title: Summer vacation

text: In the Republic of Ireland, most secondary schools start summer holidays at the end of May or the start of June. However, Junior and Leaving Certificate exams will take place during June. Schools will usually open again at the end of August to the start of September. Primary schools in the Republic of Ireland are sixteen days longer, so they start their summer holiday at the end of June but do not return until the first week of September. Private schools follow the same pattern.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Italy, summer vacation for elementary, middle and high schools normally starts the second week of June and lasts until the second week of September included, for a total of about three months. For kindergartens, summer vacation starts at the end of June and lasts until the first week of September. Final term examinations for middle school and high school are held until the end of June or the first days of July. Usually, also shops and factories are closed (or with reduced productivity) in the week surrounding August 15 - Ferragosto (both religious and secular holiday).


title: Summer vacation

text: In Latvia, summer vacation lasts 3 months. Starting on 1 June and ending on 31 August, with the new school year starting the next day.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Lithuania, summer vacation starts in 15th learning day of June (ex. June 21) and ends on September 1 with the start of a new school year (2.5 months).


title: Summer vacation

text: In Luxembourg, summer vacation starts on July 16 and ends on September 15, lasting a total of two months. There are 5 other smaller vacations: All Saints' Day (1 week), Christmas (2 weeks), Carnival (1 week), Easter (2 weeks), Pentecost (1 week). (See also holidays in Luxembourg)


title: Summer vacation

text: In North Macedonia, the summer vacation starts on June 10 and ends on September 1 in every school. They also get Christmas vacations from 31 December until 21 January, and 1 week break for Easter.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Malta, the summer holidays usually last from the end of June until the end of September (3 months).


title: Summer vacation

text: In the Netherlands, summer vacation is about 6 weeks for primary school and high school, usually from mid-July to late August. Secondary school students officially get the same time off but there often is a one-week period before the vacation during which the student will only have to go to school for 2 days to receive their grade lists and bring back their books, making the holiday 7 weeks unofficially for high school students. However, this does not apply to every school. Students in their final year of high school typically end school around 2 months earlier.


title: Summer vacation

text: For higher education students, the same 6 week period applies officially. However, it can be significantly lengthened by a couple weeks if one does not have to repair their exam scores, making the holiday unofficially often 2 months or longer for many students.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Poland, summer vacation starts on the first Friday after June 20th and ends on the first weekday of September except Friday or Saturday.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Portugal, summer vacation starts in mid-June, and finishes in the middle of September. Some students, though, have exams which are usually in the end of June (the first stage) and in July (the second stage, for the students that are willing to improve their marks).


title: Summer vacation

text: In Romania, summer vacation usually starts in mid-June and ends on the second Sunday of September (3 months). Since 2022, though, the end date was moved to the first Sunday of September.


title: Summer vacation

text: For the 8th grade, summer break starts a week earlier before everyone else, whereas for the 12th (day) and 13th grades (evening and reduced frequentation) it starts 2 weeks earlier. For students attending the technological branch of secondary education, as well as those attending vocational and post-secondary education (with a few exceptions), summer vacation starts 1-2 weeks after everyone else.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Russia, summer vacation starts on May 25 with the end of an old school year (for 1st–8th and 10th grades) and ends on September 1 with the beginning of a new school year. For 9th and 11th grades, due to exams (EGE), the vacation starts in the middle (9th grade) or in the end (11th grade) of June.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Serbia, the summer vacation starts around the ending of June, more precisely by the end of 2nd or 3rd week of June. Summer holiday ends on August 31. School officially starts on first working day of September (if September 1st is on Saturday or Sunday, starting of school is delayed until Monday).


title: Summer vacation

text: In Slovenia, final exams are usually taken from mid-May to mid-June (high schools) or in June (primary schools). The last day of school is June 24, and school resumes on September 1st.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Spain, the school year finishes in mid to late June and begins in early to mid-September. Vacation varies by region but often includes a family vacation to lower temperatures in the cooler regions in the north of Spain, or south or east to the Mediterranean beaches.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Sweden, summer vacation is between the spring and autumn term. Normally it lasts for around 10 weeks, starting from the week before midsummer and ending in mid-August (normally the 8th week after midsummer). In Sweden, students end their term, either at a church or in their school, singing traditional summer songs like "Den blomstertid nu kommer" (normally only the first two verses).


title: Summer vacation

text: In Switzerland, summer vacation varies in each canton. As an example, in Zürich, it lasts five weeks and between mid-July and mid-August. In Ticino, it lasts about ten weeks between late June and early September.


title: Summer vacation

text: In England and Wales, summer holidays for state schools usually last from late July through to early September, which gives a duration of six or seven weeks.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Scotland, school summer holidays start in late June and last for about six or seven weeks, with most schools returning around mid-August. However, it is not uncommon for some schools in recent years to finish on the first week of July.


title: Summer vacation

text: In Northern Ireland, most school summer holidays start in late-June and runs through to the beginning of September. Students doing exams (GCSEs and A-Levels) often get "study leave" from May and do the exams sometime in that month, or early-June.


title: Summer vacation

text: In the United Kingdom, holiday dates for independent schools mostly differ from those of state schools; these differences typically take the form of an extra week's holiday at the beginning and end of each of the long holidays, meaning four weeks for the Christmas and Easter breaks and eight to ten weeks for the summer break, though variations in summer holidays length exist between independent schools themselves. The summer half-term break is determined by the break in public exams at the end of May. Some universities grant an extended "exam leave" to students which typically commences in early-April, so as to give students a good number of weeks to prepare for the summer exam season which usually starts in mid-to-late May and finishes in early or mid-June. Final year students at independent schools typically finish their time at school when their last exam in the summer exam season finishes, and as an encore; a special event is usually arranged for late-June by the school for leavers and staff as a way of providing an opportunity for final farewells to be bid. The universities they go on to typically schedule their first term to commence in early-October, giving school leavers an extended summer break between their time of leaving school and starting university.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Patrick Lavon Mahomes (born August 9, 1970) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball from to with the Minnesota Twins, Boston Red Sox, New York Mets, Texas Rangers, Chicago Cubs, and Pittsburgh Pirates. Mahomes also pitched in two seasons in Nippon Professional Baseball, and , with the Yokohama BayStars. He last played with the Grand Prairie AirHogs of the independent American Association in .


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes was born in Texas, one of three children of Johnny and Cindy Mahomes. His father worked for a local oil company and coached Mahomes' youth baseball team. His mother worked as a nurse until Mahomes was seven years old when she suffered a car accident which left her wheelchair-bound.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes attended Lindale High School in Lindale, Texas where he played baseball, football and basketball. He was an intense competitor and, according to his parents, would cry or refuse to eat or talk after every loss in high school. He was also a member of the National Honor Society and had the second-highest grade point average in his graduating class.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes was only as a high school junior but earned all-state honors as a football quarterback and averaged 30 points per game in basketball nonetheless. On the baseball field, he played shortstop and pitched. He received scholarship offers to play all three sports collegiately but most strongly considered a scholarship offer to play college baseball and walk on to the basketball team at the University of Arkansas.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes began his professional career with the Elizabethton Twins in 1988 as a starting pitcher. Over the next few years, he worked his way up through the Twins farm system, reaching Triple-A in with the Portland Beavers.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes made his major league debut with the Twins in 1992. He made the team out of spring training, and started the sixth game of the season, on April 12 against the Texas Rangers, pitching six innings and getting a no decision. He notched his first major league win in his next start, on April 21 against the Seattle Mariners. Mahomes played with the Twins into the 1996 season, appearing in a total of 114 games (51 starts) during five seasons while compiling an 18–28 record with 5.82 ERA, with 217 strikeouts in innings. The Twins traded Mahomes to the Red Sox on August 26, 1996, in exchange for a player to be named later (which turned out to be pitcher Brian Looney).


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes pitched a total of 21 games (all in relief) during the 1996 and 1997 seasons with Boston, registering a 6.85 ERA with 3–0 record and 11 strikeouts in innings. He was released by the Red Sox on June 27, 1997.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes played for the Yokohama BayStars of Nippon Pro Baseball, arriving with them midway through the 1997 season, and pitched with them through 1998.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes was signed by the Mets in December 1998. He went 8–0 in the 1999 season during 39 relief appearances, and helped the Mets reach the playoffs. Mahomes made four relief appearances during the postseason, recording a 2.25 ERA in eight innings pitched while striking out four, as the Mets lost to the Atlanta Braves in the NLCS. In 2000, Mahomes was 5–3 in 53 appearances (five starts), and while the Mets reached the 2000 World Series, Mahomes was left off the Mets' playoff roster. In his two seasons with the Mets, Mahomes appeared in 92 regular season games (five starts) with a 4.74 ERA, 13–3 record, and 127 strikeouts in innings. He became a free agent in December 2000.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes signed with the home state team Texas Rangers in January 2001. During the 2001 season, he appeared in 56 games (four starts) with a 5.70 ERA and 7–6 record, while striking out 61 in innings. Mahomes again became a free agent in November 2001.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: In January 2002, Mahomes signed with the Cubs. He made 16 appearances (two starts) during the 2002 season, with a 3.86 ERA and 1–1 record, striking out 23 in innings. Mahomes became a free agent in October 2002.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes was signed by Pittsburgh in January 2003. He made nine appearances (one start) with the Pirates during the 2003 season, recording an 0–1 record with 4.84 ERA and 13 strikeouts in innings. This would prove to be his final season playing in MLB. Mahomes again became a free agent in September 2003.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Overall, Mahomes pitched 11 seasons in MLB, making a total of 308 regular season appearances (63 starts) with a 42–39 record, 5.47 ERA, and 452 strikeouts in 709 innings pitched. He had 43 at bats during his career, with 11 hits (.256 batting average) and four RBIs.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: In , Mahomes pitched primarily for the Pittsburgh Pirates AAA affiliate, the Nashville Sounds, while appearing in nine games for the Pirates. In , he split the season between three organizations, pitching for the Edmonton Trappers in the Montreal Expos farm system, the Albuquerque Isotopes in the Florida Marlins system, and then again at Nashville at the end of the season.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: After spending with the Las Vegas 51s in the Los Angeles Dodgers organization, Mahomes turned to the independent leagues, starting with the Long Island Ducks of the Atlantic League. After going 11–4 with a 3.87 ERA, he signed with Kansas City Royals in August, but was released a month later.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes began the 2007 season with the Sioux Falls Canaries of the American Association. On August 24, the Toronto Blue Jays signed him, and he appeared in three games for the Syracuse Chiefs before becoming a free agent at the end of the season. Mahomes signed with the Southern Maryland Blue Crabs of the Atlantic League in , but only appeared in two games for them before returning to Sioux Falls. He split the 2009 season between Sioux Falls and Grand Prairie.


