title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Eight years later, Jane, now 18, leaves Lowood for a position at Thornfield Hall. Welcomed by the kindly housekeeper Mrs. Fairfax, Jane begins a plain and isolated life as governess to Adèle Varens, the young French ward of Thornfield's owner. One day, Jane sees a rider thrown by his horse and comes to his aid. Returning to Thornfield, she learns the man is Edward Rochester, master of the house. He grudgingly praises her instruction of Adèle, and her own "openess and unpolluted mind;” the two find themselves curiously attracted to one another.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: One night, Jane discovers Rochester's room on fire, which they manage to extinguish; he warns her not to speak of the incident, and they share a chaste but passionate moment. The next day, Rochester leaves suddenly to call on Blanche Ingram, who Mrs. Fairfax tells Jane is Rochester's prospective wife; she and her family return with him a few weeks later on a grand visit to Thornfield.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Rochester confronts Jane, who is hurt by Blanche's presence, but is interrupted by an unexpected guest – Richard Mason from Spanish Town, Jamaica, whose arrival disturbs Rochester. That night, the household is awakened by a scream. Rochester reassures the guests, but brings Jane to tend to Mason, who has been badly injured. Jane notices a hidden door in Rochester's room before Mason is taken away by a doctor. Rochester confides in Jane, cryptically, that he is haunted by a past mistake but has fallen for a new woman in his life; Jane believes he means Blanche.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Jane receives word that her cousin John has committed suicide, leading her aunt to suffer a stroke. Jane returns to her dying aunt, who gives her a letter from Jane's paternal uncle, John Eyre, asking that Jane live with him in Madeira as his heir. The letter is three years old, and Mrs. Reed admits to writing to John to the effect that Jane had died at Lowood. Jane forgives her aunt and returns to Thornfield, beginning a correspondence with John.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Faced with Rochester's impending marriage to Blanche, Jane tells Rochester she will leave Thornfield and confesses her true feelings for him. Rochester declares that Jane is his only love and proposes; she accepts. At their wedding, Mason appears with a lawyer and reveals that Rochester is already married to Mason's sister, Bertha. Rochester admits the truth and takes Jane to meet his violently deranged wife, kept in a hidden room at Thornfield. Rochester explains that he was made to marry Bertha for her money, but she rapidly descended into madness and he locked her away rather than subject her to an asylum; she was responsible for the strange happenings in the house. Jane, wounded at his deception, leaves Thornfield.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: After her recovery at Moor House, St. John gives Jane a teaching position and a cottage. One night, she imagines a knock at her door to be Rochester, but instead finds St. John with news that her uncle John has died and left her his fortune of £20,000 (). Jane offers to share her inheritance with St. John and his sisters, and the four live together at Moor House. St. John asks Jane to marry him and go to India as missionaries, but she rejects him.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Jane returns to Thornfield to find the house a blackened ruin. She learns from Mrs. Fairfax that Bertha set fire to the house; Rochester was able to rescue everyone but his wife. Jane visits Rochester, now blind, and the two are reunited.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: The film was produced by Alison Owen's company Ruby Films, with financial support from BBC Films, Focus Features and Lipsynch Productions. The script by Moira Buffini appeared on the 2008 Brit List, a film-industry-compiled list of the best unproduced screenplays in British film. The story is largely presented by way of flashbacks. In October 2009, it was announced that Cary Fukunaga would direct the adaptation. Fukunaga had been in England promoting a film when he met with the BBC and learned about their plans for a new adaptation. The filmmakers decided to play up the Gothic elements of the classic novel. Fukunaga stated, "I've spent a lot of time rereading the book and trying to feel out what Charlotte Brontë was feeling when she was writing it. That sort of spookiness that plagues the entire story... there's been something like 24 adaptations and it's very rare that you see those sorts of darker sides. They treat it like it's just a period romance and I think it's much more than that."


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Mia Wasikowska starred as the title character and Michael Fassbender as Edward Rochester. Fukunaga and the producers wanted an actress close to Jane Eyre's age in the novel, in contrast to many previous versions. Fukunaga liked Wasikowska's "sense of observation in her eyes" and that "[she] could communicate [Jane's inner turmoil] in a way that didn't feel theatrical". He felt her looks could be played down as required for the role. On casting Rochester, the director stated that while there were actors closer in appearance, he felt Fassbender had the spirit of the character. Jamie Bell, Judi Dench, Sally Hawkins, Simon McBurney, Imogen Poots, Holliday Grainger and Tamzin Merchant also joined the cast.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Principal photography began on 22 March 2010 and concluded in mid-May. Filming locations included London and various locations in Derbyshire and the Derbyshire Dales, including Chatsworth House, Haddon Hall, the village of Froggatt and the Fox House pub in Sheffield, as well as Broughton Castle in Oxfordshire and Wrothan Park in Hertfordshire. The score is composed by Academy Award winner Dario Marianelli. Another Academy Award winner, Michael O'Connor, designed the costumes. Although they estimated the setting was the late 1830s, they settled on four to five years later in 1843. Fukunaga commented that "the clothing style of the '30s was just awful. Every woman looked like a wedding cake." However, they decided to allow a few characters in older fashions to reflect that some would not have updated their style. He looked at some 60 residences for one to represent Thornfield Hall but settled on Haddon Hall as it had not undergone much redecorating; the same location was also used in the 2006 BBC version of "Jane Eyre". The conditions were very cold and Fukunaga admitted that Wasikowska nearly got hypothermia on the second day while shooting the rain sequence; however, he could not imagine filming anywhere else, saying "Northern England – Yorkshire and Derbyshire, the moors and dales – they look like they're something straight out of a Tim Burton horror film. The trees are all twisted by the wind; the bracken and the heather on the moors have this amazing hue. And the weather is so extreme and it changes all the time. The house even, Haddon Hall, is just so steeped in history, the spaces, the galleries, they sort of just breathe and you feel the presence of the history." Key scenes were filmed in Broughton Castle.


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: The film had a limited release on four screens in the United States on 11 March 2011. It grossed $182,885, for a per cinema average of $45,721 – the best speciality debut of 2011. , its North American total stood at $11,242,660. After the United States, it was released in a number of countries during the spring and summer of 2011, but not until 9 September was it released in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In its opening week, "Jane Eyre" moved to third place in the UK box office, behind "The Inbetweeners Movie" and "Friends with Benefits".


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval score of 84% based on 167 critical reviews, with an average rating of 7.33/10. The site's consensus reads, "Cary Fukunaga directs a fiery and elegant adaptation, while Mia Wasikowska delivers possibly the best portrayal of the title character ever." It also has a score of 76 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: A. O. Scott made the film an "NYT Critics' Pick", saying "This "Jane Eyre", energetically directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga ("Sin Nombre") from a smart, trim script by Moira Buffini ("Tamara Drewe"), is a splendid example of how to tackle the daunting duty of turning a beloved work of classic literature into a movie. Neither a radical updating nor a stiff exercise in middlebrow cultural respectability, Mr. Fukunaga's film tells its venerable tale with lively vigor and an astute sense of emotional detail."


