title: Scholasticism

text: As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."


title: Scholasticism

text: Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic Thomism identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, according to philosophers like Edward Feser, "Strict Observance Thomism". A discussion of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism can be found in "La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti" (2002) by , which includes such figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990), Cornelio Fabro (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984), Tomas Tyn O.P. (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato O.P. (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926– ) and Giovanni Ventimiglia (1964– ) among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the "actus essendi" or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with the "Progetto Tommaso" seek to establish an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.


title: Scholasticism

text: Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council.


title: Scholasticism

text: A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of the analytic philosophy. Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this approach include Anthony Kenny, Peter King, Thomas Williams or David Oderberg. Analytical Thomism can be seen as a pioneer part of this movement.


title: Scholasticism

text: Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process ("modus inveniendi").


title: Scholasticism

text: The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, "auctor" (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the "auctor" might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.


title: Scholasticism

text: Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the "lectio": a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the "meditatio" (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the "quaestio" students could ask questions ("quaestiones") that might have occurred to them during "meditatio". Eventually the discussion of "questiones" became a method of inquiry apart from the "lectio" and independent of authoritative texts. "Disputationes" were arranged to resolve controversial "quaestiones".


title: Scholasticism

text: Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – "disputationes de quodlibet". In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.


title: Scholasticism

text: The "quaestio" method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved ("sic") or denied ("non"). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen is a fictional character in the 1965 science fiction novel "Dune" by Frank Herbert. He is the younger nephew and heir of the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, and is depicted to be as cruel, treacherous and cunning as his uncle.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Feyd is portrayed by Sting in the 1984 film "Dune" and by Matt Keeslar in the 2000 miniseries "Frank Herbert's Dune", and will be played by Austin Butler in the upcoming 2023 film "".


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Sixteen-year-old Feyd, the younger nephew and heir of Baron Harkonnen, is described as dark-haired, and "round of face and with sullen eyes". He is lean and muscular in contrast to his morbidly obese uncle, and is a deadly fighter. The Baron also notes that the "full and pouting look" of Feyd's lips is "the Harkonnen genetic marker". Feyd and his elder brother Glossu Rabban are the legal sons of Baron Harkonnen's youngest half-brother, Abulurd Rabban, who had "renounced the Harkonnen name and all rights to the title when given the subdistrict governorship of Rabban-Lankiveil".


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: The character Feyd serves as a narrative foil for Paul Atreides, son of the Baron's enemy, Duke Leto Atreides. Ari Szporn of "Comic Book Resources" wrote, "Both [Paul and Feyd] are charismatic, cunning young noblemen who have received the greatest education and combat training. But where Paul displays compassion and loyalty, Feyd cares only for himself and the acquisition of power."


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: As "Dune" begins, Feyd-Rautha figures heavily in the Baron's plans to gain power for House Harkonnen. The Baron favors the handsome and charismatic Feyd over Feyd's older brother Glossu Rabban ("The Beast") because of Feyd's intelligence and his dedication to the Harkonnen culture of carefully planned and subtly executed sadism and cruelty, as opposed to Rabban's outright brutality.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Feyd is, for a while, the Baron's heir, or na-Baron. To assure Feyd's power, the Baron intends to install him as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Feyd, like Paul Atreides, is also the product of a centuries-long breeding program organized by the Bene Gesserit, who planned their own alliance by joining a Harkonnen son to an Atreides daughter with the expectation that their offspring would have a high probability of being their hoped-for Kwisatz Haderach. For this reason, Lady Jessica's decision to defy the Sisterhood and to produce an Atreides son, Paul, threw the Bene Gesserit's plans into turmoil and established an irreconcilable tension between Feyd and Paul as the scions of their bitterly opposed noble houses. The risk of one or both of these young men being killed, destroying thousands of years of genetic engineering, is so great that the Bene Gesserit send an envoy, Margot Fenring, to seduce Feyd and conceive a child, salvaging his genetic material.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Margot also intends to "plant deep in his deepest self the necessary "prana-bindu" phrases to bend him," which she later refers to as the "hypno-ligation of that Feyd-Rautha's psyche." Presumably he is thus "prepared" and made vulnerable to a command which will cause complete muscle paralysis, a technique the Bene Gesserit sometimes use on individuals who are considered highly dangerous. It is also later noted by the Reverend Mother Mohiam that Feyd's encounter with Lady Fenring produced a daughter.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Feyd's ambition and impatience to inherit the Baron's title and power spur him to attempt his uncle's assassination. The attempt fails, prompting the Baron to reveal to his nephew the lofty plans he has for him, possibly to even have him ascend the throne as Emperor. The Baron explains that the elevation of House Harkonnen means more to him than power in his own lifetime, so if Feyd promises to forego any further assassination attempts, he will voluntarily step down and let his nephew succeed him—after his plot against the Emperor has succeeded. Feyd agrees, but as punishment for the failed assassination attempt, the Baron forces Feyd to single-handedly slaughter all the female slaves who serve as his lovers so that Feyd will learn the price of failure.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: As Paul makes his final bid to usurp the Padishah Emperor's power, he is challenged by Feyd, the current Harkonnen leader after the deaths of the Baron and Rabban. Though famed for his prowess in single combat, Feyd intends to guarantee victory by breaking the formal rules of kanly (which govern this type of challenge) and using a hidden poison spur in his fighting outfit. He nearly succeeds in killing Paul in the ritualized fight, as Paul struggles with whether to try the paralysis word-sound given to him by his mother, and owe the Bene Gesserit his victory, or to risk his life against Feyd in a "fair" fight. Paul manages to defeat Feyd without the command, killing him, and goes on to ascend the throne of the Emperor.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: In the "Prelude to Dune" prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, it is established that Feyd had been born on the Harkonnen planet Lankiveil as the second son of Vladimir's younger half-brother Abulurd Harkonnen and his wife Emmi. The Bene Gesserit, desiring a son by Abulurd for their breeding program but finding Glossu unacceptable, secretly administer fertility drugs to an aging Emmi, who soon conceives Feyd.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Named after his maternal grandfather, Rautha Rabban, who had been murdered by Glossu, Feyd becomes honorable Abulurd's hope for a son who would not have to inherit the dishonor of the name Harkonnen, and a worthy heir in comparison to his older, murderous son, Glossu. The Baron decides to take the infant Feyd from his father to raise on the Harkonnen homeworld Giedi Prime as another possible heir for himself, and as punishment for Abulurd's attempts to sever all his ties to House Harkonnen. In time, the Baron comes to favor Feyd over Glossu.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: In "Sandworms of Dune" (2007), the second of Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson's two-part finale to the original "Dune" series, a ghola of Paul Atreides is created over 5,000 years after the original's death. Once his memories are restored, Paul recalls that after his ascension to the Imperial throne (between the novels "Dune" and 1969's "Dune Messiah") he "had not been able to escape political struggles, assassination attempts, the exiled Emperor Shaddam's bid for power and the pretender daughter of Feyd-Rautha and Lady Fenring ..."


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Director Alejandro Jodorowsky intended Mick Jagger to play Feyd in his planned 1970s film adaptation of "Dune", which was never made. Feyd is portrayed by Sting in the 1984 film "Dune", and by Matt Keeslar in the 2000 miniseries "Frank Herbert's Dune". Feyd does not appear in the 2021 film "Dune", which covers the first part of the book. The character will appear in the upcoming sequel film "", and in March 2022, Austin Butler entered negotiations to join the cast as Feyd. Butler's role was confirmed in May 2022.


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: Brigid Brown of BBC America called Sting a "scene-stealer" in the 1984 film. Emmet Asher-Perrin of "Tor.com" called Keeslar's portrayal of Feyd-Rautha "the strangest casting choice you've ever seen," adding that "it's also hard not to love the strangeness of it."


title: Feyd-Rautha

text: A line of "Dune" action figures from toy company LJN was released to lackluster sales in 1984. Styled after David Lynch's film, the collection featured a figure of Feyd as well as other characters. In October 2019, Funko announced a ""Dune" Classic" line of POP! vinyl figures, one of which was Feyd in a blue jumpsuit, styled after Lynch's film. An alternate version of Feyd in his blue loincloth was released for the 2019 New York Comic Con.


title: Vick Hope

text: Victoria Nwayawu Nwosu-Hope (born 25 September 1989) is a British TV and radio presenter, journalist and published author.


title: Vick Hope

text: Vick hosts three shows a week across BBC Radio 1 "Going Home with Vick and Jordan", "Life Hacks" and "Official Chart: First Look". Sunday Times dubbed Vick a 'voice of a generation' when she started at BBC Radio 1 in 2020.


title: Vick Hope

text: Vick is passionate about literature and currently hosts the 2022 Women's Prize For Fiction podcast series after she was on the 2021 judging panel.


title: Vick Hope

text: In the summer of 2022, Vick hosted her own television show 'Vick Hope's Breakfast Show' which aired across ITV every Sunday morning.


title: Vick Hope

text: Vick previously hosted "Capital Breakfast" show on Capital FM radio station, "Crufts" on Channel 4, "Carnage" on Sky One, "Trending Live" on 4Music, and "FYI Daily" on ITV2. She was also a backstage presenter for ITV's "The X Factor" in 2019 after becoming the digital reporter for "The Voice UK" in 2018. In 2020, she became the red carpet host of 2020 BAFTA Film Awards. In October 2020, it was announced that Hope would host a new ITV Hub sister show entitled "I'm a Celebrity...The Daily Drop".


title: Vick Hope

text: As well as presenting, Hope has worked as a print and broadcast journalist for ITN and publications including "The Argentina Independent" and "Marie Claire". In 2017 Hope won the Broadcasting Powerhouse Award at the Marie Claire Future Shapers Awards. She is a human rights activist and Amnesty International ambassador, having worked with the organisation since she was 16.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope was born and raised in Newcastle upon Tyne by her English father and Nigerian mother. She has three younger brothers. She studied modern languages at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and can speak French, Spanish and Portuguese. Hope has spoken in interviews about teaching herself Spanish and taking night classes in Newcastle in extra A-Level subjects to win her place at Cambridge.


