title: Chinese culture

text: "Paifang", also known as a "Pailou", is a traditional style of Chinese architectural arch or gateway structure that is related to the Indian "Torana" from which it is derived. The word "paifang" () was originally a collective term for the top two levels of administrative division and subdivisions of ancient Chinese cities. The largest division within a city in ancient China was a "fang" (), equivalent to a current day ward. Each fang was enclosed by walls or fences, and the gates of these enclosures were shut and guarded every night. Each fang was further divided into several "pai" (), which is equivalent to a current day (unincorporated) community. Each pai, in turn, contained an area including several hutongs (alleyways). This system of urban administrative division and subdivision reached an elaborate level during the Tang dynasty, and continued in the following dynasties. For example, during the Ming dynasty, Beijing was divided into a total of 36 fangs. Originally, the word "paifang" referred to the gate of a fang and the marker for an entrance of a building complex or a town; but by the Song dynasty, a paifang had evolved into a purely decorative monument.


title: Chinese culture

text: The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over the years. It includes both the vast gardens of the Chinese emperors and members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world. They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between man and nature. A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings. The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in the valley of the Yellow River, during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large enclosed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for garden, "you", "pu" and "yuan". "You" was a royal garden where birds and animals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), "yuan" became the character for all gardens.


title: Chinese culture

text: The old character for "yuan" is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate tree. According to the "Shiji", one of the most famous features of this garden was the "Wine Pool and Meat Forest" (酒池肉林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the sea shores. The pool was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as an example of decadence and bad taste. During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, the "Terrace of Shanghua", with lavishly decorated palaces, was built by King Jing of the Zhou dynasty. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the "Terrace of Gusu", was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view extended as far as Lake Tai, the Great Lake.


title: Chinese culture

text: China is one of the main birthplaces of Eastern martial arts. Chinese martial arts, often named under the umbrella terms "kung fu" and "wushu", are the several hundred fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits, identified as ""families"" (家; ), ""sects"" (派; ) or ""schools"" (门/門; ) of martial arts. Examples of such traits include "Shaolinquan" () physical exercises involving Five Animals () mimicry, or training methods inspired by Old Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles that focus on qi manipulation are called ""internal ""(內家拳/内家拳; ), while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called ""external"" (外家拳; ). Geographical association, as in ""northern"("北拳; ) and ""southern"" (南拳; ), is another popular classification method.


title: Chinese culture

text: Chinese martial arts are collectively given the name Kung Fu (gong) "achievement" or "merit", and (fu) "man", thus "human achievement") or (previously and in some modern contexts) Wushu ("martial arts" or "military arts"). China also includes the home to the well-respected Shaolin Monastery and Wudang Mountains. The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Over time, some art forms have branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has produced some of the most renowned martial artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others. The arts have also co-existed with a variety of including the more standard 18 arms. Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.


title: Chinese culture

text: Martial arts schools also teach the art of lion dance, which has evolved from a pugilistic display of Kung Fu to an entertaining dance performance.


title: Chinese culture

text: A number of and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is Mahjong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai Solitaire. Others include pai gow, pai gow poker and other bone domino games. Weiqi and xiangqi are also popular. Ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the culture where it is performed during social events.


title: Chinese culture

text: Qigong is the practice of spiritual, physical, and medical techniques. It is as a form of exercise and although it is commonly used among the elderly, any one of any age can practice it during their free time.


title: Chinese culture

text: Chinese cuisine is a very important part of Chinese culture, which includes cuisine originating from the diverse regions of China, as well as from Chinese people in other parts of the world. Because of the Chinese diaspora and historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has influenced many other cuisines in Asia, with modifications made to cater to local palates. Seasoning and cooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences in historical background and ethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests and deserts also have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering climate of China varies from tropical in the south to subarctic in the northeast. Imperial, royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over time. The most praised "Four Major Cuisines" are Chuan, Lu, Yue and Huaiyang, representing West, North, South and East China cuisine correspondingly. Modern "Eight Cuisines" of China are Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan, and Zhejiang cuisines. Color, smell and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food, as well as the meaning, appearance and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised from ingredients used, cuttings, cooking time and seasoning. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table. Chopsticks are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food.


title: Chinese culture

text: The practice of drinking tea has a long history in China, having originated there. The history of tea in China is long and complex, for the Chinese have enjoyed tea for millennia. Scholars hailed the brew as a cure for a variety of ailments; the nobility considered the consumption of good tea as a mark of their status, and the common people simply enjoyed its flavour. In 2016, the discovery of the earliest known physical evidence of tea from the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an was announced, indicating that tea from the genus "Camellia" was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as 2nd century BC. Tea then became a popular drink in the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties.


title: Chinese culture

text: Although tea originated in China, during the Tang dynasty, Chinese tea generally represents tea leaves which have been processed using methods inherited from ancient China. According to popular legend, tea was discovered by Chinese Emperor Shen Nong in 2737 BCE when a leaf from a nearby shrub fell into water the emperor was boiling. Tea is deeply woven into the history and culture of China. The beverage is considered one of the seven necessities of Chinese life, along with firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce and vinegar. During the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese tea was used for medicinal purposes and it was the period when the Chinese people first enjoyed the juice extracted from the tea leaves that they chewed.


title: Chinese culture

text: Chinese tea culture refers to how tea is prepared as well as the occasions when people consume tea in China. Tea culture in China differs from that in European countries such as Britain and other Asian countries like Japan in preparation, taste, and the occasions when people consume tea. Even today, tea is consumed regularly, both at casual and formal occasions. In addition to being a popular beverage, tea is used in traditional Chinese medicine, as well as in Chinese cuisine. Green tea is one of the main teas originating in China.


title: Chinese culture

text: Imperial, royal and noble preference played a role in the changes in Chinese cuisines over time. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures were integrated into Chinese cuisines over time. The overwhelmingly large variety of Chinese cuisine comes mainly from the practice of the dynastic periods, when emperors would host banquets with over 100 dishes per meal. A countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines were involved in the food preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the everyday citizen's cuisine. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion. Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.


title: Chinese culture

text: "Manhan Quanxi", literally "Manchu Han Imperial Feast" was one of the grandest meals ever documented in Chinese cuisine. It consisted of at least 108 unique dishes from the Manchu and Han Chinese culture during the Qing dynasty, and it is only reserved and intended for the Emperors. The meal was held for three whole days, across six banquets. The culinary skills consisted of cooking methods from all over Imperial China. When the Manchus conquered China and founded the Qing dynasty, the Manchu and Han Chinese peoples struggled for power. The Kangxi Emperor wanted to resolve the disputes so he held a banquet during his 66th birthday celebrations. The banquet consisted of Manchu and Han dishes, with officials from both ethnic groups attending the banquet together. After the Wuchang Uprising, common people learned about the imperial banquet. The original meal was served in the Forbidden City in Beijing.