title: Jane Eyre (2011 film)

text: Richard Corliss of "Time" named Mia Wasikowska's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2011.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Jordan Grand Prix was a Formula One constructor that competed from 1991 to 2005. The team was named after Irish businessman and founder Eddie Jordan. The team was based at Silverstone, UK but raced with an Irish licence.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: In early 2005, the team was sold to Midland Group, who competed for one final season as 'Jordan', before renaming the team as MF1 Racing for the season, before being sold later in 2006 to Dutch car manufacturer Spyker to become Spyker F1 for , and then sold again to become Force India in . In 2018, as a result of the financial collapse of the Force India team, and its subsequent buyout by a consortium led by Lawrence Stroll, the team's FIA entry was not transferred, and the Jordan Grand Prix's original entry was finally excluded from the sport.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Eddie Jordan had a brief stint as a race driver in the late 1970s before founding Eddie Jordan Racing in the early 1980s. The team first came to prominence in the 1983 British Formula Three championship with a duel between one-time Jordan test driver Ayrton Senna and Jordan-Ralt driver Martin Brundle. Brundle was edged out by the Brazilian at the last round of the championship. The team graduated to International Formula 3000 for 1988, winning its first race in the category with Johnny Herbert. In 1989, Jordan won the F3000 drivers' championship with future Formula One star Jean Alesi. The team also ran future F1 drivers such as Martin Donnelly and Eddie Irvine in F3000.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Jordan's success in lower formulae inspired the creation of a Formula One programme for the season and a change of name to Jordan Grand Prix. The first driver to test a Jordan F1 car was John Watson. Jordan hired Italian veteran Andrea de Cesaris and Belgian Bertrand Gachot to race his first cars, which were powered by Ford. The team had a very solid debut finishing 5th in the Constructors' Championship, with de Cesaris finishing 9th in the Drivers' Championship. De Cesaris ran second for much of the Belgian Grand Prix, and was actually gaining on leader Ayrton Senna until the car failed in the closing laps. Gachot failed to end the season after being sent to prison for attacking a taxi driver. Gachot was replaced for the by Michael Schumacher, for whom the team received $150,000 from Mercedes-Benz who were keen to give their young German sportscar star experience of Grand Prix racing in readiness for the firm's future F1 ambitions. Despite Jordan's signed agreement in principle with Mercedes for the remainder of the season, Schumacher was signed by Benetton-Ford for the following race. Jordan applied for an injunction in the UK courts to prevent Schumacher driving for Benetton, but lost the case as they had not yet signed a contract. Ousted Benetton driver Roberto Moreno and future Champ Car title winner Alessandro Zanardi filled the second car afterwards.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Success for Jordan literally came at a high price. The team was forced to switch to cheaper Yamaha engines for the season. With Maurício Gugelmin and Stefano Modena driving, the team struggled badly and failed to score a point until the final race of the season.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Barrichello and Irvine returned for the season, as did the Hart engines, but Irvine had a bad start to the season, earning a three-race ban for reckless driving. Barrichello earned the team their first top three finish in Japan at the Pacific Grand Prix, but was nearly killed during the following race in San Marino following a frightening qualifying crash. The team overcame these difficulties and returned to their initial form as they finished fifth in the Constructors' Championship again. Barrichello earned Jordan's first pole position after a gamble during a wet qualifying session in Belgium, and finished 6th in the Drivers' Championship with 19 points. This achievement stunned the Formula 1 big teams given the fact that a team with such a low budget with an engine designed and built by Darrell O'Brien/Hart Engineering achieved 5th in the Constructors' Championship with 28 points.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Jordan switched to Peugeot power in . During the Canadian Grand Prix that year, both Barrichello and Irvine finished on the podium, finishing second and third respectively. It was the highlight to an unspectacular but relatively solid year for Jordan, as they hung around mid-pack to finish 6th in the Championship.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: When Irvine left in to become Michael Schumacher's teammate at Ferrari, Jordan replaced him with veteran Martin Brundle, the ex-Le Mans winner and World Sportscar Champion. The team failed to make the podium, but both drivers managed to score a string of fourth-place finishes as the team scored yet another 5th among the constructors. 1996 also saw the team adopt their bright-yellow colour scheme which would become their trademark.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: saw the departure of both drivers from the previous year. Barrichello left for the newly formed Stewart Grand Prix, whilst Brundle became a Formula One commentator for ITV. Jordan replaced them with Italian Giancarlo Fisichella, who had raced for Minardi the previous year, and young Ralf Schumacher, Michael's brother. Again, the team finished 5th in the Championship, with Fisichella achieving two podium finishes. At Hockenheim, Fisichella had led the race, but lost out to Gerhard Berger before retiring when a puncture holed his car's radiator. The Italian's other highlight was scoring the fastest race lap at the Spanish Grand Prix. A lowlight of the season came in Argentina when Ralf Schumacher took out his Italian teammate during the race, which was tempered by Ralf's first podium.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: In , the team made its biggest signing as former World Champion Damon Hill, a graduate of Jordan's F3000 programme, replaced Fisichella. The team also replaced its Peugeots, which went to Prost, with Mugen Honda motors. Up to the halfway point of the season, Jordan had failed to score a single point due to reliability problems. At that point, they signed Mike Gascoyne from Tyrrell to bolster the technical team and long-standing technical director Gary Anderson resigned a few months after. Things improved greatly towards the end of the season and at that year's rain-soaked Belgian Grand Prix in which only six cars finished, Hill earned Jordan their first ever Formula One win, which was also Hill's 22nd career Grand Prix victory. Ralf Schumacher sweetened the victory by finishing second. However, it was later revealed to be team orders - Schumacher had been ordered not to pass Hill. Angered by this, his brother Michael told Jordan that Ralf will never race for the team again and bought out his brother's contract for 2 million pounds. Hill finished 6th in the drivers' standings with Ralf 10th. Hill's last lap, last-corner move on Heinz-Harald Frentzen at Suzuka enabled him to finish the race in fourth and also earned Jordan fourth in the Constructors' Championship for 1998 (this was tempered by speculation that Frentzen had "gifted" the place to Hill, the German having confirmed a move to Jordan for 1999, after a tumultuous career with Williams).


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: With Frentzen and Ralf Schumacher swapping teams for (Frentzen at Jordan and Ralf at Williams), the season would turn out to be a nightmare for Hill, who was to retire at the end of the season. However, Frentzen's season was immensely successful, with the German earning two victories and a pole position. For a short while Frentzen had entertained thoughts of a world title, but poor luck and greater speed from McLaren and Ferrari ended his hopes. Frentzen finished third in the Drivers' Championship and the team also finished third amongst the Constructors'. 1999 was to be the team's finest season.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: For Hill was replaced by Jarno Trulli, fresh from a couple of years at Prost and Minardi. His qualifying speed in particular impressed, but he was unable to score a podium. Frentzen was unable to replicate the success of 1999 and the team slipped back to 6th in the Constructors' Championship. The team had been on course for major points at Monaco, but poor luck intervened: Trulli was ahead of eventual winner David Coulthard until his gearbox failed, while Frentzen running in second place hit the wall at Sainte Devote with only eight laps to go.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Both drivers returned to start and Jordan switched to works Honda engines which were already being supplied to rival team BAR after Mugen left the sport at the end of 2000. This led to a battle for the right to use the Honda engines in the long term. Frentzen was released from the team in mid-season, a series of disagreements with team boss Eddie Jordan a possible explanation. Jordan himself has said that he dropped Frentzen to bring in Takuma Sato for 2002, an attempt to satisfy Honda. Frentzen was replaced by test driver Ricardo Zonta at the German Grand Prix, but from thereafter Jean Alesi, in the final stages of his Formula One career, took the seat. Amidst all the turmoil, Trulli finished in the points four times, and the team finished 5th in the Constructors' Championship for the fifth time, ahead of rivals BAR.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Jordan re-organised in , with Fisichella returning and Takuma Sato joining the team, thanks in no small part to Honda's influence. Due to a drop in sponsorship money the team slipped backwards. Fisichella often qualified well, a sixth place on the grid in Montreal and a fifth place on the grid in Budapest. Yet results-wise, the Italian had to make do with a trio of fifth places and a sixth place from Hungary. Sato showed flashes of promise, but managed just two points at his home race. Despite the drop in form, Jordan still managed sixth in the championship, two places ahead of main rivals BAR.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: For , Honda left Jordan to concentrate on their partnership with BAR. Jordan had to make do with Ford Cosworth engines, and the season was not regarded as a success. Despite beating only Minardi to score 9th in the standings, Jordan won in 2003. This came under bizarre circumstances in the which was affected by rain. Following a massive accident on the start/finish straight, the race was red flagged and stopped. After some initial confusion, Giancarlo Fisichella was initially ruled to have finished second behind Kimi Räikkönen who took the top step on the podium. However, an FIA inquiry several days later led to Fisichella being officially declared the winner of his first F1 race. Fisichella was therefore unable to celebrate his first career victory on the top step of the podium, although he and Räikkönen swapped their drivers' trophies in an impromptu ceremony at the following race in San Marino, while McLaren's Ron Dennis handed over the constructors' trophy to Eddie Jordan. Aside from the opportunistic win, neither Fisichella nor rookie teammate Ralph Firman were able to achieve any sort of success in their EJ13s. After Firman was injured in practice for the Jordan fielded the first ever Hungarian Formula One driver, Zsolt Baumgartner. Firman returned for the final two events, but was unable to add to the point he won in Spain. Fisichella only managed two points on top of his victory and unhappy at the team's form he departed for Sauber.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: In June 2003 Jordan sued mobile phone company Vodafone for £150 million, claiming that the company had made a verbal contract for a three-year sponsorship, then given it to Ferrari instead. Jordan withdrew the action two months later, agreeing to pay Vodafone's costs. This was a double financial blow from which the team did not recover. The judge was highly critical of Eddie Jordan, branding the allegations against Vodafone "without foundation and false".


