks developed a multiplane camera and used it for several "Willie Whopper" (1933–1934) and "ComiColor Cartoons" episodes.


title: History of animation

text: The Fleischers developed the very different stereopticon process in 1933 for their "Color Classics". It was used in the first episode "Betty Boop in Poor Cinderella" (1934) and most of the following episodes. The process involved three-dimensional sets built and sculpted on a large turntable. The photographed cells were placed within the movable set so that the animated characters would appear to move in front and behind the 3D elements within the scene when the turntable was made to rotate.


title: History of animation

text: Disney employee William Garity developed a multiplane camera that could have up to seven layers of artwork. It was tested in the Academy Award-winning "Silly Symphony" "The Old Mill" (1937) and used prominently in "Snow White" and later features.


title: History of animation

text: After the additions of sound and color were a huge success for Disney, other studios followed. By the end of the decade, almost all the theatrical cartoons were produced in full color.


title: History of animation

text: Initially, music and songs were the focus of many series, as indicated by series titles such as "Song Car-Tunes", "Silly Symphonies", "Merrie Melodies" and "Looney Tunes", but it was the recognizable characters that stuck with audiences. Mickey Mouse had been the first cartoon superstar who surpassed Felix the Cat's popularity, but soon dozens more cartoon superstars followed, many remaining popular for decades.


title: History of animation

text: Warner Bros. had a vast music library that could be popularized through cartoons based on the available tunes. While Disney needed to create the music for every cartoon, the readily available sheet music and songs at Warner Bros. inspired many cartoons. Leon Schlesinger sold Warner Bros. a second series called "Merrie Melodies", which until 1939 contractually needed to contain at least one refrain from the music catalog. Unlike "Looney Tunes" with Bosko, Merrie Melodies featured only a few recurring characters like Foxy, Piggy and Goopy Geer before Harman and Ising left in 1933. Bosko was replaced with Buddy for the Looney Tunes series, but lasted only two years, while "Merrie Melodies" initially continued without recurring characters. Eventually, the two series became indistinguishable and produced many new characters that became popular. Animator/director Bob Clampett designed Porky Pig (1935) and Daffy Duck (1937) and was responsible for much of the energetic animation and irreverent humor associated with the series. The 1930s also saw early anonymous incarnations of characters who would later become the superstars Elmer Fudd (1937/1940) and Bugs Bunny (1938/1940). Since 1937, Mel Blanc would perform most of the characters' voices.


title: History of animation

text: Disney introduced new characters to the Mickey Mouse universe who would become very popular, including Minnie Mouse (1928), Pluto (1930), Goofy (1932), and a character who would soon become the public's new favorite: Donald Duck (1934). Disney also realized that the success of animated films depended upon telling emotionally gripping stories; he developed a "story department" where storyboard artists separate from the animators would focus on story development alone, which proved its worth when Disney studio released, in 1933, the first animated short to feature well-developed characters: "Three Little Pigs". Disney would keep on expanding his studio and would start more and more production activities, including comics, merchandise, and theme parks. Most projects were based on the characters developed for theatrical short films.


title: History of animation

text: Fleischer Studios introduced an unnamed dog character as Bimbo's girlfriend in "Dizzy Dishes" (1930), who evolved into the human female Betty Boop (1930–1939) and became Fleischer's best-known creation. In the 1930s they also added Hunky and Spunky (1938) and the popular animated adaptation of Popeye (1933) to their repertoire.


title: History of animation

text: Hays' Motion Picture Production Code for moral guidelines was applied in 1930 and rigidly enforced between 1934 and 1968. It had a big impact on filmmakers who liked to create relatively saucy material. As an infamous example, Betty Boop suffered greatly when she had to be changed from a carefree flapper with an innocent sex appeal into a more wholesome and much tamer character in a fuller dress. Her boyfriend Bimbo's disappearance was probably also the result of the Code's disapproval of mixed-species relationships.


title: History of animation

text: At least eight animated feature films were released before Disney's "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", while at least another two earlier animated feature projects remained unfinished. Most of these films (of which only four survive) were made using cutout, silhouette or stop-motion techniques. Among the lost animated features were three features by Quirino Cristiani, who had premiered his third feature "Peludópolis" on 18 September 1931 in Buenos Aires with a Vitaphone sound-on-disc synchronized soundtrack. It was received quite positively by critics, but did not become a hit and was an economic fiasco for the filmmaker. Cristiani soon realized that he could no longer make a career with animation in Argentina. Only "Academy Award Review of Walt Disney Cartoons"—also by Disney—was hand-drawn. It was released seven months before "Snow White" to promote that movie's upcoming release. Many do not consider the "Review" a genuine feature film, because it is a package film and lasts only 41 minutes. It does meet the official definitions of a feature film by the British Film Institute, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and the American Film Institute, which require that the film has to be over 40 minutes long.


title: History of animation

text: When it became known that Disney was working on a feature-length animation, critics regularly referred to the project as "Disney's folly", not believing that audiences could stand the expected bright colors and jokes for such a long time. "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" premiered on 21 December 1937 and became a worldwide success. The film continued Disney's tradition to appropriate old fairy tales and other stories, as would most of the Disney features that followed.


title: History of animation

text: The Fleischer studios followed Disney's example with "Gulliver's Travels" in 1939, which was a minor success at the box office.


title: History of animation

text: In April 1938, when about 50 television sets were connected, NBC aired the eight-minute low-budget cartoon "Willie the Worm". It was specially made for this broadcast by former Disney employee Chad Grothkopf, mainly with cutouts and a bit of cel animation. About a year later, on 3 May 1939, Disney's "Donald's Cousin Gus" was premiered on NBC's experimental W2XBS channel, a few weeks before the short cartoon was released in movie theaters, as part of the first full-evening program.


title: History of animation

text: Several governments had already used animation in public information films, like those by the GPO Film Unit in the U.K. and Japanese educational films. During World War II, animation became a common medium for propaganda. The US had its best studios working for the war effort.


title: History of animation

text: To instruct service personnel about all kinds of military subjects and to boost morale, Warner Bros. was contracted for several shorts and the special animated series "Private Snafu". The character was created by the famous movie director Frank Capra, Dr. Seuss was involved in screenwriting and the series was directed by Chuck Jones. Disney also produced several instructive shorts and even personally financed the feature-length "Victory Through Air Power" (1943) that promoted the idea of long-range bombing.


title: History of animation

text: Many popular characters promoted war bonds, like Bugs Bunny in "Any Bonds Today?", Disney's little pigs in "The Thrifty Pig" and a whole bunch of Disney characters in "All Together". Daffy Duck asked for scrap metal for the war effort in "Scrap Happy Daffy". Minnie Mouse and Pluto invited civilians to collect their cooking grease so it could be used for making explosives in "Out of the Frying Pan Into the Firing Line". There were several more political propaganda short films, like Warner Bros.' "Fifth Column Mouse", Disney's "Chicken Little" and the more serious "Education for Death" and "Reason and Emotion" (nominated for an Academy Award).


title: History of animation

text: Such wartime films were much appreciated. Bugs Bunny became something of a national icon and Disney's propaganda short "Der Fuehrer's Face" (starring Donald Duck) won the company its tenth Academy Award for cartoon short subjects.


title: History of animation

text: Japan's first feature anime "" was made in 1944, ordered by the Ministry of the Navy of Japan. It was designed for children and, partly inspired by "Fantasia", was meant to inspire dreams and hope for peace. The main characters are an anthropomorphic monkey, dog, bear, and pheasant who become parachute troopers (except the pheasant who becomes a pilot) tasked with invading Celebes. An epilogue hints at America being the target for the next generation.


title: History of animation

text: Disney's next two features ("Pinocchio" and the very ambitious concert film "Fantasia", both released in 1940) and Fleischer Studios' second animated feature "Mr. Bug Goes to Town" (1941/1942) were all received favorably by critics, but failed at the box office during their initial theatrical runs. The primary cause was that World War II had cut off most foreign markets. These setbacks discouraged most companies that had plans for animated features.


