title: Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 54% based on 56 reviews, with an average rating of 6.16/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Though Park directs with stylistic flair, this revenge thriller is more excessively gruesome than thrilling." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56/100 based on 21 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance

text: G. Allen Johnson of the "San Francisco Chronicle" called the film "a waste", referring to it as "so bloody, scatologically violent and consistently shocking, [that] it seems to have no larger purpose than itself – which is pretty grim." Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" wrote that "it is a drag that the film never rises to the level of its director's obvious ability", stating that "the violence [in the film] carries no meaning beyond the creator's ego." Daniel Eagan of "Film Journal International" called the film "glossy, morbid and childishly provocative", praising its visual style but criticizing director Park's "curdled vision". Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" wrote: "[It] is a rigorously planned film. It's also a disingenuous one, somber in tone, callow at its core."


title: Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance

text: Derek Elley of "Variety" called the film "a gripping psychodrama, marbled with blackly ironic humor". "The Guardian"s Peter Bradshaw gave the film a score of three out of five stars, calling it "deeply twisted and bizarre" but noting its "weirdly nightmarish conviction." Wesley Morris of "The Boston Globe" gave the film a positive review, calling it "a pristine-looking movie with astounding framing and a deftly handled sociopolitical bent", and concluding that, "despite the coldblooded killing and trail of the dead, "Mr. Vengeance" feels warmly suffused with life." In her review of the film for "The A.V. Club", Tasha Robinson wrote that Park's "style is as bold and uncompromising as his story, which seems designed to show how revenge dehumanizes more than it satisfies, even for people who wholly deserve revenge. [...] It's a difficult balancing act, but Park crafts his layers carefully and masterfully."


title: Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance

text: In January 2010, Warner Bros. acquired the rights for an American remake of the film. Brian Tucker was attached to write the screenplay, to be produced by Lorenzo di Bonaventura and Mark Vahradian, in a team-up with CJ Entertainment.


title: Rhea Kapoor

text: Rhea Kapoor (born 5 March 1987) is an Indian film producer. She is also the owner of the fashion line Rheson alongside her sister Sonam Kapoor.


title: Rhea Kapoor

text: Kapoor is the daughter of actor Anil Kapoor and his wife Sunita, she is the sister of actors Sonam Kapoor and Harshvardhan Kapoor, granddaughter of filmmaker Surinder Kapoor, niece of filmmaker Boney Kapoor and his wives, the late producer Mona Shourie Kapoor and the late actress Sridevi, and actor Sanjay Kapoor. Her cousins are actors Arjun Kapoor, Janhvi Kapoor and Mohit Marwah as well as actor Ranveer Singh. Kapoor pursued her graduation in "Dramatic literature" from New York University


title: Rhea Kapoor

text: Kapoor married her partner of 12 years, Karan Boolani, in an intimate wedding at her family's residence in 2021.


title: Rhea Kapoor

text: Kapoor started her career as a film producer with Rajshree Ojha's film "Aisha" in 2010, which starred her sister Sonam and Abhay Deol in leading roles. She later produced the 2014 film "Khoobsurat", directed by Shashanka Ghosh, which is an official remake of Hrishikesh Mukherjee directed film by the same name. In 2017, she launched the clothing line of Rheson with her sister Sonam Kapoor.


title: Gorakhpur

text: Gorakhpur is a city in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, along the banks of the Rapti river in the Purvanchal region. It is situated 272 kilometers east of the state capital Lucknow. It is the administrative headquarters of Gorakhpur district, North Eastern Railway Zone and Gorakhpur division. The city is home to the Gorakhnath Math, a Gorakhnath temple. The city also has an Indian Air Force station, since 1963. Gita Press, the world's largest publisher of Hindu religious texts like Ramayana and Mahabharat is also located in Gorakhpur which was established here in 1926.


title: Gorakhpur

text: The name "Gorakhpur" comes from the Sanskrit "Gorakshapuram", which means abode of Gorakhnath, a renowned ascetic who was a prominent saint of the "Nath Sampradaya".


title: Gorakhpur

text: Gorakhpur is situated about 100 km from the Nepal border, 193 km from Varanasi, 260 km from Patna and 270 km from Lucknow. It is one of the flood vulnerable districts in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Data over the past 100 years show a considerable increase in the intensity and frequency of floods, with extreme events occurring every three to four years. Roughly 20% of the population is affected by floods, which are an annual occurrence in some areas, causing huge loss of life, health, and livelihoods for the poor inhabitants, as well as damage to public and private property.


title: Gorakhpur

text: The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is "Cwa" (dry-winter humid subtropical climate).


title: Gorakhpur

text: As of 2011 Indian Census, Gorakhpur had a total population of 673,446, of which 353,907 were males and 319,539 were females. It has a sex ratio of 903 females per 1000 males. The population within the age group of 0 to 6 years was 69,596. Gorakhpur had a literacy rate of 75.2%, of which male literacy was 79.4% and female literacy was 70.6%. The effective literacy rate of the 7+ population of Gorakhpur was 83.9%, of which the male literacy rate was 88.7% and the female literacy rate was 78.6%. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes population was 62,728 and 2,929, respectively. Gorakhpur had 112,237 households in 2011.


title: Gorakhpur

text: According to a 2020 report, 31 villages have been incorporated in the municipal corporation limits increasing the population to over 1 million. The city area has also increased from 145.5 km in 2011 to 226.6 km.


title: Gorakhpur

text: The state government has also declared Gorakhpur,as a metropolis on 22 November 2021. Apart from Gorakhpur Municipal Corporation, the government has declared three nagar panchayats and eight development blocks as a metropolitan area. For this, the urban Development Department has issued a notification to the city. According to the order issued by the Additional Chief Secretary, Urban Development, now in Gorakhpur Metropolitan Region, Municipal Corporation, Nagar Panchayat Pipraich, Nagar Panchayat PPganj, Nagar Panchayat Mundera Bazar, Chargawa, Khorabar, Pipraich, Sardar Nagar, Piprauli, Jungle Kaudiya, Campierganj and The entire area of Bhathat development block has been covered. After this the population of Gorakhpur metropolis will be around 25 lakhs.


title: Gorakhpur

text: Gorakhpur is connected through a rail network and Gorakhpur railway station. Until March 2021, it had world's longest platform of 1366 meters. In February 2020, 100 flowering pots with the support structures were made and installed on the hydrant pipe at platform No.2 to increase the plantation and natural cover, using local resources of the Gorakhpur coaching depot.


title: Gorakhpur

text: The station offers Class A-1 railway station facilities. On 6 October 2013, Gorakhpur has the world's Longest Railway platform, after inauguration of the remodelled Gorakhpur Yard, with a stretch of around .


title: Gorakhpur

text: An Air Force station of Indian Air Force was established in Gorakhpur in 1963 named Mahayogi Gorakhnath Airport and extended for public air transport.


title: Gorakhpur

text: Gorakhpur Metro is a light metro project with 2 line and 27 stations is light rail transit (LRT) system approved to be built in Gorakhpur. It consist two corridors covering a distance of 27.84 km.


title: Gorakhpur

text: On 1 December 2021 the central government has also approved the DPR of Gorakhpur light metro project.