title: Chinese culture

text: Chinese culture consists of many subcultures. In China, the cultural difference between adjacent provinces (and, in some cases, adjacent counties within the same province) can often be as big as than that between adjacent European nations. Thus, the concept of "Han Chinese subgroups" (漢族民系/汉族民系, literally "Han ethnic lineage") was born, used for classifying these subgroups within the greater Han ethnicity. These subgroups are, as a general rule, classified based on linguistic differences.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: Following its initial announcement at The Game Awards 2017, news on the game went dormant while PlatinumGames worked to release games such as "Astral Chain", which was developed concurrently. The game had its first full reveal with gameplay in September 2021 during a Nintendo Direct presentation. Bayonetta's original voice actor, Hellena Taylor, was replaced by Jennifer Hale after a pay dispute. The game received generally favorable reviews from critics, with praise for the gameplay, but criticism for the story, camera controls, and performance issues.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: "Bayonetta 3", like its predecessors, is an action hack and slash game in which players control the eponymous protagonist Bayonetta as she combats various enemies using a combination of melee attacks and gunplay. Dodging enemy attacks at the last second triggers a state known as "Witch Time", during which time and enemies slow down, allowing Bayonetta to continually attack them without interruption, or traverse in real-time to solve environmental puzzles. Unique to this game are the "Demon Slave" and "Demon Masquerade" mechanics, the former of which differs from the preceding Climax Summon and Umbran Climax features in the first two titles, and instead allows players to take direct control of one of Bayonetta's Infernal Demons to perform various attacks and special abilities, some of which are advantageous to particular scenarios depending on the demon being controlled. The latter meanwhile, allows Bayonetta to directly fuse with a summoned Infernal Demon, granting her access to magic-based abilities, including new attack and traversal options. A new playable character, Viola, can only activate Witch Time through the use of a parry mechanic, and whose only Demon Slave Cheshire cannot be manually controlled. When Viola summons Cheshire, she switches from a sword-based fighting style to a fist-based fighting style.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: In addition to the game's standard presentation, a new display mode known as the "Naive Angel Mode" is introduced. This mode conceals displays of nudity during gameplay and cinematics, such as Bayonetta's various dances to summon her Wicked Weaves using her clothing as a conduit, as well as the more graphic designs of certain enemies and demons.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: The universe of Bayonetta is set in a location known as Trinity of Realities, which comprises Paradiso, the realm of angels; Inferno, the realm of demons; and the World of Chaos, the human world. The World of Chaos is composed of multiple alternate universes, which makes for the main setting of "Bayonetta 3". The titular witch Bayonetta — known also by her real name Cereza — returns as its protagonist, an Umbran Witch who makes contracts with demons to fight angels. She is joined by a witch-in-training Viola, who fights alongside her demon familiar Cheshire. They team up in order to fight against the forces of man-made artificial weapons called "Homunculi"; led by an artificial entity known as "Singularity", which seeks to eliminate all worlds in the multiverse to strengthen itself and conquer the Trinity of Realities. The two are assisted by Bayonetta's childhood friend and fellow Umbran witch Jeanne, the investigative reporter Luka, the information broker Enzo, and the demonic arms dealer Rodin.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: An alternate universe Bayonetta fights against Singularity to prevent the destruction of her world. She is defeated and killed by Singularity as Viola watches. During the battle, Viola is tasked by her commanding officer Sigurd to use a world bridge to escape to another universe, and to seek help in the battle against Singularity. Viola uses the world bridge and escapes, arriving in a universe where Bayonetta and Jeanne witness the Homunculi launching their attack on New York City. Taking refuge with Enzo in Rodin's bar the Gates of Hell, Viola reveals herself as an Umbra Witch from another universe, and explains that the Homunculi and their creator Singularity have already destroyed countless alternate universes; Rodin confirms that if all universes collapse, Singularity will have ultimate power over the Trinity of Realities. To stop Singularity, Bayonetta and Viola must travel to the island of Thule, which serves as a gateway between universes, and collect the Chaos Gears that can lead them to the "Alphaverse" where Singularity resides. Jeanne is tasked with infiltrating a research facility to locate their universe's version of Sigurd, a doctor and scientist with knowledge about the multiverse.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: Bayonetta and Viola arrive at Thule and fight across several alternate universes. During the travels, Bayonetta pursues alternate universe incarnations of herself who are protecting their own worlds, and fights alongside them to obtain the Chaos Gears; each is ultimately killed and absorbed by a vessel of Singularity, who is pursuing each Bayonetta incarnation as the "Arch-Eve", which can influence reality. While Bayonetta searches for the Chaos Gears, Viola is waylaid by the appearance of Luka, who has been following them throughout the multiverse. Viola discovers that the deaths of alternate Lukas across the multiverse has caused this universe's Luka to transform into a wolf-like beast known as Strider, influenced by the rage of the Alphaverse's incarnation dubbed Dark Luka. During the game Viola reveals she is the daughter of her universe's Bayonetta and Luka, and encounters an alternate Luka dubbed "Lukaon", king of the faeries with knowledge of the multiverse. Jeanne manages to retrieve Sigurd and reconvenes with Bayonetta and Viola on Thule. Using the Chaos Gears, Sigurd opens up a portal into the Alphaverse, allowing Bayonetta and Viola access. Upon their arrival, they discover that Singularity's real identity was the Alphaverse's Sigurd, an artificial human who sought absolute power over the multiverse.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: Singularity, who was impersonating Sigurd, kills Jeanne and traps Bayonetta and Viola in the Alphaverse. Luka reaches the Alphaverse too, with Bayonetta defeating Dark Luka and Lukaon restoring Luka's mind and allowing him to become "Arch-Adam", a guide to the Arch-Eve. Bayonetta, identified by Singularity as "Arch-Eve Origin", pursues and fights Singularity, freeing the spirits of Jeanne and the other Bayonettas, who briefly aid her before vanishing. She is then aided by incarnations of herself from "Bayonetta" and "Bayonetta 2", and finally kills Singularity with help from Viola, Luka and a final Demon Summoning; Singularity's death restores the multiverse. Bayonetta, wounded and exhausted, loses control of Gomorrah and her soul is knocked from her body. Luka subdues the summon and embraces Bayonetta, restoring her body; they are dragged into Inferno, leaving Viola behind as it was revealed that Viola is Bayonetta and Luka's daughter from the alternate universe. Post-credits sequences show Viola defeating Dark Eve, a remnant of the Alphaverse's Bayonetta, and being given the "Bayonetta" title as a final message from her mother Bayonetta; and later going to school in New York while taking on jobs for Rodin.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: In July 2013, PlatinumGames executive and series creator Hideki Kamiya responded to a fan question on Twitter regarding the likelihood of a third game in the "Bayonetta" series in the event the then-upcoming "Bayonetta 2" was a success, stating, "I hope so". "Bayonetta 2" director Yusuke Hashimoto was interviewed by the magazine outlet "GamesMaster", during which was asked about what game sequels he would like to work on, to which he answered that he had "all kinds of ideas" in mind for "Bayonetta 3" in addition to a potential spin-off title. In June 2015 following "Bayonetta 2"s release, Kamiya again responded to a fan inquiry regarding the character Jeanne, and what potential new hairstyles she would look good in following her appearances in the first two games. Kamiya replied, "The answer will be in "Bayo 3"."


title: Bayonetta 3

text: "Bayonetta 3" was announced by Nintendo in December 2017 during that year's The Game Awards alongside Nintendo Switch versions of "Bayonetta" and "Bayonetta 2", confirming the title as in development for the Switch in addition to Nintendo's involvement as its publisher. Then-President and COO of Nintendo of America Reggie Fils-Aimé remarked on the announcement as celebratory for "the fans who love what PlatinumGames does, and are thrilled to have PlatinumGames back on a Nintendo system". In June 2022, Hideki Kamiya reiterated his recommendation that newcomers play the preceding two games in preparation for "Bayonetta 3", as despite there being "no reason why you won't be able to follow the story and enjoy it if you start with "Bayonetta 3"", he felt that prior experience with the series would help players find the third game "more interesting".


title: Bayonetta 3

text: In April 2018, studio head Atsushi Inaba told "Eurogamer" at the Reboot Develop 2018 conference that "Bayonetta 3" would mark a "turning point" for the developer, mentioning that the game would be a "linear core progression action game" in a similar vein to its predecessors. In February 2019 during an installment of Nintendo Direct, Nintendo revealed "Astral Chain" (2019), another action-adventure title from PlatinumGames for the Switch that was released later that August. Despite the reveal of an additional title in development at the studio however, Nintendo Switch general producer Yoshiaki Koizumi who presented the Direct, would reassure that the game would not conflict with "Bayonetta 3"s development, stating that PlatinumGames were still "hard at work" on the title.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: Inaba was interviewed by "Video Games Chronicle" (VGC) in May 2019, and described the game's production as an "orthodox development process", additionally remarking that players would be able to easily observe the shifts in the studio's production mentality during gameplay, yet refusing to elaborate further. Inaba was again interviewed by the publication during E3 2019, clarifying the game's status as "going quite well".


title: Bayonetta 3

text: "Bayonetta 3" was unveiled by Nintendo during a Direct presentation in September 2021, revealing the first look at gameplay and its 2022 release window. The trailer additionally confirmed Yusuke Miyata as the game's director while Hideki Kamiya will be executive director. Miyata's involvement prompted speculation that a mechanic revolving around individually controlling Bayonetta's Infernal Demon summons in combat, was in fact derived from a previously cancelled PlatinumGames project, "Scalebound", an action role-playing game published by Microsoft Studios intended to release for Xbox One and Microsoft Windows, as Miyata previously served as that game's lead designer. Fans additionally noted the resemblance between a new character masked in shadow during the end of the trailer, and "Scalebound"s intended playable protagonist, Drew. A blog post on PlatinumGames' website confirmed additional staff involved in the game, including cinematic supervisors Yuji Shimomura and Masaki Suzumura, as well as artist Mari Shimazaki, all reprising their respective roles from the previous two games.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: A second trailer was released on July 13, 2022, confirming the game's October 28 launch date, and key story and character details, notably unveiling the new character Viola, the presence of alternate versions of Bayonetta, and the return of supporting characters Luka, Enzo, Jeanne and Rodin. In commemoration of the game's launch, Nintendo announced that a physical edition of the original "Bayonetta" on Nintendo Switch would be available in limited quantities on September 30, 2022 via select retailers and the My Nintendo Store. This would be the first time the game was available in a standalone physical format outside the Special Edition box set collecting the first game and its sequel, which released in 2018.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: Hellena Taylor, the voice actress for Bayonetta in previous games, was replaced by Jennifer Hale for "Bayonetta 3". Miyata said this was due to "various overlapping circumstances". On October 15, 2022, Taylor released a series of videos in which she said she had refused an offer of for the role, saying it did not reflect a living wage. She urged her fans to boycott the game and instead donate to charity.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: On Twitter, Kamiya said that Taylor's statements were untrue, "sad[,] and deplorable". He blocked many Twitter users who responded to his tweet, and then temporarily deactivated his personal twitter, leading to speculation that he was suspended. Hale stated on Twitter that while she was in a non-disclosure agreement, she expressed her belief that actors should be paid well, and emphasized her past advocacy for her peers within the profession. She further urged people to keep an open mind about the amount of work that had gone into the game. Hale's involvement drew responses from voice actors such as David Hayter and Steve Blum, who spoke in support of her industry work and due diligence. PlatinumGames issued a formal response confirming that they align themselves with Hale's statement; asking people to refrain from disrespecting Hale or any of the contributors to the franchise, and stating "we give our full support to Jennifer Hale as the new Bayonetta".