title: Pat Mahomes

text: Mahomes has two children with his ex-wife: Patrick II, who is a quarterback for the Kansas City Chiefs, and Jackson, who is a social media influencer. Patrick II goes by Patrick to avoid being confused with his father.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: The Osmanoğlu family are the members of the historical House of Osman (the Ottoman dynasty), which was the namesake and sole ruling house of the Ottoman Empire from 1299 until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: There were 36 Ottoman sultans who ruled over the Empire, and each one was a direct descendant through the male line of the first Ottoman Sultan, Sultan Osman I. After the deposition of the last Sultan, Mehmed VI, in 1922, and the subsequent abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, members of the Imperial family were forced into exile. Their descendants now live in many different countries throughout Europe, as well as in the United States, the Middle East, and since they have now been permitted to return to their homeland, many now also live in Turkey. When in exile, the family adopted the surname of Osmanoğlu, meaning "son of Osman", after the founder of the House of Osman and direct ancestor of all current family members.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: The Ottoman dynasty was exiled from Turkey in 1924. The female members of the dynasty were allowed to return after 1951, and the male members after 1973. Below is a list of people who would have been heirs to the Ottoman throne following the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922. These people have not necessarily made any claim to the throne; for example Ertuğrul Osman said "Democracy works well in Turkey.".


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: Since the turn of the 21st century there has been a growing interest in the living members of the Ottoman family, both within Turkey and abroad.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: In 2006, family members met at Dolmabahçe Palace for the presentation of the documentary "Osmanoğlu'nun Sürgünü" ("The Ottomans' Exile") produced by TRT (Turkish Radio and Television Corporation). This documentary followed the stories of the members of the Ottoman family who went into exile in 1924, following the establishment of the Turkish Republic and the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate. It then follows the stories of their descendants, who now live in Turkey, Europe, North America, and throughout the Middle East. Extensive coverage of this event, and the success of the documentary series has dramatically raised the profile of the Imperial Family.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: According to "The New York Times", historians said that the show of reverence at the funeral of Imperial Prince Ertuğrul Osman in September 2009 was a "seminal moment in the rehabilitation of the Ottoman Empire".


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: An interview with Imperial Prince Mahmud by the Anatolian News Agency was published in several publications in Turkey and the UK. A Sultan's descendant in the heart of London


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: Without exception, all high-ranking members of the Imperial Ottoman family were exiled in 1924. Most had never left their homeland before, and all were forced to make a new life abroad. The family departed from Sirkeci railway station, and would disperse across Europe, the United States and the Middle East. In exile, the family lived in poverty. As the former Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin had settled in San Remo, many members of the family congregated in the South of France. After living in Switzerland for a short time, the last Caliph of Islam, Imperial Prince ("Şehzade") Abdulmecid II, also moved to the French Riviera, settling in Nice. The Turkish Republic had issued the exiled Ottoman family members with travel documents but they were only valid for one year. Therefore, by 1925 members of the family were no longer able to travel. Prince ("Şehzade") Ali Vâsib Efendi appealed to the French Government and succeeded in obtaining courtesy passports for them. The French Government also issued passports to the children of the members of the family who were born in exile. In the years since the exile was lifted in 1973, many members of the Ottoman family have obtained Turkish citizenship and hold Turkish passports.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: The formal way of addressing the male descendants of the Ottoman Sultans is "Devletlu Necabetlu Şehzade Sultan" (given name) "Hazretleri Efendi", i.e. Sultan Imperial Prince (given name). According to genealogies of the House of Osman, had the Sultanate not been abolished, there would be twenty-five Imperial Princes in the line of succession after Dundar Ali Osman (2017-2021), the late head of the family. The succession law used is agnatic seniority, with the succession passing to eldest male dynast.


title: Osmanoğlu family

text: The formal way of addressing the female descendants of the Ottoman Sultans is "Devletlû İsmetlu" (given name) "Sultân Aliyyetü'ş-Şân Hazretleri", i.e. Sultana (given name). According to genealogies of the House of Osman, had the Sultanate not been abolished, there would be fourteen Sultanas:


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Cocktail is a 2012 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy-drama film directed by Homi Adajania and written by Imtiaz Ali. It was produced by Saif Ali Khan and Dinesh Vijan on a budget of ₹35 crore. The film stars Saif Ali Khan, Deepika Padukone, Diana Penty, Dimple Kapadia, Boman Irani and Randeep Hooda. The film score and soundtrack was composed by Pritam, Yo Yo Honey Singh and Salim–Sulaiman.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: "Cocktail" was released theatrically worldwide on 13 July 2012 and became a commercial success, grossing ₹126 crore worldwide, and was one of the highest grossing Hindi films of 2012. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the direction, soundtrack, humor and the performances of the cast, with particular praise directed towards Padukone and Penty's performances, proving to be a breakthrough for them. The film marked a significant turning point in Padukone's career, and elevated her position to the leading lady of Bollywood.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: At the 58th Filmfare Awards, "Cocktail" received 4 nominations, including Best Actress (Padukone) and Best Female Debut (Penty).


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Meera (Diana Penty) is a shy and traditional indian girl who leaves her family in India, to live in London with her husband Kunal (Randeep Hooda). While at the London airport, she meets Gautam Kapoor, (Saif Ali Khan) a shameless flirt and playboy who hits on her and asks her out. Meera disturbed by his over-extroverted behaviour politely tells him that she is married and then leaves. Meera searches for Kunal and finally finds him, but he is angry to see her and explains that he only married Meera for money, telling her to stay away from him. This leaves Meera heartbroken and stranded in London with no place to stay.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: While in the bathroom at a department store, Meera meets Veronica (Deepika Padukone), an aimless party-girl who sees Meera weeping and decides to help her. Veronica takes Meera to her apartment and explains that her rich estranged father sends her a large amount of money through cheque every month, which helps Veronica enjoy the life of a spoilt socialite. One night, Veronica takes Meera to a nightclub, where they run into Gautam. At the club, Gautam and Veronica dance intimately and make out. The next morning, after a job interview, Meera comes home to find Gautam on the couch. She learns that Gautam and Veronica slept together the previous night. Soon, Gautam moves in with Veronica and Meera, continuing his "no-strings-attached" relationship with Veronica. Although Meera initially dislikes him, she comes to accept him, and the three become good friends.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Eventually, Gautam's mother Kavita (Dimple Kapadia) and his uncle Randhir (Boman Irani) arrive, looking for him. Kavita is shocked to see Gautam's drunken escapades with the 2 girls and wants to know if he has found anyone to settle down with yet. She does not particularly like Veronica due to her lifestyle, while Randhir develops a soft spot for her. Gautam lies to Kavita and says that he is in a relationship with Meera because she is the "ideal Indian girl", who would meet his mother's approval. During this charade, Gautam and Meera become closer and end up falling in love. However, Meera is hesitant to admit it, because she does not want to hurt Veronica, her best friend. Veronica has fallen in love with Gautam and is trying to win Kavita's approval by becoming a "decent" Indian girl.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Unable to continue with the lie, Gautam sits the 2 women down and explains to Veronica that even though she loves him, he is in love with Meera. Meera apologizes to Veronica, but Veronica assures her that it is okay and insists that they all go to the club to celebrate. However, at the club, a drunken Veronica breaks down, telling Gautam that she will do whatever he wants, and she tells Meera that no one has ever used her the way she did. The next morning, the 3 part ways. Meera decides to go back to Kunal. Gautam is unable to concentrate on his work or move on, and Veronica becomes depressed and engages in increasingly dangerous and destructive behavior. Thereby, the three of them are depressed. One night, Veronica is badly injured after being hit by a car. Gautam rushes her to the hospital. Meera arrives there with Kunal to make it look like she has gotten over Gautam.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Gautam moves back in with Veronica to care for her. Veronica thinks that they are rebuilding their relationship, but soon realizes that Gautam is no longer the flirtatious, fun-loving man she fell for and that he is his real self only with Meera. She sacrifices her love for Gautam after realizing that they are not meant for each other, and she helps him locate Meera. They seek out Kunal, who tells them that Meera left him because she loved Gautam too much and that she has gone back to India. Gautam and Veronica travel to Delhi. Veronica helps Gautam propose to Meera, and she accepts. Veronica and Meera become best friends again and the 3 friends reunite.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Priyanka Chopra was the original choice for the role of Veronica, but was ultimately not cast due to creative issues. Deepika Padukone and Imran Khan were initially signed on to play the leads in the film, after their chemistry in the promos of "Break Ke Baad" struck a chord with the youth. However, the latter declined the film and was consequently replaced by Saif Ali Khan, who decided to also produce the film under his production house Illuminati Films. Padukone was offered both the roles of Veronica and Meera, however the character of Meera was similar to her role in "Love Aaj Kal" (2009) and so she chose the role of Veronica as a challenge. Model Diana Penty, who was earlier supposed to play the female lead in Imtiaz Ali's "Rockstar" (2011), was later signed on to "Cocktail" instead, on Ali's suggestion, and thus made her debut in Bollywood.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Shooting of the film started at the end of May 2011, in London. Many scenes have been shot indoors, although the crew primarily filmed on the streets of London. Locations of the filming in London include Borough High Street, Borough Market, Portobello Road, Leicester Square, Piccadilly Circus, Mayfair, Clapham Junction, Battersea Park, Bank Station, St. Paul's London, Colville Gardens (Notting Hill) and Brick Lane. The film was also shot in Cape Town, South Africa. Padukone has gyrated to a Punjabi party song ("Main Sharaabi") at The Clapham Grand nightclub in Clapham Junction, by dancing on a table. This is reminiscent of a dance sequence in the song "Chor Bazaari" from "Love Aaj Kal" (2009). Whilst security was extra tight on the day to prevent outsiders entering the premises, a DJ was hired for the music and club lights were also used to make the scene look as real as possible.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: The trailer of the film was reported to be attached to the prints of Khan's previous home production "Agent Vinod" (2012), although the makers decided against this for unknown reasons. The official trailer was eventually launched on 21 May 2012, to a phenomenal response from critics and audiences, crossing 1 million hits on YouTube within 3 days.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Rubina A. Khan of "Firstpost" gave the movie 4/5 stars, saying that ""Cocktail" is a contemporary film that reflects life as it happens all around us…. just as crazy, twisted, beautiful, funny, weird and lonely as anyone's life can be. It's about easy choices and hard decisions and how life still goes on, despite it all. It's a cocktail you definitely wanna try!"