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: In , Jordan struggled financially, and their status for the future was questionable. The team fielded German Nick Heidfeld, formerly of Sauber and Prost, and Italian rookie Giorgio Pantano. Ex-F3000 champion Heidfeld showed promise, but could not achieve many good results due to the car's initial pace being poor. Pantano's season was dogged by sponsorship problems. He missed Canada due to a lack of funding, with Timo Glock stepping in to replace him. Glock managed to score two points on his debut, finishing just ahead of Heidfeld, although these had been earned after the two Toyota and Williams cars had been disqualified for brake duct irregularities. Later in the season, Glock replaced Pantano permanently. As in the previous season, the team finished ahead of only Minardi at the bottom of the constructors standings.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: After Ford's decision to put Cosworth up for sale, Jordan had been left without an engine deal for . However, at short notice, Toyota agreed to supply Jordan with engines identical to those in the works Toyota cars. In 2005 after a constructors’ meeting at Heathrow, Bernie Ecclestone introduced Alex Schnaider to Eddie Jordan. Six weeks later Eddie Jordan had sold the team to the Midland Group for $60 million. The day the deal


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: The Jordan name was retained for the season, before being changed to Midland MF1 Racing for the season. Throughout 2005, journalists questioned whether Midland were in Formula One for the long haul. Rumours circulated throughout the season that the team was for sale, and that former driver Eddie Irvine was interested in buying them. The year also saw the debut of two new rookie drivers, Narain Karthikeyan and Tiago Monteiro. 2005 merely confirmed Jordan's status at the back of the grid. A final podium came in the highly controversial race at Indianapolis, with Monteiro leading home a Jordan 3–4 after most rivals did not start. Monteiro managed an excellent eighth place at Spa in wet conditions to give the team its last point. The final race for the team saw a low-key exit, with Monteiro finishing 11th and Karthikeyan crashing out spectacularly.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: Jordan Grand Prix was notable for providing the debut to a number of drivers who subsequently enjoyed considerable F1 and wider motor-racing careers. This was due to both Eddie Jordan's experience managing the careers of drivers (most notably Jean Alesi) before entering his own team to F1, and the team's ongoing need for funding which new drivers frequently brought via personal sponsorship. Notably successful drivers who began their F1 careers with Jordan include multiple World Champion Michael Schumacher (1991), Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) Champion Alex Zanardi (1991), F1 race winners Rubens Barrichello (1993), Eddie Irvine (1993), and Ralf Schumacher (1997), and Indy 500 winner Takuma Sato (2002). The close-knit and relaxed atmosphere of the team also allowed drivers who had failed to achieve expectations with other teams to perform at their best. Most notably, Heinz-Harald Frentzen won two races to challenge for the 1999 World Championship, something he had failed to do for the much more competitive Williams team in 1997. Andrea de Cesaris rehabilitated his reputation from that of a 'crasher' to become a dependable driver during his season with the team in 1991, and Jarno Trulli, Giancarlo Fisichella and Nick Heidfeld each used their time at Jordan Grand Prix to show potential and be recruited by larger teams.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: As well as giving both Michael and Ralf Schumacher their F1 debuts, Jordan benefited from Germany's growing interest in Formula One during the 1990s and early 2000s, with the other notable German drivers of the era (Frentzen, Heidfeld, and Timo Glock) all driving for the team and Deutsche Post World Net being a major sponsor of the team from 2000 to 2003.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: In 1991, the team was sponsored by soft drink brand 7 Up, but despite the team's moderately successful first season and Eddie Jordan saying the team had "more than fulfilled our part of the bargain", the sponsorship was replaced by South African energy company Sasol until 1994, with Barclay supplementing until 1993. In the team's first year with Peugeot engines, fuel supplier Total was the title sponsor in 1995.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: From 1996 to 2005, Benson & Hedges was the primary sponsor of Jordan. At races where the ban on cigarette advertising was in force, the name was replaced by "Bitten & Hisses" (in when Jordan's mascot was the snake Hissing Sid) or the names of the team's drivers, Giancarlo Fisichella and Ralf Schumacher, with additional 'S's, "Buzzin Hornets" (while the mascot was an unnamed hornet from to ), "Bitten Heroes" (during , when the team's mascot was a shark), and from to 'Be On Edge' (BENSON & HEDGES). It was in the sponsor's first year that the team coloured their cars in the gold of their cigarette packet and then switched to yellow after that.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: For , title sponsorship went to delivery company DHL, before reverting to Benson & Hedges (which remained a major sponsor in 2002). At the 2004 and 2005 United States Grands Prix, Sobranie was advertised instead; the team (along with Scuderia Ferrari) had previously run non-tobacco liveries on previous United States Grands Prix due to U.S. Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement requirements, as Philip Morris USA (who holds the Benson & Hedges trademark in the United States) was exclusively sponsoring Team Penske in American open-wheel racing, as mandated by the MSA.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: EJ-10 was an energy drink marketed by the Jordan Formula One team. The energy drink was heavily advertised as free of caffeine and taurine to avoid a sugar crash, and as having a fruity flavour and providing energy for up to 90 minutes. It was sold in bright yellow 250 mL and 380 mL bottles, decorated to evoke the image of Jordan's Formula One cars. Jordan Grand Prix used the Sutherland Hawes design agency to create and market the energy drink. At the height of its popularity EJ-10 was available around the world, including Ireland, Germany, Colombia, Ecuador, Saudi Arabia, and Mexico.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: In 2002, the 380 ml bottles of EJ-10 were recalled in Ireland after it was discovered it contained unacceptable levels of benzene.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: To commemorate the team's successful 1999 campaign powered by Mugen-Honda engines, Honda sold 500 limited edition Honda Civic models called Civic Jordan in the United Kingdom. Based on the EK4 VTi-S hatchback model, the cars were painted Sunlight Yellow and featured yellow-and-black leather interior, Jordan decals on the sides and rear of the car as well as stitched into the seats and floor carpets, and body kit partially based on the Japanese Type-R model. Apart from a signed Eddie Jordan plaque on the cars' centre console, the team had no involvement on the development on the car, which performed otherwise similar to a standard VTi model.


title: Jordan Grand Prix

text: A number of books have been published that gave an insight into Jordan Grand Prix. The most in-depth was the 1994 book "Race Without End". Written by F1 veteran Maurice Hamilton, it tells the story of Jordan Grand Prix's 1993 season.


title: Accipitridae

text: The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-sized mammals, with a number feeding on carrion and a few feeding on fruit. The Accipitridae have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found on all the world's continents (except Antarctica) and a number of oceanic island groups. Some species are migratory. The family contains 255 species which are divided into 70 genera.


title: Accipitridae

text: Many well-known birds such as hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures are included in this group. The osprey is usually placed in a separate family (Pandionidae), as is the secretary bird (Sagittariidae), and the New World vultures are also usually now regarded as a separate family or order. Karyotype data indicate the accipitrids analysed are indeed a distinct monophyletic group.


title: Accipitridae

text: The accipitrids have been variously divided into some five to ten subfamilies. Most share a very similar morphology, but many of these groups contain taxa that are more aberrant. These are placed in their respective position more for lack of better evidence than anything else. The phylogenetic layout of the accipitrids has thus always been a matter of dispute.