title: Gorakhpur

text: Gorakhpur has 4 universities, namely, Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Maha Yogi Guru Gorakhnath Ayush University, Mahayogi Gorakhnath University, a private university. One medical college named Baba Raghav Das Medical College and AIIMS Gorakhpur and a sports college named Veer Bahadur Singh Sports College. The state's first Hotel Management Institute has also been unveiled and would be known as State Institute of Hotel Management. Also, four private engineering / pharmacy / management college,ITM,KIPM,BIT, GIDA & SIT, Gorakhpur which is affiliated with Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow. It also has a dental institute named as Purvanchal Institute Of Dental Science in gida, gorakhpur.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The 1995 FIA Formula One World Championship was the 49th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It featured the 1995 Formula One World Championship for Drivers and the 1995 Formula One World Championship for Constructors, which were contested concurrently over a seventeen-race series that commenced on 26 March and ended on 12 November. Michael Schumacher won his second consecutive Drivers' Championship, and Benetton won the Constructors' Championship, the first and only Constructors' title for the Benetton team.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Schumacher won nine races en route to the championship, equalling the record set by Nigel Mansell in . He also continued his rivalry with Williams-Renault driver Damon Hill, including collisions at the British and Italian Grands Prix. Both these races were won by Schumacher's Benetton teammate Johnny Herbert, taking his first two F1 victories. Hill's Williams teammate, David Coulthard, claimed his first victory in Portugal, while Ferrari's Jean Alesi achieved his only F1 victory in Canada. Just like Honda in 1988, Renault engines won all but one race in this season.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The calendar was initially announced at the beginning of 1995. The European Grand Prix moved to the Nürburgring circuit. The Argentine Grand Prix was the only newly announced race, with it taking place at the Autódromo Oscar Alfredo Gálvez circuit. The circuit was due to begin the season on 12 March, but there were doubts over whether the circuit would be ready in time. The third race in Japan was also under threat, as the TI Circuit was badly affected after the Great Hanshin earthquake, which damaged local infrastructure. The San Marino round, Spanish round and the Italian round required safety upgrades. The Circuit de Catalunya was also in financial difficulty. On 6 February, a revised calendar was announced, with the Argentine Grand Prix moved to 9 April, despite the fact it had now received official clearance from FIA safety inspector Roland Bruynseraede. The Pacific round was moved due to the Kobe earthquake, with it now one week before the Japanese Grand Prix. The European Grand Prix was moved forward seven days, leaving just a seven-day gap between the Portuguese and European rounds. However, some tracks still needed clearance to race.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Although 14 teams and 28 drivers respectively were on the official 1995 entry list, the Larrousse team with drivers Éric Bernard and Christophe Bouchut failed to turn up for any of the on-track sessions. This was due to the team running short of money: in the period prior to the event, with French government aid not forthcoming and a 1995 chassis not yet built, team owner Gérard Larrousse elected to miss the first two rounds of the season in the hope of competing from the San Marino Grand Prix onwards. No funding ever arrived and it was too late for them to build a car for the season. There were some arrangements with the DAMS Formula 3000 team, but DAMS bosses wanted to buy Larrousse and run the team themselves. On 13 February, the boss of DAMS, Jean-Paul Driot announced that they had abandoned plans to enter Formula One for 1995, as he could not find a good amount of sponsorship to run the team at a competitive level. Driot said he intended to return to Formula 3000 and prepare for an F1 bid in . Larrousse's withdrawal, in addition to the collapse of the Lotus team after the end of the 1994 season, dropped the number of participating cars to 26, guaranteeing all the entrants of a race start, without the threat of failing to qualify, for the first time since the 1994 Canadian Grand Prix. The threat of a drivers' strike over the terms of the 1995 Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) Super Licences, which allowed the FIA to demand promotional appearances and forbade the drivers from criticising the championship. This was resolved by the governing body prior to the race, ensuring full driver participation.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Of the teams that did appear, all had completely new chassis to cope with the revised Technical Regulations, which stipulated a variety of changes including the reduction of engine capacity to 3 litres, reduction in the size of aerodynamic wings, the introduction of more stringent crash testing, the raising of the cars' ride height, and more rigorous testing of fuel specifications all with the aim of reducing speeds and increasing driver safety. This process had begun in the aftermath of the deaths of Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna during the weekend of the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix. The cars were still in various stages of development heading into the new season; the Footwork FA16 and Simtek S951 chassis arrived at the event with virtually no testing, having been completed shortly beforehand. There was one new team in the shape of the Italian Forti outfit, whilst the Benetton, McLaren, Footwork, Jordan, Pacific, Ligier and Sauber teams had all changed their engine suppliers in the course of the off-season. The biggest change perhaps was made by Benetton, who after running Fords joined Williams as a Renault powered team. However, McLaren's long-term relationship with Mercedes was established in 1995 and would continue until 2014.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Of the initial 1995 drivers, Pedro Diniz was the only complete rookie, whilst Andrea Montermini started his first race after failing to qualify for the 1994 Spanish Grand Prix due to injury. Mika Salo and Domenico Schiattarella had competed in two races, with Taki Inoue competing in one race the previous season. The 1995 season also saw the debut of Jan Magnussen when he replaced regular McLaren driver, Mika Häkkinen for the 1995 Pacific Grand Prix. It was also the last season for champion, Nigel Mansell.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Minardi had been expected to run with Mugen-Honda engines, but at the last minute, Ligier boss Flavio Briatore persuaded the Japanese engine supplier to supply Ligier, leaving Minardi in a mess. Their car was designed for the Mugen-Honda V10 and parts were already being made. The Minardi team then had to work flat out to build a brand new car with a Ford ED engine. Team owner Giancarlo Minardi announced he was taking legal action against the Japanese supplier. The status of Ligier and who its owners were was also coming under scrutiny. The news that Martin Brundle had signed with them for 1995 brought up rumours that Tom Walkinshaw was the new boss of the team. Walkinshaw's move to Ligier from Benetton (where he had been Benetton's Engineering Director) was part of the agreement between Flavio Briatore and FIA's Max Mosley the previous year to get Benetton regarding the use of an illegal fuel filter in the 1994 German Grand Prix. Benetton admitted that the filter was illegal on the understanding that major changes would be made within the team. Briatore appeared to have asked Walkinshaw to control Ligier. Controversy surrounded the Ligier JS41 car, with rival team owners comparing it to the Benetton B195 car because of their similar design, the only apparent difference being the engine in each car. Commenting on the design similarities, Walkinshaw said:


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: At the front of the field, Michael Schumacher and Damon Hill in the Benetton and Williams cars respectively were the favourites to battle for the Drivers' Championship, with Schumacher anticipating a "struggle" for the championship. Bernard Dudot, Renault Sport's Chief Engineer, said that he believed Benetton was less well-prepared than Williams, as the former team had changed its engine supplier to Renault, whereas Williams had been in partnership with the company since .


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: McLaren were also concerned about the standard refuelling equipment provided for 1995 by suppliers Intertechnique, having suffered a major leak in a test of the new rig outside of its factory. Intertechnique had redesigned the fuel equipment, which was used by all of the teams, in the wake of a pit lane fire suffered by driver Jos Verstappen during the previous year's German Grand Prix. The new fuel rigs, in addition to being half the size of the 1994, also featured longer nozzles, and were designed to lock onto the car before any fuel could begin to flow. Intertechnique traced the problem to a faulty valve within the equipment, which caused of fuel to leak, and modified the parts accordingly. It was only the seventeenth race since refuelling had been reintroduced to the sport at the start of the 1994 season.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Another rule revision meant that the minimum weight limit of applied to both car and driver together. Prior to the first session of the season, all of the drivers were weighed to establish a reference weight to be used on occasions when the two were weighed separately, or if the driver was unavailable to be weighed. As such, a small competitive advantage could be established if the driver attempted to register a weight as heavy as possible, so their actual weight when driving the car would be lower.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The following teams and drivers competed in the 1995 FIA Formula One World Championship. All teams competed with tyres supplied by Goodyear.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The Argentine Grand Prix returned after a 14-year absence, it had been originally scheduled in 1994 but it was cancelled as the Autódromo Oscar Alfredo Gálvez track was still undergoing work and the owners were not finished with the project. The project was completed in time for 1995 with the race held on 9 April.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The Pacific Grand Prix was originally scheduled for 16 April, but was moved to 22 October due to the effects of the Great Hanshin earthquake.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The Spanish Grand Prix and Monaco Grand Prix swapped places on the calendar so that the Monaco round follows the Spanish Grand Prix.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The European Grand Prix moved from the Circuito Permanente de Jerez to the Nürburgring, it was the first time since 1985 that a F1 race was held at the Nürburgring.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The 1995 F1 season featured several dramatic incidents, including seven Grands Prix affected by rain and four Grands Prix which were red-flagged on the first lap of the race.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The Formula One regulations underwent several changes prior to the 1995 season. The most significant change was to the engine capacity, which was reduced from 3.5 litres to 3.0 litres in order to reduce horsepower. Higher sidepods were required, together with raised cockpit side protection (above shoulder height; to be raised even more for ) and a larger cockpit opening than that of the 1994 cars. The front and rear wings were reduced in depth to lessen downforce, thereby reducing cornering speeds. To further reduce downforce, the flat-bottomed undertray which was made mandatory in was to now feature a large "stepped" section underneath each sidepod, raised about an inch higher and parallel to the wooden plank originally introduced in 1994. The overall height of the car was also lowered. Deformable structures, particularly the sidepods and nose section, were subject to more stringent crash testing. Many of these changes were in reaction to the deaths of Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, who both died of head and neck injuries. Some of the circuits were also changed, with larger run-off areas featuring at tracks such as Monza and Imola.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The Benetton team had Renault V10 engines for the first time, after running Ford V8s for several years. Michael Schumacher won nine out of the seventeen Grands Prix, and won his second World Championship. Schumacher's main title rival was Damon Hill, who was driving for Williams-Renault. Hill and Schumacher were involved in some very close battles at numerous races, including at the 1995 Belgian Grand Prix, where the two championship contenders fought wheel-to-wheel for extended periods. Making its last appearance in F1 to date was the V12, used consistently by Ferrari since the 640 in . They would use V10s in 1996.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Damon Hill received criticism during 1995, after several incidents that were attributed to driving errors. The 1995 British Grand Prix was overshadowed by a controversial collision between Hill and Schumacher, and Hill was widely blamed for the accident. Hill also suffered with mechanical problems in his Williams-Renault.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Jean Alesi won the 1995 Canadian Grand Prix, which was his first and only victory in Formula One. Alesi also nearly won the European, Italian and Japanese Grand Prix, only being passed by Schumacher with a few laps to go in the former, and retiring with a wheel bearing and driveshaft failure in the latter two, respectively.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: Nigel Mansell made a brief return to Formula One with McLaren. The McLaren-Mercedes cockpit was initially too small for Mansell, and he had to miss the first two races whilst McLaren redesigned the monocoque. His eventual return for the 1995 San Marino Grand Prix was disappointing, and he was outpaced by Häkkinen. After another disappointing race at the Spanish Grand Prix Mansell and McLaren parted ways, and Mark Blundell drove the second McLaren for the remainder of 1995. Mika Häkkinen suffered serious head injuries after a high-speed crash during the first qualifying session on the Friday of the 1995 Australian Grand Prix. The fast actions of the medical crew, including performing an emergency tracheotomy, saved his life, and he later returned to the track in . Later that year, Mansell revealed that he intended to "fight for the championship with Williams", but the Williams team chose David Coulthard instead.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: One of the rookies for 1995 was Taki Inoue who drove for Footwork Arrows. During the first qualifying session for the 1995 Monaco Grand Prix his car stalled on the track, and the session was stopped in order to recover the car. A course car driven by Jean Ragnotti was travelling too fast and Ragnotti was unsighted by the barriers on the twisty circuit. Ragnotti's car crashed into Inoue's stranded car, flipping the Arrows. Inoue was knocked unconscious but he recovered and took part in the race on Sunday. At the 1995 Hungarian Grand Prix Inoue's car retired with a mechanical problem. He got out of his car and grabbed a fire extinguisher in order to put out a small fire on his car. Inoue then walked into the path of a course car, and was knocked over. Inoue bounced off the front of the car and collapsed on to the grass. He suffered minor leg injuries.


title: 1995 Formula One World Championship

text: The 1995 season also included a single event which did not count towards the World Championship, the Formula One Indoor Trophy at the Bologna Motor Show.


title: Toyota War

text: The Toyota War (, ) or Great Toyota War was the last phase of the Chadian–Libyan conflict, which took place in 1987 in Northern Chad and on the Libyan–Chadian border. It takes its name from the Toyota pickup trucks used, primarily the Toyota Hilux and the Toyota Land Cruiser, to provide mobility for the Chadian troops as they fought against the Libyans, and as technicals. The 1987 war resulted in a heavy defeat for Libya, which, according to American sources, lost one tenth of its army, with 7,500 men killed and US$1.5 billion worth of military equipment destroyed or captured. Chadian forces only suffered 1,000 deaths.