title: History of animation

text: Disney cut back on the costs for the next features and first released "The Reluctant Dragon", mostly consisting of a live-action tour of the new studio in Burbank, partly in black and white, with four short cartoons. It was a mild success at the worldwide box office and was followed only a few months later by "Dumbo" (1941), animated in a relatively simple style and only 64 minutes long. The limited length and economically efficient techniques helped secure a profit at the box office, and critics and audiences reacted positively. Disney's next feature "Bambi" (1942) returned to a larger budget and a lavish style, but the more dramatic story, darker mood, and lack of fantasy elements were not well-received during its initial run and the movie lost money at the box office.


title: History of animation

text: Although all the other eight Disney features of the 1940s were package films, and/or combinations with live-action (for instance "Saludos Amigos" (1943) and "The Three Caballeros" (1944)), Disney kept faith in animated feature animation. Only a few other American animation studios also managed to release more than a handful of features before the beginning of the 1990s.


title: History of animation

text: American cel-animated films dominated the worldwide production and consumption of theatrical animated releases since the 1920s. Especially Disney's work proved to be very popular and influential around the world. Studios from other countries could hardly compete with American productions. Relatively many animation producers outside the US chose to work with other techniques than "traditional" or cel animation, such as puppet animation or cut-out animation. However, several countries (most notably Russia, China, and Japan) developed their own relatively large "traditional" animation industries. Russia's Soyuzmultfilm animation studio, founded in 1936, employed up to 700 skilled workers and, during the Soviet period, produced 20 films per year on average. Some titles noticed outside their respective domestic markets include "铁扇公主 (Princess Iron Fan)" (China 1941, influential in Japan), "Конёк-Горбуно́к (The Humpbacked Horse)" (Russia 1947, winner special jury award in Cannes in 1950), "I Fratelli Dynamite (The Dynamite Brothers)" (Italy 1949) and "La Rosa di Bagdad (The Rose of Baghdad)" (Italy 1949, the 1952 English dub starred Julie Andrews).


title: History of animation

text: During the "Golden Age of American animation", new studios competed with the studios that survived the sound and color innovation battles of the previous decades. Cartoon animals were still the norm and music was still a relevant element, but often lost its main stage appeal to Disney's melodramatic storytelling or the wild humor in Looney Tunes and other cartoons.


title: History of animation

text: Disney continued their cartoon successes, adding Daisy Duck (1937/1940) and Chip 'n' Dale (1943/1947) to the Mickey Mouse universe, while Warner Bros. developed new characters to join their popular Merrie Melodies/Looney Tunes cast, including Tweety, Henery Hawk (both in 1942), Pepé Le Pew, Sylvester the Cat, Yosemite Sam (all three in 1945), Foghorn Leghorn, Barnyard Dawg, Gossamer (all three in 1946), Marvin the Martian (1948), and Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner (1949).


title: History of animation

text: Other new popular characters and series were Terrytoons' Mighty Mouse (1942–1961) and Heckle and Jeckle (1946), and Screen Gems' The Fox and the Crow (1941–1948).


title: History of animation

text: Fleischer launched its spectacular Superman adaptation in 1941. The success came too late to save the studio from its financial problems and in 1942 Paramount Pictures took over the studio from the resigning Fleischer Brothers. The renamed Famous Studios continued the "Popeye" and "Superman" series, developed popular adaptations of Little Lulu (1943–1948, licensed by Gold Key Comics), Casper the friendly ghost (1945) and created new series, such as Little Audrey (1947) and Baby Huey (1950).


title: History of animation

text: Walter Lantz started his animation career at Hearst's studio at the age of 16. He had also worked for the Bray Studios and Universal Pictures, where he had gained control over the "Oswald the Lucky Rabbit" cartoons in 1929 (reportedly by winning the character and control of the studio in a poker bet with Universal president Carl Laemmle). In 1935, the Universal studio was turned into the independent Walter Lantz Productions, but remained on the Universal lot and continued to produce cartoons for Universal to distribute. When Oswald's popularity dwindled and the character was eventually retired in 1938, Lantz's productions went without successful characters until he developed Andy Panda in 1939. The anthropomorphic panda starred in over two dozen cartoons until 1949, but he was soon overshadowed by the iconic Woody Woodpecker, who debuted in the Andy Panda cartoon "Knock Knock" in 1940. Other popular Lantz characters include Wally Walrus (1944), Buzz Buzzard (1948), Chilly Willy (1953), Hickory, Dickory, and Doc (1959).


title: History of animation

text: After distributing Ub Iwerks' "Flip the Frog" and "Willie Whopper" cartoons and "Happy Harmonies" by Harman and Ising, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer founded its own cartoon studio in 1937. The studio had much success with Barney Bear (1939–1954), Hanna and Joseph Barbera's Tom and Jerry (1940) and Spike and Tyke (1942).


title: History of animation

text: In 1941, Tex Avery left Warner Bros. for MGM and would there create Droopy (1943), Screwy Squirrel (1944) and George and Junior (1944).


title: History of animation

text: While Disney and most of the other studios sought a sense of depth and realism in animation, UPA animators (including former Disney employee John Hubley) had a different artistic vision. They developed a much sparser and more stylized type of animation, inspired by Russian examples. The studio was formed in 1943 and initially worked on government contracts. A few years later they signed a contract with Columbia Pictures, took over "The Fox and the Crow" from Screen Gems, and earned Oscar nominations for their first two theatrical shorts in 1948 and 1949. While the field of animation was dominated by anthropomorphic animals when the studio was allowed to create a new character, they came up with the near-sighted old man. Mr. Magoo (1949) became a hit and would be featured in many short films. Between 1949 and 1959 UPA received 15 Oscar nominations, winning their first Academy Award with the Dr. Seuss adaptation "Gerald McBoing-Boing" (1950), followed by two more for "When Magoo Flew" (1954) and "Magoo's Puddle Jumper" (1956). The distinctive style was influential and even affected the big studios, including Warner Bros. and Disney. Apart from effective freedom in artistic expression, UPA had proved that sparser animation could be appreciated as much as (or even more than) the expensive lavish styles.


title: History of animation

text: The back catalog of animated cartoons from many studios, originally produced for a short theatrical run, proved very valuable for television broadcasting. "Movies for Small Fry" (1947), presented by "big brother" Bob Emery on Tuesday evenings on the New York WABD-TV channel, was one of the first TV series for children and featured many classic Van Beuren Studios cartoons. It was continued on the DuMont Television Network as the daily show "Small Fry Club" (1948–1951) with a live audience in a studio setting.


title: History of animation

text: Many classical series from Walter Lantz, Warner Bros., Terrytoons, MGM, and Disney similarly found a new life in TV shows for children, with many reruns, for decades. Instead of studio settings and live-action presentations, some shows would feature new animation to present or string together the older cartoons.


title: History of animation

text: The earliest American animated series specifically produced for TV came about in 1949, with "Adventures of Pow Wow" (43 five-minute episodes broadcast on Sunday mornings from January to November) and "Jim and Judy in Teleland" (52 episodes, later also sold to Venezuela and Japan).


title: History of animation

text: Most theatrical cartoons had been produced for non-specific audiences. Dynamic action and gags with talking animals in clear drawing styles and bright colors were naturally appealing to young children, but the cartoons regularly contained violence and sexual innuendo and were often screened together with newsreels and feature films that were not for children. On US television, cartoons were mainly programmed for children, in convenient time slots on weekend mornings, weekday afternoons, or early evenings.


title: History of animation

text: The scheduling constraints of the 1950s American TV animation process, and notable issues of resource management (higher quantity needed to be made in less time for a lower budget compared to theatrical animation), led to the development of various techniques now known as limited animation. The sparser type of animation which originally had been an artistic choice of style for UPA was embraced as a means to cut back production time and costs. Full-frame animation ("on ones") became rare in the United States, outside its use for a decreasing amount of theatrical productions. Chuck Jones coined the term "illustrated radio" to refer to the shoddy style of most television cartoons that depended more on their soundtracks than visuals. Some producers also found that limited animation looked better than lavish styles on the small black-and-white TV screens of the time.


title: History of animation

text: Jay Ward produced the popular "Crusader Rabbit" (tested in 1948, original broadcasts in 1949–1952 and 1957–1959), with successful use of a limited-animation style.