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Khalid Mohamed of "Deccan Chronicle" gave the movie 3.5/5 stars, concluding that "Whatever the flaws and dips in energy-level, "Cocktail" is a feel-wonderful movie. Shake it, stir it and get nicely woozy." Meena Iyer of "Times of India" gave the movie 3.5/5 stars, commenting that "What "Cocktail" should be truly applauded for is its permissiveness. As a film it breaks shackles and ushers in a new free spirit that Gen-Now will relate to." Aniruddha Guha of "DNA India" gave the movie 3.5/5 stars, stating that "The best thing about "Cocktail" is that it is as different as a film can get within a very conventional format. My favorite scene has Gautam talk to Veronica and Meera together about his feelings towards each of them. "Look. You love me. I love her. Let's sort this mess out." A rare moment in Hindi cinema!" Anupama Chopra of "Hindustan Times" gave the movie 3.5/5 stars, commenting that "This cocktail is full of fizz."


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Nabanita Roy of "One India" gave the movie 3/5 stars, concluding that "On the whole, "Cocktail" is colourful, fascinating and attention-grabbing. Though the movie suffers a few loopholes, but, you definitely can't ignore the threesome magic of Dippy-Saif-Diana." Resham Sengar of "Zee News" gave the movie 3/5 stars, stating that ""Cocktail" is worth a try!" Devesh Sharma of "Filmfare" gave the movie 3/5 stars, concluding that "All-in-all, it's a nice urban romance. But again, this isn't how I would like to describe a Imtiaz-Homi collaboration. You expected something with a twist, what you get is a pat too sweet – a Bloody Mary without the Vodka." Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" gave the movie 3/5 stars, commenting that ""Cocktail" has just the right mix of fizz and flavour to allow the occasional and inevitable crinkles of triteness to flow well below the surface. It is definitely worth a visit to the multiplex." Vinayak Chakravarthy of "India Today" gave the movie 3/5 stars, concluding that "If "Cocktail" works, it is mainly for the characters Imtiaz has penned well as the cool with which the lead stars live them on screen." Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the movie 3/5 stars, saying that "On the whole, "COCKTAIL" has a fascinating first-half, charismatic performances, harmonious music and the trendy look and styling as its aces, but the second-half is not as tempting or intoxicating as the first hour. It pales when compared to the attention-grabbing first-hour. Yet, all said and done, this one's primarily targeted at the Gen Next, especially those in metros, who might identify with the on-screen characters." Blessy Chettiar of "DNA India" gave the movie 3/5 stars, stating that "You can't hate a film like "Cocktail" nor can you love it in totality. If you've liked Ali's storytelling before, there's no harm in catching it at least once. Cheers!"


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: "Bollywood Life" gave the movie 2.5/5 stars, stating that "As for the film – very niche, very easy on the eye and ear and a lot of the time, very fun." Kaushik L.M of "Behind Woods" gave the movie 2.5/5 stars, concluding that "The light-hearted fun and romance resurrect this cocktail." Shubhra Gupta of "Indian Express" gave the movie 2.5/5 stars, concluding that ""Cocktail" is nice while the fizz lasts." Roshni Devi of "Koimoi" gave the movie 2.5/5 stars, saying that ""Cocktail" is a nice and enjoyable movie for the dialogues, songs and performances. But the second-half is a real drag."


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Sonia Chopra of "Sify" gave the movie 2/5 stars, stating that "Drink this cocktail if you must; but be warned, the concoction isn't as appetizing as it looks!" "That's So Gloss!" echoed this criticism in a review, stating: "["Cocktail"] says it's okay when the guy does it, but when a lady does the same thing, she is immoral, and society must punish her in some way. A textbook example of a "double-standard"." Martin D'Souza of "GlamSham" gave the movie 2/5 stars, saying that "It's a "cocktail" alright, but one which lacks punch. A flat drink with no fizz and lots of salt at the rim of the glass which knocks you back with its sting." Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" gave the movie 2/5 stars, concluding that "I'm going with 2 out of 5 for director Homi Adajania's "Cocktail". With the right ingredients in the right proportions, this might have made for a smooth concoction. But "Cocktail" is a mostly-flat romance; one that could've done with more heart." Janhavi Samant of "MidDay" gave the movie 2/5 stars, stating that "There are people who love films about free-falling NRIs, who have jobs but never seem to work, who love the thrills of casual sex but only till they find a desi wife who will serve home-cooked food, and who can go to Cape Town from London for just a weekend, and whose biggest crisis is to decide if what they feel is 'true' love. But this critic ain't one of them." Suparna Sharma of "Deccan Chronicle" gave the movie 2/5 stars, commenting that ""Cocktail", because of its high sugar content, initially gives a heady rush, but leaves a bad hangover." Raja Sen of "Rediff" gave the movie 2/5 stars, commenting that "It's a pity, and not just because this could have been the great unconventional cinematic threesome we so desperately need. "Cocktail" has a handful of moments and a few genuine sparks, but finally crashes and burns so spectacularly that it's hard to focus on the positives. We must thank it, thus, for Diana Penty."


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: Kunal Guha of "Yahoo!" gave the movie 1.5/5 stars, stating that "One of the chief reasons why this "cocktail" fails to hit your sweet spot is because you don't empathize with any of the characters. There could be many reasons for this but to point one: none of them seem worthy of your attention and concern. Still keen to figure out who Saif ends up with? Why don’t you deduce it yourself like any mature adult would? I would recommend the scientific method used to pick item girls in films lately: Eenie Meenie…" Mayank Shekhar of "Daily Bhaskar" gave the movie 1.5/5 stars, concluding that "You feel worse for Saif aged 42. It's hard to tell how every woman he meets in the movie gets turned on by his random charms. The world is his playground. He still makes it seem vaguely convincing. Here's a big league actor at the top of his form. Look at his recent films: "Agent Vinod", "Aarakshan" (2011), "Kurbaan" (2009). Forget those films. Just check out his performances. He could do with much better movies. Surely. Seriously."


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: The film score for "Cocktail" was composed by Pritam, with lyrics by Irshad Kamil. The rights of a famous Pakistani Sufi song were bought for the film. "Alif Allah" (a celebration of Allah, Islamic prophet Muhammad and other Khalifs), originally sung and popularized by Pakistani Punjabi folk singer Arif Lohar, was revised.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: "Angreji Beat", a Punjabi song sung by Yo Yo Honey Singh and featuring Gippy Grewal, is also used in the title credits, as well as the trailer, though hasn't been included in the album. One of the songs "Main Sharaabi" has been composed by Singh and sung by Pritam. The background score is composed by Salim–Sulaiman.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: The music album of "Cocktail" received highly positive reviews. "Tumhi Ho Bandhu", "Daaru Desi" and "Second-Hand-Jawaani", which featured the 3 leads became chartbusters. "Tumhi Ho Bandhu" paved the way to #1 at the Radio-Mirchi Top-100 Countdown.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: "Cocktail" had an excellent opening of 75–80% on average at multiplexes and having bumper opening at many multiplexes of North India at around 100%. The film had a very good first day as it collected around nett on day 1. It showed good growth on Saturday as it collected nett. "Cocktail" had an extraordinary weekend at multiplexes than single screens as it notched up business of around nett from both. "Cocktail" held up well on Monday as it collected around nett "Cocktail" collected around nett on Tuesday . The business after 5 days is approx nett. "Cocktail" did good business in its first week as it collected nett approx at the domestic box office, making it the first multiplex-targeted film to cross the mark in the first week. "Cocktail" grossed nett approx in week 2. "Cocktail" fell badly in its third week due to new releases. The film has collected nett in 3 weeks. It was declared a box-office hit. In the domestic market, its final figures came at . The film's final all-India distributor share was


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: "Cocktail" opened well in overseas markets. The opening collections was around $2.6 million. "Cocktail" dropped in its second weekend and has grossed in 10 days. The film eventually collected US$4.50 million overseas.


title: Cocktail (2012 film)

text: "Cocktail" was released on DVD and VCD by Eros International on 13 September 2012. The DVD is a 2-Disc edition, having Bonus Features on a separate DVD along with. The Blu-ray of "Cocktail" was released on 29 September 2012, again a 2-Disc edition (Blu-ray + DVD) with Bonus Features on the DVD. The film is also made available on Eros Now