title: Toyota War

text: The war began with the Libyan occupation of northern Chad in 1983, when Libya's leader Muammar Gaddafi, refusing to recognise the legitimacy of the Chadian President Hissène Habré, militarily supported the attempt by the opposition Transitional Government of National Unity (GUNT) to overthrow Habré. The plan was foiled by the intervention of France which, first with Operation Manta and later with Operation Epervier, limited Libyan expansion to north of the 16th parallel, in the most arid and sparsely inhabited part of Chad.


title: Toyota War

text: In 1986 the GUNT rebelled against Gaddafi, stripping Libya of its main cover of legitimacy for its military presence in Chad. Seeing an occasion to unify Chad behind him, Habré ordered his forces to pass the 16th parallel so as to link up with the GUNT rebels (who were fighting the Libyans in Tibesti) in December. A few weeks later a bigger force struck at Fada, destroying the local Libyan garrison. In three months, combining methods of guerilla and conventional warfare in a common strategy, Habré was able to retake almost all of northern Chad, and in the following months, inflicted new heavy defeats on the Libyans, until a ceasefire putting an end to the conflict was signed in September. The ceasefire left open the issue of the disputed Aouzou Strip, which was eventually assigned to Chad by the International Court of Justice in 1994.


title: Toyota War

text: Since 1983 Chad was "de facto" partitioned, with the northern half controlled by the rebel Transitional Government of National Unity (GUNT) headed by Goukouni Oueddei and supported on the ground by Libyan forces, while the south was held by the Western-backed Chadian government guided by Hissène Habré. This partition on 16th parallel (the so-called Red Line) into Libyan and French zones of influence was informally recognised by France in 1984, following an accord between France and Libya to withdraw their forces from Chad. The accord was not respected by Libya, which maintained at least 3,000 men stationed in northern Chad.


title: Toyota War

text: During the period between 1984 and 1986, in which no major clash took place, Habré greatly strengthened his position thanks to Western support and Libya's failure to respect the Franco-Libyan 1984 agreement. From 1984 onwards, the GUNT also suffered increasing factional tensions, centered on the fight between Goukouni and Acheikh ibn Oumar over the leadership of the organisation. Taking advantage of the GUNT's difficulties, Habré struck a series of accords with smaller rebel factions, which left the GUNT at the beginning of 1986 with only three of the eleven factions that had originally signed the Lagos Accord in 1979. The remaining factions were Goukouni's People's Armed Forces (FAP), Acheikh's armed branch of the Democratic Revolutionary Council (CDR) and that part of the Chadian Armed Forces (FAT) which had maintained its loyalty to Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué.


title: Toyota War

text: At the opening of 1987, the last year of the war, the Libyan expeditionary force was still impressive, comprising 8,000 soldiers, 300 tanks, multiple rocket launchers (rocket artillery) and regular artillery pieces, Mi-24 helicopters, and sixty combat aircraft. These forces did not have a unified command, but were divided into an Operational Group South, active in the Tibesti with 2,500 men, and an Operational Group East, centered in Faya-Largeau.


title: Toyota War

text: Apparently formidable, the Libyan military disposition in Chad was marred by serious flaws. The Libyans were prepared for a war in which they would provide ground and air support to their Chadian allies, act as assault infantry, and provide reconnaissance. By 1987, however, Muammar Gaddafi had lost his allies, exposing Libya's inadequate knowledge of the area. Libyan garrisons came to resemble isolated and vulnerable islands in the Chadian Sahara. Also important was the low morale among the troops, who were fighting in a foreign country, and the structural disorganisation of the military of Libya, which was in part induced by Muammar Gaddafi's fear of a military coup against him. This fear led him to avoid the professionalisation of the armed forces.


title: Toyota War

text: The Libyans had also to deal with the greatly strengthened Chadian National Armed Forces (FANT), which was composed of 10,000 highly motivated soldiers, led by experienced and able commanders, such as Idriss Déby, Hassan Djamous and Head of State Hissène Habré himself. And while FANT previously had no air power, limited mobility and few anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons, by 1987 it could count on the French Air Force to keep Libyan aircraft grounded and, most importantly, to provide 400 new Toyota pickups equipped with MILAN anti-tank guided missiles. It is these trucks that gave the name "Toyota War" to this last phase of the Chadian-Libyan conflict.


title: Toyota War

text: Habré selected as the first target for his reconquest of northern Chad the well-fortified Libyan communications base of Fada. It was defended by 2,000 Libyans and the bulk of the Democratic Revolutionary Council (CDR) militia (Gaddafi's closest Chadian allies), well-provided with armour and artillery. Hassan Djamous, the thirty-year-old FANT commander-in-chief, pitched about 4,000–5,000 men against Fada's Libyan garrison. Taking advantage of his army's superior knowledge of the terrain, which apparently included unknown access points to the base, Djamous avoided a frontal assault and used his forces' high mobility to surround the Libyan positions and then unleashed his troops, destroying the defending garrison. In the battle, 784 Libyans were killed and 100 tanks destroyed, while only 50 FANT soldiers died.


title: Toyota War

text: The unexpected defeat stunned Gaddafi, who then reacted on 4 January by recalling to service all of the army reservists. In an act of defiance towards France, he also ordered the bombing of Arada, well south of the 16th parallel. France retaliated with a new airstrike on Ouadi Doum and destroyed its radar system, effectively blinding the Libyan Air Force in Chad for several months. Gaddafi attempted to contain the FANT threat by rushing several new battalions into Chad (especially to Faya-Largeau and Ouadi Doum), including units of the elite Revolutionary Guard. This brought the amount of Libyan forces in the country to a total of 11,000 by March.


title: Toyota War

text: In March 1987, the main Libyan air base of Ouadi Doum was captured by Chadian forces. Although strongly defended by minefields, 5,000 soldiers, tanks, armoured vehicles, and aircraft, the Libyans' base fell to a smaller Chadian attacking force led by Djamous equipped with trucks mounted with machine guns and antitank weapons. Observers estimated that, in the Chadian victories in the first three months of 1987, more than 3,000 Libyan soldiers had been killed, captured, or deserted. Large numbers of tanks, armoured personnel carriers, artillery, fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters were captured or destroyed. In some cases, Libya sent its own aircraft to bomb abandoned Libyan equipment to deny its use to the Chadians. It was reported that, in many cases, Libyan soldiers had been killed while fleeing to avoid battle. At Ouadi Doum, panicked Libyans had suffered high casualties running through their own minefields.


title: Toyota War

text: The fall of Ouadi Doum was a severe setback for Libya. Deserted by most of their Chadian allies, Libyan forces found themselves isolated in foreign territory, and the loss of the main Libyan air base in Chad prevented Libya from providing close air cover to its troops. In general, the offensive against FANT had exposed the vulnerability of Libya's heavy armour to a more mobile enemy. On Gaddafi's orders, a general withdrawal was undertaken from Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture, beginning with Faya-Largeau. The town had served as the main Libyan base during the preceding four years, but was in danger of being encircled. Its garrison of 3,000 men, together with the survivors of Ouadi Doum, retired toward the Libyan base at Maatan-as-Sarra, north of the Chadian border. In an attempt to reduce the damage inflicted to his international standing, Gaddafi announced that Libya had won the confrontation, and was now leaving Chad so that the opposition could play its part in fighting Habré.


title: Toyota War

text: These military actions left Habré in control of Chad and in a position to threaten the expulsion of Libya from the Aouzou Strip, affected the international perception of Libya as a significant regional military power, and cast renewed doubt on the competence and determination of Libyan soldiers, especially in engagements beyond the country's borders to which they evidently felt no personal commitment.


title: Toyota War

text: The Toyota War attracted considerable interest in the United States, where the possibility of using Habré to overthrow Gaddafi was given serious consideration. As part of the Reagan Administration's support for his government, Habré, during a visit to Washington, received a pledge of US$32 million worth of aid, including Stinger anti-aircraft missiles.


title: Toyota War

text: In August 1987, the encouraged Chadians carried their offensive into the disputed Aouzou Strip, occupying the town of Aouzou following another battle in which the Libyans suffered severe losses in troops and abandoned equipment. In retaliation, Libya intensified its air bombardments of towns in the north, usually from altitudes beyond the range of FANT's shoulder-fired missiles. Appeals by Habré for French air missions to defend the area against the bombing were rejected, as Aouzou had been retaken against the wishes of French President François Mitterrand. Instead, Mitterrand called for international mediation to settle competing claims to the disputed territory.


title: Toyota War

text: After a succession of counterattacks, toward the end of August the Libyans finally drove the 400 Chadian soldiers out of the town. This victory – the first by Libyan ground forces since the start of the Toyota War – was apparently achieved through close-range air strikes, which were followed by ground troops advancing cross-country in jeeps, Toyota all-terrain trucks, and light armoured vehicles. For the Libyans, who had previously relied on ponderous tracked armour, the assault represented a conversion to the desert warfare tactics developed by FANT. To highlight the victory, Gaddafi flew foreign journalists to the region, so the news of his victory could reach the headlines.


title: Toyota War

text: Habré quickly reacted to this setback and to the continued bombing of FANT concentrations in northern Chad. On September 5, 1987 he mounted a surprise raid against the key Libyan air base at Maaten al-Sarra. Reportedly, 1,000 Libyans were killed, 300 were captured, and hundreds of others were forced to flee into the surrounding desert. Chad claimed that its troops destroyed about 32 aircraft – including Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighters, Sukhoi Su-22 fighter-bombers, and Mil Mi-24 helicopters – before the FANT column withdrew to Chadian soil.


title: Toyota War

text: The attack had been opposed by France, which refused to provide FANT with intelligence and logistical support, causing FANT to suffer considerable losses. The French Defence Minister André Giraud let it be known that "France was not implicated in any way" in the attack and "had not been informed of it". The American reaction was markedly different, as it had previously supported the attempted reconquest of the Aouzou Strip; it now welcomed the Chadian raid.