title: Vick Hope

text: Her career began during her university "year abroad" in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where at 19 she became the youngest ever journalist employed by independent English-language expat newspaper "The Argentina Independent", and it was while in Buenos Aires that she was picked up by MTV to present shows for them. Following that, she broke into the British television mainstream as a reporter and presenter.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope is a BBC Radio 1 presenter, presenting three shows a week across the station; "Going Home with Vick and Jordan", "Life Hacks" and "Official Chart: First Look".


title: Vick Hope

text: Previous to BBC Radio 1, Vick hosted "Capital Breakfast" show in London along with Roman Kemp and Sonny Jay. Before this she hosted weekend breakfast on sister station, Capital Xtra.


title: Vick Hope

text: In 2019, Hope joined Classic FM presenting Classic FM's "Revision Hour" alongside Ellie Goulding, Lewis Capaldi & Dan Smith.


title: Vick Hope

text: In August 2020, Hope replaced Cel Spellman to co-host "Life Hacks" and “Official Chart: First Look” alongside Katie Thistleton on BBC Radio 1.


title: Vick Hope

text: In June 2021, it was announced that Hope will co-host BBC Radio 1's drive time slot alongside Jordan North, beginning 6 September 2021.


title: Vick Hope

text: During June and July 2022, Hope hosted her own television show 'Vick Hope's Breakfast Show' which aired across ITV every Sunday morning throughout the summer.


title: Vick Hope

text: On 20 October 2020, it was announced that Hope would host 2 new ITV Hub shows entitled "HOW" and "I'm a Celebrity...The Daily Drop", after the original spin off show, Extra Camp was axed after 17 years on air.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope and Kemp have also presented together on ITV2's "2Awesome" and "Can You Make It" for Red Bull TV"."


title: Vick Hope

text: In 2020, Hope hosted the pre-show red carpet for BAFTA Film Awards. In the same year, Hope presented Channel 4's "Crufts" alongside Clare Balding. She co-hosted the BRIT Awards 2019 International Live Stream on YouTube with Todrick Hall.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope was the backstage presenter for ITV's "" and "" live final, after hosting "The X Factor's" spinoff show "Xtra Bites".


title: Vick Hope

text: As well as working as an entertainment reporter for ITV's "Lorraine", Hope has presented programmes for Channel 4's 4Music channel since 2014, including "Trending Live!" with AJ Odudu and Jimmy Hill and interview shows "Box Fresh, Face The Fans, HotBox and The Hangout," before which she worked on youth and music shows for Disney Channel UK, MTV, Capital Xtra and Vevo.


title: Vick Hope

text: In 2018, Hope joined "The Voice UK" as their backstage reporter having worked for ITV on "The Hot Desk" (2016) and "FYI Daily", where she continues to produce and present the showbiz news.


title: Vick Hope

text: The same year, Hope was announced to front Sky One's "Carnage" alongside Freddie Flintoff and Lethal Bizzle. She went on to work further with Sky One and Sky Arts presenting their live coverage of Isle of Wight Festival alongside Edith Bowman and Joel Dommett.


title: Vick Hope

text: In sport, Hope presented "Yahoo Sports Presents Tailgate" - a weekly show about American sports in 2019-2020 & Channel 4's "World Chase Tag Parkour Championships" in 2019.


title: Vick Hope

text: She also presented cycling coverage of "The London Nocturne" for Channel 4, Sky Sports and Eurosport, and fronted three series of "Street Velodrome" for BT Sport. She partook in "All Star Netball" for BBC's "Sport Relief" 2019.


title: Vick Hope

text: In news and factual programming, Hope continues to work as a news and entertainment reporter for ITN. The company also produced her first TV documentary "The Slenderman Killings" for Channel 5. In the documentary Hope investigated the rise of online horror, and it was named "The Guardian" newspaper's Pick Of The Day. Hope also presented the documentary "That's Not Me", exploring the use of retouching in fashion photography, which won the BBC Award for Factual Entertainment at the Visions Film Festival.


title: Vick Hope

text: In August 2018, it was announced that Hope would be a contestant on the 16th series of "Strictly Come Dancing". She was paired with professional dancer, Graziano Di Prima and they were eliminated on 21 October, missing out on the Halloween special. Hope controversially criticised her Cha Cha dance exit, blaming judges and production crew for saving comedian Seann Walsh in the dance off. She was the fourth celebrity to leave the show.


title: Vick Hope

text: In February 2022, Hope began co-presenting BBC's "Britain's Best Young Artist" with Kaiser Chiefs frontman and former art teacher Ricky Wilson.


title: Vick Hope

text: On 12 June 2022, Hope presented the first episode of "Vick Hope’s Breakfast Show"; shown on Sunday mornings on ITV, it features celebrities, summer reading recommendations, and cocktail recipes.


title: Vick Hope

text: On 13 December 2022, Channel 4 announced that Hope, would join Countdown's Dictionary Corner, which she renamed (via social media) "Vicktionary Corner" for the week.


title: Vick Hope

text: In 2020, Hope released her debut children's novel, "Listen Up: Rule the Airwaves, Rule the School." She is set to publish the sequel later this year.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope has worked as a live host for a multitude of events including Ru Paul's Drag Con UK, Great North Run, Capital's Summertime Ball and Capital's Jingle Bell Ball.


title: Vick Hope

text: In 2019, she hosted the Onside Awards at the Royal Albert Hall alongside HRH Prince Harry and Dev Griffin.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope received a TRIC Award in 2019 and 2020 for Best Radio Show for "Capital Breakfast". She also received a TRIC Award for Best Entertainment Show for "Strictly Come Dancing" in 2019.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope was nominated for Best Entertainment Programme at the BAFTA TV Awards 2019 for her work on Strictly Come Dancing.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope was consecutively nominated for Favourite TV Personality at the NRTA s in 2018 and 2019. In 2017 Hope won the Broadcasting Powerhouse Award at the Marie Claire Future Shapers Awards. She has also been nominated for an Urban Music Award for her Capital Xtra "Weekend Breakfast" show, and a Royal Television Society Award for her "That's Not Me" documentary. She won the BBC Award For Factual Entertainment for her documentary "That's Not Me".


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope is a human rights activist and Amnesty International Ambassador, and in 2018 hosted the Amnesty stage at the Women's March in London. Hope also works closely with Choose Love (formerly Help Refugees) as an ambassador of their Choose Love campaign. She also works closely with Made By Sport - helping disadvantaged young people through sport, a charity she has been with since launching alongside Anthony Joshua and Prince Harry. In addition to her philanthropy work, Hope also volunteers at a weekly refugee project near her home in Hackney, London where she works with children from asylum seeking families.