title: Accipitridae

text: The accipitrids are recognizable by a peculiar rearrangement of their chromosomes. Apart from this, morphology and mtDNA cytochrome "b" sequence data give a confusing picture of these birds' inter-relationships. The hawks, kites, eagles and Old World vultures as presently assigned in all likelihood do not form monophyletic groups.


title: Accipitridae

text: According to the molecular data, the Buteoninae are most likely poly- or paraphyletic, with the true eagles, the sea eagles, and the buteonine hawks apparently representing distinct lineages. These appear to form a group with the Milvinae, Accipitrinae and Circinae, but the exact relationships between the lineages are not robustly resolvable. The Perninae and possibly the Elaninae are older lineages, as are the Old World vultures. The latter are likely also poly- or paraphyletic, with some aberrant species like the bearded and Egyptian vultures standing apart from the naked-necked "true" vultures.


title: Accipitridae

text: Below is the taxonomy after the phylogeny from the studies of Mindell et al. (2018), Starikov & Wink (2020), and Sangster "et al." (2021). The family contains 255 species and is divided into 70 genera.


title: Accipitridae

text: As with most other birds of prey, the fossil record of this group is fairly complete from the latter Eocene onwards (c.35 mya), with modern genera being well documented since the Early Oligocene, or around 30 mya.


title: Accipitridae

text: Accipitrids are known since Early Eocene times, or about from 50 mya onwards, but these early remains are too fragmentary and/or basal to properly assign a place in the phylogeny. Likewise, molecular methods are of limited value in determining evolutionary relationships of and within the accipitrids. The group may have originated on either side of the Atlantic, which during that time was only 60–80% its present width. As evidenced by fossils like "Pengana", some 25 mya, accipitrids in all likelihood rapidly acquired a global distribution, initially probably extending even to Antarctica.


title: Accipitridae

text: Specimen AMNH FR 2941, a left coracoid from the Late Eocene Irdin Manha Formation of Chimney Butte (Inner Mongolia), was initially assessed as a basal mid-sized buteonine; it is today considered to be more likely to belong in the Gruiformes genus "Eogrus". The Early Oligocene genus "Cruschedula" was formerly thought to belong to Spheniscidae, however reexamination of the holotype in 1943 resulted in the genus being placed in Accipitridae. Further examination in 1980 resulted in placement as Aves "incertae sedis".


title: Accipitridae

text: The Accipitridae are a diverse family with a great deal of variation in size and shape. They range in size from the tiny pearl kite ("Gampsonyx swainsonii") and little sparrowhawk ("Accipiter minullus"), both of which are 23 cm (9 in) in length and weigh about 85 g (3 oz), to the cinereous vulture ("Aegypius monachus"), which measures up to 120 cm (47 in) and weighs up to 14 kg (31 lbs). Wingspan can vary from in the little sparrowhawk to more than in the cinereous and Himalayan vultures ("Gyps himalayensis"). In these extreme species, wing chord length can range from and culmen length from . Until the 14th century, even these huge vultures were surpassed by the extinct Haast's eagle (Hieraaetus "moorei") of New Zealand, which is estimated to have measured up to 140 cm (55 in) and to have weighed in the largest females. In terms of body mass, the Accipitridae are the most diverse family of birds and may also be in terms of some aspects of linear size diversity, although lag behind the true parrots and pheasant family in length diversity. Most accipitrids exhibit sexual dimorphism in size, although, unusually for birds, it is the females that are larger than the males. This sexual difference in size is most pronounced in active species that hunt birds, such as the "Accipiter" hawks, in which the size difference averages 25–50%. In a majority of species, such as generalist hunters and rodent-, reptile-, fish-, and insect-hunting specialists, the dimorphism is less, usually between a 5% to 30% size difference. In the carrion-eating Old World vultures and snail eating kites, the difference is largely non-existent, though sometimes the female may average slightly heavier.


title: Accipitridae

text: The beaks of accipitrids are strong and hooked (sometimes very hooked, as in the hook-billed kite or snail kite). In some species, there is a notch or 'tooth' in the upper mandible. In all accipitrids, the base of the upper mandible is covered by a fleshy membrane called the cere, which is usually yellow in colour. The tarsi of different species vary by diet; those of bird-hunting species, such as sparrowhawks, are long and thin, whilst species that hunt large mammals have much thicker, stronger tarsi, and the tarsi of the snake-eagles have thick scales to protect from bites.


title: Accipitridae

text: The plumage of the Accipitridae can be striking, but rarely utilises bright colours; most birds use combinations of white, grey, buff, brown and black. Overall they tend to be paler below, which helps them seem less conspicuous when seen from below. There is seldom sexual dimorphism in plumage, when it occurs the males are brighter or the females resemble juveniles. In many species juveniles have a distinctly different plumage. Some accipitrids mimic the plumage patterns of other hawks and eagles. Resembling a less dangerous species may fool prey; resembling a more dangerous species may reduce mobbing by other birds. Several species of accipitrid have crests used in signalling, and even species without crests can raise the feathers of the crown when alarmed or excited. In contrast most of the Old World vultures possess bare heads without feathers; this is thought to prevent soiling on the feathers and aid in thermoregulation.


title: Accipitridae

text: The senses of the Accipitridae are adapted to hunting (or scavenging), and in particular their vision is legendary. The sight of some hawks and eagles is up to 8 times better than that of humans. Large eyes with two foveae provide binocular vision and a "hawk eye" for movement and distance judging. In addition the Accipitridae have the largest pectens of any birds. The eyes are tube shaped and cannot move much in their sockets. In addition to excellent vision many species have excellent hearing, but unlike in owls sight is generally the principal sense used for hunting. Hearing may be used to locate prey hidden in vegetation, but sight is still used to catch the prey. Like most birds the Accipitridae generally have a poor sense of smell; even the Old World vultures make no use of the sense, in contrast to the New World vultures in the family Cathartidae.


title: Accipitridae

text: Accipitrids are predominantly predators and most species actively hunt for their prey. Prey is usually captured and killed in the powerful talons of the raptor and then carried off to be torn apart with a hooked bill for eating or feeding to nestlings. A majority of accipitrids are opportunistic predators that will take any prey that they can kill. However, most have a preference for a certain type of prey, which in harriers and the numerous buteonine hawks (including more than 30 species in the genus "Buteo") tends towards small mammals such as rodents.


title: Accipitridae

text: Among the raptors that mainly favor small mammals, harriers generally hunt by hovering over openings until they detect their prey and descend upon them. Due to the specificity of their hunting style, prey preferences, and habitat preferences, usually only one harrier species tends to be found per region.


title: Accipitridae

text: Buteonine hawks usually watch for prey from a perch but most species will also readily hunt on the wing, including from a high soar. Many buteonines are amongst the most generalized feeders, often feeding on any active small animal they find, and will generally eat whatever diurnal rodent or lagomorph is most locally common. Some buteonines, however, are more specialized, such as certain species in the genus "Buteogallus", which have evolved to specialize in feeding on crabs. Larger "Buteogallus", namely the solitary eagles, and "Geranoaetus" are much larger than other buteonines and seem to have become avian apex predators of specific habitat niches—for example, savanna, cloud forest and páramo in South America—and are thus honorary "eagles".


title: Accipitridae

text: In "Accipiter" hawks (the most species-rich accipitrid genus with nearly 50 extant species), prey is mainly other birds. "Accipiter"s are in general forest- and thicket-dwelling species. "Accipiter" hawks usually ambush birds in dense vegetation, a dangerous hunting method that requires great agility. Many smaller tropical species of "Accipiter" eat nearly equal portions of insects and reptiles and amphibians as they do of birds while some of the larger species have become more generalized and may feed extensively on rodents and lagomorphs, as well as other various non-avian animals.