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog synthesizer is a modular synthesizer developed by the American engineer Robert Moog. Moog debuted it in 1964, and Moog's company R. A. Moog Co. (later known as Moog Music) produced numerous models from 1965 to 1981, and again from 2014. It was the first commercial synthesizer, and is credited with creating the analog synthesizer as it is known today.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog synthesizer consists of separate modules which create and shape sounds, which are connected via patch cords. Modules include voltage-controlled oscillators, amplifiers, filters, envelope generators, noise generators, ring modulators, triggers, and mixers. The synthesizer can be played using controllers including keyboards, joysticks, pedals, and ribbon controllers, or controlled with sequencers. Its oscillators can produce waveforms of different timbres, which can be modulated and filtered to shape their sounds (subtractive synthesis).


title: Moog synthesizer

text: By 1963, Robert Moog had been designing and selling theremins for several years. He developed his synthesizer in response to demand for more practical and affordable electronic music equipment, guided by suggestions and requests from composers including Herb Deutsch, Richard Teitelbaum, Vladimir Ussachevsky, and Wendy Carlos. Moog's principal innovation was the voltage-controlled oscillator, which uses voltage to control pitch. He also introduced fundamental synthesizer concepts such as modularity and envelope generators.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog synthesizer was brought to the mainstream by "Switched-On Bach" (1968), a bestselling album of Bach compositions arranged for Moog synthesizer by Wendy Carlos. In the late 1960s, it was adopted by rock and pop acts including the Doors, the Grateful Dead, the Rolling Stones, and the Beatles. At its height of popularity, it was a staple of 1970s progressive rock, used by acts including Yes, Tangerine Dream, and Emerson, Lake & Palmer. With its ability to imitate instruments such as strings and horns, it threatened the jobs of session musicians, and was banned from use in commercial work for a period. In 1970, Moog Music released a portable, self-contained model, the Minimoog.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: In the early 1960s, electronic music technology was impractical and used mainly by experimental composers to create music with little mainstream appeal. In 1963, the American engineer Robert Moog, a doctoral student at Cornell University who designed and sold theremins, met the composer Herb Deutsch at a New York State School Music Association trade fair in Rochester, New York. Deutsch had been making electronic music using a theremin, tape recorder, and single-pitch oscillator, a time-consuming process that involved splicing tape. Recognizing the need for more practical and sophisticated equipment, Moog and Deutsch discussed the notion of a "portable electronic music studio".


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Moog received a grant of $16,000 from the New York State Small Business Association and began work in Trumansburg, New York, not far from the Cornell campus. At the time, synthesizer-like instruments filled rooms; Moog hoped to build a more compact instrument that would appeal to musicians. Learning from his experience building a prohibitively expensive guitar amplifier, he believed that practicality and affordability were the most important parameters.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Previous synthesizers, such as the RCA Mark II, had created sound from hundreds of vacuum tubes. Instead, Moog used recently available silicon transistors — specifically, transistors with an exponential relationship between input voltage and output current. With these, he created the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), which generated a waveform whose pitch could be adjusted by changing the voltage. Moog designed his synthesizer around a standard of one volt per octave. Similarly, he used voltage to control loudness with voltage-controlled amplifiers (VCAs).


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Moog developed a prototype with two VCOs and a VCA. As the VCOs themselves could output voltage, one could be used to modulate the output of another, creating effects such as vibrato and tremolo. According to Moog, when Deutsch saw this, he "went through the roof" and immediately began making music with the prototype, attracting the interest of passersby: "They would stand there, they'd listen and they'd shake their heads ... What is this weird shit coming out of the basement?"In 1964, Moog and Deutsch demonstrated the synthesizer at the electronic music studio at the University of Toronto. After the presentation impressed the composers, Moog was invited by the Audio Engineering Society to present at their annual convention in New York that October. Though he had not planned to sell synthesizers there, some customers placed orders at the show. The choreographer Alwin Nikolais became the first person to purchase a commercially made Moog synthesizer. Moog constructed synthesizers to order. The first order for a complete Moog synthesizer, for which Moog had to design a keyboard and cabinet, came from the composer Eric Siday. With no Moog books and no way to save or share settings, early users had to learn how to use the synthesizer themselves, by word of mouth, or from seminars held by Moog and Deutsch.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Moog refined the synthesizer in response to requests from musicians and composers. For example, after Deutsch suggested Moog find a way to fade notes in and out, Moog invented an envelope module, using a doorbell button as a prototype. At the suggestion of the composer Gustav Ciamaga, Moog developed a filter module, a means of removing frequencies from waveforms. His first filter design created a sound similar to a wah-wah pedal; he later developed the distinctive "ladder" filter, which was the only item in the synthesizer design that Moog patented, granted on October 28, 1969. Further developments were driven by suggestions from musicians including Richard Teitelbaum, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Wendy Carlos; Carlos suggested the first touch-sensitive keyboard, portamento control and filter bank, which became standard features.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: There was debate as to the role of the keyboard in synthesizers. Some, such as the composer Vladimir Ussachevsky and Moog's competitor Don Buchla, felt they were restrictive. However, Moog recognized that most customers wanted keyboards and found they made the instrument more approachable. Including keyboards in photographs helped users understand that the synthesizer was for making music.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The classical meaning of "to synthesize" is to assemble a whole out of parts. Moog initially avoided the word, as it was associated with the RCA synthesizer, and instead described his invention as a "system" of "electronic music modules". After many debates, Moog eventually told the composer Reynold Weidenaar: "It's a synthesizer and that's what it does and we're just going to have to go with it." Moog used the word in print for the first time in 1966. By the 1970s, "synthesizer" had become the standard term for such instruments.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Most of the Moog modules were finalized by the end of the 1960s, and remained mostly unchanged until Moog Music ceased trading in the 1980s. Moog had pursued the development of his synthesizer as a hobby; he stressed that he was not a businessman, and had not known what a balance sheet was. He likened the experience to riding theme park amusements: "You know you're not going to get hurt too badly because nobody would let you do that, but you're not quite in control."


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog synthesizer consists of separate modules – such as oscillators, amplifiers, envelope generators, filters, noise generators, ring modulators, triggers and mixers – which can be connected in a variety of ways via patch cords. The modules can also be used to control each other. They do not produce sound until a workable combination of modules are connected.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The oscillators produce waveforms of different tones and overtones, such as a "bright, full, brassy" sawtooth wave, a thinner, flute-like triangle wave, a "nasal, reedy" pulse wave, and a "whistle-like" sine wave. These waveforms can be modulated and filtered to produce more combinations of sounds (subtractive synthesis). The oscillators are difficult to keep in tune, and small temperature changes cause them to drift rapidly. As Moog's early customers were more interested in creating experimental music than playing conventional melodies, Moog did not consider keeping the oscillators stable a priority.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog's 24db low-pass filter is particularly distinctive, with a "rich", "juicy", "fat" sound. The filter, based on pairs of transistors connected by capacitors arranged in a ladder-like layout, attenuates frequencies above a level set by the user, and boosts the frequencies around the cut-off frequency. When overdriven, the filter produces a distinctive distortion described as the "Moog sound".


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The synthesizer can be played using controllers including keyboards, joysticks, pedals and ribbon controllers. The ribbon controller allows users to control pitch similarly to moving a finger along a violin string.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog was much smaller than previous synthesizers, and much cheaper, at US$10,000 compared to the six-figure sums of other synthesizers. Whereas the RCA Mark II was programmed with punchcards, Moog's synthesizer could be played in real time via keyboard, making it attractive to musicians. "New Scientist" described it as the first commercial synthesizer.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: According to the "Guardian", Moog's 1964 paper "Voltage-Controlled Music Modules", in which he proposed the Moog synthesizer modules, invented the modern concept of the analog synthesizer. The authors of "Analog Days" wrote: "Though the notion of voltage control and Moog's circuit designs were not original, Moog's innovations were in drawing the elements together, realizing that the problem of exponential conversion could be solved using transistor circuitry and building such circuits and making them work in a way that was of interest to musicians."


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Most Moog synthesizers were owned by universities or record labels, and used to create soundtracks or jingles; by 1970, only 28 were owned by musicians. The Moog was first used by experimental composers including Richard Teitelbaum, Dick Hyman, and Perrey and Kingsley. In 1968, Wendy Carlos released "Switched-On Bach," an album of Bach compositions arranged for Moog synthesizer. It won three Grammy Awards and was the first classical album certified platinum. The album is credited for popularising the Moog and demonstrating that synthesizers could be more than "random noise machines". For a period, the name Moog became so associated with electronic music that it was sometimes used as a generic term for any synthesizer. Moog liked this, but disapproved of the numerous "cruddy" novelty records released with his name attached, such as "Music to Moog By," "Moog Espana" and "Moog Power".


title: Moog synthesizer

text: An early use in rock music came with the 1967 Monkees album "Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd." In the same year, the Doors used a Moog synthesizer on their song "Strange Days". In 1969, George Harrison released an album of Moog recordings, "Electronic Sound", and that year the Moog appeared on the Beatles album "Abbey Road" on tracks including "Because", "Here Comes the Sun" and "Maxwell's Silver Hammer". Other rock bands who adopted the Moog include the Grateful Dead and the Rolling Stones. It was also adopted by jazz musicians including Herbie Hancock, Jan Hammer and Sun Ra.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: In the 1970s, at the height of the Moog's popularity, it became ubiquitous as part of progressive rock bands such as Yes, Tangerine Dream, and Emerson, Lake & Palmer. Keith Emerson was the first major rock musician to perform live with the Moog, and it became a trademark of his performances; according to "Analog Days", the likes of Emerson "did for the keyboard what Jimi Hendrix did for the guitar". Almost every element of Donna Summer's 1977 influential song "I Feel Love" was created with a Moog synthesizer, with the producers aiming to creating a futuristic mood. Robert Moog was critical, saying the sequenced bassline had a "certain sterility" and that Summer sounded like she was "fighting the sequencer". In later decades, hip hop groups such as the Beastie Boys and rock bands including They Might Be Giants and Wilco "revived an interest in the early Moog synthesizer timbres".