title: Vick Hope

text: Hope was previously in a relationship with "Plebs" actor Tom Rosenthal, which ended in November 2017. As of May 2022, she is reportedly engaged to DJ Calvin Harris.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: USS "Theodore Roosevelt" (CVN-71) is the fourth , nuclear-powered, aircraft carrier in the United States Navy. She is named in honor of Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States and a proponent of naval power. She is the fourth ship named in honor of Theodore Roosevelt, three bearing his full name and a fourth with just his last name. Another three U.S. Navy ships have "Roosevelt" in their names in honor of members of the Roosevelt family. This carrier's radio call sign is "Rough Rider", the nickname of President Roosevelt's volunteer cavalry unit during the Spanish–American War. She was launched in 1984, and saw her first action during the Gulf War in 1991.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: Initially, President Gerald Ford cancelled the order for CVN-71 in 1976 and substituted two CVV-type medium-sized, conventional-powered carriers that were expected to operate V/STOL aircraft. The existing T-CBL design formed the basis for the new CVV, serving as a replacement for the aging carriers, while capable of operating all existing conventional carrier aircraft. This capability to operate conventional aircraft proved important as the hoped-for supersonic V/STOL fighters did not come to fruition at the time. In any case, construction of the proposed CVV medium-sized carrier never took place.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: Authorization for CVN-71 was further delayed when President Jimmy Carter vetoed the 1979 Fiscal Year Department of Defense authorization bill because of the inclusion of this "Nimitz"-class nuclear supercarrier in the Navy ship-building program. As a result of the Iran hostage crisis, which required the increased deployment of U.S. carrier battle groups to the Indian Ocean, President Carter reversed his stand on "Nimitz"-class nuclear supercarriers, and CVN-71 was subsequently authorized under the 1980 Fiscal Year authorization bill for the U.S. Department of Defense.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" was the first aircraft carrier to be assembled using modular construction, wherein large modules are independently constructed in "lay-down" areas, prior to being hoisted into place and welded together. Modular construction, made possible through the use of a huge gantry crane capable of lifting 900 tons, cut 16 months off "Theodore Roosevelt"s construction time, and the technique has been used on every aircraft carrier since. "Theodore Roosevelt" and those "Nimitz"-class vessels completed after her have slight structural differences from the earlier carriers (, , and ) and improved protection for ordnance storage in her magazines.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt"s history began on 30 September 1980, when a contract was awarded for "Hull 624D" to Newport News Shipbuilding. Her keel was laid down on 31 October 1981, with Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger initiating the first weld. On 3 November 1981, Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman announced that the carrier would be named for Theodore Roosevelt. The vessel's Pre-Commissioning Unit (PCU) was formed in February 1984, with Captain Paul W. Parcells named as Commanding Officer. On 27 October 1984, the ship was officially christened by Mrs. Barbara Lehman, wife of Secretary Lehman. On 25 October 1986, "Theodore Roosevelt" was commissioned to active service at Newport News.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: After sea trials and pre-deployment workups, "Theodore Roosevelt" started her maiden deployment on 30 December 1988 with Carrier Air Wing Eight (CVW-8) embarked. The ship patrolled the Mediterranean Sea prior to returning on 30 June 1989. She was awarded the 1989 Battle "E" from Commander, Naval Air Force U.S. Atlantic Fleet on 20 March 1990.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 28 December 1990, "Theodore Roosevelt" and CVW-8 deployed for Operation Desert Shield, arriving in the Persian Gulf on 16 January 1991. With the commencement of Operation Desert Storm on 15 January 1991, "Theodore Roosevelt" began combat operations; eventually flying over 4,200 sorties, more than any other carrier, and dropping more than of ordnance before the cease-fire on 28 February.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: When Iraqi forces turned on the Kurds, "Theodore Roosevelt" and CVW-8 were among the first coalition forces in Operation Provide Comfort, flying patrols over northern Iraq. After a 189-day deployment, with 176 days at sea, "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to Norfolk on 28 June 1991. On 14 February 1992, the ship won her second Battle "E". This was followed by the award of the Battenberg Cup for 1991 as the Atlantic Fleet's premier ship.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" began her third deployment on 11 March 1993, again with CVW-8 embarked. Also embarked was a Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force (SPMAGTF), in a test of the concept of embarking a multi-purpose Marine force in a carrier. While the ship was still in the Virginia Capes operating area, President Bill Clinton flew aboard for several hours for his first visit to a U.S. Navy ship. "Theodore Roosevelt" operated in the Adriatic as CVW-8 planes enforced Operation Deny Flight in the U.S. no-fly zone over Bosnia. In June, on the way to only her second port visit, "Theodore Roosevelt" was ordered instead to transit the Suez Canal en route to the Red Sea to participate in Operation Southern Watch, enforcing the no-fly zone over Iraq. Deployed for 184 days, "Theodore Roosevelt" spent 169 days under way prior to return in September 1993. For the accomplishments of her crew, the ship received her second Meritorious Unit Commendation.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: From November 1993 to April 1994, "Theodore Roosevelt" conducted a Selected Restricted Availability (SRA) at Norfolk Naval Shipyard (NNSY), completing ahead of schedule. On 10 March 1994, "Theodore Roosevelt" received her third Battle "E". Then on 3 June, "Theodore Roosevelt" was awarded her second Battenberg Cup as the best ship in the Atlantic Fleet.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" and CVW-8 began their fourth deployment in March 1995, operating in the Red Sea in support of Operation Southern Watch over Iraq, and Operations Deny Flight and Sharp Guard over the skies of Bosnia and in the Adriatic operating areas. Deny Flight evolved into Operation Deliberate Force, as CVW-8 aircraft led NATO strikes against strategic Bosnian Serb targets in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The "Theodore Roosevelt" Battle Group returned to Norfolk, Virginia in September 1995 and was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation for its Bosnia operations.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 14 October 1996, "Theodore Roosevelt" collided with , a guided missile cruiser, while conducting operations off the coast of North Carolina. The incident occurred as the carrier, without prior warning, reversed her engines while "Leyte Gulf" was behind her and collided with the cruiser's bow. There were no injuries reported, but "Theodore Roosevelt" suffered more than $7 million damage to her stern, while damages to "Leyte Gulf"s bow were assessed at $2 million.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" deployed for her fifth deployment on 25 November 1996, with CVW-3 embarked, in support of Operation Southern Watch in the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf. The ship returned from deployment in May 1997. On 8 July 1997, "Theodore Roosevelt" entered the Newport News Shipbuilding yard for a one-year Extended Drydock and Selected Restricted Availability (EDSRA), her first major overhaul since commissioning. "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to her homeport of Norfolk Naval Station on 2 July 1998.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: From 1 February to 4 March 1999 "Theodore Roosevelt" participated in exercise JTFEX / TMDI99 along with the Brazilian Navy and several NATO navies. During the exercise, "Theodore Roosevelt" was mock-sunk, along with eight other U.S. ships, many of which were the carrier's escorts, by submarine HNLMS "Walrus" of the Royal Netherlands Navy.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" began her sixth deployment on 26 March 1999 with CVW-8 embarked. They were immediately called to duty in the Ionian Sea to support NATO's Operation Allied Force. "Theodore Roosevelt" and CVW-8 aircraft conducted airstrikes for two months over the skies of Kosovo against Serbian positions. "Theodore Roosevelt" and CVW-8 were then dispatched to support Operation Southern Watch, enforcing the "no-fly zone" over Southern Iraq. "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to her home port of Norfolk, Virginia, on 24 September 1999.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 10 January 2000, "Theodore Roosevelt" entered a Planned Incremental Availability (PIA) at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Portsmouth, Virginia for a six-month maintenance period.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: After the September 11 attacks, "Theodore Roosevelt" began her seventh deployment on 19 September 2001 with Carrier Air Wing One (CVW-1). On 15 October 2001, "Theodore Roosevelt" and CVW-1 entered the North Arabian Sea, joining the already-present "Enterprise" and "Carl Vinson" in conducting attacks against al-Qaeda in Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom. Between departing Norfolk on 19 September 2001 and arriving in Bahrain for a liberty call on 27 February 2002, "Theodore Roosevelt" spent 160 consecutive days at sea, breaking the record for the longest period underway since World War II. "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to her homeport 27 March 2002 and was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation, 2001 Battenberg Cup, and 2001 Battle "E". From April to October 2002, "Theodore Roosevelt" conducted a Planned Incremental Availability maintenance period at Norfolk Naval Ship Yard.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" got underway on 6 January for a scheduled month-long training period in the Puerto Rican Operating Area. Near the end of January, "Theodore Roosevelt" received orders to proceed across the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea. Strike Fighter Squadron 201, based at Naval Air Station Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas, was ordered to active duty as a unit of Carrier Air Wing (CVW) 8, the first Naval Reserve squadron to deploy aboard an aircraft carrier since the Korean War. "Theodore Roosevelt" arrived on station in the Eastern Mediterranean in February. On 22 March 2003 "Theodore Roosevelt", along with , began launching air strikes into Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. "Theodore Roosevelt" returned home on 26 May and was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation, the Navy Unit Citation, and the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 19 February 2004, "Theodore Roosevelt" entered a ten-month Docked Planned Incremental Availability (DPIA) at NNSY in Portsmouth. Major systems overhauled included AC systems, Steam and CHT (sewage) systems, 1MC (announcing) systems, communication, navigation, and detection suites, weapons elevator overhauls, propeller replacement, hull cleaning and painting, and sea valve replacement. "Theodore Roosevelt" came out of dry-dock in August and completed the maintenance availability on 17 December 2004.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 1 September 2005, "Theodore Roosevelt" deployed with CVW-8 embarked for a routine six-month mission to the Persian Gulf in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), transiting the Suez Canal on 27 September and launching OIF missions beginning 6 October. This deployment was the last cruise for the F-14 Tomcat before its retirement in 2006. "Theodore Roosevelt" carried two Tomcat squadrons, VF-31 (Tomcatters) and VF-213 (Black Lions). "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to home port on 11 March 2006. Shortly after this cruise, "Theodore Roosevelt" earned the "Jig Dog" Ramage Carrier and Carrier Air Wing Operational Excellence Award, which is a Navy-wide award that is selected jointly by Type Commanders (TYCOM) and is presented to the Carrier/Air Wing team with the best performance as an integrated unit.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 7 March 2007, "Theodore Roosevelt" began a nine-month Planned Incremental Availability (PIA) in Norfolk, which saw the addition of RAM-116 missiles among other upgrades. The ship returned to Naval Station Norfolk on 28 November 2007.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: CVW-8 and "Theodore Roosevelt" participated in Joint Task Force Exercise 08-4 Operation Brimstone off the coast of North Carolina between 21 and 31 July 2008. The British aircraft carrier , the amphibious assault ship with associated units and the Brazilian frigate and the French submarine also participated in the event.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" left Norfolk on 8 September 2008 for a scheduled deployment to the Middle East with Carrier Air Wing Eight embarked. On 4 October 2008, the ship stopped at Cape Town, South Africa. This was the first visit to Cape Town by a nuclear-powered vessel since the German cargo ship "Otto Hahn" in the 1970s. Due to poor weather, approximately half of the ship's crew was unable to go ashore on liberty. Much of the crew that made it ashore were unable to return to "Theodore Roosevelt" due to the increasingly poor weather. The remaining crew was forced to remain on the pier till morning alongside the cruiser . The ship made four subsequent port stops in Jebel Ali, UAE, including one during the Christmas holiday. CVW-8 and CVN-71 supported Operation Enduring Freedom and flew more than 3,100 sorties and dropped more than 59,500 pounds of ordnance while providing close air support for ISAF-forces in Afghanistan.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 21 March 2009, "Theodore Roosevelt" was relieved by "Dwight D. Eisenhower". The carrier arrived at Norfolk on 18 April. On 26 August 2009 defense contractor Northrop Grumman was awarded a 2.4 billion dollar contract for Refueling and Complex Overhaul (RCOH) of "Theodore Roosevelt" at its Newport News shipyard.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 29 August 2013, "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to Norfolk Naval Station, Virginia, completing its post-overhaul sea trials that concluded its four-year mid-life RCOH. On 14 September 2013, "Theodore Roosevelt" successfully completed flight deck certification which entailed completing a total of 160 carrier landings during daytime and night-time operations. Other certification drills included rigging the emergency barricade, flight deck firefighting evolutions, and crash and salvage operations. On 17 September 2013, "Theodore Roosevelt" completed her first underway replenishment in over four years.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: Flight testing for the X-47B continued on board "Theodore Roosevelt" on 10 November 2013. During this phase, the X-47B's digitized carrier-controlled environment was tested which involved the interface between the unmanned aircraft and carrier personnel during launching, flight operations and recovery. The digital environment offered increased flexibility and enhanced safety for carrier operations.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 15 January 2014, the Navy announced that "Theodore Roosevelt"s homeport would move to San Diego, replacing when she relocated to Japan sometime in 2015 as part of the US Navy's preparation for the planned refueling of .