title: Toyota War

text: Because of domestic opposition, internal demoralisation, and international hostility, Gaddafi assumed a more conciliatory attitude following his defeat. On the other side, Habré also found himself vulnerable, as the French feared that the attack on Maatan as-Sarrah was only the first stage of a general offensive into Libya proper, a possibility that France was not disposed to tolerate. As a result, Mitterrand forced Habré to accept the mediation efforts of the Organisation of African Unity's Chairman, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, which resulted in a ceasefire on 11 September.


title: Toyota War

text: It was assumed that war would, sooner or later, resume, but in the end the ceasefire violations were relatively minor. Gaddafi announced in May 1988 that he would recognise Habré as President of Chad "as a gift to Africa", even if Libya refused to leave the disputed Aouzou Strip. On 3 October the two countries resumed diplomatic relations, and another important step was made when the two countries agreed in September 1990 to refer the dispute to the International Court of Justice. On 3 February 1994, the court ruled in favour of Chad, thus definitively solving the Aouzou controversy by assigning the territory to the southern country. Monitored by international observers, the withdrawal of Libyan troops from the Strip began on the 15 April and was completed by the 10 May. The formal and final transfer of the Aouzou Strip from Libya to Chad took place on the 30 May, when the sides signed a joint declaration stating that the Libyan withdrawal had been effected.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "Three Hopes" is set in the same universe as "Three Houses"; although characters and story elements from the original game (including the "Cindered Shadows" DLC) are heavily featured, it takes place in an alternative timeline and features a new character named Shez as its protagonist. In "Three Hopes", Shez, a mercenary whose team was decimated by Byleth in battle, joins the military academy of Garreg Mach Monastery and becomes a student in one of three classes, each including students from one of the three nations of the continent of Fódlan. Like in "Three Houses", the game allows players to decide which class to join, leading to different story paths and playable characters.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: Much like its predecessor, "Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes" is a hack-and-slash action role-playing game with gameplay similar to the "Dynasty Warriors" series. Players will control characters from "Fire Emblem: Three Houses" including Edelgard, Dimitri, Claude, and a new character, Shez, who like most avatars in the "Fire Emblem" series, can be either male or female.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: The game takes place on the continent of Fódlan in an alternative timeline to that of "Fire Emblem: Three Houses". In the tradition of "Three Houses", the game has three unique storylines: Scarlet Blaze, Azure Gleam, and Golden Wildfire, each following one of the three house leaders. It diverges from the storyline of its predecessor game in that Byleth, the playable character of "Fire Emblem: Three Houses", serves as an antagonist. "Three Hopes" introduces several new characters to fight alongside the cast of "Three Houses", including Shez, a mercenary Byleth previously encountered, and Arval, a mysterious white-robed being who opposes Sothis in the game's cover art.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: The mercenary Shez is defeated in battle by the Ashen Demon Byleth, vessel of the progenitor god Sothis, and their father Jeralt; Shez only survives due to the intervention of a mysterious being named Arval and swears revenge. Six months later, Shez rescues three nobles from a bandit attack: Edelgard von Hresvelg, princess of the Adrestian Empire, Dimitri Alexandre Blaiddyd, prince of the Holy Kingdom of Faerghus, and Claude von Riegan, heir to the leading house of the Leicester Alliance. As a reward, Archbishop Rhea of the Church of Seiros allows Shez to enroll in the Officer's Academy, an elite military academy for Fódlan's brightest students. Shez and their classmates rescue Monica, a former student who was abducted by "Those Who Slither in the Dark", a fanatical cult that seeks to conquer Fódlan. Afterward, the three lords are forced to depart the Academy when a crisis strikes their homelands. Edelgard launches a coup to overthrow Thales, the leader of Those Who Slither in the Dark who has taken effective control of the Empire; Dimitri suppresses a coup launched by his uncle and regent Rufus; and Claude defends Leicester's eastern border from an invasion by Shahid, an avaricious prince of the eastern kingdom of Almyra and Claude's half-brother. Shez accompanies their chosen lord and remains in their service for the next two years. All three lords are crowned leaders of their respective countries. Two years later, Edelgard declares war on the Church of Seiros, believing it to be corrupt.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: Edelgard and her forces claim Garreg Mach for the Empire, forcing the Church of Seiros to seek aid from the Kingdom. The Empire manages to hold back troops from the Kingdom and Alliance to secure key locations in the west and east. Months later, Edelgard and Claude form a pact for the Empire and Alliance to work together to defeat the Kingdom and Church of Seiros. As their forces begin to surround the Kingdom, many Adrestrian territories are suddenly attacked by "Those Who Slither in the Dark" and a revolt led by Duke Aegir. Edelgard's army slays Duke Aegir and contains most of the chaos before advancing back to the Kingdom. While the Empire and Alliance fight the Kingdom and Church of Seiros in the north, Rhea uses a secret passage and leads her soldiers to reclaim Garreg Mach, which is also approached by Thales and "Those Who Slither in the Dark". Edelgard's forces manage to hold back both armies until Rhea and Thales seemingly kill each other. With their absences, the influence of the Central Church wanes, and "Those Who Slither in the Dark" vanish.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: There are two endings to this route that are determined by Shez deciding to recruit or kill Jeralt and Byleth. If they kill Jeralt, Byleth joins Claude and encourages him to break the pact with the Empire during the battle with the Kingdom and Church in the north; Claude's forces are defeated in a three-way battle, which causes all three ruling powers of Fódlan to return to war against each other with no end in sight. If they are recruited, Claude maintains the pact, and the Empire and Alliance prepare for their final battle with the Kingdom to bring an end to the war.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: Dimitri chooses to provide asylum to the Church of Seiros and go to war against the Empire. As they attempt to reclaim western territories, they face a revolt from the traitorous former royal family mage Cornelia and the western lords. After they defeat her, Cornelia tells Dimitri that his stepmother, Edelgard's mother, was involved in the Tragedy of Duscur and encourages him to seek answers from Edelgard before dying. The Kingdom and the Empire face off in Arianhrod, with the Kingdom emerging victorious. Before Dimitri can kill Edelgard, Thales appears and attacks both of them. Edelgard reveals that he was responsible for the death of Dimitri's father before he uses his magic to subdue and put her under his control. With the Empire becoming more chaotic under Thales and Duke Aegir's leadership, Claude and Dimitri form a partnership so the combined forces of Leicester, Faerghus, and the Church of Seiros can take down Adrestia. After splitting up the Empire's western and eastern forces, Dimitri and his army successfully kill Duke Aegir and Thales and free Edelgard from Thales's mind control. This forces Adrestria back on all fronts and radically transforms the power structure throughout Fódlan as the allied forces press south to crush the Empire for good.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: Claude initially opposes Edelgard in defense of Leicester. However, an attempt to counter invade the Empire is interrupted when Shahid launches another attack on the Alliance, forcing Claude to break his momentum against Adrestia to repel and kill Shahid. Claude negotiates a ceasefire with Edelgard. Four months later, the Alliance is reformed as the Leicester Federation, with Claude as its first king. Claude, who agrees with Edelgard's belief that the Rhea is stagnating Fódlan, sets out to kill Rhea and cripple the Church's military and political power. Claude drives Dimitri to the capital of Faerghus but is forced to back down when those who slither in the dark incite civil unrest in Leicester. The Empire and Federation defeat the Kingdom and Church in battle, leading Dimitri to abandon the Church to protect Faerghus, allowing Claude and Shez to battle and kill Rhea. With his goal complete, Claude proposes an end to the war, although it is uncertain whether his words will be heeded.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: In all three routes, Byleth and Jeralt are hired by factions opposed to Shez and hinder them throughout the war. If Shez kills Jeralt in battle, Byleth swears revenge and sacrifices their mortal body to Sothis. Sothis attacks Shez, but she and Byleth are killed in the ensuing battle, leaving Shez with regrets. If Shez convinces Byleth and Jeralt to surrender, the two are hired by Shez's faction. Shortly before the final battle, Arval possesses Shez and attempts to kill Byleth. When Shez's allies intervene, Arval banishes them, Edelgard, Dimitri, and Claude to another dimension using the Forbidden Spell of Zaharas. Arval is revealed to be the vessel for the soul of Epimenides, a powerful member of "Those Who Slither in the Dark" bent on killing Sothis. Shez and the three lords kill Epimenides and return to their world to continue the war.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: The title was initially revealed at a Nintendo Direct held on February 9, 2022 with a trailer revealing only the returns of Byleth, Edelgard, Dimitri, and Claude. On April 12, 2022, a trailer titled "Mysterious Mercenary" was released, announcing that Byleth would serve as an antagonist, Shez would be a new protagonist of selectable gender, Hubert, Dedue, and Hilda would be playable characters, and that the game would feature three diverging paths, similar to "Three Houses". Over the course of May 2022, three trailers were released focusing on the Black Eagles, Blue Lions, and Golden Deer respectively, with each revealing updated designs for all of the students from "Three Houses". A final trailer was released on June 8, 2022 confirming the return of the Ashen Wolves characters from the "Cindered Shadows" DLC story in "Three Houses". After the trailer was posted, a demo was released on the Nintendo eShop later that day, which allowed progression up to Chapter 4.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "Three Hopes", along with "", were the final video games to feature the voicework of Billy Kametz, who died of colon cancer on June 9, 2022. Both games were released just 2 weeks after his death.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "Eurogamer", playing the demo, felt the game was "a significant improvement over the first "Fire Emblem Warriors"", citing deeper strategy and more polish. "VG247" and "Nintendo Life" also praised the demo, calling it "the most fun [they've] had with a Nintendo Musou since the original "Hyrule Warriors"" and "set to improve everything about its predecessor", respectively.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes" received an aggregate score of 81/100 on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. While critics felt that "Three Hopes" improved upon its predecessor with good performance and increased depth and appealed to fans of the "Warriors" games, they noted that it would fail to compel those who did not favor its signature hack and slash gameplay.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "Destructoid" lauded the title's incorporation of tension and technical nuance seen in the warp mechanic, micro-narratives, and last-second enemy ambushes, but concluded by stating, "There's flashes of mechanical brilliance in "Three Hopes", that show how the game's combat could have further differentiated itself from the games before it; but [developer] Omega Force doesn't fully commit." "Eurogamer" recommended the title, calling it "an inventive twist on...the musou formula" and "a high point for the genre", while praising the satisfying exploration incentives, addition of strategy resources, and strategic gameplay elements. "Game Informer" said that the game was "a blast to play and packs a story just as thrilling as "Three Houses"" and praised the enemy variety, character interactions, and highly engaging narrative, but took issue with the subpar visuals, poor pacing, and late-game twists that lacked impact.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "GameSpot" liked the addition of mid-battle fast-travel options, effective character development, and noted that it ran "surprisingly well with fast load times compared to past "Musou" games", but was critical of the "staggering amount of tutorials", unengaging political narrative, and bad placement of checkpoints. "GamesRadar+" criticized the sidelining of the cast of characters from "Three Houses" but appreciated its influence on the gameplay of "Three Hopes", writing, ""Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes" almost pulls off what should be an audacious crossover – frantic large-scale, "Dynasty Warriors"-style battles with some of the tactical depth which made "Fire Emblem" so famous." "IGN" similarly wrote in favor of the game but disliked its pacing, stating, ""Three Hopes" packs in too much filler even when you ignore everything optional, leading to some obnoxious repetition over the course of its 25-ish hours." "Nintendo Life" gave high praise to the improvements made to the story, performance, tactical depth, replayability, and relationship building upon previous titles but noted that the game faltered in terms of its pacing and occasional slowdown.