title: History of animation

text: At the end of the 1950s, several studios dedicated to TV animation production started competing. While the focus for competition in theatrical animation had been on quality and innovation, it now shifted to delivering animation fast and cheaply. Critics noted how the quality of many shows was often poor in comparison to the classic cartoons, with rushed animation and run-of-the-mill stories. Network executives were satisfied as long as there were enough viewers, and the huge amounts of young viewers were not bothered with the lack of quality that the critics perceived. Watching Saturday-morning cartoon programming, up to four hours long, became a favorite pastime of most American children since the mid-1960s, and was a mainstay for decades.


title: History of animation

text: Disney had entered into TV production relatively early, but for a long time refrained from creating new animated series. Instead, Disney had their anthology series on the air since 1954 in primetime three-hour slots, starting with the "Walt Disney's Disneyland" series (1954–1958), clearly promoting the Disneyland theme park that opened in 1955. Walt Disney personally hosted the series that –apart from older cartoons– featured segments with, for instance, looks behind the scenes at film-making processes or with new live-action adventures.


title: History of animation

text: William Hanna and Joseph Barbera (the creators of Tom and Jerry) continued as Hanna-Barbera after Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer closed their animation studio in 1957 when MGM considered their back catalog sufficient for further sales. While Hanna-Barbera only made one theatrically released series with "Loopy de Loop" (1959–1965), they proved to be the most prolific and successful producers of animated television series for several decades. Starting with "The Ruff and Reddy Show" (1957–1960), they continued with successful series like "The Huckleberry Hound Show" (1958, the first half-hour television program to feature only animation) and "The Quick Draw McGraw Show" (1959–1961).


title: History of animation

text: Other notable programs include UPA's "Gerald McBoing Boing" (1956–1957), Soundac's "Colonel Bleep" (1957–1960, the first animated TV series in color), Terrytoons's "Tom Terrific" (1958), and Jay Ward's "The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends" (1959–1964).


title: History of animation

text: In contrast to the international film market (developed during the silent era when language problems were limited to title cards), TV-pioneering in most countries (often connected to radio broadcasting) focused on the domestic production of live programs. Rather than importing animated series that usually would have to be dubbed, children's programming could more easily and more cheaply be produced in other ways (for instance, featuring puppetry). One notable method was the real-time "animation" of cutout figures in "Captain Pugwash" (1957) on the BBC. One of the few early animated series for TV that was seen abroad was Belvision Studios' "Les Aventures de Tintin, d'après Hergé (Hergé's Adventures of Tintin)" (Belgium 1957–1964, directed by Ray Goossens), broadcast by the BBC in 1962 and syndicated in the United States from 1963 to 1971.


title: History of animation

text: Warner Bros. introduced new characters Granny, Sylvester Jr. (both in 1950), Speedy Gonzales, Ralph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog (all three in 1953), and Tasmanian Devil (1954).


title: History of animation

text: After a string of package features and live-action/animation combos, Disney returned to fully animated feature films with "Cinderella" in 1950 (the first since "Bambi"). Its success practically saved the company from bankruptcy. It was followed by "Alice in Wonderland" (1951), which flopped at the box office and was critically panned. "Peter Pan" (1953) and "Lady and the Tramp" (1955) were hits. The ambitious, much delayed, and more expensive "Sleeping Beauty" (1959) lost money at the box office and caused doubts about the future of Walt Disney's animation department. Like "Alice in Wonderland" and most of Disney's flops, it would later be commercially successful through re-releases and would eventually be regarded as a true classic.


title: History of animation

text: Total Television was founded in 1959 to promote General Mills products with original cartoon characters in Cocoa Puffs commercials (1960–1969) and the General Mills-sponsored TV series "King Leonardo and His Short Subjects" (1960–1963, repackaged shows until 1969), "Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales" (1963–1966, repackaged shows until 1972), "The Underdog Show" (1964–1967, repackaged shows until 1973) and "The Beagles" (1966–1967). Animation for all series was produced at Gamma Studios in Mexico. Total Television stopped producing after 1969 when General Mills no longer wanted to sponsor them.


title: History of animation

text: Many of the American animated TV series from the 1960s to 1980s were based on characters and formats that had already proved popular in other media. UPA produced "The Dick Tracy Show" (1961–1962), based on comic books. Filmation, active from 1962 to 1989, created few original characters, but many adaptations of DC Comics, live-action TV series (including "Lassie's Rescue Rangers" (1973–1975) and ""), some live-action features (including "Journey to the Center of the Earth" (1967–1969), and much more). Grantray-Lawrence Animation was the first studio to adapt Marvel Comics superheroes in 1966. Pop groups got animated versions in "The Beatles" (1965–1966) and Rankin/Bass's "The Jackson 5ive" (1971–1972) and "The Osmonds" (1972). Hanna-Barbera turned comedians into cartoon characters with "Laurel and Hardy" (1966–1967) and "The Abbott and Costello Cartoon Show" (1967–1968). Format Films' "The Alvin Show" (1961–1962) was a spin-off of a 1958 novelty song and the subsequent comic books with redesigned versions of Alvin and the Chipmunks. Other series contained unlicensed appropriations. For instance, Hanna-Barbera's "The Flintstones" (1960–1966) was inspired by the sitcom "The Honeymooners" and creator Jackie Gleason considered suing Hanna-Barbera, but he did not want to be known as "the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air".


title: History of animation

text: "The Flintstones" was the first prime-time animated series and became immensely popular, it remained the longest-running network animated television series until that record was broken three decades later. Hanna-Barbera scored more hits with "The Yogi Bear Show" (1960–1962), "The Jetsons" (1962–1963, 1985, 1987), and "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" (1969–1970, later followed by other Scooby-Doo series).


title: History of animation

text: From around 1968, after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., then Robert F. Kennedy's and other violent acts made the public less at ease with violence in entertainment, networks hired censors to ban anything deemed too violent or suggestive from children's programming.


title: History of animation

text: Apart from regular TV series, there were several noteworthy animated television (holiday) specials, starting with UPA's "Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol" (1962), followed a few years later by other classic examples such as the string of Bill Melendez' "Peanuts" specials (1965-2011, based on Charles M. Schulz's comic strip), and Chuck Jones's "How the Grinch Stole Christmas!" (1966, based on the story by Dr. Seuss).


title: History of animation

text: Cambria Productions only occasionally used traditional animation and would often resort to camera movements, real-time movements between foreground and background cels, and integration of live-action footage. Creator Clark Haas explained: "We are not making animated cartoons. We are photographing 'motorized movement' and—the biggest trick of all—combining it with live-action... Footage that Disney does for $250,000 we do for $18,000." Their most famous trick was the Syncro-Vox technique of superimposing talking lips on the faces of cartoon characters instead of animating mouths synchronized to dialogue. This optical printing system had been patented in 1952 by Cambria's partner and cameraman Edwin Gillette and was first used for popular "talking animal" commercials. The method would later be widely used for comedic effect, but Cambria used it straight in their series "Clutch Cargo" (1959–1960), "Space Angel" (1962), and "Captain Fathom" (1965). Thanks to imaginative stories, "Clutch Cargo" was a surprise hit. Their last series "The New 3 Stooges" (1965–1966) no longer used Syncro-Vox. It contained 40 new live-action segments with the original Three Stooges that was spread and repeated throughout 156 episodes together with new animation (occasionally causing people to turn off their TV when live-action footage was repeated, convinced that they had already seen the episode).


title: History of animation

text: For "One Hundred and One Dalmatians" (1961) production costs were restrained, helped by the xerography process that eliminated the inking process. Although the relatively sketchy look was not appreciated by Walt Disney personally, it did not bother critics or audiences and the film was another hit for the studio. "The Sword in the Stone" (1963) was another financial success, but over the years it has become one of the least-known Disney features. It was followed by the live-action/animation hit "Mary Poppins" (1964) which received 13 Academy Awards nominations, including Best Picture. Disney's biggest animated feature of the 1960s was " The Jungle Book" (1967) which was both a critical and commercial success. This was also the final film that was overseen by Walt Disney before his death in 1966. Without Walt's imagination and creative endeavors, the animation teams were unable to produce many successful films during the 1970s and 1980s. This was until the release of " The Little Mermaid" (1989), 22 years later.


title: History of animation

text: UPA produced their first feature "1001 Arabian Nights" (1959) (starring Mr. Magoo as Alladin's uncle) for Columbia Pictures, with little success. They tried again with "Gay Purr-ee" in 1962, released by Warner Bros. It was well received by critics, but failed at the box office and would be the last feature the studio ever made.