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 4 March 2015, during a training exercise off Florida, "Theodore Roosevelt" was mock-sunk by the French Navy submarine .


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 11 March 2015,"Theodore Roosevelt" and Carrier Strike Group 12 departed Naval Station Norfolk for an around the world tour with deployments to the U.S. 5th, 6th and 7th Fleets as part the first deployment of Naval Integrated Fire Control-Counter Air (NIFC-CA) Carrier Strike Group, before arriving in their new homeport of San Diego, California.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 20 April 2015, "Theodore Roosevelt", along with the cruiser , was deployed off the coast of Yemen to intercept suspected Iranian weapons shipments intended for Houthi rebels, who are engaged in a civil war with Yemeni government forces.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: In early November 2015, "Theodore Roosevelt" along with the guided-missile destroyer , sailed to the South China Sea to assert freedom of navigation in the area claimed by China.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: "Theodore Roosevelt" pulled into her new home port at San Diego on 23 November 2015, completing a deployment during which she circumnavigated the globe. The carrier launched 1,800 sorties against Islamic State militants in Iraq and Syria as part of Operation Inherent Resolve, totaling 10,618 flight hours and over one million pounds of ordnance employed through 1,085 guided munitions. Carrier Strike Group 12 traveled nearly during the deployment, which also marked aviation milestones including the first operational use of the E-2D Advanced Hawkeye and the last active-duty operational deployment of the HH-60H Rescue Hawk and SH-60F Seahawk helicopters.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 6 October 2017, "Theodore Roosevelt" departed San Diego for her deployment to the United States Seventh Fleet and United States Fifth Fleet area of operations, accompanied with Carrier Strike Group 9 and Carrier Air Wing Seventeen. On November 8, 2017, "Theodore Roosevelt" and her group started a 4-day exercise with two other carrier strike groups, led by carriers "Ronald Reagan" and "Nimitz", in the Sea of Japan.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: In May 2019, "Theodore Roosevelt" participated in Exercise Northern Edge 2019, marking the first time in a decade a carrier took part in the exercise. Also in 2019, Carrier Air Wing Eleven was transferred to the ship.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 5 March 2020, "Theodore Roosevelt", along with the cruiser , arrived at Da Nang, Vietnam, for a five-day port visit commemorating the 25th anniversary of United States–Vietnam relations.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: In July 2021 she was moved from San Diego, her usual homeport, to Bremerton, Washington, where she will be retrofitted to accommodate the F-35 multirole combat aircraft. A Navy spokesman said she will be in the Bremerton shipyard for 16 to 18 months. Approximately 3,000 sailors and their families will move to Bremerton with the ship.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 24 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, three sailors aboard the deployed vessel tested positive for COVID-19, a coronavirus disease identified as the cause of an outbreak of respiratory illness. Within a few days, that number climbed to dozens. "Theodore Roosevelt" was reported to be the first ship in the U.S. Navy to have a COVID-19 outbreak while at sea; "Theodore Roosevelt" docked at Guam on 27 March 2020.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: By 31 March, the number of infected sailors was over 100, and the captain, Brett Crozier, pleaded for help from the Navy, sending an e-mail to ten Pacific Fleet admirals and captains, including his superior, the commander of Carrier Strike Group-9, and the commander of the Pacific Fleet, requesting that his ship be evacuated. The US Navy ordered the aircraft carrier evacuated with a skeleton crew of 400 to remain aboard the vessel to maintain the nuclear reactor, the fire-fighting equipment, and the ship's galley.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 2 April, acting Navy Secretary Thomas Modly relieved Crozier of his command for sending the request for assistance over non-secure email to what he characterized as "broad array of people" rather than up the chain of command, adding that Crozier "allowed the complexity of the challenge of the COVID breakout on the ship to overwhelm his ability to act professionally". Crozier was to remain in the Navy and retain his rank. Several members of the House Armed Services Committee criticized the decision, stating that "the dismissal of Captain Crozier at this critical moment, as the sailors aboard the U.S.S. "Theodore Roosevelt" are confronted with the COVID-19 pandemic, is a reckless, political move that reeks of undue command influence." Captain Carlos A. Sardiello assumed temporary command of "Theodore Roosevelt"; his second stint serving as the ship's captain. Modly traveled to Guam and gave a ship-wide speech, which "The New York Times" described as a "tirade", during which he was heckled by some of the sailors. After demands from Congress that he be fired, Modly resigned on April 7.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: As of Easter Sunday, April 12, 585 crew members had tested positive. The Navy and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) are using the infection, death, and recovery data from "Theodore Roosevelt" to study the pandemic. On 13 April, the hospitalized sailor, a chief petty officer, died.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: As of 20 April, 4,069 sailors had been moved off the ship, 94% of the crew had been tested for the virus, yielding 678 positive and 3,904 negative results. As of 17 April, seven crew members were in the hospital including one in intensive care. About 60% of the people who tested positive did not have symptoms. As of 16 April, most of the ship had been cleaned. Sailors kept testing positive for the virus even after 14 days of isolation; some who tested positive had previously tested negative. The Navy temporarily suspended post-quarantine testing and extended the sailors' isolation, delaying plans to begin moves of the crew back to the carrier. Some sailors volunteered for antibody testing. Initial testing was completed by 27 April 2020, at which point, 969 crew members had tested positive, and 14 of those 969 had recovered.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: By 29 April, sailors that were previously quarantined in Guam began moving back to the ship. "Theodore Roosevelt" returned to sea on 21 May for the first time after being sidelined for two months due to COVID-19.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 19 June 2020 the widely expected reinstatement of Captain Crozier was canceled and the promotion of the "Theodore Roosevelt" strike group commander was put on hold.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: On 23 June 2020 USS "Nimitz" and "Theodore Roosevelt" completed a two-carrier operation in the Philippine Sea. "Theodore Roosevelt" was returning to home port when another chief petty officer suffered a medical emergency, of which the nature was not disclosed, and died 2 July 2020.


title: USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

text: In a 10 November 2020 scientific brief, the CDC highlighted this case among several others to detail the community benefit of masking, as the use of face coverings on-board was demonstrated to be associated with a 70% reduced risk of infection. Final analysis of the outbreak in December 2020, found 1271 crew members tested positive for SARS-Cov-2 and an additional 60 had suspected COVID-19 but did not test positive; 76.9% of those who tested positive were asymptomatic at testing. 55% developed symptoms.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Jerry Clyde Rubin (July 14, 1938 – November 28, 1994) was an American social activist, anti-war leader, and counterculture icon during the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s, he became a successful businessman. He is known for being one of the co-founders of the Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were referred to as Yippies, and standing trial in the Chicago Seven case.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, the son of Esther (Katz), a homemaker, and Robert Rubin, a trucker who later became a Teamsters' union official.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin attended Cincinnati's Walnut Hills High School, co-editing the school newspaper, "The Chatterbox" and graduating in 1956. While in high school Rubin began to write for "The Cincinnati Post", compiling sports scores from high school games. He attended Oberlin College, and Hebrew University in Jerusalem, and later went on to graduate from the University of Cincinnati, receiving a degree in history. Rubin attended the University of California, Berkeley in 1964 but dropped out to focus on social activism.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin's parents died within ten months of each other, leaving Rubin to take care of his younger brother, Gil, who was 13 at the time. Jerry wanted to teach Gil about the world and planned to take him to India. When relatives threatened to sue to obtain custody of Gil, Jerry decided to take his brother to Israel instead, settling in Tel Aviv. There, Rubin worked on a kibbutz, and studied sociology while his brother, who had learned Hebrew, decided to stay in Israel and moved permanently to a kibbutz. Before returning to social and political activism, Rubin made a visit to Havana, to learn first-hand about the Cuban revolution.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin began to demonstrate on behalf of various left-wing causes after dropping out of Berkeley. Rubin also ran for mayor of Berkeley, on a platform opposing the Vietnam War, and supporting Black power and the legalization of marijuana, receiving over 20 percent of the vote. Rubin turned his attention to political protest, his first in Berkeley, protesting against the refusal of a local grocer to hire African Americans. Soon Rubin was leading protests of his own. Rubin organized the Vietnam Day Committee, that led some of the first big protests against the Vietnam War. He took part in planning the world's largest teach-in against the war, organized rallies and demonstrations that attempted to stop a train transporting troops to the Oakland Army Base, as well as trucks carrying napalm. The Vietnam Day Committee was a unique early antiwar organization in that it enjoyed large local participation and is believed to be a forerunner to the national movement against the war in Vietnam.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin was one of the founding members of the Youth International Party (YIP) or Yippies, along with social and political activist Abbie Hoffman and satirist Paul Krassner. The Yippies were not a formal organization with a membership list or a direct relationship with constituency but played upon the media's appetite for anything new and different. They were influenced by Marshall McLuhan's ideas on the importance of electronic communication and believed that if radical events were made more entertaining the media, especially television would give them greater coverage.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: ... [T]he more visual and surreal the stunts we could cook up, the easier it would be to get on the news, and the more weird and whimsical and provocative the theater, the better it would play.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin's appearance before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) hearings is a good example of the Yippies’ emphasis on conducting political protest as theater, and drawing as much attention as possible to their dissent by turning it into a spectacle. Rubin was subpoenaed by HUAC in Washington but instead of pleading the Fifth Amendment as was common, he entered the room dressed in a rented 18th-century American Revolutionary War uniform, proudly claiming to be a descendant of Jefferson and Paine. "Nothing is more American than revolution," he told the committee. Rubin, showing a total lack of concern or worries, lightheartedly blew soap bubbles as members of Congress questioned his Communist affiliations. He subsequently appeared before the HUAC as a bare-chested guerrilla in Viet Cong pajamas, with war paint and carrying a toy M-16 rifle, and later as Santa Claus.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: It was a political ploy designed to make a mockery of the HUAC proceedings; the congressmen were caught off guard, and Rubin's stunt became page-one news throughout the country.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Another media stunt that gave the Yippies free publicity, not only in United States but all over the world, was when Rubin, Hoffman and others brought the New York Stock Exchange to a halt by tossing money into the air and watched gleefully as stockbrokers scrambled to collect bills.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Yet another successful act in Yippies "guerrilla theater" was when during the Democratic National Convention of 1968 the Youth International Party nominated their own candidate for the presidency. The nominee was Pigasus the Immortal, a 145-pound (66 kg) pig that they felt was an appropriate alternative to Richard Nixon, Vice President Hubert Humphrey and Alabama governor George Wallace. At the official introductions at Pigasus' first press conference, Rubin, while holding the candidate in his arms, demanded he be given Secret Service protection and be brought to the White House for a foreign policy briefing. He also promised, on behalf of Pigasus, a fair election campaign and if Pigasus won the election he would be eaten. This would, maintained Rubin, reverse the usual democratic process in which the pig is elected "and proceeds to eat the people."