title: Bayonetta 3

text: On October 18, "Bloomberg News" and "Video Games Chronicle" reported that Platinum had been prepared to rehire Taylor, offering her between and per session for five sessions, in line with SAG-AFTRA union rates. The reports said negotiations ended after Taylor requested a six-figure payment and royalties instead, and that Taylor had refused an offer to make a cameo for the fee of one session. Taylor called the report "an absolute lie, and a complete joke" made to "save [Platinum's] ass and the game", and said she wished to be done with the affair and the franchise. Despite this, on October 24, Taylor made additional statements on Twitter, stating that her initial offer from Platinum was , and that she was later offered "an extra " after reaching out to Kamiya. Taylor further stated that she did not hear from Platinum for 11 months after this, and was then given a final offer of to "voice some lines". Jason Schreier, the reporter who wrote the October 18 article for "Bloomberg News", noted that these tweets from Taylor effectively corroborated the report.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: "Bayonetta 3" was released on Nintendo Switch on October 28, 2022. Alongside the standard physical and digital releases of the game, a special edition box set known as the "Trinity Masquerade Edition" was made available at select retailers, or online through the My Nintendo Store. It features a copy of the game, accompanied by a 200-page, full color artbook with concept illustrations of the game's various demons, and alternate physical cover sleeves for the three "Bayonetta" games.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: "Bayonetta 3" received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: The combat received widespread praise from reviewers. Mitchell Saltzman, writing for "IGN", described it as, "one of the best combat systems in gaming". "GameSpot"s Jessica Howard described the gameplay as being "lightning-fast and smooth yet accommodates for different playstyles and skill levels". Chris Carter of "Destructoid" added how "seamless" the combat was and highlighted the game's wealth of content. The game's levels were also noted by "Nintendo Life" as being larger than prior games in the series, and that the game had greater replayability through challenges, collectibles, and unlockable modes.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: Some reviewers criticized the game's performance and technical issues, such as an inconsistent framerate, long loading times, and occasional low-quality textures. Negative opinions were also directed at the game's camera, being labelled as "frustrating" and "annoying". The story and characterization of its titular protagonist in comparison to the game's predecessors drew some criticism.


title: Bayonetta 3

text: "Bayonetta 3" sold 41,285 physical copies within its first week of release in Japan, making it the second bestselling retail game of the week in the country. In the United Kingdom, "Bayonetta 3" was the third best-selling game in its release week behind "" and "FIFA 23". According to NPD in the United States, "Bayonetta 3" was the second best-selling Nintendo Switch title in October 2022 under "Mario + Rabbids Sparks of Hope", as well as the ninth overall across all game platforms.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: Gros Michel (), often translated and known as "Big Mike", is an export cultivar of banana and was, until the 1950s, the main variety grown. The physical properties of the Gros Michel make it an excellent export produce; its thick peel makes it resilient to bruising during transport and the dense bunches that it grows in make it easy to ship.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: Gros Michel is known as Guineo Gigante, Banano, and Plátano Roatán in Spanish. It is also known as Pisang Embun in Malaysia, Pisang Ambon in Indonesia and Philippines, Thihmwe in Burma, Chek Ambuong in Cambodia, Kluai hom thong in Thailand, and Chuoi Tieu Cao #2 in Vietnam.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: French naturalist Nicolas Baudin carried a few corms of this banana from Southeast Asia, depositing them at a botanical garden on the Caribbean island of Martinique. In 1835, French botanist Jean François Pouyat carried Baudin's fruit from Martinique to Jamaica. Gros Michel bananas were grown on massive plantations in Honduras, Costa Rica, and elsewhere in Central America.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: This variety was once the dominant export banana to Europe and North America, grown in Central America but, in the 1950s, Panama disease, a wilt caused by the fungus "Fusarium oxysporum" f.sp. "cubense", wiped out vast tracts of Gros Michel plantations in Central America, though it is still grown on non-infected land throughout the region.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: By the 1960s, the exporters of Gros Michel bananas were unable to keep trading such a susceptible cultivar, and they started growing resistant cultivars belonging to the Cavendish subgroup (another "Musa acuminata" AAA).


title: Gros Michel banana

text: There are efforts to use genetic modification to create a version of the Gros Michel which is resistant to Panama disease. There have also been successful hybrids of Cavendish and Gros Michel that display a resistance to Panama disease.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: A 2013 paper described experiments to create a version of Gros Michel which is resistant to black sigatoka, another fungal infection.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: "Yes! We Have No Bananas", a novelty song about a grocer from the 1922 Broadway revue "Make It Snappy", is said to have been inspired by a shortage of Gros Michel bananas, which began with the infestation of Panama disease early in the 20th century.


title: Gros Michel banana

text: The Gros Michel has a higher concentration of isoamyl acetate, the ester commonly used for "banana" food flavoring, than the Cavendish.


title: Ethology

text: Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or to trained behavioural responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity. Throughout history, different naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour. Ethology has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig. The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, the three recipients of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Ethology combines laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to some other disciplines such as neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Ethologists typically show interest in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group, and often study one type of behaviour, such as aggression, in a number of unrelated species.


title: Ethology

text: Ethology is a rapidly growing field. Since the dawn of the 21st century researchers have re-examined and reached new conclusions in many aspects of animal communication, emotions, culture, learning and sexuality that the scientific community long thought it understood. New fields, such as neuroethology, have developed.


title: Ethology

text: Understanding ethology or animal behaviour can be important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of different species or breeds enables trainers to select the individuals best suited to perform the required task. It also enables trainers to encourage the performance of naturally occurring behaviours and the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours.


title: Ethology

text: The term "ethology" derives from the Greek language: ἦθος, "ethos" meaning "character" and , "-logia" meaning "the study of". The term was first popularized by American myrmecologist (a person who studies ants) William Morton Wheeler in 1902.


title: Ethology

text: Because ethology is considered a topic of biology, ethologists have been concerned particularly with the evolution of behaviour and its understanding in terms of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose 1872 book "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" influenced many ethologists. He pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé George Romanes, who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method, anecdotal cognitivism, that did not gain scientific support.


title: Ethology

text: Other early ethologists, such as Eugène Marais, Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, Wallace Craig and Julian Huxley, instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called instinctive, or natural, in that they occur in all members of a species under specified circumstances. Their beginning for studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an ethogram (a description of the main types of behaviour with their frequencies of occurrence). This provided an objective, cumulative database of behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and supplement.


title: Ethology

text: Due to the work of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, ethology developed strongly in continental Europe during the years prior to World War II. After the war, Tinbergen moved to the University of Oxford, and ethology became stronger in the UK, with the additional influence of William Thorpe, Robert Hinde, and Patrick Bateson at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of the University of Cambridge. In this period, too, ethology began to develop strongly in North America.


title: Ethology

text: Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for their work of developing ethology.


title: Ethology

text: Ethology is now a well-recognized scientific discipline, and has a number of journals covering developments in the subject, such as "Animal Behaviour", "Animal Welfare", "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "Animal Cognition", "Behaviour", "Behavioral Ecology" and "Ethology: International Journal of Behavioural Biology". In 1972, the International Society for Human Ethology was founded to promote exchange of knowledge and opinions concerning human behaviour gained by applying ethological principles and methods and published their journal, "The Human Ethology Bulletin". In 2008, in a paper published in the journal "Behaviour", ethologist Peter Verbeek introduced the term "Peace Ethology" as a sub-discipline of Human Ethology that is concerned with issues of human conflict, conflict resolution, reconciliation, war, peacemaking, and peacekeeping behaviour.


title: Ethology

text: In 1972, the English ethologist John H. Crook distinguished comparative ethology from social ethology, and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology—examining animals as individuals—whereas, in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them.


title: Ethology

text: E. O. Wilson's book "" appeared in 1975, and since that time, the study of behaviour has been much more concerned with social aspects. It has also been driven by the stronger, but more sophisticated, Darwinism associated with Wilson, Robert Trivers, and W. D. Hamilton. The related development of behavioural ecology has also helped transform ethology. Furthermore, a substantial rapprochement with comparative psychology has occurred, so the modern scientific study of behaviour offers a more or less seamless spectrum of approaches: from animal cognition to more traditional comparative psychology, ethology, sociobiology, and behavioural ecology. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum postulated that animals may have beliefs.


title: Ethology

text: Comparative psychology also studies animal behaviour, but, as opposed to ethology, is construed as a sub-topic of psychology rather than as one of biology. Historically, where comparative psychology has included research on animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology involves research on animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal anatomy, physiology, neurobiology, and phylogenetic history. Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of learning and tended to research behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive.


title: Ethology

text: The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do result in different perspectives, and occasionally conflicts of opinion about matters of substance. In addition, for most of the twentieth century, comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe. From a practical standpoint, early comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species. Ethologists were more interested in understanding behaviour across a wide range of species to facilitate principled comparisons across taxonomic groups. Ethologists have made much more use of such cross-species comparisons than comparative psychologists have.


title: Ethology

text: The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines instinct as "A largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli without involving reason".