title: History of animation

text: The Supreme Court ruling of the Hollywood Anti-trust Case of 1948 prohibited "block bookings" in which hit feature films were exclusively offered to theatre owners in packages together with newsreels and cartoons or live-action short films. Instead of receiving a reasonable percentage of a package deal, short cartoons had to be sold separately for the prices that theatre owners were willing to pay for them. Short cartoons were relatively expensive and could now be dropped from the program without people losing interest in the main feature, which became a sensible way to reduce costs when more and more potential movie-goers seemed to stay at home to watch movies on their television sets. Most cartoons had to be re-released several times to recoup the invested budget. By the end of the 1960s most studios had ceased producing theatrical cartoons. Even Warner Bros. and Disney, with occasional exceptions, stopped making short theatrical cartoons after 1969. Walter Lantz was the last of the classic cartoon producers to give up when he closed his studio in 1973.


title: History of animation

text: DePatie–Freleng Enterprises, founded by Friz Freleng and David H. DePatie in 1963 after Warner Bros. closed their animation department, was the only studio that found new success with short theatrical cartoon series after the 1950s. They created Pink Panther in 1963 for the opening and closing credits of the live-action The Pink Panther film series featuring Peter Sellers. Its success led to a series of short films (1964–1980) and TV series (1969–1980). Pink Panther was followed by the spin-off "The Inspector" (1965–1969), "The Ant and the Aardvark" (1969–1971), and a handful of other theatrical series. "The Dogfather" (1974–1976) was the last new series, but Pink Panther cartoons appeared in theaters until 1980, shortly before the demise of the studio in 1981. From 1966 to 1981 DePatie–Freleng also produced many TV series and specials.


title: History of animation

text: Japan was notably prolific and successful with its style of animation, which became known in the English language initially as Japanimation and eventually as anime. In general, anime was developed with limited-animation techniques that put more emphasis on aesthetic quality than on movement, in comparison to US animation. It also applies a relatively "cinematic" approach with zooming, panning, complex dynamic shots, and much attention to backgrounds that are instrumental to creating an atmosphere.


title: History of animation

text: Anime was first domestically broadcast on TV in 1960. The export of theatrical anime features started around the same time. Within a few years, several anime TV series was made that would also receive varying levels of airplay in the United States and other countries, starting with the highly influential "鉄腕アトム (Astro Boy)" (1963), followed by "ジャングル大帝 (Kimba the White Lion)" (1965–1966), "エイトマン (8th Man)" (1965), "魔法使いサリー (Sally the Witch)" (1966–1967) and "マッハGoGoGo (Mach GoGoGo a.k.a. Speed Racer)" (1967).


title: History of animation

text: The domestically popular "サザエさん / Sazae-san" started in 1969 and is probably the longest-running animated TV show in the world, with more than 7,700 episodes.


title: History of animation

text: Before the end of the 1960s, hardly any adult-oriented animation had been produced. A notable exception was the pornographic short "Eveready Harton in Buried Treasure" (1928), presumably made by famous animators for a private party in honor of Winsor McCay, and not publicly screened until the late 1970s. After 1934, the Hays code gave filmmakers in the United States little leeway to release risky material, until the code was replaced by the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system in 1968. While television programming of animation had made most people think of it as a medium for children or family entertainment, new theatrical animations proved otherwise.


title: History of animation

text: Arguably, the philosophical, psychological, and sociological overtones of the "Peanuts" TV specials were relatively adult-oriented, while the specials were also enjoyable for children. In 1969 director Bill Mendelez expanded the success of the series to cinemas with "A Boy Named Charlie Brown". The theatrical follow-up "Snoopy Come Home" (1972) was a box-office flop, despite positive reviews. "Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown" (1977) and "Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don't Come Back!!)" (1980) were the only other theatrical traditionally animated feature films for "Peanuts", while the TV specials continued until 2011.


title: History of animation

text: The anti-establishment counterculture boom at the end of the 1960s impacted Hollywood early on. In animation, anti-war sentiments were present in several short underground films like Ward Kimball's "Escalation" (1968) (made independently from his employment at Disney) and the parody "Mickey Mouse in Vietnam" (1969). The less political parody "Bambi meets Godzilla" (1969) by Marv Newland, another underground short film for adults, is considered a great classic and was included in "The 50 Greatest Cartoons" (1994) (based on a poll of 1,000 people working in the animation industry).


title: History of animation

text: The popularity of psychedelia reportedly made the 1969 re-release of Disney's "Fantasia" popular among teenagers and college students, and the film started to make a profit. Similarly, Disney's "Alice in Wonderland" became popular with TV screenings in this period and with its 1974 theatrical re-release.


title: History of animation

text: Also influenced by the psychedelic revolution, The Beatles' animated musical feature "Yellow Submarine" (1968) showed a broad audience how animation could be quite different from the well-known television cartoons and Disney features. Its distinctive design came from the art director Heinz Edelman. The film received widespread acclaim and would prove to be influential. Peter Max further popularized a similar visual style in his artworks.


title: History of animation

text: Ralph Bakshi thought that the idea of "grown men sitting in cubicles drawing butterflies floating over a field of flowers, while American planes are dropping bombs in Vietnam and kids are marching in the streets, is ludicrous." He, therefore, created a more sociopolitical type of animation, starting with "Fritz the Cat" (1972), based on Robert Crumb's comic books and the first animated feature to receive an X-rating. The X-rating was used to promote the film and it became the highest-grossing independent animated film of all time. The success of "Heavy Traffic" (1973) made Bakshi the first since Disney to have two financially successful animated feature films in a row. The film utilized an artistic blend of techniques with still photography as the background in parts, a live-action scene of models with painted faces rendered in negative cinematography, a scene rendered in very limited sketchy animation that was only partly colored, detailed drawing, archival footage, and most characters animated in a consistent cartoon style throughout it all, except the last ten minutes which were fully filmed as a standard live-action film. He continued to experiment with different techniques in most of his next projects. His next projects "Hey Good Lookin'" (finished in 1975, but shelved by Warner Bros. until release in an adjusted version in 1982) and "Coonskin" (1975, suffered from protests against its perceived racism while satirizing it) was far less successful, but received more appreciation later on and became cult films.


title: History of animation

text: Bakshi found new success with the fantasy films "Wizards" (1977) and "The Lord of the Rings" (1978). Both used rotoscoping for massive battle scenes. For "Wizards" the technique was used on archival footage as a solution to budgetary problems and rendered in psychedelic and artistic style. For "The Lord of the Rings" it became a means to create a look that Bakshi described as "real illustration as opposed to cartoons" for a film that he wanted to be true to Tolkien's work, with reference material shot with costumed actors in Spain. The more family-oriented television film "The Return of the King" (1979) by Rankin/Bass and Topcraft is sometimes regarded as an unofficial sequel after Bakshi's intended second part was not made, but they had already independently started their adaptation of the story on television with "The Hobbit" in 1977.


title: History of animation

text: The imaginative French/Czech science fiction production "La Planète sauvage" (1973) was awarded the Grand Prix special jury prize at the 1973 Cannes Film Festival, and in 2016, it was ranked the 36th-greatest animated movie ever by "Rolling Stone".


title: History of animation

text: The British production "Watership Down (film)" (1978) was a huge international success. It featured animal characters that looked more realistic than anthropomorphic, against watercolor backgrounds. Despite its dark and violent aspects, it was deemed suitable for all ages in the UK and rated PG in the United States.


title: History of animation

text: Anime import offered relatively cheap animated series, but some European broadcasters thought of animation as something for young children and all too easily programmed anime series accordingly. This led to much criticism when some programs were deemed too violent for children. Child-friendly adaptions of European stories ensured much more success in Europe, with popular titles such as "アルプスの少女ハイジ (Heidi, Girl of the Alps)" (1974) and "みつばちマーヤの冒険 (Maya the Honey Bee)" (1975).


title: History of animation

text: Only a few animation studios were active in Europe and starting a new studio required much time, effort, and money. For European producers interested in animated series, it made sense to collaborate with Japanese studios that could provide affordable animation of relatively high quality. Resulting productions include "Barbapapa" (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977), "Wickie und die to starken Männer/小さなバイキング ビッケ (Vicky the Viking)" (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974), "Il était une fois... (Once Upon a Time...)" (France/Japan 1978) and "Doctor Snuggles" (The Netherlands/West Germany/Japan/US 1979).