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In his book "DO IT!: Scenarios of the Revolution" Rubin says "media does not "report" "news," it creates it. An event "happens" when it goes on TV and becomes a myth." He goes on to say:


title: Jerry Rubin

text: TV time goes to those with the most guts and imagination. I never understood the radical who comes on TV in a suit and tie. Turn off the sound and he could be the mayor! The "words" may be radical, but the television is a non-verbal instrument! The way to understand TV is to shut off the sound. No one remembers any words they hear; the mind is a technicolor movie of images, not words. I've never seen "bad" coverage of a demonstration. It makes no difference what they "say" about us. The picture is the story.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In October 1967, David Dellinger of the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam asked Rubin to help mobilize and direct a March on the Pentagon. The protesters gathered at the Lincoln Memorial as Dellinger and Dr. Benjamin Spock gave speeches to the mass of people.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: From there, the group marched towards the Pentagon. As the protesters neared the Pentagon, they were met by soldiers of the 82nd Airborne Division. who formed a human barricade blocking the Pentagon steps. Not to be dissuaded, Abbie Hoffman, co-founder of the Yippies, vowed to levitate the Pentagon while Allen Ginsberg led Tibetan chants to assist. Eventually, things turned ugly. By the time the group's 48-hour permit expired, approximately 680 protesters had been jailed and 50 hospitalized.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In spite of the brutality of the police, the spirits of the demonstrators were not dampened. Many were exhilarated by what had transpired and some felt it was an event that would mark a turning point. "It made me see we could build a movement by knocking off American symbols," said Rubin. He added:


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin later played an instrumental role in the anti-war demonstration that accompanied the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago by helping to organize the Yippie "Festival of Life" in Lincoln Park. He spoke along with Hoffman at an anti-war rally at the Grant Park bandshell on August 28, 1968, and instructed demonstrators to resist if a riot broke out. The extent of violence between Chicago police and demonstrators (which an official government report called a "police riot") was not anticipated by the Yippie leaders. Some 1,500 people were injured. The arrest and trial of the Yippie leaders (known later as the Chicago Conspiracy Trial) which began on September 24, 1969, eventually led to the trial of Rubin and seven others on charges of incitement to riot, including Abbie Hoffman, Rennie Davis, John Froines, David Dellinger, Lee Weiner, Tom Hayden, and Bobby Seale.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: The defendants were commonly referred to as the "Chicago Eight". Seale's trial was severed from the others after he demanded the right to serve as his own lawyer and was sentenced to four years in prison for contempt of court, making the Chicago Eight the Chicago Seven. The trial developed into a quiet spectacle, or "hippie-guerillas theater" as Rubin described it. Rubin, Hoffman and other defendants made a mockery of the court, widely covered by the press, with "The New York Times" and "The Washington Post" reporting on it. Rubin, who had declared the trial to be "the Academy Award of protest" at one point paraded back and forth in front of Judge Julius Hoffman (no relation to defendant Hoffman), thrusting his arm in a Nazi salute and shouting "Heil Hitler!" Another time he and Hoffman wore judge's robes to court. Judge Hoffman ordered both men to remove the robes. They did – but underneath they wore blue Chicago police shirts. "The day Abbie and I came in wearing judges' robes was a stoned idea," Rubin said later. "It was a turning point in the trial in terms of theatrics, and it just went on from there."


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In spite of the danger of being busted, Rubin smoked marijuana before the trial. "I got stoned a lot for the trial because it was such complete theater – a front-row seat to history – and marijuana intensifies every experience." Judge Hoffman added to the spectacle. Among other things, Judge Hoffman ordered for Black Panther leader Bobby Seale to be bound, gagged, and chained to his chair for a sizable portion of the trial.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin, along with the six other defendants, was found not guilty on the charge of conspiracy but guilty (with four other defendants) on the charge of incitement. He was also sentenced by the judge to more than three years in prison for contempt of court. All of the convictions for incitement were later overturned by an appeals court, who cited judicial and prosecutorial misconduct. The contempt of court citations were also overturned on appeal. The contempt charges were re-tried in 1972 however the U.S. Justice Department declined to retry any of the defendants for either conspiracy or incitement.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: The Vietnam War politicized marijuana, turning it from a sign of an immoral or corrupt person, suffering from amotivational syndrome (psychological condition associated with diminished inspiration to participate in social activities) into deliberate, calculated civil disobedience.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Smoking pot makes you a criminal and a revolutionary. As soon as you take your first puff, you are an enemy of society.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In 1972, Rubin continued his activism, this time in Miami Beach to organize protests for both the Republican and Democratic Conventions. This time, the local community knew the Yippies were coming and they organized behind a Rubin of their own, Ellis Rubin, a well-known attorney. On June 4, 1972, the Rubins debated at the Unitarian Church in Miami, in front of 500 highly charged churchgoers on both sides of the issue, only divided by a church aisle. Jerry began the debate by thanking "Uncle Ellis" for the invitation to debate. Ellis, who was not related to Jerry, feigned disgust at the association and the event was "on". After barbs in both directions, it ended abruptly when Jerry famously dropped an "F-bomb" and Ellis took leave to lead the locals out in a protest of their own.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin was also interviewed on television by journalist Dorothy Fuldheim about his book "Do It". In the interview, Rubin started to quiz Fuldheim, asking her if she drank. He then referred to the police as "pigs," which offended Fuldheim, who replied, "I've got a shock for you. Some of my friends are policemen". Rubin then muttered "Well, I've got a shock for you. I'm good friends with the Black Panthers." At this, Fuldheim threw his book and kicked Rubin off the set saying "Out! Stop the interview" as the cameras rolled.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin held a post-election party at his home in New York in January 1973, attended by John Lennon and Yoko Ono, after Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern had lost to Republican incumbent President Richard Nixon at the 1972 presidential election. Soon after, Rubin retired from politics entirely, becoming an entrepreneur and businessman. He was an early investor in Apple Computer, and by the end of the 1970s had become a multimillionaire.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In the 1980s, he embarked on a debating tour with Abbie Hoffman titled "Yippie versus Yuppie". Rubin's argument in the debates was that activism was hard work and that the abuse of drugs, sex, and private property had made the counterculture "a scary society in itself." He maintained that "wealth creation is the real American revolution. What we need is an infusion of capital into the depressed areas of our country." A later political cartoon portrayed Rubin as half-guerrilla and half-businessman.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin's differences with Hoffman were on principle rather than personal. When Hoffman died by suicide in 1989, Rubin attended his funeral.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In his memoir "Growing (Up) at Thirty-Seven" Rubin emphasizes the importance of uniting the personal and the political. He writes:


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Jerry Rubin appeared posthumously in the 2002 British documentary by Adam Curtis, "The Century of the Self". He appears in episode part 3 of 4. This segment of the documentary discusses the Erhard Seminars Training, also known as The "est" Training, of which Rubin was a graduate. In his autobiography "Growing (Up) at Thirty-Seven" Rubin dedicates a chapter on his experience of taking the est Training. He explains why est appealed to him, even though he had initially resisted it:


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin also appeared on "Saturday Night Live"s second episode of its first season. He was announced as "Jerry Rubin, Leader of the Yippie Movement." The sketch is a fake commercial for wallpaper featuring famous protest slogans from the 1960s and 1970s (e.g., "Make Love, Not War", "Off The Pig!", "Give Peace A Chance", "Hell No, We Won't Go!", etc.). He ends the sketch by parodying a famous radical slogan as "Up against the wall-paper, posters!" (with the last word bleeped out in a reference to Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers).