title: Ethology

text: An important development, associated with the name of Konrad Lorenz though probably due more to his teacher, Oskar Heinroth, was the identification of fixed action patterns. Lorenz popularized these as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli called sign stimuli or "releasing stimuli". Fixed action patterns are now considered to be instinctive behavioural sequences that are relatively invariant within the species and that almost inevitably run to completion.


title: Ethology

text: One example of a releaser is the beak movements of many bird species performed by newly hatched chicks, which stimulates the mother to regurgitate food for her offspring. Other examples are the classic studies by Tinbergen on the egg-retrieval behaviour and the effects of a "supernormal stimulus" on the behaviour of graylag geese.


title: Ethology

text: One investigation of this kind was the study of the waggle dance ("dance language") in bee communication by Karl von Frisch.


title: Ethology

text: Habituation is a simple form of learning and occurs in many animal taxa. It is the process whereby an animal ceases responding to a stimulus. Often, the response is an innate behaviour. Essentially, the animal learns not to respond to irrelevant stimuli. For example, prairie dogs ("Cynomys ludovicianus") give alarm calls when predators approach, causing all individuals in the group to quickly scramble down burrows. When prairie dog towns are located near trails used by humans, giving alarm calls every time a person walks by is expensive in terms of time and energy. Habituation to humans is therefore an important adaptation in this context.


title: Ethology

text: Associative learning in animal behaviour is any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. The first studies of associative learning were made by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who observed that dogs trained to associate food with the ringing of a bell would salivate on hearing the bell.


title: Ethology

text: Imprinting enables the young to discriminate the members of their own species, vital for reproductive success. This important type of learning only takes place in a very limited period of time. Konrad Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as geese and chickens followed their mothers spontaneously from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this response could be imitated by an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus were presented during a critical period that continued for a few days after hatching.


title: Ethology

text: Imitation is an advanced behaviour whereby an animal observes and exactly replicates the behaviour of another.


title: Ethology

text: The National Institutes of Health reported that capuchin monkeys preferred the company of researchers who imitated them to that of researchers who did not. The monkeys not only spent more time with their imitators but also preferred to engage in a simple task with them even when provided with the option of performing the same task with a non-imitator. Imitation has been observed in recent research on chimpanzees; not only did these chimps copy the actions of another individual, when given a choice, the chimps preferred to imitate the actions of the higher-ranking elder chimpanzee as opposed to the lower-ranking young chimpanzee.


title: Ethology

text: There are various ways animals can learn using observational learning but without the process of imitation. One of these is "stimulus enhancement" in which individuals become interested in an object as the result of observing others interacting with the object. Increased interest in an object can result in object manipulation which allows for new object-related behaviours by trial-and-error learning. Haggerty (1909) devised an experiment in which a monkey climbed up the side of a cage, placed its arm into a wooden chute, and pulled a rope in the chute to release food. Another monkey was provided an opportunity to obtain the food after watching a monkey go through this process on four occasions. The monkey performed a different method and finally succeeded after trial-and-error. Another example familiar to some cat and dog owners is the ability of their animals to open doors. The action of humans operating the handle to open the door results in the animals becoming interested in the handle and then by trial-and-error, they learn to operate the handle and open the door.


title: Ethology

text: In local enhancement, a demonstrator attracts an observer's attention to a particular location. Local enhancement has been observed to transmit foraging information among birds, rats and pigs. The stingless bee ("Trigona corvina") uses local enhancement to locate other members of their colony and food resources.


title: Ethology

text: A well-documented example of social transmission of a behaviour occurred in a group of macaques on Hachijojima Island, Japan. The macaques lived in the inland forest until the 1960s, when a group of researchers started giving them potatoes on the beach: soon, they started venturing onto the beach, picking the potatoes from the sand, and cleaning and eating them. About one year later, an individual was observed bringing a potato to the sea, putting it into the water with one hand, and cleaning it with the other. This behaviour was soon expressed by the individuals living in contact with her; when they gave birth, this behaviour was also expressed by their young - a form of social transmission.


title: Ethology

text: Teaching is a highly specialized aspect of learning in which the "teacher" (demonstrator) adjusts their behaviour to increase the probability of the "pupil" (observer) achieving the desired end-result of the behaviour. For example, orcas are known to intentionally beach themselves to catch pinniped prey. Mother orcas teach their young to catch pinnipeds by pushing them onto the shore and encouraging them to attack the prey. Because the mother orca is altering her behaviour to help her offspring learn to catch prey, this is evidence of teaching. Teaching is not limited to mammals. Many insects, for example, have been observed demonstrating various forms of teaching to obtain food. Ants, for example, will guide each other to food sources through a process called "tandem running," in which an ant will guide a companion ant to a source of food. It has been suggested that the pupil ant is able to learn this route to obtain food in the future or teach the route to other ants. This behaviour of teaching is also exemplified by crows, specifically New Caledonian crows. The adults (whether individual or in families) teach their young adolescent offspring how to construct and utilize tools. For example, "Pandanus" branches are used to extract insects and other larvae from holes within trees.


title: Ethology

text: Individual reproduction is the most important phase in the proliferation of individuals or genes within a species: for this reason, there exist complex mating rituals, which can be very complex even if they are often regarded as fixed action patterns. The stickleback's complex mating ritual, studied by Tinbergen, is regarded as a notable example.


title: Ethology

text: Often in social life, animals fight for the right to reproduce, as well as social supremacy. A common example of fighting for social and sexual supremacy is the so-called pecking order among poultry. Every time a group of poultry cohabitate for a certain time length, they establish a pecking order. In these groups, one chicken dominates the others and can peck without being pecked. A second chicken can peck all the others except the first, and so on. Chickens higher in the pecking order may at times be distinguished by their healthier appearance when compared to lower level chickens. While the pecking order is establishing, frequent and violent fights can happen, but once established, it is broken only when other individuals enter the group, in which case the pecking order re-establishes from scratch.


title: Ethology

text: Several animal species, including humans, tend to live in groups. Group size is a major aspect of their social environment. Social life is probably a complex and effective survival strategy. It may be regarded as a sort of symbiosis among individuals of the same species: a society is composed of a group of individuals belonging to the same species living within well-defined rules on food management, role assignments and reciprocal dependence.


title: Ethology

text: When biologists interested in evolution theory first started examining social behaviour, some apparently unanswerable questions arose, such as how the birth of sterile castes, like in bees, could be explained through an evolving mechanism that emphasizes the reproductive success of as many individuals as possible, or why, amongst animals living in small groups like squirrels, an individual would risk its own life to save the rest of the group. These behaviours may be examples of altruism. Of course, not all behaviours are altruistic, as indicated by the table below. For example, revengeful behaviour was at one point claimed to have been observed exclusively in "Homo sapiens". However, other species have been reported to be vengeful including chimpanzees, as well as anecdotal reports of vengeful camels.


title: Ethology

text: One advantage of group living can be decreased predation. If the number of predator attacks stays the same despite increasing prey group size, each prey may have a reduced risk of predator attacks through the dilution effect. Further, according to the selfish herd theory, the fitness benefits associated with group living vary depending on the location of an individual within the group. The theory suggests that conspecifics positioned at the centre of a group will reduce the likelihood predations while those at the periphery will become more vulnerable to attack. Additionally, a predator that is confused by a mass of individuals can find it more difficult to single out one target. For this reason, the zebra's stripes offer not only camouflage in a habitat of tall grasses, but also the advantage of blending into a herd of other zebras. In groups, prey can also actively reduce their predation risk through more effective defence tactics, or through earlier detection of predators through increased vigilance.


title: Ethology

text: Another advantage of group living can be an increased ability to forage for food. Group members may exchange information about food sources between one another, facilitating the process of resource location. Honeybees are a notable example of this, using the waggle dance to communicate the location of flowers to the rest of their hive. Predators also receive benefits from hunting in groups, through using better strategies and being able to take down larger prey.


title: Ethology

text: Some disadvantages accompany living in groups. Living in close proximity to other animals can facilitate the transmission of parasites and disease, and groups that are too large may also experience greater competition for resources and mates.


title: Ethology

text: Theoretically, social animals should have optimal group sizes that maximize the benefits and minimize the costs of group living. However, in nature, most groups are stable at slightly larger than optimal sizes. Because it generally benefits an individual to join an optimally-sized group, despite slightly decreasing the advantage for all members, groups may continue to increase in size until it is more advantageous to remain alone than to join an overly full group.


title: Ethology

text: Niko Tinbergen argued that ethology always needed to include four kinds of explanation in any instance of behaviour:


title: Ethology

text: These explanations are complementary rather than mutually exclusive—all instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions—for example, to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients—without realizing that the reason people experience hunger is because it causes them to acquire nutrients.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl, also known as Kara Zor-L and Karen Starr, is a superheroine appearing in American comic books by DC Comics, making her first appearance in "All Star Comics" #58 (January/February 1976). Power Girl is the cousin of the superhero Superman, but from an alternate universe in the fictional multiverse in which DC Comics stories are set. Originally hailing from the world of Earth-Two, first envisioned as the home of DC's wartime heroes as published in 1940s comic books, Power Girl becomes stranded in the main universe where DC stories are set, and becomes acquainted with that world's Superman and her own counterpart, Supergirl.