title: Accipitridae

text: Most accipitrids will supplement their diet with non-putrid carrion, but none are specialized for this as well as the 14–16 species of vultures, which have evolved very large bodies (which leave them equipped to fill their crop with carrion); weaker, less specialized feet than other accipitrids; large wingspans to spend long periods of time in flight over openings scanning for carcasses; and complex social behavior in order to establish a mixed species hierarchy at carrion. The New World vultures have attained several similar characteristics, but only through convergent evolution, and are seemingly not directly related to Old World vultures and other accipitrids. The lammergeier ("Gypaetus barbatus") is an aberrant cousin of the Old World vultures that has maintained strong feet that it uses to carry and drop large bones in order to crack them open to feed on bone marrow, their primary food, a technique they also sometimes use for live prey items, like tortoises.


title: Accipitridae

text: A few species may opportunistically feed on fruit. In one species, the palm-nut vulture ("Gypohierax angolensis") (possibly not closely related to other "vultures"), it may form more than half of the diet. Most accipitrids will not eat plant material.


title: Accipitridae

text: Insects are taken exclusively by around 12 species, in great numbers by 44 additional species, and opportunistically by a great many others. The diet of the honey-buzzards includes not only the adults and young of social insects such as wasps and bees, but the honey and combs from their nests.


title: Accipitridae

text: The snail kite ("Rostrhamus sociabilis"), slender-billed kite ("Helicolestes hamatus") and hook-billed kites ("Chondrohierax uncinatus") are specialists in consuming snails, which usually constitute 50–95% of their diet. Other "kites"—a loose assemblance of smallish raptors, many of which are strong, buoyant fliers—are divided into two groups. One, exclusively in the Old World, the milvine or "large" kites, are often quite common, very generalized and often weakly predaceous feeders whereas the other kites, known as elanine or "small" kites and cosmopolitan in distribution, are supremely aerial, active hunters that generally alternate their primary food between insects and small mammals. One species allied with the latter kite group, the bat hawk ("Macheiramphus alcinus"), has come to specialize in hunting bats.


title: Accipitridae

text: "Eagles" are several raptors that are not necessarily closely related, but can be broadly defined by large body size (larger than other raptors, excluding vultures) and the taking of typically larger prey, including mid-sized mammals and larger birds. The most diverse group of eagles is the "booted eagles", a variable group of about 38 species defined by their feathering covering their legs (shared by only a couple of buteonine species).


title: Accipitridae

text: Most accipitrids usually hunt prey smaller than themselves. However, many accipitrids of almost all sizes have been recorded as capturing and then flying with prey of equal weight or even slightly heavier than themselves in their talons, a feat that requires great strength. Occasionally, an eagle or other raptor that kills prey considerably heavier than itself (too heavy for the raptor to carry and fly with) will then have to leave prey at the site of the kill and later return repeatedly to feed or dismember and bring to a perch or nest piece by piece. This has the advantage of providing a surplus of food but has the disadvantage of potentially attracting scavengers or other predators which can steal the kill or even attack the feeding accipitrid. Using this method, accipitrids such as the golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"), wedge-tailed eagle ("Aquila audax"), martial eagle ("Polemaetus bellicosus") and crowned eagle ("Stephanoaetus coronatus") have successfully hunted ungulates, such as deer and antelope, and other large animals (kangaroos and emus in the wedge-tailed) weighing more than 30 kg (66 lb), 7–8 times their own mass. More typical prey for these powerful booted eagle species weigh between .


title: Accipitridae

text: The "Haliaeetus" eagles and the osprey ("Pandion haliaetus") mainly prefer to prey on fish, which comprising more than 90% of food for the osprey and some fish eagles. These large acciptrids may supplement their diets with aquatic animals other than fish, especially sea eagles, which also hunt large numbers of water birds and are expert kleptoparasites.


title: Accipitridae

text: Reptiles and amphibians are hunted by almost all variety of acciptrids when the opportunity arises and may be favored over other prey by some eagles, i.e. "Spizaetus" hawk-eagles and the "eagles" in "Buteogallus", and several species of buteonine hawks found in the tropics. Bazas and forest hawks in the genus "Accipiter" may take reptiles from trees whilst other species may hunt them on the ground. Snakes are the primary prey of the snake-eagles ("Circaetus") and serpent-eagles ("Spilornis" and "Dryotriorchis"). The mammal-hunting, huge and endangered Philippine eagle ("Pithecophaga jefferyi") is most closely related to the snake-eagles. Another striking aberration of the snake-eagle lineage is the bateleur ("Terathopius ecaudatus"), which has evolved unusually bright plumage in adults, with a huge red cere, red feet, bright yellow bill, and boldly contrasting grey-and-white markings over black plumage. The bateleur feeds extensively on carrion and almost any other feeding opportunity that presents itself.


title: Accipitridae

text: In terms of their reproductive biology and socio-sexual behavior, accipitrids share many characteristics with other extant groups of birds that appear not be directly related, but all of which have evolved to become active predators of other warm-blooded creatures. Some of the characteristics shared with these other groups, including falcons, owls, skuas and shrikes, are sexual dimorphism in size, with the female typically larger than the male; extreme devotion of breeding pairs to each other or to a dedicated nesting site; strict and often ferocious territorial behavior; and, on hatching, occasional competition amongst nestlings, including regular siblicide in several species.


title: Accipitridae

text: Before the onset of the nesting season, adult accipitrids often devote a majority of their time to excluding other members of their own species and even of other species from their nesting territories. In several species, this occurs by territorial display flights over the border of their breeding ranges. In several forest dwelling varieties, however, vocalizations are used to establish territories. Due to the density of the habitat, display flights are apparently impractical.


title: Accipitridae

text: While a single devoted breeding pair is considered typical, research has revealed that in varied accipitrids, multiple birds engaging in nesting behavior is more commonly than previously thought. Some harriers have evolved to become polygynous, with a single smaller male breeding with and then helping multiple females raise young. The most extreme known species of accipitrid in terms of sociality is the Harris's hawks ("Parabuteo unicinctus"), which up to seven fully-grown birds may hunt, nest and brood cooperatively, with the extra birds typically being prior years' offspring of the breeding pair.


title: Accipitridae

text: Unlike the other two larger groups of raptorial birds, the owls and most falcons, accipitrids typically build their own nest. Nest sites are typically in relatively secure places, such as the crook of a large tree or an ample cliff ledge, and can vary in elevation from the flat ground of prairies or steppe to near the peaks of the tallest mountains. Accipitrids will readily return to use a nest site repeatedly, which has resulted in several of the largest bird's nests known, as a single nest may see decades of use, with more material added each breeding season. The single largest known tree nest known for any animal, belonging to a bald eagle ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"), was found to be deep and across, and to weigh . Some species, especially eagles, will build multiple nests for use in alternating years. Although they usually use nests they build themselves, accipitrids sometimes use abandoned nests build by other animals or pirate nests from other birds, typically other types of accipitrid.


title: Accipitridae

text: Compared to most other types of birds, the stretch from egg-laying to independence in young birds is prolonged. In accipitrids, the breeding season ranges from about two to three months to roughly a year and a half, the latter in some of the larger tropical eagles. Species inhabiting temperate ranges as a rule have shorter breeding seasons due to the shorter stretches of warm weather that facilitates ready capture of prey.


title: Accipitridae

text: Usually from 2 to 6 eggs are laid in accipitrids, a relatively small clutch, and some species may lay only one egg. In almost all accipitrids, eggs are laid at intervals rather than all at once and in some larger species the intervals can be several days. This results in one of the hatchlings being larger and more advanced in development than its siblings. The benefits of siblicide, which is at least occasionally recorded in many species and almost always occurs in some, such as tropical members of the booted eagle group, is that the smaller siblings are a kind of insurance policy that if the oldest, strongest nestling dies, one of the smaller siblings may take its place. In most species that have displayed siblicide, times of food plenty may result in two or more the nestlings being successfully raised to fledging.


title: Accipitridae

text: In most accipitrids, the smaller males typically obtain food both for the incubating and brooding female and the nestlings. Males, however, occasionally take a shift incubating or even more sporadically brooding the nestlings, which allows the female to hunt. Most accipitrids feed their nestlings strips of meat or whole prey items, but most vultures feed their nestlings via regurgitation.