title: History of animation

text: Short animated films mostly became a medium for film festivals in which independent animators showcased their talents. With the big studios away from the field, the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film and nominations of the 1970s and 1980s were usually for relatively unknown artists.


title: History of animation

text: "La Linea" (Italy 1971, 1978, 1986) is a popular animation series with the main character that consists of a part of an otherwise straight white line that runs horizontally across the screen.


title: History of animation

text: Soviet/Russian animator Yuri Norstein "is considered by many to be not just the best animator of his era, but the best of all time". He released a handful of award-winning short films in the 1970s:


title: History of animation

text: Although the combination of music and animation had a long tradition, it took some time before animation became part of music videos after the medium became a proper genre in the mid-1970s.


title: History of animation

text: Halas and Batchelor produced an animated video for Roger Glover's "Love Is All" (1974) that was broadcast internationally over decades, often as an interstitial program.


title: History of animation

text: Pink Floyd's 1977 " Welcome to the Machine" music video, animated by Gerald Scarfe, was initially only used as a backdrop for concert performances.


title: History of animation

text: Elvis Costello's "Accidents Will Happen" (1979) was made by Annabelle Jackel and Rocky Morton, known for their animated commercials. Despite an initially lukewarm reception, the video has since received acclaim.


title: History of animation

text: Roger Mainwood and John Halas created an animated music video for Kraftwerk's "Autobahn" in 1979. The short wordless documentary "Making it move..." showed the production process.


title: History of animation

text: A cartoon for Linda McCartney's "Seaside Woman" was made by Oscar Grillo and won a Palme d'Or for Best Short Film at the Cannes festival in 1980.


title: History of animation

text: Animation for US TV programming had grown formulaic, often based on characters known from other media, and with much of the actual (limited) animation work outsourced to cheap Asian laborers.


title: History of animation

text: Several popular animated TV series for children could be perceived as little more than commercials since they were based on toy lines, including Mattell's "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe" (1983–1985) and Hasbro's "" (1983–1986), "The Transformers" (1984–1987) and "My Little Pony" (1986–1987).


title: History of animation

text: Mostly in retrospect, Disney feature films have been perceived as going through a dark age in the first decades after Walt Disney's death in 1966 (despite a more steady string of box office successes than during the decennia in which Walt was alive). The failure of "The Black Cauldron" (1985), made on an ambitious budget, was a new low. Tim Burton cited Disney's failure to train new animators during the 1960s and early 1970s as a reason for the decline, with Disney relying instead on an aging group of veterans.


title: History of animation

text: Don Bluth, who had left Disney in 1979 together with nine other animators, started to compete with his former employer in cinemas in 1982 with "The Secret of NIMH". The film garnered critical acclaim but was only a modest success at the box office.


title: History of animation

text: In comparison to the US animation output around the start of the 1980s, international co-productions seemed more imaginative and more promising. "The Smurfs" (1981–1989), produced by Belgian Freddy Monnickendam's SEPP International in collaboration with Hanna-Barbera, was highly successful, and followed by "Snorks" (1984–1989) and "Foofur" (1986–1988). Production for Bzz Films' "Bibifoc (Seabert)" (1984–1988) was also handled by SEPP. Other notable international co-productions include "Inspector Gadget" (France/U.S.A. 1983) and "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" (Canada/Japan 1986–1987).


title: History of animation

text: In the U.K., Cosgrove Hall Films' very successful TV series "Danger Mouse" debuted in September 1981 and would continue until 1992, receiving 11 BAFTA nominations between 1983 and 1987. Also broadcast on Nickelodeon, the witty secret agent parody featuring a mouse became popular with young as well as adult American audiences and spawned the "Count Duckula" (1988-1993) spin-off.


title: History of animation

text: Anime, together with printed manga, had built enormous fandom in Japan and became a big part of the country's mainstream culture. Among anime's many genres, mecha (giant-robot science fiction) became particularly iconic. Print manga in particular entered into a golden age during the 1980s, buoyed by series such as "Dragon Ball" (1984–1995), and these series received long-running successful anime adaptations. The relatively new home video market grew very large and original video animation (OVA) became a much-appreciated medium, often with higher-quality productions than those made for TV (in contrast to the US, where direct-to-video was mainly a medium for releases that were not expected to be popular enough to warrant a theatrical release or TV broadcast and therefore often produced on a much lower budget). Naturally, the OVA medium suited the consumption of erotic and pornographic animation. The first erotic ova release was the "ロリータアニメ (Lolita Anime)" series from February 1984 to May 1985, soon followed by the "Cream Lemon" series (August 1984 – 2005). The genre became internationally known as hentai and is infamous for often containing perverse subject matter, including underage sex, monster sex, and tentacle sex (originally devised as a means to bypass Japanese censorship regulations). New anime series based on European material included "ニルスのふしぎな旅 (The Wonderful Adventures of Nils)" (1980-1981) and "スプーンおばさん (Mrs. Pepper Pot)" (1983–1984).


title: History of animation

text: Hayao Miyazaki's epic theatrical features "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" (1984), based on his manga, and "天空の城ラピュタ (Castle in the Sky)" (1986) are regularly praised as some of the greatest animated films of all time. "Castle in the Sky" was the first feature for Studio Ghibli, founded in 1985 by Miyazaki with Isao Takahata and others. Studio Ghibli continued its success with Takahata's WWII film "火垂るの墓 (Grave of the Fireflies)" (1988) and Miyazaki's iconic "となりのトトロ (My Neighbor Totoro)" (1988) and "魔女の宅急便 (Kiki's Delivery Service)" (1989).


title: History of animation

text: Beginning in the mid-1980s, US animation would see a renaissance. This has been credited to a wave of talent that emerged from the California Institute of the Arts- primarily among the cohort that had studied there in the 1970s under Marc Davis, a member of the nine old men that had influenced the language of animation in the 1920s and 1930s. At this time, many of the nine were in the process of retiring. As an inside joke, many students in the classroom A113 have inserted the room code into their films, television series, and so forth in the years since. The students of A113 include Jerry Rees, John Lasseter, Tim Burton, Michael Peraza, and Brad Bird. Two other members of the nine old men, Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas, published "The Illusion of Life" in 1981, an instructional book that has been voted the best animation book of all time and influenced James Baxter among other modern animators.


title: History of animation

text: In cinemas, Robert Zemeckis' live-action/animation hit "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" (1988) also harked back to the quality and zany comedy of the golden age of cartoons, with cameos of many of the superstars of that era, including Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Goofy, Betty Boop, Droopy, Woody Woodpecker and the Mel Blanc-voiced Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Tweety, and Sylvester. The film won several Oscars and helped revive interest in theatrical feature animation and classic cartoons. The fully animated Roger Rabbit short film "Tummy Trouble" (1989) was then packaged with the live-action family comedy "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids" and believed to have helped that movie's quick start at the box-office. In collaboration with Steven Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment, Bluth's "An American Tail" (1986) became the highest-grossing non-Disney animated film at the time. "The Land Before Time" (1988) was equally successful, but Bluth's next five feature films flopped.


title: History of animation

text: "" (1987–1989) was one of the first animated TV shows to recapture the earlier quality and originality of American cartoons. It was produced by Ralph Bakshi and the first season was supervised by John Kricfalusi, with much freedom for artists to work in their style. Rather than making a nostalgic rehash of the original Terrytoons series, it tried to recreate the quality and the zany humor of the "Looney Tunes" classics.


title: History of animation

text: Matt Groening's "The Simpsons" started in April 1987 as a short segment in-sketch comedy show "The Tracey Ullman Show", and then launched as a separate prime-time half-hour sitcom in December 1989. It became one of the biggest cartoon hits in history and is the longest-running scripted US primetime television series.


title: History of animation

text: While the successes of "The Great Mouse Detective" (1986) and "Oliver and Company" (1988) had already helped to get the Disney studio back on track, they struck gold with the box office record-breaking hit "The Little Mermaid" (1989). A shot for the rainbow sequence at the end of "The Little Mermaid" was the first piece of feature animation to be created with the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) system that Disney and Pixar had collaboratively assembled. This digital ink and paint system replaced the expensive method of inking and coloring cells by hand and provided filmmakers with new creative tools. By 1990, the boom of animated hits was heralded as a comeback that might rival the golden age of cartoons.