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Rubin's anti-establishment beliefs were put down in writing in his 1970 book, "DO IT!: Scenarios of the Revolution", with an introduction by Black Panther Eldridge Cleaver and unconventional design by Quentin Fiore. In 1971, his journal, written while incarcerated in the Cook County Jail, was published under the title "We are Everywhere." The book includes an inside view of the trial of the Chicago Seven, but otherwise focuses on the Weather Underground, the Black Panthers, LSD, women's liberation and his view of a coming revolution.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In 1976, Rubin wrote the book "Growing (Up) at Thirty-Seven", which contained a chapter about his experience at an Erhard Seminars Training (EST) session, later included in the book "American Spiritualities: A Reader" (2001) edited by Catherine L. Albanese. In "Growing (Up) at Thirty-Seven", Rubin claims a rational society cannot be built by people who are out of touch with themselves and can't even run their own lives rationally. Real political change will not happen unless people transform their own personal reality, and their own relationships. Much like Arthur Koestler in his collections of essays The Yogi and the Commissar, Rubin argues that political work and self-development has to go hand in hand. It was important, he said, that people "lived" the society they hoped to create.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: As explained in "Growing (Up) at Thirty-Seven" Rubin experimented with many self-improvement techniques to overcome his own personal defects, everything from the "est" training, hypnotism, meditation and yoga to rolfing, acupuncture, the Arica School, Gestalt therapy and the bioenergetic analysis of Wilhelm Reich's pupil Alexander Lowen. In a review of the book Derek VanPelt comments on Rubin's self quest:


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In 1980, Rubin authored a self-help book with his wife, Mimi Leonard, entitled "The War Between the Sheets: What's Happening with Men in Bed and What Men and Women Are Doing About It". It was not well received.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: Sometime in the mid-1970s, Rubin reinvented himself as a businessman. Friend and fellow Yippie Stew Albert claimed Rubin's new ambition was giving capitalists a social consciousness. In 1980 he began a new career on Wall Street as stockbroker with the brokerage firm John Muir & Co. "I know that I can be more effective today wearing a suit and tie and working on Wall Street than I can be dancing outside the walls of power," he said.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: In the 1980s, he became known for his promotion of business networking, having created Business Networking Salons, Inc., a company that organized parties at the Studio 54 and Palladium nightclubs in Manhattan, where thousands of young professionals and entrepreneurs met and shared ideas. Near the end of his life, Rubin became interested in the science of life extension and was heavily involved in multi-level marketing of health foods and nutritional supplements. “In 1991, he and his family moved to Los Angeles,” according to an Observer.com profile of him, “where he became a successful independent marketer for a Dallas-based firm that sold a nutritional drink called Wow!, made with kelp, ginseng, and bee pollen. Ironically, Bobby Seale became one of his salesmen.”


title: Jerry Rubin

text: On November 14, 1994, Rubin was struck by a motorist as he attempted to cross Wilshire Boulevard, in front of his penthouse apartment in the Westwood area of Los Angeles, California. It was a Monday evening and weekday traffic was heavy, with three lanes moving in each direction. One motorist swerved to avoid Mr. Rubin, but a second driver, immediately behind the first, struck him. He was taken to the UCLA Medical Center, where he died of a heart attack two weeks later. He is interred in the Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California.


title: Jerry Rubin

text: State Senator (D-Santa Monica), fellow Chicago Seven member, and friend Tom Hayden said after Rubin's death:


title: Jerry Rubin

text: He was a great life force, full of spunk, courage and wit. I think his willingness to defy authority for constructive purposes will be missed. Up to the end, he was defying authority.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Mud is a 2012 American coming-of-age drama film written and directed by Jeff Nichols. In the film Tye Sheridan and Jacob Lofland portray a pair of teenagers who encounter the eponymous Mud (Matthew McConaughey), a fugitive hiding on a small island, and agree to help him evade his pursuers. Sam Shepard and Reese Witherspoon also star.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: "Mud" competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival and was also shown at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2013. It opened on April 26, 2013 with a limited release in select theaters, before having a wide release on May 10. "Mud" performed well at the box office, grossing $32.6 million on a $10 million budget, and received critical acclaim.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Ellis and Neckbone, two teenage boys living in the DeWitt, Arkansas area, find a boat stuck on a small island in the Mississippi River. They meet the occupant, a man named Mud, who claims to have grown up nearby. Mud tells the boys that he needs food. Mud promises that in exchange for their help, they can have the boat after he's gone.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Returning with food, the boys ask Mud why he is hiding out. Mud is waiting for his girlfriend Juniper, whom he describes as beautiful with nightingale tattoos on her hands. They later spot Juniper in town. Ellis falls for a high-school girl named May Pearl.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Ellis learns that his parents are heading for divorce. This threatens their old river houseboat: if no longer used as a residence by the owner, it will be removed by the River Authority. Later, at a roadblock, Ellis finds out Mud is a fugitive but denies having seen him.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Ellis and Neckbone confront Mud over the discovery. Mud explains that he killed a man who had gotten Juniper pregnant and pushed her down a flight of stairs, causing her to lose the child. The boys decide to help Mud in exchange for his pistol.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Mud sends Ellis to Tom Blankenship, an older father figure from his childhood, for help. Tom agrees to come talk to Mud; however, upon learning Mud is in trouble over Juniper again, he refuses to help. Mud gives the boys a note for Juniper. They find her motel room where Carver - the brother of the man Mud killed - is abusing her. Ellis charges at the man but is quickly overpowered. Neckbone and Ellis tell Mud about the man. Mud realizes that the family of the man he killed is here for revenge.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Carver, his father King, and a handful of bounty hunters stake out Juniper's motel. They have paid off officers in local and state police.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Stealing machine parts and an outboard motor from junkyards, the boys help Mud repair the boat. They plan to reunite Juniper with Mud. They relay the plan to Juniper, who agrees to it. However, she instead heads to a bar and flirts with other men. Ellis and Neckbone tell Mud.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Ellis brings a note from Mud to Juniper, telling her it's over between them. Juniper tells Ellis that Mud is a born liar and she's sick of running away with him. Ellis is dejected, not only because he thought he was helping a couple in love, but furthered by May Pearl's rejection of him in front of her friends and not returning his calls.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Ellis confronts Mud and calls him a liar and a coward, and that he turned them into thieves. Running away, Ellis falls into a pit containing cottonmouths and is bitten. Mud jumps in and rescues Ellis. Mud races to get the unconscious Ellis to a clinic on the mainland. Recognizing Mud, one of the hospital employees calls the police, who tip off Carver.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Evading his pursuers, Mud gets back to the island where he and Neckbone get the repaired boat into the water. As they agreed before, Mud gives Neckbone a pistol but without ammunition. Mud wants to say good-bye to Ellis, so Neckbone takes him to the houseboat where he is recovering. While Mud is in Ellis' room, Carver and his posse arrive and start shooting. Tom fires from his boat using his old sniper rifle, killing several attackers from across the river. Mud saves Ellis and tries to get away but is shot as he dives into the river. The police arrive and find all the posse members dead. One trooper calls King to tell him that his other son is now dead. The morning after the shootout, Tom disappears.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Ellis's parents separate. He and his mother move to an apartment in town and their houseboat is demolished, while his father gets a new job far away. He tells Ellis to take care of his mother as he departs, showing a more mature & changed attitude toward their situation. Before he leaves, he tells Ellis, "I love you" to which Ellis replies, "I love you too." Ellis sees some attractive older teenage girls in his new neighborhood and smiles. He is uncertain of Mud's fate, but still believes he was protecting Juniper.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Mud is revealed to be alive and recovering on the repaired boat driven by Tom. Many days have passed, and the film ends with them looking ahead at the mouth of the Mississippi River, and south of that, the Gulf of Mexico.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Jeff Nichols wrote and directed "Mud", which was fully financed by Everest Entertainment and produced by Everest and FilmNation Entertainment. Nichols came up with the concept for the film in the 1990s. While still a student, Nichols began developing the story, inspired by Mark Twain's works, including the 1876 novel "Tom Sawyer". He also sought to reflect the theme of love: "I wanted to capture a point in my life in high school when I had crushes on girls and it totally broke my heart and it was devastating. I wanted to try and bottle that excitement and that pain and that intensity of being in love and being a teenager."


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Nichols always had McConaughey in mind, after seeing him in "Lone Star" (1996). In May 2011, Chris Pine was first in talks for the lead role. McConaughey was cast as Mud the following August and was joined by Reese Witherspoon. Witherspoon was at the same agency as Nichols, so he was able to approach her for the role of Juniper.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: For the local boys of a small Delta town, Nichols cast boys who could already pilot boats and ride dirt bikes, instead of ones who would have to be taught on set. For the teenage role of Neckbone, over auditioned, and 15-year-old Jacob Lofland from Yell County, Arkansas, was cast.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Nichols started shooting "Mud" in his home state of Arkansas on , 2011. Filming took eight weeks and concluded on . He filmed in Southeast Arkansas; locations included Dumas (in the Arkansas Delta Lowlands area), De Witt, Lake Village (near the Mississippi River), Crocketts Bluff (on the White River), and Stuttgart. The island in the film was located in the Mississippi River outside the city of Eudora. The cast and crew numbered over 100 people, around half of whom were Arkansas residents. Over 400 locals were also involved as extras. According to the state government's Economic Development Commission, ""Mud" is the largest production ever to be filmed in the state." Nichols said about filming in parts of Southeast Arkansas, "These places and people have such a particular accent and culture, and they're quickly getting homogenized. I wanted to capture a snapshot of a place that probably won't be there forever."


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: "Mud"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s cinematographer Adam Stone used a Steadicam for filming. Stone, who was also cinematographer for Nichols's previous films "Shotgun Stories" and "Take Shelter", said, "If you look at "Shotgun Stories", the camera is fairly moored. With "Take Shelter", we had a lot more dolly work. In "Mud", the camera never really sits still. The locations were either super-remote or really small and cramped, so the Steadicam was the only thing that could get in there." The film was shot on Kodak VISION3 35mm film stocks in the anamorphic format with Panavision G-Series lenses.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: "Mud" premiered on , 2012, at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, where it had a competition slot for the festival's prizes including the Palme d'Or. Reuters reported that the film "[earned] warm applause at a press screening". "Variety"s film critics Justin Chang and Peter Debruge considered "Mud" one of their favorites of the film festival. Debruge said the film was reminiscent of the novel "Huckleberry Finn": "It so elegantly addresses what masculinity and family really mean in the heartland." He said the Mississippi River in "Mud" was "a mythic backdrop... in which old values struggle against stronger modern forces in the world".


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: British film critic Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave the film three out of five stars, stating that ""Mud" is an engaging and good-looking picture with two bright leading performances".