title: Accipitridae

text: Fledgling often takes considerable effort for young birds and may take several weeks as opposed to days in many other types of birds. Once independent of their parents, young accipitrids often most wander for considerable stretches of time, ranging from 1 to 5 years, before they attain maturity. Most accipitrids have distinct plumages in their immature stage, which presumably serves as a visual cue to others of their species and may allow them to avoid territorial fights. Shortly after attaining mature plumages, pairs form, with a male typically displaying, often in flight but sometimes vocally, to win over a female. Many accipitrids breed with the same mate for several years or for life, although this is not the case for all species and, if a mate dies, the widowed bird will typically try to find another mate the next breeding season.


title: Great man theory

text: The great man theory is a 19th-century approach to the study of history according to which history can be largely explained by the impact of "great men", or heroes: highly influential and unique individuals who, due to their natural attributes, such as superior intellect, heroic courage, extraordinary leadership abilities or divine inspiration, have a decisive historical effect. The theory is primarily attributed to the Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher Thomas Carlyle, who gave a series of lectures on heroism in 1840, later published as "On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History", in which he states:


title: Great man theory

text: This theory is usually contrasted with "history from below", which emphasizes the life of the masses creating overwhelming waves of smaller events which carry leaders along with them. Another contrasting school is historical materialism.


title: Great man theory

text: Carlyle stated that "The History of the world is but the Biography of great men", reflecting his belief that heroes shape history through both their personal attributes and divine inspiration. In his book "Heroes and Hero-Worship", Carlyle saw history as having turned on the decisions, works, ideas, and characters of "heroes", giving detailed analysis of six types: The hero as divinity (such as Odin), prophet (such as Mohamet), poet (such as Shakespeare), priest (such as Martin Luther), man of letters (such as Rousseau), and king (such as Napoleon). Carlyle also argued that the study of great men was "profitable" to one's own heroic side; that by examining the lives led by such heroes, one could not help but uncover something about one's own true nature.


title: Great man theory

text: As Sidney Hook notes, a common misinterpretation of the theory is that "all factors in history, save great men, were inconsequential", whereas Carlyle is instead claiming that great men are the decisive factor, owing to their unique genius. Hook then goes on to emphasize this uniqueness to illustrate the point: "Genius is not the result of compounding talent. How many battalions are the equivalent of a Napoleon? How many minor poets will give us a Shakespeare? How many run of the mine scientists will do the work of an Einstein?"


title: Great man theory

text: American scholar Frederick Adams Woods supported the great man theory in his work "The Influence of Monarchs: Steps in a New Science of History". Woods investigated 386 rulers in Western Europe from the 12th century until the French Revolution in the late 18th century and their influence on the course of historical events.


title: Great man theory

text: The Great Man approach to history was most fashionable with professional historians in the 19th century; a popular work of this school is the "Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition" (1911) which contains lengthy and detailed biographies about the great men of history, but very few general or social histories. For example, all information on the post-Roman "Migrations Period" of European History is compiled under the biography of Attila the Hun. This heroic view of history was also strongly endorsed by some philosophers, such as Léon Bloy, Kierkegaard, Oswald Spengler and Max Weber.


title: Great man theory

text: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, proceeding from providentialist theory, argued that "what is real is reasonable" and World-Historical individuals are World-Spirit's agents. Hegel wrote: "Such are great historical men—whose own particular aims involve those large issues which are the will of the World-Spirit." Thus, according to Hegel, a great man does not create historical reality himself but only uncovers the inevitable future.


title: Great man theory

text: In "Untimely Meditations", Friedrich Nietzsche writes that "the goal of humanity lies in its highest specimens". Although Nietzsche's body of work shows some overlap with Carlyle's line of thought Nietzsche expressly rejected Carlyle's hero cult in "Ecce Homo".


title: Great man theory

text: This theory, and history, claims these great leaders as heroes that were able to rise against the odds to defeat rivals while inspiring followers along the way. Theorists say that these leaders were then born with a specific set of traits and attributes that make them ideal candidates for leadership and roles of authority and power. This theory relies then heavily on born rather than made, nature rather than nurture and cultivates the idea that those in power deserve to lead and shouldn't be questioned because they have the unique traits that make them suited for the position.


title: Great man theory

text: One of the most forceful critics of Carlyle's formulation of the great man theory was Herbert Spencer, who believed that attributing historical events to the decisions of individuals was an unscientific position. He believed that the men Carlyle called "great men" were merely products of their social environment:


title: Great man theory

text: William James, in his 1880 lecture "Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment", published in the "Atlantic Monthly", forcefully defended Carlyle and refuted Spencer, condemning what James viewed as an "impudent", "vague", and "dogmatic" argument.


title: Great man theory

text: James' defence of the great man theory can be summarized as follows: The unique physiological nature of the individual is the deciding factor in making the great man, who, in turn, is the deciding factor in changing his environment in a unique way, without which the new environment would not have come to be, wherein the extent and nature of this change is also dependent on the reception of the environment to this new stimulus. To begin his argument, he first sardonically claims that these inherent physiological qualities have as much to do with "social, political, geographical [and] anthropological conditions" as the "conditions of the crater of Vesuvius has to do with the flickering of this gas by which I write". He then illustrates his argument by considering the myriad genetic variations that can occur in the earliest stages of sexual reproduction:


title: Great man theory

text: James argues that genetic anomalies in the brains of these "great men" are the decisive factor by introducing an original influence into their environment. They might therefore offer original ideas, discoveries, inventions and perspectives which "would not, in the mind of another individual, have engendered just that conclusion ... It flashes out of one brain, and no other, because the instability of that brain is such as to tip and upset itself in just that particular direction." James describes the manifestations of these unique physiological qualities as follows:


title: Great man theory

text: James then argues that these spontaneous variations of genius, i.e. the "great men", which are causally independent of their social environment, subsequently influence that environment which in turn will either preserve or destroy the newly encountered variations in a form of evolutionary selection. If the great man is preserved then the environment is changed by his influence in "an entirely original and peculiar way. He acts as a ferment, and changes its constitution, just as the advent of a new zoological species changes the faunal and floral equilibrium of the region in which it appears." Each ferment, each great man, exerts a new influence on their environment which is either embraced or rejected and if embraced will in turn shape the crucible for the selection process of future geniuses.


title: Great man theory

text: If you remove these geniuses "or alter their idiosyncrasies", then what "increasing uniformities will the environment show? We defy Mr. Spencer or any one else to reply." For James (Barney), then, there are two distinct factors that cause social evolution:


title: Great man theory

text: He thus concludes: "Both factors are essential to change. The community stagnates without the impulse of the individual. The impulse dies away without the sympathy of the community."


title: Great man theory

text: Before the 19th century, Blaise Pascal begins his "Three Discourses on the Condition of the Great" (written it seems for a young duke) by telling the story of a castaway on an island whose inhabitants take him for their missing king. He defends in his parable of the shipwrecked king, that the legitimacy of the greatness of "great men" is fundamentally custom and chance. A coincidence that gives birth to him in the right place with noble parents and arbitrary custom deciding, for example, on an unequal distribution of wealth in favor of the nobles.


title: Great man theory

text: Leo Tolstoy's "War and Peace" features criticism of great-man theories as a recurring theme in the philosophical digressions. According to Tolstoy, the significance of great individuals is imaginary; as a matter of fact they are only "history's slaves," realizing the decree of Providence.


title: Great man theory

text: In 1926, William Fielding Ogburn noted that Great Men history was being challenged by newer interpretations that focused on wider social forces. While not seeking to deny that individuals could have a role or show exceptional qualities, he saw Great Men as inevitable products of productive cultures. He noted for example that if Isaac Newton had not lived, calculus would have still been discovered by Gottfried Leibniz, and suspected that if neither man had lived, it would have been discovered by someone else. Among modern critics of the theory, Sidney Hook is supportive of the idea; he gives credit to those who shape events through their actions, and his book "The Hero in History" is devoted to the role of the hero and in history and influence of the outstanding persons.