title: History of animation

text: Bakshi's rock musical "American Pop" (1981) was another success, mostly made with the rotoscope technique in combination with some watercolors, computer graphics, live-action shots, and archival footage. His next film "Fire and Ice" (1983) was a collaboration with artist Frank Frazetta. It was one of many films in the sword and sorcery genre released after the success of "Conan the Barbarian" (1982) and "The Beastmaster" (1982). Critics appreciated the visuals and action sequences, but not its script and the film flopped at the box office. After failing to get several projects off the ground, Bakshi retired for a few years.


title: History of animation

text: The Canadian anthology hit film "Heavy Metal" (1981) was based on comics published in the popular "" Heavy Metal" magazine" and co-produced by its founder. Mixed reviews thought the film was uneven, juvenile, and sexist. It was eventually followed in 2000 by the poorly received "Heavy Metal 2000" and re-imagined as the Netflix series "Love, Death & Robots" in 2019.


title: History of animation

text: The dark rock opera film "Pink Floyd – The Wall" (1982) contained 15 minutes worth of animated segments by British cartoonist Gerald Scarfe, who had already designed related artwork for the 1979 album and 1980-81 concert tour. Some of the film's animated material was previously used for the 1979 music video for "Another Brick in the Wall: Part 2" and for the tour. Scarfe had also made animations for Pink Floyd's 1977 "In the Flesh" tour.


title: History of animation

text: The successful British nuclear disaster film "When the Wind Blows" (1986) showed hand-drawn characters against real backgrounds, with stop-motion for objects that moved.


title: History of animation

text: The violent post-apocalyptic cyberpunk anime "Akira" (1988) garnered increased popularity of anime outside Japan and is now widely regarded as a classic.


title: History of animation

text: MTV launched in 1981 and further popularized the music-video medium, which allowed relatively much artistic expression and creative techniques, since all involved wanted their video to stand out. Many of the most celebrated music videos of the 1980s featured animation, often created with techniques that differed from standard cel animation. For instance, the iconic video for Peter Gabriel's "Sledgehammer" (1986) featured claymation, pixilation, and stop motion by Aardman Animations and the Brothers Quay.


title: History of animation

text: A-ha's "Take On Me" (1985) famously combined live-action with realistic pencil-drawing animation by Michael Patterson. The video was directed by Steve Barron, who would also direct the groundbreaking computer-animated Dire Straits "Money for Nothing" in the same year. The a-ha video was inspired by Alex Patterson's CalArts graduation film "Commuter" (1984), which had attracted the attention of Warner Bros. Records executives and would be partly used again for A-ha's "Train of Thought" video.


title: History of animation

text: Patterson also directed Paula Abdul's "Opposites Attract" (1989), featuring his animated creation MC Skat Kat.


title: History of animation

text: The Rolling Stones' "The Harlem Shuffle" (1986) featured animated elements directed by Ralph Bakshi and John Kricfalusi, created in a few weeks.


title: History of animation

text: The original moon-landing bumpers on MTV were pulled in early 1986 in the wake of the " Challenger" disaster MTV then furthered its wild artistic postmodern image through a plethora of experimental ident bumpers, most of them animated. Animators usually went uncredited, but were free to work in their identifiable styles. For instance, Canadian animator Danny Antonucci's contribution anonymously featured his "Lupo the Butcher" character that was allowed to utter his psychotic ramblings.


title: History of animation

text: From around 1987 MTV had a dedicated Animation department and slowly started introducing more animation in between its music-related programming. Bill Plympton's "Microtoons" is an early example.


title: History of animation

text: Early experiments with computers to generate (abstract) moving images had been conducted since the 1940s but had not garnered much attention until commercial (coin-operated) video games started to get marketed in the early 1970s. Pong (1972) by Atari, Inc., with very simple two-dimensional black-and-white graphics, and Taito's Space Invaders became huge successes that paved the way for a medium that can be regarded as an interactive branch of computer animation. Since 1974 the annual SIGGRAPH conventions have been organized to demonstrate current developments and new research in the field of computer graphics (including CGI), but computer animation had seldom been seen on TV or in movie theaters (with notable exceptions of some demonstrations of 3D wire-frame models as futuristic technologies seen on screens in a few big Hollywood productions as "Futureworld" (1976) and "Star Wars" (1977)).


title: History of animation

text: 3D computer animation started to have a much wider cultural impact during the 1980s, demonstrated for instance in the 1982 movie "Tron" and the music video for "Money for Nothing" (1985) by the Dire Straits. The concept even spawned a popular faux 3D-animated AI character: Max Headroom (introduced in 1985).


title: History of animation

text: During the 1980s, computer animation also started to become a relatively common means to create motion graphics for logos and text in TV-commercials and movies title sequences.


title: History of animation

text: The 1990s saw Disney release numerous films that were both critically and commercially successful, returning to heights not seen since their heyday from the 1930s to 1960s. The period from 1989 to 1999 is now referred to as the Disney Renaissance or the Second Golden Age and began with the release of "The Little Mermaid" (1989). Their success led other major film studios to establish new animation divisions such as Amblimation, Fox Animation Studios or Warner Bros. Feature Animation to replicate Disney's success by turning their animated films into Disney-styled musicals.


title: History of animation

text: Disney's "Beauty and the Beast" (1991) (the first animated film in history to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture), "Aladdin" (1992) and "The Lion King" (1994) successively broke box-office records. "Pocahontas" (1995) opened to mixed reviews but was a financial success and received two Academy Awards. "Mulan" (1998) and "Tarzan" (1999) didn't surpass "The Lion King" as the highest-grossing (traditionally) animated film of all time but were both successful grossing over $300 million worldwide. " The Hunchback of Notre Dame" (1996) was a financial success at the time but contained very dark and adult themes and has since become one of Disney's lesser-known films. Only the sequel "The Rescuers Down Under" (1990) and "Hercules" (1997) underperformed box-office expectations. From The Return of Jafar in 1994 to Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast in 2015, Disney continued to produce feature-length sequels to successful titles, but only as direct-to-video releases by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.


title: History of animation

text: John Kricfalusi's influential "The Ren & Stimpy Show" (1991–1996) garnered widespread acclaim. For a while, it was the most popular cable TV show in the United States. Programmed as a children's cartoon, it was notoriously controversial for its dark humor, sexual innuendos, adult jokes, and shock value. "The Ren & Stimpy Show" premiered on the same day as "Rugrats" and "Doug" and "Rugrats" would become the first of the "Big Three" of the Nicktoons along with "SpongeBob SquarePants" and "The Fairly OddParents". The enormous success of "The Simpsons" and "The Ren & Stimpy Show" prompted more original and relatively daring series, including "South Park" (since 1997), "King of the Hill" (1997–2010), "Family Guy" (since 1999), and "Futurama" (1999–2003). The use of animation on MTV increased when the channel started to make more and more shows that did not fit its "music television" moniker. "Liquid Television" (1991 to 1995) showcased contributions that were mostly created by independent animators specifically for the show and spawned separate "Æon Flux" and "Beavis and Butt-Head" (1993–1997) series. Other 1990s cartoon series on MTV included "The Head" (1994-1996) and "The Maxx" (1995), both under the "MTV's Oddities" banner. By 2001, MTV closed its animation department, began to outsource its animated series, and eventually imported shows from associated networks. The 24-hour cable channel Cartoon Network was launched in the United States on 1 October 1992 and was soon followed by its first international versions. Originally the programming consisted of classic cartoons from the back catalogs of Warner Bros, MGM, Fleischer/Famous, and Hanna-Barbera. From 1996 to 2003, new original series ran as "Cartoon Cartoons" and introduced the popular titles "Dexter's Laboratory" (1996–2003), "Johnny Bravo" (1997–2004), "Cow and Chicken" (1997–1999), "I Am Weasel" (1997–2000), "The Powerpuff Girls" (1998–2005) and "Ed, Edd n Eddy" (1999–2009). Television animation for children also continued to flourish in the United States on specialized cable channels like Nickelodeon, Disney Channel/Disney XD, PBS Kids, and in syndicated afternoon time slots. The Disney Renaissance for the Disney Channel, was the flagship of the 1990s cartoons, which in turn are sometimes called the "Renaissance Age of Animation" for cartoons in general, and the Disney Channel's two main rivals were Nickelodeon, owned by Viacom and Cartoon Network owned by Warner Brothers. These three channels are the "Big Three", of children's entertainment, even today, but especially during the 1990s.