title: Power Girl

text: In common with Supergirl's origin story, she is the daughter of Superman's aunt and uncle and a native of the planet Krypton. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of her home planet by placing her in a rocket ship. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two. On Earth, as with other Kryptonians, Power Girl discovered she possessed abilities like super strength, flight, and heat vision, using which she became a protector of innocents and a hero for humanity. Though the specifics of how vary over subsequent retellings, Power Girl is later stranded on another Earth when a cosmic crisis affects her home of Earth-Two, and later carves out a separate identity for herself from her dimensional counterpart Supergirl once they are forced to coexist.


title: Power Girl

text: Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style. She also adopts a different secret identity from her counterpart. These changes are reflected in their differing costumes and superhero names as well; Power Girl sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume with a cleavage-displaying cutout. The name Power Girl reflects that she chooses not to be seen as a derivative of Superman, but rather her own hero and this choice is reflected in the strong independent attitude of the character. Over various decades, Power Girl has been depicted as a member of superhero teams such as the Justice Society of America, Infinity, Inc., Justice League Europe, and the Birds of Prey.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl's origin has gone through revisions, but over time has reverted to her original conception as the Supergirl of Earth-Two. The 1985 limited series "Crisis on Infinite Earths" eliminated Earth-Two from history, causing her to be retconned as the granddaughter of an Atlantean sorcerer known as Arion. This was an unpopular change and writers depicted the revised Power Girl inconsistently. The 2005–2006 "Infinite Crisis" limited series then restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed Pre-Crisis Earth-Two universe. This has been her consistent depiction ever since.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl was introduced in "All Star Comics" #58 in 1976, and was a member of the superhero team the Justice Society of America through the remainder of the 1970s and 1980s period known as the Bronze Age of Comics. Marvel Comics' then-publisher Stan Lee said in 1978 that when DC Comics created Power Girl after Marvel had introduced Power Man, "I'm pretty annoyed about that. ...I've got to ask the Marvel lawyer – she's supposed to be starting a lawsuit about that and I haven't heard anything. I don't like the idea. ... You know, years ago we brought out Wonder Man, and [DC Comics] sued us because they had Wonder Woman, and ... I said okay, I'll discontinue Wonder Man. And all of a sudden they've got Power Girl. Oh, boy. How unfair." Ironically, Marvel had previously published "Thor" #207, written by Power Girl co-creator Gerry Conway, in which Len Wein's character says, "Whoever heard of Powergirl, anyhow?"


title: Power Girl

text: After "All Star Comics" was canceled as a part of the DC Implosion, the character would continue to appear along with the rest of the JSA in "Adventure Comics" for a six-issue run. Due in part to her being one of the more popular characters in "All Star Comics" at the time, she was given a solo tryout in "Showcase" issues 97–99, which expanded on her pre-Crisis origin. During this time, she was a regularly featured character in the annual Justice Society crossovers in the original "Justice League of America" series. She was a founding member of "Infinity Inc.", appearing in each of the first 12 issues and making later guest appearances.


title: Power Girl

text: After DC's continuity-altering "Crisis on Infinite Earths" storyline, her origin was retconned in "Secret Origins" (vol. 2) #11 and she became a magic-based character with ties to ancient Atlantis, leading to appearances in "The Warlord". The character did not receive her own self-titled series until the "Power Girl" miniseries of 1988. The character became a featured member of "Justice League Europe" (a spin off from "Justice League International") for the run of the series. After the cancellation of JLI, the character joined Chris Claremont's creator-owned series "Sovereign Seven" and appeared in several issues of "Birds of Prey". She eventually rejoined the Justice Society in "JSA" #31 and became a regular part of that series and its follow-up, "Justice Society of America" vol. 3.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl played a significant role in the continuity-changing events of "Infinite Crisis" (2005), which tied into her starring role in the first "JSA Classified" story arc "Power Trip" in 2005 (issues #1–4 of the series). These stories heavily featured the revelation that Power Girl was in fact the Earth-Two Power Girl and a Kryptonian, who survived "Crisis", and that her Atlantean backstory had been a lie. Starting in July 2009, Power Girl received her first ongoing series, simply titled "Power Girl" (vol. 2), with the first twelve issues written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray, drawn by Amanda Conner, and colored by Paul Mounts. According to Comic Book Resources, the series has been "wildly praised for its fresh and fun approach."


title: Power Girl

text: When Palmiotti, Grey and Conner left the series after issue #12, Palmiotti said, "Amanda always said she could just commit to the book for a year, and as we got into the series we realized that we just couldn't do the same type of book with another artist at this point and decided it was a good idea to leave with her and give another team a shot." Judd Winick took over as writer with artist Sami Basri beginning with issue #13. Winick stated that the tone of the book will continue, and the premise of the character in New York.


title: Power Girl

text: The trade paperback ""Power Girl"" () collects "Showcase" issues #97–99, "Secret Origins" (vol. 2) issue #11, "JSA" issues 32 and 39, and "JSA Classified" issues #1–4. ""Power Girl: A New Beginning"" () collects the first six issues of the 2009 series. ""Power Girl: Aliens & Apes"" () collects issues 7 through 12, and ""Power Girl: Bomb Squad"" () covers 13 to 18, and ""Power Girl: Old Friends"" collecting issues 19-27.


title: Power Girl

text: The entirety of the Palmiotti/Grey/Conner run is contained in ""Power Girl: Power Trip" ()" which collects "JSA Classified" #1–4 and "Power Girl" #1–12.


title: Power Girl

text: Kara's father discovers that Krypton is about to explode, and places her in a spacecraft directed towards the Earth. Although this occurs at the same time that Kal-L's ship is launched, Kara's ship travels more slowly, and she arrives on Earth decades after her cousin has landed. Kara's Symbioship is designed to keep her in stasis during the journey and provide her with life experiences and education in the form of virtual reality. The Symbioship allows her to interact with virtual copies of her parents and fellow Kryptonians. Originally, by the time she arrives on Earth, Kara is shown to be in her early twenties. However, as mentioned in "JSA Classified" #1, her age at arrival has now been retconned to about eighteen in post-"Crisis" continuity.


title: Power Girl

text: In "Showcase" #97, Kara is reclaimed by the sentient Symbioship and reimmersed into Kandorian society for a time. Several years of virtual time elapse, in which Kara is married and has a child. She is freed with the assistance of newspaper reporter Andrew Vinson, at which point she disables the ship.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl's existence is not revealed to the general public until much later; her cousin Clark and his wife Lois Lane provide her a family environment to assist her transition towards real life relationships. In her first recorded adventure, Kara assists Justice Society members Flash and Wildcat with containing an artificially induced volcanic eruption in China. She then joins Robin and Star-Spangled Kid to form a Super Squad to assist the Justice Society in defeating Brainwave and Per Degaton, who were causing disasters around the world. She pushes their base towards the Sun, the heat causing the villains to fall unconscious. Later, she becomes a full member of the Society when Superman retires from active membership.


title: Power Girl

text: Having been raised by the Symbioship with artificial Kryptonian life experiences, Power Girl finds it difficult to adapt to life on Earth. However, with the help of reporter Andrew Vinson, she adopts the secret identity of computer programmer Karen Starr (she obtains her knowledge in this field from exposure to Wonder Woman's Purple Ray on Paradise Island). On the pre-"Crisis" Earth-Two, Power Girl's closest friend is the Huntress, the daughter of the Earth-Two Batman and Catwoman.


title: Power Girl

text: The first contact between Power Girl and Earth-One's universe was on the crossover "Justice League of America" #147, written by Paul Levitz & Martin Pasko, where the character shows her attraction to that reality saying, "It has a much nicer brand of Superman, y'know?".


title: Power Girl

text: The 1985 "Crisis on Infinite Earths" limited series erased the existence of the Earth-Two Superman, and Power Girl's continuity was thus substantially disrupted. Initially she believed herself to be Superman's cousin, as she had been before the reboot. However, her background was retconned; she was told that she was the descendant of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion, and was frozen in suspended animation for millennia until the present day.


title: Power Girl

text: After the Justice Society disbands, Power Girl would join the Justice League. Later, while a member of Justice League Europe, she suffers a near fatal injury while battling a mystical being. Superman must assist in her medical treatment, using his heat-vision to perform surgery on her otherwise-invulnerable tissues. Although she recovers, Power Girl is significantly weaker, as she lost her vision powers and could not fly for a time. However, she regained them all as time went on. Power Girl adopts a one-eyed mangy cat, an animal which would affect much of the team. One aspect of this is her beloved cat is used to spy on the group by intelligence gathering criminals.


title: Power Girl

text: During the 1994 "Zero Hour" event, Power Girl experiences a mystical pregnancy and gives birth to a son (supposedly named Equinox), who ages rapidly. Finally he disappears, and has never been mentioned again in DCU.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl appeared in later issues of the "Sovereign Seven" series, Chris Claremont's creator-owned comic book for DC. However, the final issue revealed that the entire series had been a story appearing in a comic book, and events in the book have had no bearing upon DC continuity.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl was one of Oracle’s first agents. Their short-lived partnership ended after a disastrous mission which resulted in a large loss of life. Power Girl believes that Oracle's poor leadership was responsible for the tragedy, being disgusted that Oracle would sacrifice hundreds of lives & herself following orders. Although she has worked with her again on a few occasions when needed, the relationship between the two is tense. In "Birds of Prey" #35, Power Girl admitted that she is primarily to blame for the tension, but is unable to overcome the memories of the deaths.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl is a key member of the Justice Society, which she joined when it was reformed in the late 1990s. During an adventure with the JSA, she meets Arion, who reveals her Atlantean heritage to be a lie he concocted at the behest of Power Girl's "mother".