title: Great man theory

text: In the introduction to a new edition of "Heroes and Hero-Worship", David R. Sorensen notes the modern decline in support for Carlyle's theory in particular but also for "heroic distinction" in general. He cites Robert K. Faulkner as an exception, a proponent of Aristotelian magnanimity who in his book "The Case for Greatness: Honorable Ambition and Its Critics", criticizes the political bias in discussions on greatness and heroism, stating: "the new liberalism’s antipathy to superior statesmen and to human excellence is peculiarly zealous, parochial, and antiphilosophic."


title: Great man theory

text: Ian Kershaw wrote in 1998 that "The figure of Hitler, whose personal attributes – distinguished from his political aura and impact – were scarcely noble, elevating or enriching, posed self-evident problems for such a tradition." Some historians like Joachim Fest responded by arguing that Hitler had a "negative greatness". By contrast, Kershaw rejects the Great Men theory and argues that it is more important to study wider political and social factors to explain the history of Nazi Germany. Kershaw argues that Hitler was an unremarkable person, but his importance came from how people viewed him, an example of Max Weber's concept of charismatic leadership.


title: 2021–22 Segunda División

text: The 2021–22 Segunda División (known as LaLiga SmartBank for sponsorship reasons) football season, was the 91st since its establishment in Spain.


title: 2021–22 Segunda División

text: A total of 22 teams will contest the league, including 15 sides from the 2020–21 season, three relegated from the 2020–21 La Liga, and four promoted from the 2020–21 Segunda División B. This will include the winners of the play-offs.


title: 2021–22 Segunda División

text: On 8 May 2021, Espanyol became the first side to mathematically be promoted, assured of a return to the top flight following a 0–0 draw against Zaragoza. The second team to earn promotion was Mallorca, following Almería's 2-3 loss to Cartagena on 18 May 2021. Both teams made an immediate return to the first division after a season away. The final team promoted to La Liga was Rayo Vallecano by beating CD Leganés 5-1 and Girona FC 3-2 on aggration in promotion play-off.


title: 2021–22 Segunda División

text: The first team to be relegated from La Liga were Eibar, after a 1–4 loss to Valencia on 16 May 2021, ending their seven-year stay in the top tier. The second team to be relegated were Valladolid, following a 1–2 home defeat against Atlético Madrid on 22 May 2021, in their final game of the season, ending their three-year stay in the top tier. The third and final team to be relegated were Huesca, after drawing 0–0 against Valencia on 22 May 2021 in their final game of the season, suffering an immediate return to the second division.


title: 2021–22 Segunda División

text: The first team to be relegated from Segunda División were Albacete, following a 1-1 against Lugo in 18 May 2021, effectively ending their four-years stay in the second tier. Albacete was followed by Castellón, Logroñés and Sabadell. The three of those clubs were relegated in 30 May 2021, making an immediate return to the third tier after a single season in Segunda División.


title: 2021–22 Segunda División

text: Following the play-offs, the first team to achieve promotion were Real Sociedad B after defeated Algeciras on 22 May 2021. They are promoted to second division for the first time in 59 years. The second team to earn promotion were Amorebieta on 22 May 2021 after beating Badajoz. The third team to earn promotion were Ibiza on 23 May 2021 after defeated UCAM Murcia. For both victorious teams this was their first time ever promotion to the second division. The fourth and last team to get the promotion was Burgos after defeating Athletic Bilbao B on 23 May 2021. This was their 2nd promotion to the Segunda División, the last one being in 2001–02, where they ended being relegated.


title: More Cowbell

text: The sketch was written by regular cast member Will Ferrell and playwright Donnell Campbell and depicts the recording of the song "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" by Blue Öyster Cult.


title: More Cowbell

text: The sketch stars guest host Christopher Walken as music producer ""The" Bruce Dickinson", and Will Ferrell as fictional cowbell player Gene Frenkle, whose overzealous playing annoys his bandmates but pleases producer Dickinson. The sketch also features Chris Parnell as Eric Bloom, Jimmy Fallon as Bobby Rondinelli, Chris Kattan as Buck Dharma and Horatio Sanz as Joe Bouchard.


title: More Cowbell

text: The sketch is considered one of the greatest "SNL" sketches ever made; in many "best of" lists of "SNL" sketches, it is often placed in the top ten (ranked number nine by "Rolling Stone", for example). As a result of its popularity, "more cowbell" became an American pop culture catchphrase, and has even entered the dictionary.


title: More Cowbell

text: An episode of VH1's "Behind the Music" documenting the band Blue Öyster Cult showcases footage of the group from a 1976 recording session that produced the band's biggest hit, "(Don't Fear) The Reaper". The producer (played by Christopher Walken) introduces himself as ""The" Bruce Dickinson" and tells the band they have "what appears to be a dynamite sound". The first take seems to go well but the band stops playing because the cowbell part is rather loud and distracting. Dickinson, to the surprise of most of the band, asks for "a little more cowbell" and suggests that the cowbell player, Gene Frenkle (Will Ferrell), "really explore the studio space this time". Frenkle's exuberance in following this advice causes him to bump into his bandmates as he dances around the cramped studio, thrusting his pelvis wildly in all directions, and the band aborts another take.


title: More Cowbell

text: After the other members voice their frustrations with the instrument, Frenkle sheepishly agrees to tone down his performance in the spirit of cooperation. He passive-aggressively plays the cowbell very close to Eric Bloom (Chris Parnell)'s ear and fails to keep time with the rest of the band. The rest of the band expresses frustration with Frenkle, but Dickinson remains focused only on getting more cowbell onto the track. Frenkle makes an impromptu speech to the rest of the band, declaring that Dickinson's stature lends a great deal of weight to his opinion about the cowbell part and that the last time he (Frenkle) checked, they didn't have "a whole lot of songs that feature the cowbell" and therefore he would be "doing himself a disservice, and every member of the band" if he "didn't perform the hell out of this". In the end, the band agrees to let Frenkle play the cowbell part his way. The sketch ends with a freeze frame on Frenkle with the superimposed message: "In Memoriam: Gene Frenkle: 1950–2000."


title: More Cowbell

text: Will Ferrell's idea for the sketch came from hearing "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" over the years: "Every time I heard [the song], I would hear the faint cowbell in the background and wonder, 'What is that guy's life like? He co-wrote the sketch with friend and playwright Donnell Campbell. Ferrell first submitted it for the episode with Norm Macdonald as host, which aired on October 23, 1999. "SNL" creator and executive producer Lorne Michaels was unsure about the premise, though the sketch played well among crew at the table read. According to Seth Meyers, who served as head writer several seasons later, the sketch was submitted over seven times before making the show. Ferrell re-wrote the sketch when Christopher Walken was scheduled to host to fit the actor's rhythm.


title: More Cowbell

text: The actors who appeared in the sketch had trouble keeping straight faces. They found Ferrell's acting, along with Walken's stone-faced performance, so funny that they were all on the verge of corpsing and ruining the sketch several times. On "Take Two", Walken can be seen through the booth glass, laughing, as Ferrell's too-tight shirt rides up, exposing Ferrell's stomach while he is dancing and playing the cowbell. Even Ferrell at one point can be seen laughing for a moment soon after Jimmy Fallon laughs for the first time in the sketch. According to Ferrell and Michaels, the sketch did not do well in dress rehearsals, and Ferrell had the idea of performing in a smaller shirt in the live sketch. According to Fallon, Ferrell's tighter shirt made him unable to stop laughing, and had to bite his drumsticks to avoid breaking the scene.


title: More Cowbell

text: While the song "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" by Blue Öyster Cult does indeed include a cowbell playing throughout the song, its sound is largely drowned out by the rest of the instruments. According to Donald "Buck Dharma" Roeser, the lead singer and author-composer of the song, the sketch accurately portrays the band's look during the 1970s, but it inaccurately portrays some of the details of the actual recording:


title: More Cowbell

text: The sketch's offbeat nature, as well as the actors breaking character, made the sketch an immediate fan favorite. Marc Spitz called it "one of the first super-memes of the new century" in "the New York Times." Walken continued to hear from fans about the sketch in years afterward: "I hear about it everywhere I go. It's been YEARS, and all anybody brings up is 'COW-bell.' I guess you never know what's gonna click." Ferrell even speculates that it "ruined" Walken's life.