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: After its Cannes premiere, no distributor immediately purchased rights to release the film in the United States. By August 2012, Lionsgate and Roadside Attractions acquired rights to distribute "Mud" in the United States. In January 2013, "Mud" screened at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, and the "Austin American-Statesman" reported, "His modern take on Mark Twain played to an enthusiastic sold-out crowd of more than 500 people."


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: The film opened in a limited release on , 2013, in 363 theaters and grossed $2,215,891 with an average of $6,104 per theater and ranking #11 at the box office. The film then expanding on , 2013, and grossed $2,538,599, with an average of $2,980 per theater, ranking number eight at the box office. The film ended up earning $21,590,086 in North America and $11,023,087 in other markets for a worldwide total of $32,613,173, against a $10 million budget.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: "Mud" received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 98% based on 171 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Bolstered by a strong performance from Matthew McConaughey in the title role, "Mud" offers an engaging Southern drama that manages to stay sweet and heartwarming without being sappy." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 76 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: David Denby, writing in "The New Yorker", praised the director: "Nichols has developed a talent for intimacy and for continuous tension—he could be developing into one of the great movie storytellers...[the film, as a whole] plays with a depth and psychological acuteness almost never found in our movies anymore." Quoting The Wrap's report that the film played very strongly in the South, Godfrey Cheshire writes that he was not surprised: ""Mud" is the best Southern film I've seen in ages." Singling out McConaughey's performance, "The Village Voice" described it as "the latest in McConaughey's campaign for reconsideration as a great American actor".


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: "Mud" has received numerous awards and nominations. It received the Robert Altman Award at the 29th Independent Spirit Awards for its film director, casting director, and ensemble cast. The Independent Spirit Awards also nominated Jeff Nichols for Best Director.


title: Mud (2012 film)

text: Tye Sheridan was nominated for the Critics' Choice Award for Best Young Actor/Actress. The film received the Grand Prix from the Belgian Film Critics Association.


title: Beau's lines

text: Beau's lines are deep grooved lines that run from side to side on the fingernail or the toenail. They may look like indentations or ridges in the nail plate. This condition of the nail was named by a French physician, Joseph Honoré Simon Beau (1806–1865), who first described it in 1846.


title: Beau's lines

text: Beau's lines are horizontal, going across the nailline, and should not be confused with vertical ridges going from the bottom (cuticle) of the nail out to the fingertip. These vertical lines are usually a natural consequence of aging and are harmless.


title: Beau's lines

text: Beau's lines should also be distinguished from Muehrcke's lines of the fingernails. While Beau's lines are actual ridges and indentations in the nail plate, Muehrcke lines are areas of hypopigmentation without palpable ridges; they affect the underlying nail bed, and not the nail itself. Beau's lines should also be distinguished from Mees' lines of the fingernails, which are areas of discoloration in the nail plate.


title: Beau's lines

text: As the nail grows out, the ridge in the nail can be seen to move upwards until it reaches the fingertip. When it reaches this point the fingertips can become sore for a few days due to the nail bed being exposed by the mis-shapen nail.


title: Beau's lines

text: There are several causes of Beau's lines. It is believed that there is a temporary cessation of cell division in the nail matrix. This may be caused by an infection or problem in the nail fold, where the nail begins to form, or it may be caused by an injury to that area. Some other reasons for these lines include trauma, coronary occlusion, hypocalcaemia, and skin disease. They may be a sign of systemic disease, or may also be caused by an illness of the body, as well as drugs used in chemotherapy, or malnutrition. Beau's lines can also be seen one to two months after the onset of fever in children with Kawasaki disease. Conditions also associated with Beau's lines include uncontrolled diabetes and peripheral vascular disease, as well as illnesses associated with a high fever, such as scarlet fever, measles, mumps and pneumonia. Beau's lines can also be a sign of zinc deficiency.


title: Beau's lines

text: A researcher found Beau's lines in the fingernails of two of six divers following a deep saturation dive to a pressure equal to of sea water, and in six of six divers following a similar dive to . They have also been seen in Ötzi the Iceman.


title: Beau's lines

text: Human nails grow at a rate which varies with many factors: age, and the finger or toe in question as well as nutrition. However, typically in healthy populations fingernails grow at about 0.1 mm/day and toenails at about 0.05 mm/day.


title: Archosaur

text: Archosauria () is a clade of diapsids, with birds and crocodilians as the only living representatives. Archosaurs are broadly classified as reptiles, in the cladistic sense of the term which includes birds. Extinct archosaurs include non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and extinct relatives of crocodilians. Modern paleontologists define Archosauria as a crown group that includes the most recent common ancestor of living birds and crocodilians, and all of its descendants. The base of Archosauria splits into two clades: Pseudosuchia, which includes crocodilians and their extinct relatives, and Avemetatarsalia, which includes birds and their extinct relatives (such as non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs).


title: Archosaur

text: Older definitions of the group Archosauria rely on shared morphological characteristics, such as an antorbital fenestra in the skull, serrated teeth, and an upright stance. Some extinct reptiles, such as proterosuchids and euparkeriids, possessed these features yet originated prior to the split between the crocodilian and bird lineages. The older morphological definition of Archosauria nowadays roughly corresponds to Archosauriformes, a group named to encompass crown-group archosaurs and their close relatives. The oldest true archosaur fossils are known from the Early Triassic period, though the first archosauriforms and archosauromorphs (reptiles closer to archosaurs than to lizards or other lepidosaurs) appeared in the Permian. Archosaurs quickly diversified in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction (~252 Ma), becoming the largest and most ecologically dominant terrestrial vertebrates from the Middle Triassic period up until the K-Pg mass extinction (~66 Ma). Birds and several crocodyliform lineages were the only archosaurs to survive the K-Pg extinction, rediversifying in the subsequent Cenozoic era. Birds in particular have become among the most species-rich groups of terrestrial vertebrates in the present day.


title: Archosaur

text: Archosaurs can traditionally be distinguished from other tetrapods on the basis of several synapomorphies, or shared characteristics, which were present in their last common ancestor. Many of these characteristics appeared prior to the origin of the clade Archosauria, as they were present in archosauriforms such as "Proterosuchus" and "Euparkeria", which were outside the crown group.


title: Archosaur

text: The most obvious features include teeth set in deep sockets, antorbital and (openings in front of the eyes and in the jaw, respectively), and a pronounced fourth trochanter (a prominent ridge on the femur). Being set in sockets, the teeth were less likely to be torn loose during feeding. This feature is responsible for the name "thecodont" (meaning "socket teeth"), which early paleontologists applied to many Triassic archosaurs. Additionally, non-muscular cheek and lip tissue appear in various forms throughout the clade, with all living archosaurs lacking non-muscular lips, unlike most non-avian saurischian dinosaurs. Some archosaurs, such as birds, are secondarily toothless. Antorbital fenestrae reduced the weight of the skull, which was relatively large in early archosaurs, rather like that of modern crocodilians. Mandibular fenestrae may also have reduced the weight of the jaw in some forms. The fourth trochanter provides a large site for the attachment of muscles on the femur. Stronger muscles allowed for erect gaits in early archosaurs, and may also be connected with the ability of the archosaurs or their immediate ancestors to survive the catastrophic Permian-Triassic extinction event.


title: Archosaur

text: Archosaurs are a subgroup of archosauriforms, which themselves are a subgroup of archosauromorphs. Both the oldest archosauromorph ("Protorosaurus speneri") and the oldest archosauriform ("Archosaurus rossicus") lived in the late Permian. The oldest true archosaurs appeared during the Olenekian stage (247-251 Ma) of the Early Triassic. A few fragmentary fossils of large carnivorous crocodilian-line archosaurs (informally termed "rauisuchians") are known from this stage. These include "Scythosuchus" and "Tsylmosuchus" (both of which have been found in Russia), as well as the "Xilousuchus", a ctenosauriscid from China. The oldest known fossils of bird-line archosaurs are from the Anisian stage (247-242 Ma) of Tanzania, and include "Asilisaurus" (an early silesaurid), "Teleocrater" (an aphanosaur), and "Nyasasaurus" (a possible early dinosaur).


title: Archosaur

text: Synapsids are a clade that includes mammals and their extinct ancestors. The latter group are often referred to as "mammal-like reptiles," but should be termed "protomammals, stem mammals, or basal synapsids," because they are not true reptiles by modern cladistic classification. They were the dominant land vertebrates throughout the Permian, but most perished in the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Very few large synapsids survived the event, but one form, "Lystrosaurus" (a herbivorous dicynodont), attained a widespread distribution soon after the extinction. Following this, archosaurs and other archosauriforms quickly became the dominant land vertebrates in the early Triassic. Fossils from before the mass extinction have only been found around the Equator, but after the event fossils can be found all over the world. Suggested explanations for this include:


title: Archosaur

text: However, this theory has been questioned, since it implies synapsids were necessarily less advantaged in water retention, that synapsid decline coincides with climate changes or archosaur diversity (neither of which tested) and the fact that desert dwelling mammals are as well adapted in this department as archosaurs, and some cynodonts like "Trucidocynodon" were large sized predators.


title: Archosaur

text: A study favors competition amidst mammaliaforms as the main explanation for Mesozoic mammals being small.


title: Archosaur

text: Since the 1970s, scientists have classified archosaurs mainly on the basis of their ankles. The earliest archosaurs had "primitive mesotarsal" ankles: the astragalus and calcaneum were fixed to the tibia and fibula by sutures and the joint bent about the contact between these bones and the foot.


title: Archosaur

text: The Pseudosuchia appeared early in the Triassic. In their ankles, the astragalus was joined to the tibia by a suture and the joint rotated round a peg on the astragalus which fitted into a socket in the calcaneum. Early "crurotarsans" still walked with sprawling limbs, but some later crurotarsans developed fully erect limbs. Modern crocodilians are crurotarsans that can employ a diverse range of gaits depending on speed.