title: Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes

text: "Fire Emblem Warriors: Three Hopes" sold 97,538 physical copies within its first week of release in Japan, making it the bestselling retail game of the week in the country. The game also topped the weekly sales chart upon release in South Korea, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: The Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect, is a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area. The effect is named for the Greek myth of Pygmalion, the sculptor who fell so much in love with the perfectly beautiful statue he created that the statue came to life. The psychologists Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, in their book "Pygmalion in the Classroom", borrowed something of the myth by advancing the idea that teachers' expectations of their students affect the students' performance, a view that has been called into question as a result of later research findings.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: Rosenthal and Jacobson held that high expectations lead to better performance and low expectations lead to worse, both effects leading to self-fulfilling prophecy. According to the Pygmalion effect, the targets of the expectations internalize their positive labels, and those with positive labels succeed accordingly; a similar process works in the opposite direction in the case of low expectations. The idea behind the Pygmalion effect is that increasing the leader's expectation of the follower's performance will result in better follower performance. Within sociology, the effect is often cited with regard to education and social class.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson's study showed that, if teachers were led to expect enhanced performance from children, then the children's performance was enhanced. By the same token, if teachers were led to expect lower performance from children, then the children's performance would be diminished. The authors purported that the study's results supported the hypothesis that performance can be positively or negatively influenced by the expectations of others. This phenomenon is called the observer-expectancy effect. Rosenthal argued that biased expectancies could affect reality and create self-fulfilling prophecies.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: All students in a single California elementary school were given a disguised IQ test at the beginning of the study. These scores were not disclosed to teachers. Teachers were told that some of their students (about 20% of the school chosen at random) could be expected to be "intellectual bloomers" that year, doing better than expected in comparison to their classmates. The bloomers' names were made known to the teachers. At the end of the study, all students were again tested with the same IQ test used at the beginning of the study. All six grades in both experimental and control groups showed a mean gain in IQ from before the test to after the test. However, first- and second-graders showed statistically significant gains favoring the experimental group of "intellectual bloomers." This led to the conclusion that teacher expectations, particularly for the youngest children, can influence student achievement. Rosenthal believed that even attitude or mood could positively affect the students when the teacher was made aware of the "bloomers." The teacher may pay closer attention to and even treat the child differently in times of difficulty.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: Rosenthal predicted that elementary school teachers may subconsciously behave in ways that facilitate and encourage the students' success. When finished, Rosenthal theorized that future studies could be implemented to find teachers who would encourage their students naturally without changing their teaching methods. Rosenthal and Jacobson's study of the Pygmalion effect was criticized for both weak methodology and lack of replicability (see "Pygmalion in the Classroom").


title: Pygmalion effect

text: The prior research that motivated this study was conducted in 1911 by psychologists regarding the case of Clever Hans, a horse that gained notoriety because it was supposed to be able to read, spell, and solve math problems by using its hoof to answer. Many skeptics suggested that questioners and observers were unintentionally signaling Clever Hans. For instance, whenever Clever Hans was asked a question the observers' demeanor usually elicited a certain behavior from the subject that in turn confirmed their expectations. For example, Clever Hans would be given a math problem to solve, and the audience would get very tense the closer he tapped his foot to the right number, thus giving Hans the clue he needed to tap the correct number of times.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: The educational psychologist Robert L. Thorndike described the poor quality of the Pygmalion study. The problem with the study was that the instrument used to assess the children's IQ scores was seriously flawed. The average reasoning IQ score for the children in one regular class was in the mentally disabled range, a highly unlikely outcome in a regular class in a garden variety school. In the end, Thorndike concluded that the Pygmalion findings were worthless. It is more likely that the rise in IQ scores from the mentally disabled range was the result of regression toward the mean, not teacher expectations. Moreover, a meta-analysis conducted by Raudenbush showed that when teachers had gotten to know their students for two weeks, the effect of a prior expectancy induction was reduced to virtually zero.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: Teachers are also affected by the children in the classroom. Teachers reflect what is projected into them by their students. An experiment done by Jenkins and Deno (1969) submitted teachers to a classroom of children who had either been told to be attentive, or unattentive, to the teachers' lecture. They found that teachers who were in the attentive condition would rate their teaching skills as higher. Similar findings by Herrell (1971) suggested that when a teacher was preconditioned to classrooms as warm or cold, the teacher would start to gravitate towards their precondition. To further this concept, Klein (1971) did the same kind of study involving teachers still unaware of any precondition to the classroom but with the class full of confederates who were instructed to act differently during periods over the course of the lecture. "Klein reported that there was little difference between students' behaviors in the natural and the positive conditions." In a more observational study designed to remove the likes of the Hawthorne effect, Oppenlander (1969) studied the top and bottom 20% of students in the sixth grade from a school that tracks and organizes its students under such criteria.


title: Pygmalion effect

text: Leader expectations of an employee may alter leader behavior. The behavior a leader directs at an employee can affect employee behavior consistent with the leader's expectations. For example, a leader may expect an employee to be engaged in learning activities. In turn, the employee may engage in more learning, consistent with the idea self-fulfilling prophesy. Of course, leaders have power over employees (including the power to fire an employee) and, thus, behavior change in employees may be the result of that power differential.


title: Pope Joan

text: Pope Joan (Ioannes Anglicus, 855–857) was, according to legend, a woman who reigned as pope for two years during the Middle Ages. Her story first appeared in chronicles in the 13th century and subsequently spread throughout Europe. The story was widely believed for centuries, but most modern scholars regard it as fictional.


title: Pope Joan

text: Most versions of her story describe her as a talented and learned woman who disguised herself as a man, often at the behest of a lover. In the most common accounts, owing to her abilities she rose through the church hierarchy and was eventually elected pope. Her sex was revealed when she gave birth during a procession and she died shortly after, either through murder or of natural causes. The accounts state that later church processions avoided this spot and that the Vatican removed the female pope from its official lists and crafted a ritual to ensure that future popes were male. In the 16th century, Siena Cathedral featured a bust of Joan among other pontiffs; this was removed after protests in 1600.


title: Pope Joan

text: Jean de Mailly's chronicle, written around 1250, contains the first mention of an unnamed female pope and inspired several more accounts over the next several years. The most popular and influential version is that interpolated into Martin of Opava's "Chronicon Pontificum et Imperatorum" later in the 13th century. Martin introduced details that the female pope's birth name was John Anglicus of Mainz, that she reigned in the 9th century and that she entered the church to follow her lover. The existence of Pope Joan was used in the defence of Walter Brut in his trial of 1391. The legend was generally accepted as true until the 16th century, when a widespread debate among Catholic and Protestant writers called the story into question: various writers noted the implausibly long gap between Joan's supposed lifetime and her first appearance in texts. Protestant scholar David Blondel ultimately demonstrated the impossibility of the story. Pope Joan is now widely considered fictional, though the legend remains influential in cultural depictions.


title: Pope Joan

text: The earliest mention of a female pope appears in the Dominican Jean de Mailly's chronicle of Metz, "Chronica Universalis Mettensis", written in the early 13th century. In his telling the female pope is not named and the events are set in 1099. According to Jean:


title: Pope Joan

text: Jean de Mailly's story was picked up by his fellow Dominican Stephen of Bourbon, who adapted it for his work on the "Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost". However the legend gained its greatest prominence when it appeared in the third "recension" (edited revision) of Martin of Opava's "Chronicon Pontificum et Imperatorum" later in the 13th century. This version, which may have been by Martin himself, is the first to attach a name to the figure, indicating that she was known as John Anglicus or John of Mainz. It also changes the date from the 11th to the 9th century, indicating that Joan reigned between Leo IV and Benedict III in the 850s. According to the "Chronicon":


title: Pope Joan

text: One version of the "Chronicon" gives an alternative fate for the female pope: she did not die immediately after her exposure but was confined and deposed, after which she did many years of penance. Her son from the affair eventually became Bishop of Ostia and ordered her entombment in his cathedral when she died.