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The "Guardian" wrote that the Moog synthesizer, with its dramatically new sounds, arrived at a time in American history when, in the wake of the Vietnam War, "nearly everything about the old order was up for revision". With their ability to somewhat imitate instruments such as strings and horns, synthesizers were believed to threaten the jobs of session musicians. For a period, the Moog was banned from use in commercial work, a restriction negotiated by the American Federation of Musicians (AFM). Robert Moog felt that the AFM had not realized that the synthesizer was an instrument to be learnt and mastered like any other, and instead imagined that "all the sounds that musicians could make somehow existed in the Moog — all you had to do was push a button that said 'Jascha Heifetz' and out would come the most fantastic violin player".


title: Moog synthesizer

text: Moog features such as voltage-controlled oscillator, envelopes, noise generators, filters and sequencers became standards in the synthesizer market. The ladder filter has been replicated in hardware synthesizers, digital signal processors, field-programmable gate arrays and software synthesizers.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: In 1970, Moog Music released the Minimoog, a portable, self-contained model, and the modular systems became a secondary part of Moog's business. The Minimoog has been described as the most famous and influential synthesizer in history.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: After the sale of Moog Music, production of Moog synthesizers stopped in the early 1980s. The patents and other rights to Moog's modular circuits expired in the 1990s. In 2002, after Robert Moog regained the rights to the Moog brand and bought the company, Moog released the Minimoog Voyager, an updated version. From 2016 to 2017, Moog reissued the original Minimoog with some changes. In 2018, Moog released the Grandmother, followed by the Matriarch in 2019; parts of the circuitry used in these instruments were inspired by the Moog synthesizer.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: After production of the original Moog synthesizers stopped in 1980, some manufacturers, such as Synthesizers.com, have created their own modules and clones of Moog modules. Moog modules, known as the "dotcom" or "5U" format, are the dominant synthesizer format used today, along with Eurorack. Since 2020, Behringer has manufactured clones of Moog modules in the Eurorack format, also sold in configurations based on the original Moog systems.


title: Moog synthesizer

text: The Moog synthesizer has been emulated in software synthesizers such as the Arturia Modular V. In 2016, Moog released the Moog Model 15 app, a software emulation of the Model 15 initially for iOS and later in 2021 for macOS.


title: Simple Kapadia

text: Simple Kapadia (15 August 1958 – 10 November 2009) was a Hindi film actress and costume designer, who was active in her professional career from 1987 until her death in 2009.


title: Simple Kapadia

text: Simple was born on 15 August 1958 to parents Chunnibhai and Betty Kapadia. She was raised alongside 3 siblings - elder sister Dimple Kapadia, younger sister Reem Kapadia (who died of drug overuse) and Suhail (Munna) Kapadia. She had a son Karan Kapadia with Rajinder Singh Shetty and was the aunt of Twinkle Khanna and Rinke Khanna.


title: Simple Kapadia

text: Simple Kapadia made her acting debut in 1977 at the age of 18 in the role of Sumitha Mathur in the film "Anurodh", with her brother-in-law, actor Rajesh Khanna. She starred opposite Jeetendra in "Shakka" and "Chakravyuha."


title: Simple Kapadia

text: She played supporting roles in "Lootmaar", "Zamaane Ko Dikhana Hai", "Jeevan Dhaara" and "Dulha Bikta Hai". In 1985 she starred in the art film "Rehguzar" opposite Shekhar Suman. Her last acting gig was an item song for "Parakh" in 1987.


title: Simple Kapadia

text: After her final acting gig, she became a costume designer, and designed for actors including Sunny Deol, Tabu, Amrita Singh, Sridevi and Priyanka Chopra.


title: Simple Kapadia

text: In 1994 she won a National Award for her costume design in "Rudaali". She later designed for Indian movies including "Rok Sako To Rok Lo" and "Shaheed".


title: Simple Kapadia

text: Simple Kapadia was diagnosed with cancer in 2006, but continued working despite the pain. She died in a hospital in Andheri, Mumbai on 10 November 2009, aged 51.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The northern goshawk (; Accipiter gentilis) is a species of medium-large raptor in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus "Accipiter", the goshawk is often considered a "true hawk". The scientific name is Latin; "Accipiter" is "hawk", from "accipere", "to grasp", and "gentilis" is "noble" or "gentle" because in the Middle Ages only the nobility were permitted to fly goshawks for falconry.


title: Northern goshawk

text: It is a widespread species that inhabits many of the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The northern goshawk is the only species in the genus "Accipiter" found in both Eurasia and North America. It may have the second widest distribution of any true member of the family Accipitridae, behind arguably only the golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"), which has a broader range to the south of Asia than the goshawk. The only other acciptrid species to also range in both North America and Eurasia, according to current opinion, is the more Arctic-restricted rough-legged buzzard ("Buteo lagopus"). Except in a small portion of southern Asia, it is the only species of "goshawk" in its range and it is thus often referred to, both officially and unofficially, as simply the "goshawk". It is mainly resident, but birds from colder regions migrate south for the winter. In North America, migratory goshawks are often seen migrating south along mountain ridge tops at nearly any time of the fall depending on latitude.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The northern goshawk has a large circumpolar distribution. In Eurasia, it is found in most areas of Europe excluding Ireland and Iceland. It has a fairly spotty distribution in western Europe (e.g. Great Britain, Spain, France) but is more or less found continuously through the rest of the continent. Their Eurasian distribution sweeps continuously across most of Russia, excluding the fully treeless tundra in the northern stretches, to the western limits of Siberia as far as Anadyr and Kamchatka. In the Eastern Hemisphere, they are found in their southern limits in extreme northwestern Morocco, Corsica and Sardinia, the "toe" of Italy, southern Greece, Turkey, the Caucasus, Sinkiang's Tien Shan, in some parts of Tibet and the Himalayas (India and Nepal), western China and Japan. In winter, northern goshawks may be found rarely as far south as Taif in Saudi Arabia and perhaps Tonkin, Vietnam.


title: Northern goshawk

text: In North America, they are most broadly found in the western United States, including Alaska, and western Canada. Their breeding range in the western contiguous United States largely consists of the wooded foothills of the Rocky Mountains and many other large mountain ranges from Washington to southern California extending east to central Colorado and westernmost Texas. Somewhat discontinuous breeding populations are found in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, thence also somewhat spottily into western Mexico down through Sonora and Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental as far as Jalisco and Guerrero, their worldwide southern limit as a breeding species.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The goshawk continues east through much of Canada as a native species, but is rarer in most of the eastern United States, especially the Midwest where they are not typically found outside the Great Lakes region, where a good-sized breeding population occurs in the northern parts of Minnesota, Illinois, Michigan and somewhat into Ohio; a very small population persists in the extreme northeast corner of North Dakota. They breed also in mountainous areas of New England, New York, central Pennsylvania and northwestern New Jersey, sporadically down to extreme northwestern Maryland and northeastern West Virginia. Vagrants have been reported in Ireland, North Africa (central Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt); the Arabian Peninsula (Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia), southwest Asia (southern Iran, Pakistan), western India (Gujarat) and on Izu-shoto (south of Japan) and the Commander Islands, and in most of the parts of the United States where they do not breed.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Northern goshawks can be found in both deciduous and coniferous forests. While the species might show strong regional preferences for certain trees, they seem to have no strong overall preferences nor even a preference between deciduous or coniferous trees despite claims to the contrary. More important than the type of trees are the composition of a given tree stand, which should be tall, old-growth with intermediate to heavy canopy coverage (often more than 40%) and minimal density undergrowth, both of which are favorable for hunting conditions. Also, goshawks typically require proximity to openings in which to execute additional hunting. More so than in North America, the goshawks of Eurasia, especially central Europe, may live in fairly urbanized patchworks of small woods, shelter-belts and copses and even use largely isolated trees in central parts of Eurasian cities. Even if they are far more wary of human presence than the Eurasian sparrowhawk, northern goshhawks are known to live in some relatively densely wooded areas of large cities of Central Europe, such as Berlin and Hamburg; it is a relatively new phenomenon that started in the 20th century. Access to waterways and riparian zones of any kind is not uncommon in goshawk home ranges but seems to not be a requirement. Narrow tree-lined riparian zones in otherwise relatively open habitats can provide suitable wintering habitat in the absence of more extensive woodlands. The northern goshawk can be found at almost any altitude, but recently is typically found at high elevations due to a paucity of extensive forests remaining in lowlands across much of its range. Altitudinally, goshawks may live anywhere up to a given mountain range's tree line, which is usually in elevation or less. The northern limit of their distribution also coincides with the tree line and here may adapt to dwarf tree communities, often along drainages of the lower tundra. In winter months, the northernmost or high mountain populations move down to warmer forests with lower elevations, often continuing to avoid detection except while migrating. A majority of goshawks around the world remain sedentary throughout the year.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The northern goshawk has relatively short, broad wings and a long tail, typical for "Accipiter" species and common to raptors that require maneuverability within forest habitats. For an "Accipiter", it has a relatively sizeable bill, relatively long wings, a relatively short tail, robust and fairly short legs and particularly thick toes. Across most of the species' range, it is blue-grey above or brownish-grey with dark barring or streaking over a grey or white base color below, but Asian subspecies in particular range from nearly white overall to nearly black above. Goshawks tend to show clinal variation in color, with most goshawks further north being paler and those in warmer areas being darker but individuals can be either dark in the north or pale in the south. Individuals that live a long life may gradually become paler as they age, manifesting in mottling and a lightening of the back from a darker shade to a bluer pale color. Its plumage is more variable than that of the Eurasian sparrowhawk ("Accipiter nisus"), which is probably due to higher genetic variability in the larger goshawk. The juvenile northern goshawk is usually a solid to mildly streaky brown above, with many variations in underside color from nearly pure white to almost entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars. Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds. In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well. In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish eye color. Moulting starts between late March and late May, the male tends to moult later and faster than the female. Moulting results in the female being especially likely to have a gap in its wing feathers while incubating and this may cause some risk, especially if the male is lost, as it inhibits her hunting abilities and may hamper her defensive capabilities, putting both herself and the nestlings in potential danger of predation. The moult takes a total of 4–6 months, with tail feathers following the wings then lastly the contour and body feathers, which may not be completely moulted even as late as October.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Although existing wing size and body mass measurements indicate that the Henst's goshawk ("Accipiter henstii") and Meyer's goshawk ("Accipiter meyerianus") broadly overlap in size with this species, the northern goshawk is on average the largest member of the genus "Accipiter", especially outsizing its tropic cousins in the larger Eurasian races. The northern goshawk, like all "Accipiters", exhibits sexual dimorphism, where females are significantly larger than males, with the dimorphism notably greater in most parts of Eurasia. Linearly, males average about 8% smaller in North America and 13% smaller than females in Eurasia, but in the latter landmass can range up to a very noticeable 28% difference in extreme cases. Male northern goshawks are long and have a wingspan. The female is much larger, long with a wingspan. In a study of North American goshawks ("A. g. atricapillus"), males were found to average in total length, against females which averaged . Males from six subspecies average around in body mass, with a range from all races of . The female can be up to more than twice as heavy, averaging from the same races with an overall range of . Among standard measurements, the most oft-measured is wing chord which can range from in males and from in females. Additional, the tail is , the culmen is and the tarsus is .