title: Power Girl

text: While attempting to save her teammate Ted Grant from the new female Crimson Avenger, Power Girl is severely wounded by supernatural bullets fired from the vigilante's cursed handguns. Despite being saved by Doctor Mid-Nite, Power Girl comments that her near-death experience has shown her that she needs to make more personal connections outside of the superhero community.


title: Power Girl

text: The Psycho-Pirate shows Kara multiple versions of her origin in an effort to drive her insane. Eventually, he reveals the truth: Power Girl is a survivor of Krypton from the dimension which contained the pre-"Crisis" Earth-Two.


title: Power Girl

text: In the "Infinite Crisis" storyline, Kal-L himself returns to the post-"Crisis" DC Universe after breaking down the walls of the paradise dimension in which he, Lois Lane Kent (of Earth-Two), Alexander Luthor, Jr. (of Earth-Three), and Superboy-Prime (of Earth-Prime) had been living since the end of "Crisis on Infinite Earths". Appalled by the rapidly deteriorating state of affairs on the contemporary Earth, their goal is to replace the post-"Crisis" Earth with a recreated Earth-Two. Kal-L's first order of business is to track down Power Girl and explain the events of the original Crisis to her. Kal-L also reiterates her pre-"Crisis" history as his cousin. A touch from the ailing Lois of Earth-Two inexplicably restores Power Girl's memories of pre-"Crisis" Earth-Two.


title: Power Girl

text: Soon after this revelation, Power Girl is confronted by Superboy-Prime, who renders her unconscious. She is attached to a ”tuning fork”, a device controlled by Alex Luthor whose purpose is to bring back the multiple Earths. Alex Luthor and Psycho Pirate coerce Black Adam (who is also attached to the machine) into saying "SHAZAM!", and use the now-raw magical energy to power the tower. After the reappearance of the created Earth-Two, everyone associated with that Earth is transported onto it (although Power Girl remains on New Earth because of her proximity to the tower).


title: Power Girl

text: After being brought to the barren created Earth-Two by Kal-L, Lois Lane Kent collapses and dies. A violent confrontation between the two Supermen ensues, at the end of which Kal-L comes to the realization that this created Earth-Two had not been a perfect world, since "a perfect earth doesn't need a Superman."


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl is freed by Wonder Girl and Kon-El, and joins them in fighting Superboy-Prime and Alex Luthor. During a savage battle on Mogo, Superboy-Prime beats Kal-L to death and is later subdued by Kal-El. Power Girl is brought to Mogo by the Green Lantern Corps just in time to bid a tearful farewell to her dying cousin.


title: Power Girl

text: In the "One Year Later" storyline in "Supergirl", Kara takes up the mantle of Nightwing in an attempt to free the natives of Kandor. Ultraman, masquerading as Kal-El and working in concert with the Saturn Queen, has taken control of the bottle city. Kara Zor-El is the city's Flamebird; she prevents Ultraman's forces from executing the captured Power Girl. Power Girl is forced to leave Kandor with Kara (against her better judgment) after Saturn Queen reveals to Supergirl information about Supergirl's past and purpose. This causes another rift to grow between the two women, as Power Girl feels Supergirl left an entire city of people to suffer, all because of her own selfish desires. This animosity is still on display when she next encounters Supergirl.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl remains a core member of the Justice Society. Power Girl is selected as the chairwoman of the team after Mr. Terrific steps down.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl is invited to rejoin Oracle's Birds of Prey, but refuses, stating that she would do so only "when Hell freezes over". Her ill will toward Oracle is the result of a single mission in which she served as one of Oracle's agents, which ended badly. However, Power Girl does come to Oracle's aid against the Spy Smasher in "Birds of Prey" #108.


title: Power Girl

text: The appearance of the Earth-22 Superman (and his resemblance to Kal-L) upsets Kara greatly when he first arrives on New Earth. However, they adopt each other as family after a period of time.


title: Power Girl

text: Following the events of "Infinite Crisis", a new Multiverse is created. Among them is an Earth-2 from which its Power Girl and Superman are both missing. The Power Girl of this Earth returns to Earth-2 after failing to find her cousin. The Power Girl of New Earth is accidentally sent to the pre-"Crisis" Earth-2 by the "Third World" god Gog.


title: Power Girl

text: The Power Girl of New Earth faces off against the Power Girl and Justice Society Infinity of the new Earth-2, due to the Earth-2 Power Girl's grief and rage over the loss of her cousin prompting her to believe that the 'other' Power Girl is an impostor with some role in Superman's absence. Power Girl returns to New Earth with the help of the Earth-2 Michael Holt, until the Justice Society Infinity follow her and take her back to Earth-2, where it is revealed that the recreation of the Multiverse created a new Earth-2 and duplicates of its heroes, including its own Power Girl. The Power Girl of New Earth then returns home with the JSA.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl briefly appears in the "Final Crisis" crossover event, battling the forces of Darkseid after he conquers the Earth using the Anti-Life Equation.


title: Power Girl

text: After deciding to once again use the Karen Starr identity, she moves to New York City and begins rebuilding Starr Enterprises while continuing solo superheroics. She eventually takes teenaged hero-in-training Terra as her sidekick following the horrific events depicted in the "Terror Titans" mini-series. After the duo fight off a robot invasion of the city, Power Girl is kidnapped by the new Ultra-Humanite, who plans to transplant his brain into her body. Using her ice breath to destroy her gravity enhanced shackles and gag, Power Girl easily defeats the villain and saves New York. She also helps a trio of lost alien princesses and their bodyguard adjust to life on Earth, buying them a home in South America to stay until they can get back to their home planet.


title: Power Girl

text: Following a massive battle that ends in the destruction of the Justice Society's HQ, the team decides to split up into two separate squads. Power Girl partners with Magog to start a more youth-oriented team dubbed the "JSA All-Stars". Using Stargirl as leverage, the two are able to convince all of the teen JSA members except Jennifer Pierce to join the All-Stars. During the team's inaugural press conference, they are attacked by a group of mercenaries led by the villainous nephew of Sylvester Pemberton. Karen and her team emerge victorious, only to discover that Pemberton has kidnapped Stargirl during the confusion of the battle. The team eventually rescues Stargirl.


title: Power Girl

text: During the 2009–2010 "Blackest Night" storyline, both JSA teams gather in Manhattan to stave off the invading Black Lantern Corps. Several of the team members examine the corpses of Kal-L and Psycho Pirate, both of whom had been reanimated as Black Lanterns only to be killed again during a battle with Superboy and Superman. Karen breaks down in tears upon seeing the twisted corpse of Kal-L, and swears vengeance upon whoever is behind the creation of the Black Lanterns. While on her way to the streets of Manhattan to assist her teammates, Karen hears Ma Hunkel screaming. She rushes to her side, only to see Ma being attacked by the Black Lantern Lois Lane-Kent of pre-Crisis Earth-Two. Black Lantern Lois sacrifices herself by removing her ring and giving it to Kal-L to reanimate him. During the battle between Kal-L and Power Girl, Mr. Terrific invents a machine to destroy the Black Lanterns. He activates the machine and it wipes out the Black Lantern ring connection and Kal-L and completely dissolves Kal-L's corpse.


title: Power Girl

text: In the 2010–2011 storyline "Brightest Day", Power Girl attacks her comrades, and after being subdued, is discovered to have been possessed by the Starheart (the cosmic entity that gave Alan Scott and Jade their powers) to which she was vulnerable because of her Kryptonian heritage, as Kryptonians draw their abilities from the sun. Staying out of action in order avoid another possession, she helps Mr. Terrific work on a machine that may be able to dampen the Starheart's power. Nonetheless, the Starheart takes control of Miss Martian's body and transforms into her White Martian form, causing her to attack her comrades again. Batman ultimately tells her to stay on Earth and try to fight the other metahumans being controlled by the Starheart, explaining that bringing her along would jeopardize the mission.


title: Power Girl

text: During the events of "", Power Girl assists her fellow heroes in a global manhunt to track down Maxwell Lord, the former head of Justice League International and the murderer of Ted Kord, who had been restored to life at the end of "Blackest Night". Lord uses his powers to erase his existence from the minds of everyone on the planet, including Power Girl. She subsequently helps Booster Gold find proof of Lord's existence. Through the course of their search, during which Power Girl encounters Divine, a raven-haired clone of herself, she manages to regain her memory of Lord. As she attempts to inform the Justice Society of this, Lord uses his powers to take control of her and attack the Justice League International, but manages to convince the others of his existence through the exhumation of Ted Kord's corpse.


title: Power Girl

text: Following the New 52 reboot of 2011, Power Girl appears as a refugee from Earth 2 in Worlds' Finest along with Huntress.