title: Pope Joan

text: Other references to the female pope are attributed to earlier writers, though none appears in manuscripts that predate the "Chronica". The one most commonly cited is Anastasius Bibliothecarius (d. 886), a compiler of "Liber Pontificalis", who was a contemporary of the female Pope by the "Chronicon"'s dating. However the story is found in only one unreliable manuscript of Anastasius. This manuscript, in the Vatican Library, bears the relevant passage inserted as a footnote at the bottom of a page. It is out of sequence and in a different hand, one that dates from after the time of Martin of Opava. This ‘witness’ to the female pope is likely to be based on Martin's account and not a possible source for it. The same is true of Marianus Scotus's "Chronicle of the Popes", a text written in the 11th century. Some of its manuscripts contain a brief mention of a female pope named Johanna (the earliest source to attach to her the female form of the name), but all these manuscripts are later than Martin's work. Earlier manuscripts do not contain the legend.


title: Pope Joan

text: Some versions of the legend suggest that subsequent popes were subjected to an examination whereby, having sat on a so-called "sedia stercoraria" or ‘dung chair’ containing a hole, a cardinal had to reach up and establish that the new pope had testicles before announcing ""Duos habet et bene pendentes"" ("He has two and they dangle nicely"), or ""habet"" ("he has them") for short.


title: Pope Joan

text: There were associated legends as well. In the 1290s the Dominican Robert of Uzès recounted a vision in which he saw the seat "where, it is said, the pope is proved to be a man". Pope Joan has been associated with marvelous happenings. Petrarch (1304–1374) wrote in his "Chronica de le Vite de Pontefici et Imperadori Romani" that after Pope Joan had been revealed as a woman:


title: Pope Joan

text: From the mid-13th century onward the legend was widely disseminated and believed. Joan was used as an "exemplum" in Dominican preaching. Bartolomeo Platina, the scholar who was prefect of the Vatican Library, wrote his "Vitæ Pontificum Platinæ historici liber de vita Christi ac omnium pontificum qui hactenus ducenti fuere et XX" in 1479 at the behest of his patron, Pope Sixtus IV. The book contains the following account of the female Pope:


title: Pope Joan

text: Pope John VIII: John, of English extraction, was born at Mentz (Mainz) and is said to have arrived at popedom by evil art; for disguising herself like a man, whereas she was a woman, she went when young with her paramour, a learned man, to Athens, and made such progress in learning under the professors there that, coming to Rome, she met with few that could equal, much less go beyond her, even in the knowledge of the scriptures; and by her learned and ingenious readings and disputations, she acquired so great respect and authority that upon the death of Pope Leo IV (as Martin says) by common consent she was chosen pope in his room. As she was going to the Lateran Church between the Colossean Theatre (so called from Nero's Colossus) and St. Clement's her travail came upon her, and she died upon the place, having sat two years, one month, and four days, and was buried there without any pomp. This story is vulgarly told, but by very uncertain and obscure authors, and therefore I have related it barely and in short, lest I should seem obstinate and pertinacious if I had admitted what is so generally talked. I had better mistake with the rest of the world, though it be certain, that what I have related may be thought not altogether incredible.


title: Pope Joan

text: References to the female Pope abound in the later Middle Ages and Renaissance. Jans der Enikel (1270s) was the first to tell the story in German. Giovanni Boccaccio wrote about her in "De Mulieribus Claris" (1353). The "Chronicon" of Adam of Usk (1404) gives her a name, Agnes, and furthermore mentions a statue in Rome that is said to be of her. This statue had never been mentioned by any earlier writer anywhere; presumably it was an actual statue that came to be taken to be of the female pope. A late-14th-century edition of the "Mirabilia Urbis Romae", a guidebook for pilgrims to Rome, tells readers that the female Pope's remains are buried at St. Peter's. It was around this time that a long series of busts of past Popes was made for the Duomo of Siena, which included one of the female pope, named as "Johannes VIII, Foemina de Anglia" and included between Leo IV and Benedict III.


title: Pope Joan

text: At his trial in 1415 Jan Hus argued that the Church did not necessarily need a pope because, during the pontificate of "Pope Agnes" (as he also called her), it got on quite well. Hus's opponents at the trial insisted that his argument proved no such thing about the independence of the Church but they did not dispute that there had been a female pope at all.


title: Pope Joan

text: In 1587 Florimond de Raemond, a magistrate in the parlement de Bordeaux and an antiquary, published his first attempt to deconstruct the legend, "Erreur Populaire de la Papesse Jeanne" (also subsequently published under the title "L'Anti-Papesse"). The tract applied humanist techniques of textual criticism to the Pope Joan legend, with the broader intent of supplying sound historical principles to ecclesiastical history, and the legend began to come apart, detail by detail. Raemond's "Erreur Populaire" went through successive editions, reaching a fifteenth as late as 1691.


title: Pope Joan

text: In 1601, Pope Clement VIII declared the legend of the female pope to be untrue. The famous bust of her, inscribed "Johannes VIII, Femina ex Anglia," which had been carved for the series of papal figures in the Duomo di Siena about 1400 and was noted by travelers, was either destroyed or recarved and relabeled, replaced by a male figure, that of Pope Zachary.


title: Pope Joan

text: The legend of Pope Joan was "effectively demolished" by David Blondel, a mid-17th-century Protestant historian, who suggested that Pope Joan's tale may have originated in a satire against Pope John XI, who died in his early 20s. Blondel, through detailed analysis of the claims and suggested timings, argued that no such events could have happened.


title: Pope Joan

text: The 16th-century Italian historian Onofrio Panvinio, commenting on one of Bartolomeo Platina's works that refer to Pope Joan, theorized that the story of Pope Joan may have originated from tales of Pope John XII; John reportedly had many mistresses, including one called Joan, who was very influential in Rome during his pontificate.


title: Pope Joan

text: At the time of the Reformation, various Protestant writers took up the Pope Joan legend in their anti-Catholic writings, and the Catholics responded with their own polemic. According to Pierre Gustave Brunet, Various authors, in the 16th and 17th centuries, occupied themselves with Pope Joan, but it was from the point of view of the polemic engaged in between the partisans of Lutheran or Calvinist reform and the apologists of Catholicism.


title: Pope Joan

text: An English writer, Alexander Cooke, wrote a book entitled "Pope Joane: A Dialogue between a Protestant and a Papist", which purported to prove the existence of Pope Joan by reference to Catholic traditions. It was republished in 1675 as "A Present for a Papist: Or the Life and Death of Pope Joan, Plainly Proving Out of the Printed Copies, and Manscriptes of Popish Writers and Others, That a Woman called Joan, Was Really Pope of Rome, and Was There Deliver'd of a Bastard Son in the Open Street as She Went in Solemn Procession". The book gives an account of Pope Joan giving birth to a son in plain view of all those around, accompanied by a detailed engraving showing a rather surprised looking baby peeking out from under the Pope's robes. Even in the 19th century, authors such as Ewaldus Kist and Karl Hase discussed the story as a real occurrence. However, other Protestant writers, such as David Blondel and Gottfried Leibniz, rejected the story.


title: Pope Joan

text: Most modern scholars dismiss Pope Joan as a medieval legend. British historian John Julius Norwich dismissed the myth with a logical assessment of evidence. The "Oxford Dictionary of Popes" declares that there is "no contemporary evidence for a female Pope at any of the dates suggested for her reign", but nonetheless acknowledges that Pope Joan's legend was widely believed for centuries, even by Catholics.


title: Pope Joan

text: Between Leo IV and Benedict III, where Martinus Polonus places her, she cannot be inserted, because Leo IV died 17 July 855, and immediately after his death Benedict III was elected by the clergy and people of Rome; but, owing to the setting up of an Antipope, in the person of the deposed Cardinal Anastasius, he was not consecrated until 29 September. Coins exist which bear both the image of Benedict III and of Emperor Lothair, who died 28 September 855; therefore Benedict must have been recognized as pope before the last-mentioned date. On 7 October 855, Benedict III issued a charter for the Abbey of Corvey. Hincmar, Archbishop of Reims, informed Nicholas I that a messenger whom he had sent to Leo IV learned on his way of the death of this Pope, and therefore handed his petition to Benedict III, who decided it (Hincmar, ep. xl in P.L., CXXXVI, 85). All these witnesses prove the correctness of the dates given in the lives of Leo IV and Benedict III, and there was no interregnum between these two Popes, so that at this place there is no room for the alleged Popess.


title: Pope Joan

text: It has also been noted that enemies of the papacy in the 9th century make no mention of a female pope. For example, Photios I of Constantinople, who became Patriarch in 858 and was deposed by Pope Nicholas I in 863, was an enemy of the pope. He vehemently asserted his own authority as patriarch over that of the pope in Rome, and would have made the most of any scandal of that time regarding the papacy; but he never mentions the story once in any of his voluminous writings. Indeed, at one point he mentions "Leo and Benedict, successively great priests of the Roman Church".


title: Pope Joan

text: Rosemary and Darroll Pardoe, authors of "The Female Pope: The Mystery of Pope Joan", theorize that if a female pope did exist, a more plausible time frame is 1086 and 1108, when there were several antipopes; during this time the reign of the legitimate popes Victor III, Urban II, and Paschal II was not always established in Rome, since the city was occupied by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and later sacked by the Normans. This also agrees with the earliest known version of the legend, by Jean de Mailly, as he places the story in the year 1099. De Mailly's account was acknowledged by his companion Stephen of Bourbon.


title: Pope Joan

text: Peter Stanford, a British writer and former editor of "The Catholic Herald", concluded in "The Legend of Pope Joan: In Search of the Truth" (2000) "Weighing all th[e] evidence, I am convinced that Pope Joan was an historical figure, though perhaps not all the details about her that have been passed on down the centuries are true". Stanford's work has been criticised as "credulous" by one mainstream historian, Vincent DiMarco.


title: Pope Joan

text: Against the lack of historical evidence to her existence, the question remains as to why the Pope Joan story has been popular and widely believed. Philip Jenkins in "" suggests that the periodic revival of what he calls this "anti-papal legend" has more to do with feminist and anti-Catholic wishful thinking than historical accuracy.