title: Northern goshawk

text: Northern goshawks normally only vocalize during courtship or the nesting season. Adult goshawks may chatter a repeated note, varying in speed and volume based on the context. When calling from a perch, birds often turn their heads slowly from side to side, producing a ventriloquial effect. The male calls a fast, high-pitched "kew-kew-kew" when delivering food or else a very different croaking "guck" or "chup". The latter sound has been considered by some authors similar to that of a person snapping the tongue away from the roof the mouth; the males produce it by holding the beak wide open, thrusting the head up and forward, then bringing it down as the sound is emitted, repeated at intervals of five seconds. This call is uttered when the male encounters a female. Two calls have been recorded mainly from brooding females in the race "A. g. atricapillus": a recognition scream of short, intense notes ("whee-o" or "hee-ya") which ends in harsh, falsetto tone; then a dismissal call given when the male lingers after delivering food, consisting of a choked, cut-off scream. Meanwhile, the adult female's rapid strident "kek-kek-kek" expresses alarm or intent to mob towards threatening intruders. This is often done when mobbing a predator such as a great horned owl ("Bubo virginianus") and as it progresses the female's voice may lower slightly in pitch and becomes harsh and rasping. As the intensity of her attacks increases, her kakking becomes more rapid and can attain a constant screaming quality. Females often withdraw into the treetops when fatigued, and their calls are then spaced at longer intervals. Males respond to interlopers or predators with a quieter, slower "gek gek gek" or "ep ep ep". A call consisting of "kek…kek.kekk kek kek-kek-kek" is used mainly by females in advertisement and during pre-laying mutual calling. Both sexes also may engage in kakking during copulation. Vocalizations mainly peak in late courtship/early nesting around late March to April, can begin up to 45 minutes before sunrise, and are more than twice in as frequent in the first three hours of daylight as in the rest of the day. Occasionally hunting northern goshawks may make shrill screams when pursuing prey, especially if a lengthy chase is undertaken and the prey is already aware of its intended predator.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The juvenile plumage of the species may cause some confusion, especially with other "Accipiter" juveniles. Unlike other northern "Accipiters", the adult northern goshawk never has a rusty color to its underside barring. In Eurasia, the smaller male goshawk is sometimes confused with a female sparrowhawk, but is still notably larger, much bulkier and has relatively longer wings, which are more pointed and less boxy. Sparrowhawks tend to fly in a frequently flapping, fluttering type flight. Wing beats of northern goshawks are deeper, more deliberate, and on average slower than those of the Eurasian sparrowhawk or the two other North American "Accipiters". The classic "Accipiter" flight is a characteristic "flap flap, glide", but the goshawk, with its greater wing area, can sometimes be seen steadily soaring in migration (smaller "Accipiters" almost always need to flap to stay aloft). In North America juveniles are sometimes confused with the smaller Cooper's hawk ("Accipiter cooperii"), especially between small male goshawks and large female Cooper's hawks. Unlike in Europe with sparrowhawks, Cooper's hawks can have a largish appearance and juveniles may be regularly mistaken for the usually less locally numerous goshawk. However, the juvenile goshawk displays a heavier, vertical streaking pattern on chest and abdomen, with the juvenile Cooper's hawk streaking frequently (but not always) in a “teardrop” pattern wherein the streaking appears to taper at the top, as opposed to the more even streaking of the goshawk. The goshawk sometimes seems to have a shorter tail relative to its much broader body. Although there appears to be a size overlap between small male goshawks and large female Cooper's hawks, morphometric measurements (wing and tail length) of both species demonstrate no such overlap, although weight overlap can rarely occur due to variation in seasonal condition and food intake at time of weighing. Rarely, in the southern stretches of its Asian wintering range, the northern goshawk may live alongside the crested goshawk ("Accipiter trivirgatus") which is smaller (roughly Cooper's hawk-sized) and has a slight crest as well as a distinct mixture of denser streaks and bars below and no supercilia.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Northern goshawks are sometimes mistaken for species even outside of the genus "Accipiter" especially as juveniles of each respective species. In North America, four species of buteonine hawk (all four of which are smaller than goshawks to a certain degree) may be confused with them on occasion despite the differing proportions of these hawks, which all have longer wings and shorter tails relative to their size. A species so similar it is sometimes nicknamed the "Mexican goshawk", gray hawk ("Buteo plagiatus") juveniles (overlapping with true goshawks in the southwest United States into Mexico) have contrasting face pattern with bold dusky eye-stripes, dark eyes, barred thighs and a bold white "U" on the uppertail coverts. The roadside hawk ("Rupornis magnirostris") (rarely in same range in Mexico) is noticeably smaller with paddle-shaped wings, barred lower breast and a buff “U” on undertail coverts in young birds. Somewhat less likely to confuse despite their broader extent of overlap are the red-shouldered hawk ("Buteo lineatus") which have a narrow white-barred, dark-looking tail, bold white crescents on their primaries and dark wing edges and the broad-winged hawk ("Buteo playpterus") which also has dark wing edges and a differing tapered wing shape. Even wintering gyrfalcon ("Falco rusticolus") juveniles have been mistaken for goshawks and vice versa on occasion, especially when observed distantly perched. However, the bulkier, broader headed yet relatively shorter tailed falcon still has many tell-tale falcon characteristics like pointed, longer wings, a brown malar stripe as well as its more extensive barring both above and below.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The genus "Accipiter" contains nearly 50 known living species and is the most diverse genus of diurnal raptors in the world. This group of agile, smallish, forest-dwelling hawks has been in existence for possibly tens of millions of years, probably as an adaptation to the explosive numbers of small birds that began to occupy the world's forest in the last few eras. The harriers are the only group of extant diurnal raptors that seem to bear remotely close relation to this genus, whereas buteonines, Old World kites, sea eagles and chanting-goshawks are much more distantly related and all other modern accipitrids are not directly related.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Within the genus "Accipiter", the northern goshawk seems to belong to a superspecies with other larger goshawks from different portions of the world. Meyer's goshawk, found in the South Pacific, has been posited as the most likely to be most close related living cousin to the northern goshawk, the somewhat puzzling gap in their respective ranges explained by other Palearctic raptors such as Bonelli's eagles ("Aquila fasciata") and short-toed eagles ("Circaetus gallicus") that have extant isolated tropical island populations and were probably part of the same southwest Pacific radiation that led to the Meyer's goshawk. A presumably older radiation of this group occurred in Africa, where it led to both the Henst's goshawk of Madagascar and the black sparrowhawk ("Accipiter melanoleucus") of the mainland. While the Henst's goshawk quite resembles the northern goshawks, the black sparrowhawk is superficially described as a “sparrowhawk” due to its relatively much longer and finer legs than those of typical goshawks but overall its size and plumage (especially that of juveniles) is much more goshawk than sparrowhawk-like.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Outside of the presumed superspecies, the genus "Erythrotriorchis" may be part of an Australasian radiation of basal goshawks based largely on their similar morphology to northern goshawks. Genetic studies have indicated that the Cooper's hawk of North America is also fairly closely related to the northern goshawk, having been present in North America before either of the other two North American "Accipiters". However, the much smaller sharp-shinned hawk, which has similar plumage to the Cooper's hawk and seems to be most closely related to the Eurasian sparrowhawk, appears to have occupied North America the latest of the three North American species, despite having the broadest current distribution of any "Accipiter" in the Americas (extending down through much of South America).