title: Power Girl

text: During the 2011 relaunch of DC Comics' entire superhero line known as "The New 52", Karen Starr appears in the "Mister Terrific" series as a friend of the titular hero. In the series, Starr is still the head of Starr Enterprises, which was financed by her comrade in arms Helena Wayne (Huntress) after the latter hacked into Wayne Enterprises accounts. From a software design and development corporation, Starr Enterprises now purchases intellectual property and technology with possible interdimensional access capabilities so that the two women can return home. Power Girl subsequently stars in a new ongoing series, "Worlds' Finest", which premiered in May 2012. In the new continuity both she and Huntress, with whom she is partnered, are from Earth-2 but were flung into the Prime Earth's universe by an interdimensional vortex of unknown origin during the closing stages of an invasion from Apokolips-2 which took the life of Earth-2's Wonder Woman, Batman, and Superman. It is also revealed that prior to adopting the alias of Power Girl, she functioned as Earth-2's Supergirl and, in stark contrast to the Supergirl of Prime Earth, Karen loves her adopted Earth with a passion and was accepted with open arms by an adoring public. Power Girl eventually returned to her source Earth in the "Earth-2: World's End" weekly mini-series to team up with the new Earth-2 Superman Val-Zod. A temporarily amnesiac Power Girl from a seemingly alternative reality (not Earth-2, but more reminiscent of the pre-New 52 Power Girl) crashes in Harley Quinn's reality as shown in the "Harley Quinn" (vol. 2) storyline "Power Outage" (Issues #10-13). Some of the missing time from this joint encounter was explored in the 6-issue mini-series "Harley Quinn and Power Girl" (2015). Due to an attack by some evil aliens she got knocked back to Earth and landed at Harley Quinn's feet, devoid of memories. Harley temporarily took her on as a partner and they fought crime together before being sent across the universe on a quest to return home. When Power Girl got her memories back and realized that Harley had lied to her, she was less than amused, but forgave her. However when Harley hit on her, Power Girl left her atop the Eiffel Tower. Power Girl has reappeared in Harley Quinn's ongoing series several times since and has recently taken Terra/Altee on as her sidekick/partner.


title: Power Girl

text: In the post-"DC Rebirth" "DC Universe", Power Girl (Karen Starr) appears to be trapped in some sort of interdimensional void between earths. Tanya Spears tries to get Karen Starr out by using an etheric transponder that allows her to travel there in an incorporeal state, but her physical body was disconnected from the machine by an unaware Kid Flash (Wallace West), so both women remain trapped as a result.


title: Power Girl

text: In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock," Power Girl returns to the DC Universe when Doctor Manhattan, inspired by Superman, undoes the changes that he made to the New 52 timeline that erase the Justice Society and the Legion of Super-Heroes.


title: Power Girl

text: As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Over the years various writers have given Power Girl's Kryptonian power differing levels, reflecting the lower powers of the Earth-Two Superman Kal-L. For example, Power Girl can fly through space, but has to breathe, so before she leaves a planet, she must take a deep breath and hold it for several hours until she needs a new oxygen source. Power Girl needs to sleep or she will experience disorientation due to fatigue. However, as recently shown in "Brightest Day", she now draws her superpowers from yellow sunlight, just like Superman. The reason for this change has not yet been explained.


title: Power Girl

text: Since she is from an alternative universe (pre-Crisis Earth Two), kryptonite has no effect on her, but she is still vulnerable to magic. As Karen Starr, she is an accomplished business woman and is regarded by Mr. Terrific as a first rate scientist. Even though Power Girl is from an alternative universe, her biology is still similar to Superman's. As one of a handful of characters who survived the "Crisis on Infinite Earths", DC editorial was initially uncertain how to portray the character and attempted to portray Power Girl with a non-Kryptonian origin for a number of years. Power Girl's abilities have fluctuated since 1986. For some time, Power Girl believed she was an Atlantean. At one point, Power Girl possessed telekinesis; at another she was vulnerable to attacks by certain natural elements (for example, wooden weapons). After sustaining severe injuries from a magic attack Power Girl retained only a degree of super strength, speed and durability. However, she later recovered her ability to fly, and writers have gradually restored her superpowers.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl's original Wally Wood artwork (1976) showed her as relatively busty but otherwise her figure and build conformed in appearance to other contemporary comic book women. However, in "Wonder Woman" (vol. 3) #34 (2009), written by Gail Simone, Dinah Lance, the Black Canary, mentions Power Girl as having the top bosom of DCU, comparing her assets with a "national treasure". Her most common outfit is a leg-baring, figure-hugging, long-sleeved white leotard with a keyhole cut-out opening in the chest.


title: Power Girl

text: According to character writer Jimmy Palmiotti, "Okay. When the character was created, Wally Wood was the artist that drew Power Girl, and he was convinced that the editors were not paying attention to anything he did. So, his inker said "Every issue, I’m going to draw the tits bigger until they notice it. It took about seven or eight issues before anyone was like, "Hey, what’s with the tits?" And that’s where they stopped. True story."


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl was at one time portrayed as having a highly athletic but slender physique. Artists Bart Sears (in the "Justice League Europe" series), and later Alex Ross (in the limited series "Kingdom Come") restored Power Girl's well-endowed shape. Ross rendered her as a heavily muscled "Power Woman" (as if she was an ardent bodybuilder).


title: Power Girl

text: The character is consistently depicted as a large breasted young woman, and her physique is one of her most recognizable attributes – to the extent that various writers have acknowledged it in both serious and humorous ways.


title: Power Girl

text: For example, "Justice League Europe" #37 (1992) attempts to explain Power Girl's revealing costume by having Crimson Fox question her about it; she receives the reply that the costume "shows what I am: female, healthy. If men want to degrade themselves by staring, that's their problem, I'm not going to apologize for it."


title: Power Girl

text: Conversely, in "JSA: Classified" #2 (2005), writer Geoff Johns has Power Girl explain her cleavage-window to Superman, revealing that "the first time I made this costume, I wanted to have a symbol, like you. I just…I couldn’t think of anything. I thought eventually, I’d figure it out. And close the hole. But I haven’t." A similar treatment of the character can be seen in "Superman/Batman" #4 (written by Jeph Loeb), in which the heroes need to distract the Toyman while Batman and Superman battle Captain Marvel and Hawkman. Batman suggests that Power Girl's endowments would be likely to distract Toyman, a 13-year-old boy. Toyman later attempts to make a reference to the size of her chest before being cut off by Superman. A variant of this joke is included in the "" movie.


title: Power Girl

text: Power Girl's costume design has varied greatly over the years. Her classic costume design from "All-Star Comics" #58 is that which is in use today: a red cape and belt, blue gloves and boots, and a white bodysuit sporting a circular cleavage-exposing cut-out on her chest (its variable size and shape determined by the artist depicting her). According to Gerry Conway, "The true, dumb reason for the circle? At the time, it was a convention for hero costumes to have a chest symbol. I thought a giant 'P' looked silly. The circle was intended as a nod to convention without being conventional. Not a sexy thing at all, until Wally Wood’s inks." This window was closed for the first time in "All-Star Comics" #64, pencilled by Wood. According to Conway, it was dictated by publisher Jenette Kahn, because "she felt it was sexist". During her time with Justice League Europe/America, she wears a capeless yellow and white spandex unitard, and later a blue and white spandex unitard with a short mini-cape, headband, and a diamond shaped opening on her chest, once again exposing her cleavage. She has also worn a headband, as had Supergirl prior to her death in "Crisis on Infinite Earths". In a guest appearance in "Green Lantern", Kara is seen in her large wardrobe closet with every costume design she has ever worn in DC continuity, deciding which costume to wear for that mission. Her original costume returned when Johns and David Goyer had her rejoin the JSA.


title: Power Girl

text: In "Justice League: Generation Lost" #16, she sports a variation of her traditional costume that includes pants.


title: Power Girl

text: As part of DC's 2011 reboot of its continuity, The New 52, Power Girl was reintroduced into the DC Universe as first being the Earth-2 Supergirl, where she wears a variation of the traditional Supergirl costume designed by Kevin Maguire that features red gloves and belt, and a new S-shield, identical to the new Earth 2 Superman's, and has a cape that attaches directly to the shield. However, some aspects of her continuity were retained: she was still adopted by Clark Kent and Lois Lane, married on Earth 2 before their deaths and still uses the secret identity of software entrepreneur Karen Starr. After some time passes, she decides to take on a new identity as she is now trapped on the mainstream DC Earth. Here she adopts the identity Power Girl, where she wears a white one piece body suit that covers her legs, and a red cape that attaches to a new P-shield symbol over her left breast. In "Supergirl" (vol. 6) #19, she returns to her classic costume, complete with the opening on her chest, after her then-current costume is badly damaged. Later, when back in her home world, she discovers her cousin and adopted father Superman has been resurrected by Darkseid, but Superman sacrifices himself to help stave off Darkseid's attack on Earth. After his second death, Power Girl's adoptive mother Lois Lane (Red Tornado) gives her the S-shaped hope symbol from Superman's chest, which then becomes a part of Power Girl's costume.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The Siachen Glacier is a glacier located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalayas at about , just northeast of the point NJ9842 where the Line of Control between India and Pakistan ends. At long, it is the longest glacier in the Karakoram and second-longest in the world's non-polar areas. It falls from an altitude of 5,753 m (18,875 ft) above sea level at its head at Indira Col on the India–China border down to 3,620 m (11,875 ft) at its terminus. The entire Siachen Glacier, with all major passes, has been under the administration of India (currently as part of the union territory of Ladakh, located in the Kashmir region) since 1984. Pakistan maintains a territorial claim over the Siachen Glacier and controls the region west of Saltoro Ridge, lying west of the glacier, with Pakistani posts located 3,000 ft below more than 100 Indian posts on the ridge.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The Siachen Glacier lies immediately south of the great drainage divide that separates the Eurasian Plate from the Indian subcontinent in the extensively glaciated portion of the Karakoram sometimes called the "Third Pole". The glacier lies between the Saltoro Ridge immediately to the west and the main Karakoram range to the east. The Saltoro Ridge originates in the north from the Sia Kangri peak on the China border in the Karakoram range. The crest of the Saltoro Ridge's altitudes range from 5,450 to 7,720 m (17,880 to 25,330 feet). The major passes on this ridge are, from north to south, Sia La at 5,589 m (18,336 ft), Bilafond La at 5,450 m (17,880 ft), and Gyong La at 5,689 m (18,665 ft). The average winter snowfall is more than 1000 cm (35 ft) and temperatures can dip to . Including all tributary glaciers, the Siachen Glacier system covers about .