title: Archosaur

text: "Euparkeria" and the Ornithosuchidae had "reversed crurotarsal" ankles, with a peg on the calcaneum and socket on the astragalus.


title: Archosaur

text: The earliest fossils of Avemetatarsalia ("bird ankles") appear in the Anisian age of the Middle Triassic. Most Ornithodirans had "advanced mesotarsal" ankles. This form of ankle incorporated a very large astragalus and very small calcaneum, and could only move in one plane, like a simple hinge. This arrangement, which was only suitable for animals with erect limbs, provided more stability when the animals were running. The earliest avemetatarsalians, such as Teleocrater and Asilisaurus, retained "primitive mesotarsal" ankles. The ornithodirans differed from other archosaurs in other ways: they were lightly built and usually small, their necks were long and had an S-shaped curve, their skulls were much more lightly built, and many ornithodirans were completely bipedal. The archosaurian fourth trochanter on the femur may have made it easier for ornithodirans to become bipeds, because it provided more leverage for the thigh muscles. In the late Triassic, the ornithodirans diversified to produce dinosaurs and pterosaurs.


title: Archosaur

text: Archosauria is normally defined as a crown group, which means that it only includes descendants of the last common ancestors of its living representatives. In the case of archosaurs, these are birds and crocodilians. Archosauria is within the larger clade Archosauriformes, which includes some close relatives of archosaurs, such as proterochampsids and euparkeriids. These relatives are often referred to as archosaurs despite being placed outside of the crown group Archosauria in a more basal position within Archosauriformes. Historically, many archosauriforms were described as archosaurs, including proterosuchids and erythrosuchids, based on the presence of an antorbital fenestra. While many researchers prefer to treat Archosauria as an unranked clade, some continue to assign it a traditional biological rank. Traditionally, Archosauria has been treated as a Superorder, though a few 21st century researchers have assigned it to different ranks including Division and Class.


title: Archosaur

text: Archosauria as a term was first coined by American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1869, and included a wide range of taxa including dinosaurs, crocodilians, thecodonts, sauropterygians (which may be related to turtles), rhynchocephalians (a group that according to Cope included rhynchosaurs, which nowadays are considered to be more basal archosauromorphs, and tuataras, which are lepidosaurs), and anomodonts, which are now considered synapsids. It was not until 1986 that Archosauria was defined as a crown-clade, restricting its use to more derived taxa.


title: Archosaur

text: Cope's term was a Greek-Latin hybrid intended to refer to the cranial arches, but has later also been understood as "leading reptiles" or "ruling reptiles" by association with Greek ἀρχός "leader, ruler".


title: Archosaur

text: The term "thecodont", now considered an obsolete term, was first used by the English paleontologist Richard Owen in 1859 to describe Triassic archosaurs, and it became widely used in the 20th century. Thecodonts were considered the "basal stock" from which the more advanced archosaurs descended. They did not possess features seen in later avian and crocodilian lines, and therefore were considered more primitive and ancestral to the two groups. With the cladistic revolution of the 1980s and 90s, in which cladistics became the most widely used method of classifying organisms, thecodonts were no longer considered a valid grouping. Because they are considered a "basal stock", thecodonts are paraphyletic, meaning that they form a group that does not include all descendants of its last common ancestor: in this case, the more derived crocodilians and birds are excluded from "Thecodontia" as it was formerly understood. The description of the basal ornithodires "Lagerpeton" and "Lagosuchus" in the 1970s provided evidence that linked thecodonts with dinosaurs, and contributed to the disuse of the term "Thecodontia", which many cladists consider an artificial grouping.


title: Archosaur

text: With the identification of "crocodilian normal" and "crocodilian reversed" ankles by Sankar Chatterjee in 1978, a basal split in Archosauria was identified. Chatterjee considered these two groups to be Pseudosuchia with the "normal" ankle and Ornithosuchidae with the "reversed" ankle. Ornithosuchids were thought to be ancestral to dinosaurs at this time. In 1979, A.R.I. Cruickshank identified the basal split and thought that the crurotarsan ankle developed independently in these two groups, but in opposite ways. Cruickshank also thought that the development of these ankle types progressed in each group to allow advanced members to have semi-erect (in the case of crocodilians) or erect (in the case of dinosaurs) gaits.


title: Archosaur

text: In many phylogenetic analyses, archosaurs have been shown to be a monophyletic grouping, thus forming a true clade. One of the first studies of archosaur phylogeny was authored by French paleontologist Jacques Gauthier in 1986. Gauthier split Archosauria into Pseudosuchia, the crocodilian line, and Ornithosuchia, the dinosaur and pterosaur line. Pseudosuchia was defined as all archosaurs more closely related to crocodiles, while Ornithosuchia was defined as all archosaurs more closely related to birds. Proterochampsids, erythrosuchids, and proterosuchids fell successively outside Archosauria in the resulting tree. Below is the cladogram from Gauthier (1986):


title: Archosaur

text: In 1988, paleontologists Michael Benton and J.M. Clark produced a new tree in a phylogenetic study of basal archosaurs. As in Gauthier's tree, Benton and Clark's revealed a basal split within Archosauria. They referred to the two groups as Crocodylotarsi and Ornithosuchia. Crocodylotarsi was defined as an apomorphy-based taxon based on the presence of a "crocodile-normal" ankle joint (considered to be the defining apomorphy of the clade). Gauthier's Pseudosuchia, by contrast, was a stem-based taxon. Unlike Gauthier's tree, Benton and Clark's places "Euparkeria" outside Ornithosuchia and outside the crown group Archosauria altogether.


title: Archosaur

text: The clades Crurotarsi and Ornithodira were first used together in 1990 by paleontologist Paul Sereno and A.B. Arcucci in their phylogenetic study of archosaurs. They were the first to erect the clade Crurotarsi, while Ornithodira was named by Gauthier in 1986. Crurotarsi and Ornithodira replaced Pseudosuchia and Ornithosuchia, respectively, as the monophyly of both of these clades were questioned. Sereno and Arcucci incorporated archosaur features other than ankle types in their analyses, which resulted in a different tree than previous analyses. Below is a cladogram based on Sereno (1991), which is similar to the one produced by Sereno and Arcucci:


title: Archosaur

text: Ornithodira and Crurotarsi are both node-based clades, meaning that they are defined to include the last common ancestor of two or more taxa and all of its descendants. Ornithodira includes the last common ancestor of pterosaurs and dinosaurs (which include birds), while Crurotarsi includes the last common ancestor of living crocodilians and three groups of Triassic archosaurs: ornithosuchids, aetosaurs, and phytosaurs. These clades are not equivalent to "bird-line" and "crocodile-line" archosaurs, which would be branch-based clades defined as all taxa more closely related to one living group (either birds or crocodiles) than the other.


title: Archosaur

text: Benton proposed the name Avemetatarsalia in 1999 to include all bird-line archosaurs (under his definition, all archosaurs more closely related to dinosaurs than to crocodilians). His analysis of the small Triassic archosaur "Scleromochlus" placed it within bird-line archosaurs but outside Ornithodira, meaning that Ornithodira was no longer equivalent to bird-line archosaurs. Below is a cladogram modified from Benton (2004) showing this phylogeny:


title: Archosaur

text: In Sterling Nesbitt's 2011 monograph on early archosaurs, a phylogenetic analysis found strong support for phytosaurs falling outside Archosauria. Many subsequent studies supported this phylogeny. Because Crurotarsi is defined by the inclusion of phytosaurs, the placement of phytosaurs outside Archosauria means that Crurotarsi must include all of Archosauria. Nesbitt reinstated Pseudosuchia as a clade name for crocodile-line archosaurs, using it as a stem-based taxon. Below is a cladogram modified from Nesbitt (2011):


title: Archosaur

text: Crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs and dinosaurs survived the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event about 200 million years ago, but other archosaurs had become extinct at or prior to the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.


title: Archosaur

text: Non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs perished in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately million years ago, but crown-group birds (the only remaining dinosaur group) and many crocodyliforms survived. Both are descendants of archosaurs, and are therefore archosaurs themselves under phylogenetic taxonomy.


title: Archosaur

text: Crocodilians (which include all modern crocodiles, alligators, and gharials) and birds flourish today in the Holocene. It is generally agreed that birds have the most species of all terrestrial vertebrates.


title: Archosaur

text: Like the early tetrapods, early archosaurs had a sprawling gait because their hip sockets faced sideways, and the knobs at the tops of their femurs were in line with the femur.


title: Archosaur

text: In the early to middle Triassic, some archosaur groups developed hip joints that allowed (or required) a more erect gait. This gave them greater stamina, because it avoided Carrier's constraint, i.e. they could run and breathe easily at the same time. There were two main types of joint which allowed erect legs:


title: Archosaur

text: It has been pointed out that an upright stance requires more energy, so it may indicate a higher metabolism and a higher body temperature.


title: Archosaur

text: Most were large predators, but members of various lines diversified into other niches. Aetosaurs were herbivores and some developed extensive armor. A few crocodyliforms were herbivores, e.g., "Simosuchus", "Phyllodontosuchus". The large crocodyliform "Stomatosuchus" may have been a filter feeder. Sauropodomorphs and ornithischian dinosaurs were herbivores with diverse adaptations for feeding biomechanics.


title: Archosaur

text: The metabolism of archosaurs is still a controversial topic. They certainly evolved from cold-blooded ancestors, and the surviving non-dinosaurian archosaurs, crocodilians, are cold-blooded. But crocodilians have some features which are normally associated with a warm-blooded metabolism because they improve the animal's oxygen supply:


title: Archosaur

text: Historically there has been uncertainty as to why natural selection favored the development of these features, which are very important for active warm-blooded creatures, but of little apparent use to cold-blooded aquatic ambush predators that spend the vast majority of their time floating in water or lying on river banks.