title: History of animation

text: During the 1990s, 3D animation became more and more mainstream, especially in video games, and eventually had a big breakthrough in 1995 with Pixar's feature film hit "Toy Story".


title: History of animation

text: More or less photo-realistic 3D animation has been used for special effects in some commercials and films since the 1980s before breakthrough effects were seen in "" (1991) and "Jurassic Park" (1993). Since then techniques have developed to the stage that the difference between CGI and real-life cinematography is seldom obvious. Filmmakers can blend both types of images seamlessly with virtual cinematography. "The Matrix" (1999) and its two sequels are usually regarded as breakthrough films in this field.


title: History of animation

text: The creation of virtual worlds allows real-time animation in virtual reality, a medium that has been experimented with since 1962 and started to see commercial entertainment applications in the 1990s.


title: History of animation

text: The launch of the World Wide Web increased interest in motion graphics and computer animation, spawning many new applications, techniques, and markets for what became known as new media.


title: History of animation

text: After the success of Pixar's "Toy Story" (1995) and DreamWorks Animation's "Shrek" (2001), computer animation grew into the dominant animation technique in the US and many other countries. Even animation that looked traditional was more and more often created fully with computers, helped by for instance cel-shading techniques to replicate the much-appreciated look of traditional animation (true real-time cel-shading was first introduced in 2000 by Sega's "Jet Set Radio" for their Dreamcast console). By 2004, only small productions were still created with traditional techniques.


title: History of animation

text: The first decades of the 21st century also saw 3D film turn mainstream in theatres. The production process and visual style of CGI lend themselves perfectly to 3D viewing, much more than traditional animation styles and methods. However, many traditionally animated films can be very effective in 3D. Disney successfully released a 3D version of "The Lion King" in 2011, followed by "Beauty and the Beast" in 2012. A planned 3D version of "The Little Mermaid" was canceled when "Beauty and the Beast" and two 3D-converted Pixar titles were not successful enough at the box office.


title: History of animation

text: Disney started producing their own 3D-style computer-animated features with "Dinosaur" and "Chicken Little", but continued to make animated features with traditional look: "The Emperor's New Groove" (2000), "" (2001), "Lilo & Stitch" (2002), "Treasure Planet" (2002), "Brother Bear" (2003) and "Home on the Range" (2004).


title: History of animation

text: "Treasure Planet" and "Home on the Range" were big flops on big budgets and it looked like Disney would only continue with 3D computer animation. Financial analysis in 2006 proved that Disney had lost money on their animation productions of the previous ten years. In the meantime, Pixar's CGI features did extremely well. To turn things around Disney acquired Pixar in 2006, and put creative control over both Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios in the hands of Pixar's John Lasseter as part of the deal. The studios would remain separate legal entities. Under Lasseter, the Disney studio developed both traditionally styled and 3D-styled animation projects.


title: History of animation

text: The theatrical short "How to Hook Up Your Home Theater" (2007) tested whether new paperless animation processes could be used for a look similar to cartoons of the 1940s and 1950s, with Goofy returning to his "Everyman" role in his first solo appearance in 42 years.


title: History of animation

text: Ron Clements and John Musker's feature "The Princess and the Frog" (2009) was a moderate commercial and critical success, but not the comeback hit for traditional features that the studio had hoped it would be. Its perceived failure was mostly blamed on the use of "princess" in the title causing potential movie-goers to think it was only for little girls, and old-fashioned.


title: History of animation

text: "Winnie the Pooh" (2011) received favorable reviews, but failed at the box office and became Disney's last traditional feature to date. "Frozen" (2013) was originally conceived in the traditional style but switched to 3D CGI to enable the creation of certain required visual elements. It became Disney's biggest hit at the time, surpassing both " The Lion King" and Pixar's "Toy Story 3" as the highest-grossing animated film of all time, and winning the studio's first Academy Award for a best-animated feature.


title: History of animation

text: Especially outside North America, hand-drawn animation continued to be very popular, most notably in Japan, where traditionally styled anime remained the dominant technique. The popularity of anime continued to rise domestically, with a record-high 340 anime series airing on television in 2015, as well as internationally, with a dedicated Toonami block on Cartoon Network (1997–2008) and Adult Swim (since 2012) and with streaming services like Netflix and Amazon Prime licensing and producing an increasing amount of anime.


title: History of animation

text: Ghibli continued its enormous success with Miyazaki's "Spirited Away" (2001), "ハウルの動く城 (Howl's Moving Castle)" (2004), "崖の上のポニョ (Ponyo)" (2008) and "風立ちぬ (The Wind Rises)" (2013) and Hiromasa Yonebayashi"借りぐらしのアリエッティ(The Secret World of Arrietty)" (2010), all grossing more than $100 million worldwide and appearing in the top 10 of the highest-grossing anime films of all time (as of 2020). Takahata's "かぐや姫の物語 (The Tale of the Princess Kaguya)" (2013) was nominated for an Oscar for Best Animated Feature Film Academy Award and many other awards.


title: History of animation

text: Makoto Shinkai directed "君の名は。(Your Name)" (2016, highest-grossing anime film of all time internationally) and "天気の子 (Weathering with You)" (2019).


title: History of animation

text: After the pioneering work by the likes of J. Stuart Blackton, Segundo de Chomón, and Arthur Melbourne-Cooper, stop motion became a branch of animation that has been much less dominant than hand-drawn animation and computer animation. Nonetheless, there have been many successful stop-motion films and television series. Among the animators whose work with animated puppets has received the highest acclaim are Wladyslaw Starewicz, George Pal, and Henry Selick. Popular titles using animated clay include "Gumby" (1953), "Mio Mao" (1970), "The Red and the Blue" (1976), "Pingu" (1990-2000) and many Aardman Animations productions ("Morph" (1977) and "Wallace and Gromit" (1989)).


title: History of animation

text: In the hands of influential filmmakers such as Jan Svankmajer and Brothers Quay, stop motion has been regarded as a highly artistic medium.


title: History of animation

text: Until largely replaced by computer-animated effects, stop motion was also a popular technique for special effects in live-action films. Pioneer Willis O'Brien and his protégé Ray Harryhausen animated many monsters and creatures for live-action Hollywood films, using models or puppets with armatures. In comparison, hand-drawn animation has relatively often been combined with live-action, but usually in an obvious fashion and often used as a surprising gimmick that combines a "real" world and a fantasy or dream world. Only very occasionally has hand-drawn animation been used as convincing special effects (for instance in the climax of "Highlander" (1986)).


title: History of animation

text: Cutout techniques were relatively often used in animated films until cel animation became the standard method (at least in the United States). The earliest animated feature films, by Quirino Cristiani and Lotte Reiniger, were cutout animations.


title: History of animation

text: Before 1934, Japanese animation mostly used cutout techniques rather than cel animation, because celluloid was too expensive.


title: History of animation

text: As cutouts often have been hand-drawn and some productions combine several animation techniques, cutout animation can sometimes look very similar to hand-drawn traditional animation.


title: History of animation

text: While sometimes used as a simple and cheap animation method in children's programs (for instance in "Ivor the Engine"), cutout animation has remained a relatively artistic and experimental medium in the hands of Harry Everett Smith, Terry Gilliam and Jim Blashfield.