title: Pope Joan

text: The "sede stercoraria", the throne with a hole in the seat, now at St. John Lateran (the formal residence of the popes and center of Catholicism), is to be considered. This and other toilet-like chairs were used in the consecration of Pope Pascal II in 1099. In fact, one is still in the Vatican Museums, another at the Musée du Louvre. The reason for the configuration of the chair is disputed. It has been speculated that they originally were Roman bidets or imperial birthing stools, which because of their age and imperial links were used in ceremonies by Popes intent on highlighting their own imperial claims (as they did also with their Latin title, "Pontifex Maximus").


title: Pope Joan

text: Alain Boureau quotes the humanist Jacopo d'Angelo de Scarparia, who visited Rome in 1406 for the enthronement of Gregory XII. The pope sat briefly on two "pierced chairs" at the Lateran: "... the vulgar tell the insane fable that he is touched to verify that he is indeed a man", a sign that this corollary of the Pope Joan legend was still current in the Roman street.


title: Pope Joan

text: Medieval popes, from the 13th century onward, did indeed avoid the direct route between the Lateran and St Peter's, as Martin of Opava claimed. However, there is no evidence that this practice dated back any earlier. The origin of the practice is uncertain, but it is quite likely that it was maintained because of widespread belief in the Joan legend, and it was thought genuinely to date back to that period.


title: Pope Joan

text: Although some medieval writers referred to the female pope as "John VIII", a genuine Pope John VIII reigned between 872 and 882. Due to the Dark Ages' lack of records, confusion often reigns in the evaluation of events. The Pope Joan legend is also conflated with the gap in the numbering of the Johns. In the 11th century, Pope John XIV was mistakenly counted as two popes. When Petrus Hispanus was elected pope in 1276, he believed that there had already been twenty popes named John, so he skipped the number XX and numbered himself John XXI.


title: Pope Joan

text: In 2018, Michael E. Habicht, an archaeologist at Flinders University, published new evidence in support of an historical Pope Joan. Habicht and grapho-analyst Marguerite Spycher analyzed papal monograms on medieval coins and found that there were two significantly different monograms attributed to Pope John VIII. Habicht argues that the earlier monogram, which he dates from 856 to 858, belongs to Pope Joan, while the latter monogram, which he dates to after 875, belongs to Pope John VIII.


title: Pope Joan

text: Pope Joan has remained a popular subject for fictional works. Plays include Ludwig Achim von Arnim's "Päpstin Johanna" (1813), a fragment by Bertolt Brecht (in "Werke" Bd 10) and a monodrama, "Pausin Johanna", by Cees van der Pluijm (1996).


title: Pope Joan

text: The Greek author Emmanuel Rhoides' 1866 novel, "The Papess Joanne", was admired by Mark Twain and Alfred Jarry and freely translated by Lawrence Durrell as "The Curious History of Pope Joan" (1954). The American Donna Woolfolk Cross's 1996 historical romance, "Pope Joan", was recently made into a German musical as well as the movie described below. Other novels include Wilhelm Smets' "Das Mährchen von der Päpstin Johanna auf’s Neue erörtert" (1829), Marjorie Bowen's "Black Magic" (1909), Ludwig Gorm's "Päpstin Johanna" (1912), Yves Bichet's "La Papesse Jeanne" (2005) and Hugo N. Gerstl's "Scribe: The Story of the Only Female Pope" (2005). Howard Pyle's "The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood" contains a reference.


title: Pope Joan

text: There have been two films based on the story of Pope Joan: "Pope Joan" (1972), directed by Michael Anderson, was entitled "The Devil's Imposter" in the US. In 2009 it was recut to include more of John Briley's original script and released as "She... who would be Pope". Also in 2009, another film with the title "Pope Joan" was released, this one a German, British, Italian and Spanish production directed by Sönke Wortmann and produced by Bernd Eichinger, based on Cross's novel.


title: Pope Joan

text: The 1982 play "Top Girls" by Caryl Churchill featured Pope Joan as a character, who was invited to a restaurant along with other historically important women in the past by a modern-day woman, Marlene, to discuss the restriction of feminism in the past.


title: Pope Joan

text: In the 2016 video game "Persona 5", Pope Joan is referenced as the inspiration for Johanna, one of Makoto Niijima's titular personas (cognitive beings used by humans to battle demons).


title: Pope Joan

text: In July 2019 a theatrical show was held in Malta at Mdina ditch featuring Pope Joan as the main character.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Mac OS (originally System Software; retronym: Classic Mac OS) is the series of operating systems developed for the Macintosh family of personal computers by Apple Computer from 1984 to 2001, starting with System 1 and ending with Mac OS 9. The Macintosh operating system is credited with having popularized the graphical user interface concept. It was included with every Macintosh that was sold during the era in which it was developed, and many updates to the system software were done in conjunction with the introduction of new Macintosh systems.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Apple released the original Macintosh on January 24, 1984. The first version of the system software, which had no official name, was partially based on the Lisa OS, which Apple previously released for the Lisa computer in 1983. As part of an agreement allowing Xerox to buy shares in Apple at a favorable price, it also used concepts from the Xerox PARC Alto computer, which former Apple CEO Steve Jobs and other Lisa team members had previewed. This operating system consisted of the Macintosh Toolbox ROM and the "System Folder", a set of files that were loaded from disk. The name Macintosh System Software came into use in 1987 with System 5. Apple rebranded the system as Mac OS in 1996, starting officially with version 7.6, due in part to its Macintosh clone program. That program ended after the release of Mac OS 8 in 1997. The last major release of the system was Mac OS 9 in 1999.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Initial versions of the System Software ran one application at a time. With the Macintosh 512K, a system extension called the Switcher was developed to use this additional memory to allow multiple programs to remain loaded. The software of each loaded program used the memory exclusively; only when activated by the Switcher did the program appear, even the Finder's desktop. With the Switcher, the now familiar Clipboard feature allowed copy and paste between the loaded programs across switches including the desktop.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: With the introduction of System 5, a cooperative multitasking extension called MultiFinder was added, which allowed content in windows of each program to remain in a layered view over the desktop, and was later integrated into System 7 as part of the operating system along with support for virtual memory. By the mid-1990s, however, contemporary operating systems such as Windows NT, OS/2, and NeXTSTEP had all brought pre-emptive multitasking, protected memory, access controls, and multi-user capabilities to desktop computers. The Macintosh's limited memory management and susceptibility to conflicts among extensions that provide additional functionality, such as networking or support for a particular device, led to significant criticism of the operating system, and was a factor in Apple's declining market share at the time.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: After two aborted attempts at creating a successor to the Macintosh System Software called Taligent and Copland, and a four-year development effort spearheaded by Steve Jobs's return to Apple in 1997, Apple replaced Mac OS with a new operating system in 2001 named Mac OS X; the X signifying the underlying Unix system family base shared with Jobs's development of the NeXTSTEP operating systems on the NeXT computer. It retained most of the user interface design elements of the Classic Mac OS, and there was some overlap of application frameworks for compatibility, but the two operating systems otherwise have completely different origins and architectures.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: The final updates to Mac OS 9 released in 2001 provided interoperability with Mac OS X. The name "Classic" that now signifies the historical Mac OS as a whole is a reference to the Classic Environment, a compatibility layer that helped ease the transition to Mac OS X (now macOS).


title: Classic Mac OS

text: The Macintosh project started in late 1978 with Jef Raskin, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. In September 1979, Raskin began looking for an engineer who could put together a prototype. Bill Atkinson, a member of the Apple Lisa team, introduced Raskin to Burrell Smith, a service technician who had been hired earlier that year.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Apple's concept for the Macintosh deliberately sought to minimize the user's awareness of the operating system. Many basic tasks that required more operating system knowledge on other systems could be accomplished by mouse gestures and graphic controls on a Macintosh. This would differentiate it from its contemporaries such as MS-DOS, which use a command-line interface consisting of terse, abbreviated textual commands.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: In January 1981, Steve Jobs completely took over the Macintosh project. Jobs and a number of Apple engineers visited Xerox PARC in December 1979, three months after the Lisa and Macintosh projects had begun. After hearing about the pioneering GUI technology being developed at Xerox PARC from former Xerox employees like Raskin, Jobs negotiated a visit to see the Xerox Alto computer and Smalltalk development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The final Lisa and Macintosh operating systems use concepts from the Xerox Alto, but many elements of the graphical user interface were created by Apple including the menu bar, pull-down menus, and the concepts of drag and drop and direct manipulation.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Unlike the IBM PC, which uses 8 kB of system ROM for power-on self-test (POST) and basic input/output system (BIOS), the Mac ROM is significantly larger (64 kB) and holds key OS code. Much of the original Mac ROM was coded by Andy Hertzfeld, a member of the original Macintosh team. He was able to conserve precious ROM space by writing routines in assembly language code optimized with "hacks," or clever programming tricks. In addition to the ROM, he also coded the kernel, the Macintosh Toolbox, and some of the desktop accessories (DAs). The icons of the operating system, which represent folders and application software, were designed by Susan Kare, who later designed the icons for Microsoft Windows 3.0. Bruce Horn and Steve Capps wrote the Macintosh Finder, as well as a number of Macintosh system utilities.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Apple aggressively advertised their new machine. After its release, the company bought all 39 pages of advertisement space in the 1984 November/December edition of "Newsweek" magazine. The Macintosh quickly outsold its more sophisticated but much more expensive predecessor, the Lisa. Apple quickly developed MacWorks, a product that allowed the Lisa to emulate Macintosh system software through System 3, by which time it had been discontinued as the rebranded Macintosh XL. Many of the Lisa's operating system advances would not appear in the Macintosh operating system until System 7 or later.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Early versions of Mac OS are compatible only with Motorola 68000-family Macintoshes. As Apple introduced computers with PowerPC hardware, the OS was ported to support this architecture. Mac OS 8.1 is the last version that could run on a 68k processor (the 68040).