title: Northern goshawk

text: The northern goshawk appears to have diversified in northern, central Eurasia and spread both westwards to occupy Europe and, later on, eastwards to spread into North America across the Bering Land Bridge. Fossil remains show that goshawks were present in California by the Pleistocene era. Two non-exclusive processes could have occurred to cause the notably color and size variation of northern goshawks throughout its range: isolation in the past enabled gene combinations to assort as distinct morphs that suited conditions in different geographical areas, followed by a remixing of these genotypes to result in clines, or subtle variation in modern selection pressures led to a diversity of hues and patterns. As a result of the high variation of individual goshawks in plumage characteristics and typical trends in clinal variation and size variations that largely follow Bergmann's rule and Gloger's rule, an excessive number of subspecies have been described for the northern goshawk in the past. In Europe (including European Russia) alone, 12 subspecies were described between 1758 and 1990. Most modern authorities agree on listing nine to ten subspecies of northern goshawks from throughout its range.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The northern goshawk is always found solitarily or in pairs. This species is highly territorial as are most raptorial birds, maintaining regularly spaced home ranges that constitute their territory. Territories are maintained by adults in display flights. During nesting, the home ranges of goshawk pairs are from and these vicinities tend to be vigorously defended both to maintain rights to their nests and mates as well as the ranges’ prey base. During display flight goshawks may engage in single or mutual high-circling. Each sex tends to defend the territory from others of their own sex. Territorial flights may occur almost through the year, but peak from January to April. Such flights may include slow-flapping with exaggerated high deep beats interspersed with long glides and undulations. In general, territorial fights are resolved without physical contact, often with one (usually a younger bird seeking a territory) retreats while the other approaches in a harrier-like warning flight, flashing its white underside at the intruder. If the incoming goshawk does not leave the vicinity, the defending goshawk may increase the exaggerated quality of its flight including a mildly undulating wave-formed rowing flight and the rowing flight with its neck held in a heron-like S to elevate the head and maximally expose the pale breast as a territorial threat display. Territorial skirmishes may on occasion escalate to physical fights in which mortalities may occur. In actual fights, goshawks fall grappling to the ground as they attempt to strike each other with talons.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Although at times considered rather sedentary for a northern raptor species, the northern goshawk is a partial migrant. Migratory movements generally occur between September and November (occasionally extending throughout December) in the fall and February to April in the spring. Spring migration is less extensive and more poorly known than fall migration, but seems to peak late March to early April. Some birds up to as far north as northern Canada and central Scandinavia may remain on territory throughout the winter. Northern goshawks from northern Fennoscandia have been recorded traveling up to away from first banding but adults seldom are recorded more than from their summer range. In Sweden, young birds distributed an average of in the north to an average of in the south. In northern Sweden, young generally disperse somewhat south, whereas in south and central Sweden, they typically distributed to the south (but not usually across the 5-km Kattegat straits). On the other hand, 4.3% of the southern Swedish goshawks actually moved north. Migrating goshawks seem to avoid crossing water, but sparrowhawks seems to be able to do so more regularly. In central Europe, few birds travel more than throughout the year, a few juveniles have exceptionally been recorded traveling up to . In Eurasia, very small numbers of migratory northern goshawks cross the Strait of Gibraltar and Bosporus in autumn but further east more significant winter range expansions may extend from northern Iran & southern Turkmenia to Aral & Balkhash lakes, from Kashmir to Assam, extreme northwestern Thailand, northern Vietnam, southern China, Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands and South Korea. Migratory goshawks in North America may move down to Baja California, Sinaloa and into most of west Texas, but generally in non-irruptive years, goshawks winter no further south than Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. Some periodic eruptions to nearly as far as the Gulf of Mexico have been recorded at no fewer than 10 years apart. In one case, a female that was banded in Wisconsin was recovered in Louisiana, a first ever record of the species in that state.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Prey availability may primarily dictate the proportion of goshawk populations that migrate and the selection of wintering areas, followed by the presence of snow which may aid prey capture in the short-term but in the long-term is likely to cause higher goshawk mortality. Showing the high variability of migratory movements, in one study of winter movements of adult female goshawks that bred in high-elevation forests of Utah, about 36% migrated to the general south, 22% migrated farther than that distance, 8.3% migrated less far, 2.7% went north instead of south and 31% stayed throughout winter on their breeding territory. Irruptive movements seem to occur for northern populations, i.e. those of the boreal forests in North America, Scandinavia, and possibly Siberia, with more equal sex ratio of movement and a strong southward tendency of movements in years where prey such as hares and grouse crash. Male young goshawks tend to disperse farther than females, which is unusual in birds, including raptors. It has been speculated that larger female juveniles displace male juveniles, forcing them to disperse farther, to the incidental benefit of the species’ genetic diversity. In Cedar Grove, Wisconsin, there were more than twice as many juvenile males than females recorded migrating. At the hawk watch at Cape May Point State Park in New Jersey, few adult males and no adult females have been recorded in fall migration apart from irruptive years, indicating that migration is more important to juveniles. More juveniles were recorded migrating than adults in several years of study from Sweden. In northern "Accipiters" including the goshawk, there seems to be multiple peaks in numbers of migrants, an observation that suggests partial segregation by age and sex.


title: Northern goshawk

text: As typical of the genus "Accipiter" (as well as unrelated forest-dwelling raptors of various lineages), the northern goshawk has relatively short wings and a long tail which make it ideally adapted to engaging in brief but agile and twisting hunting flights through dense vegetation of wooded environments. This species is a powerful hunter, taking birds and mammals in a variety of woodland habitats, often utilizing a combination of speed and obstructing cover to ambush their victims. Goshawks often forage in adjoining habitat types, such as the edge of a forest and meadow. Hunting habitat can be variable, as in a comparison of habitats used in England found that only 8% of landscapes used were woodlands whereas in Sweden 73-76% of the habitat used was woodland, albeit normally within of an opening. In North America, goshawks are generally rather more likely than those from Eurasia to hunt within the confines of mature forest, excluding areas where prey numbers are larger outside of the forest, such as where scrub-dwelling cottontails are profuse. One study from central Sweden found that locally goshawks typically hunt within the largest patches of mature forests, selecting second growth forest less than half as often as its prevalence in the local environment. The northern goshawk is typically considered a perch-hunter. Hunting efforts are punctuated by a series of quick flights low to the ground, interspersed with brief periods of scanning for unsuspecting prey from elevated perches (short duration sit-and-wait predatory movements). These flights are meant to be inconspicuous, averaging about 83 seconds in males and 94 seconds in females, and prey pursuits may be abandoned if the victims become aware of the goshawk too quickly. More sporadically, northern goshawks may watch from prey from a high soar or gliding flight above the canopy. One study in Germany found an exceptional 80% of hunting efforts to be done from a high soar but the author admitted that he was probably biased by the conspicuousness of this method. In comparison, a study from Great Britain found that 95% of hunting efforts were from perches. A strong bias for pigeons as prey and a largely urbanized environment in Germany explains the local prevalence of hunting from a soaring flight, as the urban environment provides ample thermals and obstructing tall buildings which are ideal for hunting pigeons on the wing.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Northern goshawks rarely vary from their perch-hunting style that typifies the initial part of their hunt but seems to be able to show nearly endless variation to the concluding pursuit. Hunting goshawks seem to not only utilize thick vegetation to block them from view for their prey (as typical of "Accipiters") but, while hunting flying birds, they seem to be able to adjust their flight level so the prey is unable to see its hunter past their own tails. Once a prey item is selected, a short tail-chase may occur. The northern goshawk is capable of considerable, sustained, horizontal speed in pursuit of prey with speeds of reported. While pursuing prey, northern goshawks has been described both “reckless” and “fearless", able to pursue their prey through nearly any conditions. There are various times goshawks have been observed going on foot to pursue prey, at times running without hesitation (in a crow-like, but more hurried gait) into dense thickets and brambles (especially in pursuit of galliforms trying to escape), as well as into water (i.e. usually waterfowl). Anecdotal cases have been reported when goshawks have pursue domestic prey into barns and even houses. Prey pursuits may become rather prolonged depending upon the goshawk's determination and hunger, ranging up to 15 minutes while harrying a terrified, agile squirrel or hare, and occasional pair hunting may benefit goshawks going after agile prey. As is recorded in many accipitrids, hunting in pairs (or “tandem hunting”) normally consist of a breeding pair, with one bird flying conspicuously to distract the prey, while the other swoops in from behind to ambush the victim. When gliding down from a perch to capture prey, a goshawk may not even beat its wings, rendering its flight nearly silent. Prey is killed by driving the talons into the quarry and squeezing while the head is held back to avoid flailing limbs, frequently followed by a kneading action until the prey stops struggling. Kills are normally consumed on the ground by juvenile or non-breeding goshawks (more rarely an elevated perch or old nest) or taken to a low perch by breeding goshawks. Habitual perches are used for dismantling prey especially in the breeding season, often called “plucking perches", which may be fallen logs, bent-over trees, stumps or rocks and can see years of usage. Northern goshawks often leave larger portions of their prey uneaten than other raptors, with limbs, many feathers and fur and other body parts strewn near kill sites and plucking perches, and are helpful to distinguish their kills from other raptors such as large owls, who usually eat everything. The daily food requirements of a single goshawks are around and most kills can feed a goshawk for 1 to 3 days. Northern goshawks sometimes cache prey on tree branches or wedged in a crotch between branches for up to 32 hours. This is done primarily during the nestling stage. Hunting success rates have been very roughly estimated at 15–30%, within average range for a bird of prey, but may be reported as higher elsewhere. One study claimed hunting success rates for pursuing rabbits was 60% and corvids was 63.8%.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Northern goshawks are usually opportunistic predators, as are most birds of prey. The most important prey species are small to medium-sized mammals and medium to large-sized birds found in forest, edge and scrub habitats. Primary prey selection varies considerably not just at the regional but also the individual level as the primary food species can be dramatically different in nests just a few kilometers apart. As is typical in various birds of prey, small prey tends to be underrepresented in prey remains below habitual perches and nests (as only present in skeletal remains within pellets) whereas pellets underrepresent large prey (which is usually dismantled away from the nest) and so a combined study of both remains and pellets is recommended to get a full picture of goshawks' diets. Prey selection also varies by season and a majority of dietary studies are conducted within the breeding season, leaving a possibility of bias for male-selected prey, whereas recent advanced in radio-tagging have allowed a broader picture of goshawks' fairly different winter diet (without needing to kill goshawks to examine their stomach contents). Northern goshawks have a varied diet that has reportedly included over 500 species from across its range, and at times their prey spectrum can extend to nearly any available kind of bird or mammal except the particularly large varieties as well as atypical prey including reptiles and amphibians, fish and insects. However, a few prey families dominate the diet in most parts of the range, namely corvids, pigeons, grouse, pheasants, thrushes and woodpeckers (in roughly descending order of importance) among birds and squirrels (mainly tree squirrels but also ground squirrels especially in North America) and rabbits and hares among mammals.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Birds are usually the primary prey in Europe, constituting 76.5% of the diet in 17 studies. In North America, by comparison, they constitute 47.8% in 33 studies and mammals account for a nearly equal portion of the diet and in some areas rather dominate the food spectrum. Studies have shown that from several parts of the Eurasian continent from Spain to the Ural mountains mammals contributed only about 9% of the breeding season diet. However, mammals may be slightly underrepresented in Eurasian data because of the little-studied presence of mammals as a food source in winter, particularly in the western and southern portions of Europe where the lack of snowfall can allow large numbers of rabbits. Staple prey for northern goshawks usually weighs between , with average prey weights per individual studies typically between . There is some difference in size and type between the prey caught by males and larger females. Prey selection between sexes is more disparate in the more highly dimorphic races from Eurasia than those from North America. In the Netherlands, male prey averaged whereas female prey averaged , thus a rough 45% difference . In comparison, the average prey caught by each sex in Arizona was and , respectively, or around a 26% difference. Northern goshawks often select young prey during spring and summer, attacking both nestling and fledgling birds and infant and yearling mammals, as such prey is often easiest to catch and convenient to bring to the nest. In general, goshawks in Fennoscandia, shift their prey selection to when the birds produce their young: first waterfowl, then quickly to corvids and thrushes and then lastly to grouse, even though adults are also freely caught opportunistically for all these prey types. This is fairly different from Vendsyssel, Denmark, where mostly adult birds were caught except for thrushes and corvids, as in these two groups, the goshawks caught mostly fledglings.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Overall, one prey family that is known to be taken in nearly every part of the goshawk's range is the corvids, although they do not necessarily dominate the diet in all areas. Some 24 species have been reported in the diet. The second most commonly reported prey species in breeding season dietary studies from both Europe and North America are both large jays, the Eurasian jay ("Garrulus glandarius") and the Steller's jay ("Cyanocitta stelleri"). These species were recorded in studies from northeastern Poland and the Apennines of Italy (where the Eurasian jays made up a quarter of the food by number) and in northwestern Oregon and the Kaibab Plateau of Arizona (where the Steller's made up 37% by number) as the main prey species by number. The conspicuously loud vocalizations, somewhat sluggish flight (when hunting adult or post-fledging individuals) and moderate size of these jays make them ideal for prey-gathering male goshawks. Another medium-sized corvid, the Eurasian magpie ("Pica pica") is also amongst the most widely reported secondary prey species for goshawks there. Magpies, like large jays, are rather slow fliers and can be handily outpaced by a pursuing goshawk. Some authors claim that taking of large corvids is a rare behavior, due of their intelligence and complex sociality which in turn impart formidable group defenses and mobbing capabilities. One estimation claimed this to be done by about 1–2% of adult goshawks during the breeding season (based largely on studies from Sweden and England), however, on the contrary many goshawks do routinely hunt crows and similar species. In fact, there are some recorded cases where goshawks were able to exploit such mobbing behavior in order to trick crows into close range, where the mob victim suddenly turned to grab one predaceously. In the following areas "Corvus" species were the leading prey by number: the hooded crow ("Corvus cornix") in the Ural mountains (9% by number), the western jackdaw ("Coloeus monedula") in Sierra de Guadarrama, Spain (36.4% by number), the rook ("Corvus frugilegus") in the Zhambyl district, Kazakhstan (36.6% by number) and the American crow ("Corvus brachyrhynchos") in New York and Pennsylvania (44.8% by number). Despite evidence that northern goshawks avoid nesting near common ravens ("Corvus corax"), the largest widespread corvid (about the same size as a goshawk at ) and a formidable opponent even one-on-one, they are even known to prey on ravens seldom. Corvids taken have ranged in size from the Canada jay ("Perisoreus canadensis") to the raven.