title: History of animation

text: Today, cutout-style animation is frequently produced using computers, with scanned images or vector graphics taking the place of physically cut materials. "South Park" is a notable example of the transition since its pilot episode was made with paper cutouts before switching to computer software. Similar stylistic choices and blends with different techniques in computer animation have made it harder to differentiate between "traditional", cutout, and Flash animation styles.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The Moderna COVID19 vaccine (INN: elasomeran), sold under the brand name Spikevax, is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by American company Moderna, the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), and the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA). Depending on the jurisdiction, it is authorized for use in people aged six months, twelve years, or eighteen years and older. It provides protection against COVID-19 which is caused by infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It is designed to be administered as two or three 0.5 mL doses given by intramuscular injection at an interval of at least 28 days apart.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: It is an mRNA vaccine composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: In August and September 2022, bivalent versions of the vaccine (Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine, Bivalent) containing elasomeran/elasomeran 0-omicron (Spikevax Bivalent Zero/Omicron) were authorized for use as booster doses in individuals aged 18 years of age or older in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, the European Union, and the United States. The second component of the version of the bivalent vaccine used in the United States (mRNA-1273.222) is based on the Omicron BA.4/BA.5 variant, while the second component in the bivalent vaccine version used in other countries (mRNA-1273.214) is based on the Omicron BA.1 variant.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The Moderna COVID19 vaccine is used to provide protection against infection by the SARSCoV2 virus in order to prevent COVID19.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection into the deltoid muscle of the arm. The initial course consists of two doses. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends an interval of eight weeks between doses.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Evidence of vaccine efficacy starts about two weeks after the first dose. High efficacy is achieved with full immunization, two weeks after the second dose, and was evaluated at 94.1%: at the end of the vaccine study that led to emergency authorization in the US, there were eleven cases of COVID19 in the vaccine group (out of 15,181 people) versus 185 cases in the placebo group (15,170 people). Moreover, there were zero cases of severe COVID19 in the vaccine group, versus eleven in the placebo group. This efficacy has been described as "astonishing" and "borderline historic" for a respiratory virus vaccine, and it is similar to the efficacy of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Efficacy estimates were similar across age groups, sexes, racial and ethnic groups, and participants with medical comorbidities associated with high risk of severe COVID19. Only individuals aged 18 or older were studied. Studies are underway to gauge efficacy and safety in children aged 0–11 (KidCOVE) and 12–17 (TeenCOVE).


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: A further study conducted by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) between December 2020, and March 2021, on nearly 4thousand health care personnel, first responders, and other essential and frontline workers concluded that under real-world conditions, mRNA vaccine effectiveness of full immunization (14 days or more after second dose) was 90% against SARS-CoV-2 infections, regardless of symptoms, and vaccine effectiveness of partial immunization (14 days or more after first dose but before second dose) was 80%.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The duration of protection provided by the vaccine is unknown , and a two-year followup study is underway to determine the duration.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Preliminary results from a phase III trial indicate that vaccine efficacy is durable, remaining at 93% six months after the second dose.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: A vaccine is generally considered effective if the estimate is ≥50% with a >30% lower limit of the 95% confidence interval. Effectiveness is generally expected to slowly decrease over time.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: In August 2021, results from a study suggested that the effectiveness against infection decreased from to when the Delta variant became predominant in the US, which may be due to unmeasured and residual confounding related to a decline in vaccine effectiveness over time.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Limited data are available on the safety of the Moderna COVID19 vaccine for people who are pregnant. The initial study excluded pregnant women or discontinued them from vaccination upon a positive pregnancy test. Studies in animals found no safety concerns and clinical trials are underway to evaluate the safety and efficacy of COVID19 vaccines in pregnant women. Real-world observations through the CDC v-safe tracking program have not uncovered unusual numbers of adverse events or outcomes of interest. Based on the results of a preliminary study, the US CDC recommends that pregnant women get vaccinated with the COVID19 vaccine.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) stated that "the safety data supported a favorable safety profile" and that the vaccine's AE (adverse event) profile "did not suggest any specific safety concerns". The most common adverse events were pain at the injection site, fatigue, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and arthralgia (joint pain).


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reported anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction) in 2.5 cases per million doses administered and has recommended a 15-minute observation period after injection. Delayed cutaneous reactions at injection sites resulting in rash-like erythemas have also been observed in rare cases but are not considered serious or contraindications to subsequent vaccination. The incidence rate for local adverse erythema is about 10.8%, in 1.9% of cases redness may extend to a size of 100mm or greater.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: In June 2021, the US CDC confirmed that myocarditis or pericarditis occurs in about 13 of every 1 million young people, mostly male and over the age of 16, who received the Moderna or the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine. Most affected individuals recover quickly with adequate treatment and rest.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Moderna's technology uses a nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) compound codenamed mRNA-1273. The mRNA-1273 drug delivery system uses a PEGylated lipid nanoparticle drug delivery (LNP) system. Once the compound is inside a human cell, the mRNA links up with the cell's endoplasmic reticulum. The mRNA-1273 is encoded to trigger the cell into making a specific protein using the cell's normal manufacturing process. The vaccine encodes a version of the spike protein with a modification called 2P, in which the protein includes two stabilizing mutations in which the original amino acids are replaced with prolines, developed by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases' Vaccine Research Center. Once the protein is expelled from the cell, it is eventually detected by the immune system, which begins generating efficacious antibodies.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The active ingredient is an mRNA sequence containing a total of 4101 nucleotides that encodes the full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein, with two mutations (K986P and V987P) designed to stabilize the pre-fusion conformation. The sequence is further optimized by:


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: A putative sequence of the vaccine has been published on a forum for professional virologists, obtained by direct sequencing of residual vaccine material in used vials.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The vaccine mRNA is dissolved in an aqueous buffer containing tromethamine, tromethamine hydrochloride, sodium acetate, and sucrose. The mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles that stabilize the mRNA and facilitate its entry into cells. The nanoparticles are manufactured from the following lipids:


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Moderna is relying extensively on contract manufacturing organizations to scale up its vaccine manufacturing process. The first step of the process—synthesis of DNA plasmids (to be used as a template for synthesis of mRNA)—has been handled by a contractor called Aldevron based in Fargo, North Dakota. For the remainder of the process, Moderna contracted with Lonza Group to manufacture the vaccine at facilities in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in the United States, and in Visp in Switzerland, and purchased the necessary lipid excipients from CordenPharma. Besides CMOs, Moderna also manufactures the vaccine at its own production facility in Norwood, Massachusetts.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: For the tasks of filling and packaging vials (fill and finish), Moderna entered into contracts with Catalent in the United States and Laboratorios Farmacéuticos Rovi in Spain. In April 2021, Moderna expanded its agreement with Catalent to increase manufacturing output at the latter's plant in Bloomington, Indiana. The expansion will allow Catalent to manufacture up to 400 vials per minute and fill an additional 80million vials per year. Later that month, Moderna announced its plans to spend billions of dollars to boost production of its vaccines, potentially tripling the output in 2022, claiming as well that it would make no less than 800million doses in 2021. The increase in production is in part attributed to improvements made by the company in manufacturing methods.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The Moderna news followed preliminary results from the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine candidate, BNT162b2, with Moderna demonstrating similar efficacy, but requiring storage at the temperature of a standard medical refrigerator of for up to thirty days or for up to four months, whereas the Pfizer-BioNTech candidate requires ultracold freezer storage between . Low-income countries usually have cold chain capacity for only standard refrigerator storage, not ultracold freezer storage. In February 2021, the restrictions on the Pfizer vaccine were relaxed when the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) updated the emergency use authorization (EUA) to permit undiluted frozen vials of the vaccine to be transported and stored at between for up to two weeks before use. The Moderna vaccine should not be stored at a temperature below .


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: In November 2020, "Nature" reported that "While it's possible that differences in LNP formulations or mRNA secondary structures could account for the thermostability differences [between Moderna and BioNtech], many experts suspect both vaccine products will ultimately prove to have similar storage requirements and shelf lives under various temperature conditions."


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: In January 2020, Moderna announced development of an RNA vaccine, codenamed mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to SARS-CoV-2.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: Moderna received from the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), an office of the US Department of Health and Human Services. BARDA funded 100% of the cost of bringing the vaccine to FDA licensure.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: The United States government provided $2.5billion in total funding for the Moderna COVID19 vaccine (mRNA-1273). Private donors also made contributions to the vaccine's development. The Dolly Parton COVID-19 Research Fund contributed $1million.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: In March 2020, the phaseI human trial of mRNA-1273 began in partnership with the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. In April, the US Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) allocated up to $483million for Moderna's vaccine development. Plans for a phaseII dosing and efficacy trial to begin in May were approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Moderna signed a partnership with Swiss vaccine manufacturer Lonza Group, to supply 300million doses per annum.


title: Moderna COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 25 May 2020, Moderna began a phaseIIa clinical trial recruiting six hundred adult participants to assess safety and differences in antibody response to two doses of its candidate vaccine, mRNA-1273, a study expected to complete in 2021.