title: Classic Mac OS

text: In systems prior to PowerPC G3-based systems, significant parts of the system are stored in physical ROM on the motherboard. The initial purpose of this is to avoid having the OS use up most of the 128KiB RAM of the initial Macintosh—the initial ROMs were 64KiB. This architecture also allows for a completely graphical OS interface at the lowest level without the need for a text-only console or command-line mode: boot time errors, such as finding no functioning disk drives, are communicated to the user graphically, usually with an icon or the distinctive Chicago bitmap font and a Chime of Death or a series of beeps. This is in contrast to MS-DOS and CP/M computers of the time, which display such messages in a mono-spaced font on a black background, and require the use of the keyboard rather than a mouse, for input. To provide such niceties at a low level, early Mac OS depends on core system software in ROM on the motherboard, which also ensured that only Apple computers or licensed clones (with the copyright-protected ROMs from Apple) can run Mac OS.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Several computer manufacturers over the years made Macintosh clones that were capable of running Mac OS. From 1995 to 1997, Apple licensed Macintosh ROMs to several companies, notably Power Computing, UMAX and Motorola. These machines normally ran various versions of Classic Mac OS. Steve Jobs ended the clone-licensing program after returning to Apple in 1997.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Support for Macintosh clones was first exhibited in System 7.5.1, which was the first version to include the "Mac OS" logo (a variation on the original Happy Mac startup icon), and Mac OS 7.6 was the first to be named "Mac OS" instead of "System". These changes were made to disassociate the operating system from Apple's own Macintosh models.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: The Macintosh originally used the Macintosh File System (MFS), a flat file system with only one level of folders. This was quickly replaced in 1985 by the Hierarchical File System (HFS), which had a true directory tree. Both file systems are otherwise compatible. An improved file system named HFS Plus ("HFS+" or "Mac OS Extended") was announced in 1997 and implemented in 1998.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Files in most file systems used with DOS, Windows, Unix, or other operating systems have only one "fork". By contrast, MFS and HFS give files two different "forks". The data fork contains the same sort of information as a file in other file systems, such as the text of a document or the bitmaps of an image file. The resource fork contains other structured data such as menu definitions, graphics, sounds, or code segments that would be incorporated into a program's file format on other systems. An executable file might consist only of resources (including code segments) with an empty data fork, while a data file might have only a data fork with no resource fork. A word processor file could contain its text in the data fork and styling information in the resource fork, so that an application which doesn't recognize the styling information can still read the raw text.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: On the other hand, these forks would provide a challenge to interoperability with other operating systems. In copying or transferring a Mac OS file to a non-Mac system, the default implementations would simply strip the file of its resource fork. Most data files contained only nonessential information in their resource fork, such as window size and location, but program files would be inoperative without their resources. This necessitated such encoding schemes as BinHex and MacBinary, which allowed a user to encode a dual-forked file into a single stream, or inversely take a single stream so-encoded and reconstitute it into a dual-forked file usable by Mac OS.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: As part of Apple's goal of creating a computer with appliance-like simplicity, there is no explicit distinction made between the operating system software and the hardware it runs on. Because of this, early versions of the operating system do not have a distinct name. The software consists of two user-visible files: the System file, and the Finder, an application used for file management that also displays the Desktop. The two files are contained in a folder directory labeled "System Folder", which contains other resource files, like a printer driver, needed to interact with the System. Version numbers of the operating system are based on the version numbers of these two files.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: These releases can only run one application at a time, except for desk accessories, though special application shells such as "Multi-Mac" or "Switcher" (discussed under MultiFinder) could work around this. Visible changes are best reflected in the version number of the Finder, where major leaps are found between 1.x, 4.x, 5.x, and 6.x.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Towards the end of 1987, Apple introduced a package titled "Apple Macintosh System Software Update 5.0". For the first time, the Macintosh operating system was offered as a distinct retail product that included four 800K disks and three manuals, at a cost of US$49. The software itself was still freely available through user groups and bulletin board services. While the product box presented this update to the operating system as "version 5.0", this number does not appear in the software itself. Three of the four disks (System Tools 1, System Tools 2 and Utilities 1) are all bootable, and the user can boot off whichever floppy contain the tools the user needs. For instance, System Tools 2 is the only disk with printer drivers, and Utilities 1 is the only disk with Disk First Aid and Apple HD SC Setup. Because the disks are named System Tools, users and the press commonly referred to this version as "System Tools 5.0".


title: Classic Mac OS

text: The primary new feature of System 5 is MultiFinder, an extension which lets the system run several programs at once. The system uses a cooperative multitasking model, meaning that time is given to the background applications only when the foreground application yields control. A change in system functions that applications were already calling to handle events make many existing applications share time automatically, as well as being allowed to perform tasks in the background. Users can also choose not to use MultiFinder, thereby using a single application at a time. In 1990 "InfoWorld" tested four multitasking options for PC and Mac, viewing MultiFinder positively overall, but noting that its presence halved the speed of file transfer and printing compared to the single-tasking System 6 without MultiFinder.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: System Software 6 (also referred to as "System 6") is a consolidation release of the Macintosh system software, producing a complete, stable, and long-lasting operating system. Two major hardware introductions requiring additional support under System 6 are the 68030 processor and 1.44 MB SuperDrive debuting with the Macintosh IIx and Macintosh SE/30. Later updates include support for the first specialized laptop features with the introduction of the Macintosh Portable. From System 6 forward, the Finder has a unified version number closely matching that of the System, alleviating much of the confusion caused by the often considerable differences between earlier Systems.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: On May 13, 1991, System 7 was released. It was a major upgrade over System 6, adding a significant user interface overhaul, new applications, stability improvements and many new features. Its introduction coincides with the release of and provided support for the 68040 Macintosh line. The System 7 era saw numerous changes in the Macintosh platform including a proliferation of Macintosh models, the 68k to Power Macintosh transition as well as the rise of Microsoft Windows, increasing use of computer networking and the explosion in the popularity of the Internet.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: One of the most significant features of System 7 is virtual memory support, an essential subsystem anticipated for years, which only exists for previous Systems in a third party extension named Virtual from Connectix. Accompanying this was a move to 32-bit memory addressing, necessary for the ever-increasing amounts of RAM available to the Motorola 68030 CPU, and 68020 CPUs with a 68851 PMMU. This process involves making all of the routines in OS code use the full 32-bits of a pointer as an address—prior systems used the upper 8 bits as flags. This change is known as being "32-bit clean". While System 7 itself is 32-bit clean, many existing machines and thousands of applications were not, so it was some time before the process was completed. To ease the transition, the "Memory" control panel contains a switch to disable this feature, allowing for compatibility with older applications.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Another notable System 7 feature is built-in cooperative multitasking. In System Software 6, this function was optional through the MultiFinder. System 7 also introduced aliases, similar to symbolic links on Unix, shortcuts that were introduced in later versions of Microsoft Windows, and shadows in IBM OS/2. System extensions were enhanced by being moved to their own subfolder; a subfolder in the System Folder was also created for the control panels. In System 7.5, Apple includes the Extensions Manager, a previously third-party program which simplified the process of enabling and disabling extensions.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: The Apple menu, home only to desk accessories in System 6, was made more general-purpose: the user could now make often-used folders and applications—or anything else they desired—appear in the menu by placing aliases to them in an "Apple Menu Items" subfolder of the System Folder. System 7 also introduced the following: AppleScript, a scripting language for automating tasks; 32-bit QuickDraw, supporting so-called "true color" imaging, previously available as a system extension; and TrueType, an outline font standard.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: The Trash, under System 6 and earlier, empties itself automatically when shutting down the computer—or, if MultiFinder is not running, when launching an application. System 7 reimplements the Trash as a special hidden folder, allowing files to remain in it across reboots until the user deliberately chose the "Empty Trash" command.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: System 7.1 is mainly a bugfix release, with a few minor features added. One of the major new features of System 7.1 was moving fonts out of the System file into the Fonts folder in the System Folder. Previously a resource-copying utility such as ResEdit or Font D/A Mover was required for installing fonts. System 7.1 is not only the first Macintosh operating system to cost money (all previous versions were free or sold at the cost of the floppies), but also received a "Pro" sibling (version 7.1.1) with extra features. System 7.1.2 was the first version to support PowerPC-based Macs. System 7.1 also introduces the System Enablers as a method to support new models without updating the actual System file. This leads to extra files inside the system folder (one per new model supported).


title: Classic Mac OS

text: System 7.5 introduces a large number of new features, many of which are based on shareware applications that Apple bought and included into the new system. On the newer PowerPC machines, System 7.5 may have stability problems partly due to a new memory manager (which can be turned off), and issues with the handling of errors in the PowerPC code (all PowerPC exceptions map to Type 11). These issues do not affect 68k-architecture machines. System 7.5 is contemporary with Apple's failed Copland effort as well as the release of Windows 95.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Stability improved in PowerPC-based Macs with Mac OS 7.6, which dropped the "System" moniker as a more trademarkable name was needed in order to license the OS to the growing market of third-party Macintosh clone manufacturers. Mac OS 7.6 required 32-bit-clean ROMs, and so it dropped support for every Mac with a 68000 processor, as well as the Mac II, Mac IIx, Mac IIcx, and Mac SE/30.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Mac OS 8 was released on July 26, 1997, the same month Steve Jobs became the de facto CEO of Apple. It was mainly released to keep the Mac OS moving forward during a difficult time for Apple. Initially planned as Mac OS 7.7, it was renumbered "8" to exploit a legal loophole and accomplish Jobs's goal of terminating third-party manufacturers' licenses to System 7 and shutting down the Macintosh clone market.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Mac OS 8 added a number of features from the abandoned Copland project, while leaving the underlying operating system unchanged. A multi-threaded Finder was included; files could now be copied in the background. The GUI was changed in appearance to a new shaded greyscale look named Platinum, and the ability to change the appearance themes (also known as skins) was added with a new control panel (though Platinum was the only one shipped). This capability was provided by a new "appearance" API layer within the OS, one of the few significant changes.


title: Classic Mac OS

text: Apple sold 1.2 million copies of Mac OS 8 in its first two weeks of availability and 3 million within six months. In light of Apple's financial difficulties at the time, there was a large grassroots movement among Mac users to upgrade and "help save Apple". Even some pirate groups refused to redistribute the OS.