title: Siachen Glacier

text: "Sia" in the Balti language refers to the rose family plant widely dispersed in the region. "Chen" refers to any object found in abundance. Thus the name Siachen refers to a land with an abundance of roses. The naming of the glacier itself, or at least its currency, is attributed to Tom Longstaff.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Both India and Pakistan claim sovereignty over the entire Siachen region. U.S. and Pakistani maps in the 1970s and 1980s consistently showed a dotted line from NJ9842 (the northernmost demarcated point of the India-Pakistan cease-fire line, also known as the Line of Control) to the Karakoram Pass, which India believed to be a cartographic error and in violation of the Shimla Agreement. In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot, a military operation that gave India control over all of the Siachen Glacier, including its tributaries. Between 1984 and 1999, frequent skirmishes took place between India and Pakistan. Indian troops under Operation Meghdoot pre-empted Pakistan's Operation Ababeel by just one day to occupy most of the dominating heights on Saltoro Ridge to the west of Siachen Glacier. However, more soldiers have died from the harsh weather conditions in the region than from combat. Pakistan lost 353 soldiers in various operations recorded between 2003 and 2010 near Siachen, including 140 Pakistani personnel killed in 2012 Gayari Sector avalanche. Between January 2012 and July 2015, 33 Indian soldiers died due to adverse weather. In December 2015, Indian Union Minister of State for Defence Rao Inderjit Singh said in a written reply in the Lok Sabha that a total of 869 Army personnel have died on the Siachen glacier due to climatic conditions and environmental and other factors from the date that the Army launched Operation Meghdoot in 1984. Both India and Pakistan continue to deploy thousands of troops in the vicinity of Siachen and attempts to demilitarise the region have been so far unsuccessful. Prior to 1984, neither country had any military forces in this area.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Aside from the Indian and Pakistani military presence, the glacier region is unpopulated. The nearest civilian settlement is the village of Warshi, 10 miles downstream from the Indian base camp. The region is also extremely remote, with limited road connectivity. On the Indian side, roads go only as far as the military base camp at Dzingrulma at , 72 km from the head of the glacier. The Indian Army has developed various means to reach the Siachen region, including the Manali-Leh-Khardung La-Siachen route. In 2012, Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army General Bikram Singh said that the Indian Army should stay in the region for strategic advantages, and because a "lot of blood has been shed" by Indian armed personnel for Siachen. According to the present ground positions, relatively stable for over a decade, India maintains control over all of the long Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as all the main passes and heights of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier, including Sia La, Bilafond La, Gyong La, Yarma La (6,100m), and Chulung La (5,800m). Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. According to "TIME" magazine, India gained over in territory because of its 1980s military operations in Siachen. In February 2016, Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated in Parliament that India will not vacate Siachen as there is trust deficit with Pakistan and also said that 915 people have died in Siachen since Operation Meghdoot in 1984. As per official records, only 220 Indian soldiers have been killed by enemy bullets since 1984 in Siachen area. India has categorically stated that India will not pull its army from Siachen until the 110-km long AGPL is first authenticated, delineated and then demarcated.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The 1949 Karachi agreement only carefully delineated the line of separation to point NJ9842, after which, the agreement states that the line of separation would continue "thence north to the glaciers". According to the Indian stance, the line of separation should continue roughly northwards along the Saltoro Range, to the west of the Siachen glacier beyond NJ9842; international boundary lines that follow mountain ranges often do so by following the watershed drainage divide such as that of the Saltoro Range. The 1972 Simla Agreement made no change to the 1949 Line of Control in this northernmost sector.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The glacier's melting waters are the main source of the Nubra River in the Indian region of Ladakh, which drains into the Shyok River. The Shyok in turn joins the 3000 kilometre-long Indus River which flows through Pakistan. Thus, the glacier is a major source of the Indus and feeds the largest irrigation system in the world.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The glacier was uninhabited before 1984, and the presence of thousands of troops since then has introduced pollution and melting on the glacier. To support the troops, glacial ice has been cut and melted with chemicals.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Dumping of non-biodegradable waste in large quantities and the use of arms and ammunition have considerably affected the ecosystem of the region.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Preliminary findings of a survey by Pakistan Meteorological Department in 2007 revealed that the Siachen glacier has been retreating for the past 30 years and is melting at an alarming rate. The study of satellite images of the glacier showed that the glacier is retreating at a rate of about 110 metres a year and that the glacier size has decreased by almost 35 percent. In an eleven-year period, the glacier had receded nearly 800 metres, and in seventeen years about 1700 metres. It is predicted that the glaciers of the Siachen region will be reduced to about one-fifth of their 2011 size by 2035. In the twenty-nine-year period 1929–1958, well before the military occupation, the glacial retreat was recorded to be about 914 metres. One of the reasons theorized for the recent glacial retreat is chemical blasting, done for constructing camps and posts. In 2001 India laid oil pipelines (about 250 kilometres long) inside the glacier to supply kerosene and aviation fuel to the outposts from base camps. As of 2007, the temperature rise at Siachen was estimated at 0.2-degree Celsius annually, causing melting, avalanches, and crevasses in the glacier.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The waste produced by the troops stationed there is dumped in the crevasses of the glacier. Mountaineers who visited the area while on climbing expeditions witnessed large amount of garbage, empty ammunition shells, parachutes etc. dumped on the glacier, that neither decomposes nor can be burned because of the extreme climatic conditions. About of waste is produced and dumped in glacial crevasses daily by the Indian forces. The Indian army is said to have planned a "Green Siachen, Clean Siachen" campaign to airlift the garbage from the glacier, and to use biodigestors for biodegradable waste in the absence of oxygen and freezing temperatures. Almost forty percent (40%) of the waste left at the glacier is of plastic and metal composition, including toxins such as cobalt, cadmium and chromium that eventually affect the water of the Shyok River (which ultimately enters the Indus River near Skardu.) The Indus is used for drinking and irrigation. Research is being done by scientists of The Energy and Resources Institute, to find ways for successfully disposing the garbage generated at the glacier using scientific means. Some scientists of the Defence Research and Development Organisation who went on an expedition to Antarctica are also working to produce a bacterium that can thrive in extreme weather conditions and can be helpful in decomposing the biodegradable waste naturally.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The flora and fauna of the Siachen region are also affected by the huge military presence. The region is home to rare species including snow leopard, brown bear and ibex that are at risk because of the military presence.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: The glacier's region is the highest battleground on Earth, where Pakistan and India have fought intermittently since April 1984. Both countries maintain a permanent military presence in the region at a height of over .


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Both India and Pakistan have wished to disengage from the costly military outposts. However, after the Pakistani incursions during the Kargil War in 1999, India abandoned plans to withdraw from Siachen without official recognition of the current line of control by Pakistan, wary of further Pakistani incursions if they vacate the Siachen Glacier posts without such recognition.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh became the first Indian Prime Minister to visit the area, during which he called for a peaceful resolution of the problem. After that present Prime Minister Narendra Modi also visited this place. President of Pakistan Asif Ali Zardari also visited an area near the Siachen Glacier called Gayari Sector during 2012 with Pakistan Army Chief Gen. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani. Both of them showed their commitment to resolve the Siachen conflict as early as possible. In the previous year, the President of India, Abdul Kalam became the first head of state to visit the area.


title: Siachen Glacier

text: Since September 2007, India has opened up limited mountaineering and trekking expeditions to the area. The first group included cadets from Chail Military School, National Defence Academy, National Cadet Corps, Indian Military Academy, Rashtriya Indian Military College and family members of armed forces officers. The expeditions are also meant to show to the international audience that Indian troops hold "almost all dominating heights" on the key Saltoro Ridge and to show that Pakistani troops are nowhere near the Siachen Glacier. Ignoring protests from Pakistan, India maintains that it does not need anyone's approval to send trekkers to Siachen, in what it says is essentially its own territory. In addition, the Indian Army's Army Mountaineering Institute (AMI) functions out of the region.