title: Northern goshawk

text: In Europe, the leading prey species numerically (the main prey species in 41% of 32 European studies largely focused on the nesting season) is the rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). Although the predominance of rock pigeons in urban environments that host goshawks such as the German cities of Hamburg (where they constituted 36% by number and nearly 45% by weight of the local diet) or Cologne is predictable, evidence shows that these development-clinging pigeons are sought out even within ample conserved woodland from Portugal to Georgia. In areas where goshawk restrict their hunting forays to field and forest, they often catch another numerous pigeon, the common wood pigeon ("Columba palumbus") (the largest pigeon the goshawk naturally encounters and is known to hunt). The latter species was the main prey in the diet of northern goshawks from in the Germany-Netherlands border area (37.7% of 4125 prey items) and Wales (25.1% by number and 30.5% by biomass of total prey). It has been theorized that male goshawks in peri-urban regions may be better suited with their higher agility to ambushing feral pigeons in and amongst various manmade structures whereas females may be better suited due to the higher overall speeds to taking out common wood-pigeons, as these typically forage in wood-cloaked but relatively open fields; however males are efficient predators of common wood-pigeons as well. Studies have proven that, while hunting feral pigeons, goshawks quite often select the oddly colored pigeons out of flocks as prey, whether the plumage of the flock is predominantly dark or light hued, they disproportionately often select individuals of the other color. This preference is apparently more pronounced in older, experienced goshawks and there is some evidence that the males who select oddly-colored pigeons have higher average productivity during breeding. Around eight additional species of pigeon and dove have turned up in the goshawks diet from throughout the range but only in small numbers and in most of North America, goshawks take pigeons less commonly than in Eurasia. One exception is in Connecticut where the mourning dove ("Zenaida macroura"), the smallest known pigeon or dove the goshawk has hunted at , was the second most numerous prey species.


title: Northern goshawk

text: The northern goshawk is in some parts of its range considered a specialized predator of gamebirds, particularly grouse. All told 33 species of this order have turned up in their diet, including most of the species either native to or introduced in North America and Europe. Numerically, only in the well-studied taiga habitats of Scandinavia, Canada and Alaska and some areas of the eastern United States do grouse typically take a dominant position. Elsewhere in the range, gamebirds are often secondary in number but often remain one of the most important contributors of prey biomass to nests. With their general ground-dwelling habits, gamebirds tend to be fairly easy for goshawks to overtake if they remain unseen and, if made aware of the goshawk, the prey chooses to run rather than fly. If frightened too soon, gamebirds may take flight and may be chased for some time, although the capture rates are reduced considerably when this occurs. Pre-fledgling chicks of gamebirds are particularly vulnerable due to the fact that they can only run when being pursued. In several parts of Scandinavia, forest grouse have historically been important prey for goshawks both in and out of the nesting season, principally the black grouse ("Tetrao tetrix") and the hazel grouse ("Bonasa bonasia") followed in numbers by larger western capercaillies ("Tetrao urogallus") and the willow ptarmigan ("Lagopus lagopus") which replace the other species in the lower tundra zone. The impression of goshawks on the populations of this prey is considerable, possibly the most impactful of any predator in northern Europe considering their proficiency as predators and similarity of habitat selection to forest grouse. An estimated 25-26% of adult hazel grouses in Finnish and Swedish populations in a few studies fall victim to goshawks, whereas about 14% of adult black grouse are lost to this predator. Lesser numbers were reportedly culled in one study from northern Finland. However, adult grouse are less important in the breeding season diet than young birds, an estimated 30% of grouse taken by Scandinavian goshawks in summer were neonatal chicks whereas 53% were about fledgling age, the remaining 17% being adult grouse. This is fairly different from in southeastern Alaska, where grouse are similarly as important as in Fennoscandia, as 32.1% of avian prey deliveries were adults, 14.4% were fledglings and 53.5% were nestlings.


title: Northern goshawk

text: Northern goshawks can show somewhat of a trend for females to be taken more so than males while hunting adult gamebirds, due to the larger size and more developed defenses of males (such as leg spurs present for defense and innerspecies conflicts in male of most pheasant species). Some authors have claimed this of male ring-necked pheasant ("Phasianus cochilus"), but these trends are not reported everywhere, as in southern Sweden equal numbers of adult male and female ring-necked pheasants, both sexes averaging , were taken. While male goshawks can take black and hazel grouse of any age and thence deliver them to nests, they can only take capercaillie of up to adult hen size, averaging some , the cock capercaillie at more than twice as heavy as the hen is too large for a male goshawk to overtake. However, adult female goshawks have been reported attacking and killing cock capercaillie, mainly during winter. These average about in body mass and occasionally may weigh even more when dispatched. Similarly impressive feats of attacks on other particularly large gamebirds have been reported elsewhere in the range, including the Altai snowcock ("Tetraogallus altaicus") in Mongolia and, in at least one case, successful predation on an estimated adult-sized young wild turkey ("Meleagris gallopavo") hen in North America (by an immature female goshawk weighing approximately ), although taking adults of much larger-bodied prey like this is considered generally rare, the young chicks and poults of such prey species are likely much more often taken. At the other end of the size scale, the smallest gamebird known to be hunted by northern goshawk was the common quail. Domestic fowl, particularly chickens ("Gallus gallus domesticus") are taken occasionally, especially where wild prey populations are depleted. While other raptors are at times blamed for large numbers of attacks on fowl, goshawks are reportedly rather more likely to attack chickens during the day than other raptors and are probably the most habitual avian predator of domestic fowl, at least in the temperate-zone. Particularly large numbers of chickens have been reported in Wigry National Park, Poland (4th most regular prey species and contributing 15.3% of prey weight), Belarus and the Ukraine, being the third most regularly reported prey in the latter two.