title: More Cowbell

text: Members of Blue Öyster Cult reacted favorably to the sketch. Though the song was previously well known for its creepy tone, co-vocalist Buck Dharma said that "Ferrell pretty much sabotaged that."


title: More Cowbell

text: Will Ferrell has since played the cowbell along other artists, either in character as Gene Frenkle or as himself.


title: More Cowbell

text: On May 14, 2005, on an episode that Will Ferrell hosted, the Gene Frenkle character made a reappearance on the set of "Saturday Night Live" as musical guest Queens of the Stone Age played their first song of the night, "Little Sister" – which features a jam block, an instrument similar to a cowbell. In his Gene Frenkle costume, Ferrell played the song's jam block part using a large cowbell along with the band, drawing much applause.


title: More Cowbell

text: At the end of the May 16, 2009 Will Ferrell/Green Day episode, Green Day performed "East Jesus Nowhere" with Ferrell on the cowbell. Ferrell's appearance was unrehearsed and it was unknown to Green Day that Ferrell would appear. Additionally, Ferrell was unfamiliar with the song and not aware of the sound-break near its end. As the sound-break continued, Ferrell elaborately played single "final" cowbell beats, expecting the lights to fade, then began to leave the stage. Lead singer Billie Joe Armstrong called him back, saying, "Wait, goddamn it!" and began his vocal. Ferrell came to the microphone and asked, "Wait, is this song still going on?" Laughing, Armstrong answered, "Yes."


title: More Cowbell

text: Ferrell guest-starred on the final episode of "The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien", playing cowbell in reference to the sketch.


title: More Cowbell

text: Ferrell appeared in the 2011 video for "Make Some Noise" by the Beastie Boys, in the front of a limo, playing a cowbell.


title: More Cowbell

text: Ferrell and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith (with whom Ferrell is often said to bear resemblance) appeared on the May 22, 2014 episode of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" for a charity drum-off battle. Despite Smith clearly giving the better performance, Ferrell was named the winner and awarded a giant gold cowbell after Ferrell, realizing he could not outplay Smith, pulled out a cowbell after the latter's third solo, whereupon both were joined by Smith's Red Hot Chili Peppers bandmates for a performance of "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" with Ferrell playing cowbell.


title: More Cowbell

text: At Ferrell's all-star cancer benefit concert Best Night of Your Life on October 6, 2018, Ferrell joined Coldplay's Chris Martin on cowbell for the song "Viva la Vida."


title: More Cowbell

text: The quote from Dickinson, “Guess what! I've got a fever, and the only prescription is more cowbell!” has become a legendary SNL quote, and is parodied, homaged, and referenced by many forms of media. The sketch was referenced on various episodes of "SNL" in years to come. Promotions for the April 5, 2008 Christopher Walken/Panic! at the Disco episode of "Saturday Night Live" referenced the "More Cowbell" sketch. The cowbell did not appear during the actual episode.


title: More Cowbell

text: Ferrell claimed in 2019 that this "More Cowbell" sketch "ruined" Walken's life because Walken is best known by the general public for his role in this sketch.


title: More Cowbell

text: In the 2016 film "The Jungle Book", the character of King Louie, voiced by Christopher Walken, appears after Mowgli, played by Neel Sethi, shakes a cowbell.


title: More Cowbell

text: In St. Charles, Missouri, a marathon/half marathon race is held annually called MO’ Cowbell Run. The race name was inspired by the "SNL" sketch.


title: More Cowbell

text: At Washington State University during their historic NCAA basketball tournament runs in 2007-2008, coached by Tony Bennett, power forward Robbie Cowgill prompted student section chants of "I've got a fever and the only prescription is more Cowgill." Los Angeles Angels and New York Mets outfielder Collin Cowgill was the subject of similar fan jokes.


title: More Cowbell

text: In "The Lord of the Rings Online" MMORPG, there is an item that can be used for music generation called the "Moor Cowbell".


title: More Cowbell

text: Some Tesla automobiles feature some of the "SNL" More Cowbell soundtrack when "Rainbow Road" is chosen from the Toybox options and autosteer is engaged.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: League of Legends: Wild Rift (abbreviated LoL: WR or simply Wild Rift) is a multiplayer online battle arena mobile game developed and published by Riot Games for Android and iOS. The free-to-play game is a modified version of the PC game "League of Legends".


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: As in "League of Legends", players control a character ("champion") with unique abilities and battle against a team of players or AI-controlled units, with the goal of destroying the opposing team's "Nexus". Each "League of Legends: Wild Rift" match is discrete, with all champions starting off relatively weak but increasing in strength by accumulating items and experience over the course of the game. Character design is influenced by a variety of genres, including high fantasy, steampunk, and Lovecraftian horror.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: "League of Legends: Wild Rift" is a multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game in the three-dimensional isometric perspective. With a gameplay similar to the League of Legends PC version, the objective of the game is to take down the opposing team's base. To be compatible with mobile devices, "Wild Rift" received some adaptations, making the game faster compared to the PC version. Its map has been reduced in size, the respawn time is shorter, the gold gain is greatly accelerated and the regeneration time has been cut in half. Due to this, while on the PC version a match can last regularly 45 minutes, on the mobile version matches last approximately fifteen minutes. There are currently two different modes: "Wild Rift" (which covers PVP, ranked, and tournament draft) and ARAM.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: Each match is played by ten players who are distributed in two teams for a 5v5 confrontation. The players must each select a character, which are called champions by the game. To win the match, teams work together to destroy a structure called the Nexus in the enemy team's base, bypassing a line of defensive structures called turrets. Unlike the PC version of "League", inhibitors and Nexus turrets were removed, and the Nexus itself is able to attack target units. The mode has a ranked competitive ladder with a matchmaking system determining the player's skill level. There are currently 10 tiers; from least to most skilled, Iron, Bronze, Silver, Gold, Platinum, Emerald, Diamond, Master, Grandmaster, and Challenger.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: In addition to the normal field, present in ranked and PVP mode, there is the ARAM (All Random, All Mid) mode. In this second mode, the number of players is the same as in the normal, 5v5 mode, however, the champions are chosen randomly. Also, the battlefield is reduced, as there is no jungle area nor top and lower route, only mid. Consequently, there is no dragon or baron quest in this mode.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: After fully acquiring Riot Games in 2015, Tencent asked them to turn "League of Legends" into a mobile title. However, Riot declined and claimed that the game could not be replicated on smartphones. Tencent then created their own mobile MOBA, "Honor of Kings" (with its international adaptation known as "Arena of Valor"). The aforementioned games was then reportedly straining their business relationship, and the relationship between the two firms became further strained when Tencent used notable "League of Legends" players to promote "Arena of Valor" and its esports tournaments.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: Riot Games's complaints initiated a two-month marketing freeze for "Arena of Valor" and demands that Riot Games would be given the option to review all marketing plans, including a veto for use of select celebrity gamers. Nonetheless, Riot Games implied that their relationship with Tencent is still strong, and the conflict between them and their games is only "a bump in the road".


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: Riot Games eventually acknowledged the potential of the mobile market for the MOBA genre, and agreed to develop a mobile title for "League of Legends". Tencent then temporarily pulled marketing plans for "Arena of Valor" in Europe and North America in 2019, clearing room for Riot Games's announcement of "League of Legends: Wild Rift" a few months later.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: "League of Legends: Wild Rift" was announced on October 15, 2019, on the 10th anniversary of "League of Legends".


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: "League of Legends: Wild Rift" was set to be released on October 27, 2020, with a limited alpha launch in Brazil and Philippines in June 2020. Along with the release, a cinematic trailer was posted by the official "League of Legends: Wild Rift" channel on YouTube.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: On September 16, 2020, "Wild Rift" was released in closed beta in Southeast Asia via Google Play and Apple's TestFlight, with more regions to be added at a later date. On October 8, 2020, the closed beta returned, adding South Korea and Japan.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: The regional open beta for Southeast Asia began on October 27, 2020. On December 7, 2020, the beta was expanded to include Vietnam, Oceania, and Taiwan. On December 10, 2020, the open beta was expanded ahead of schedule to include the Commonwealth of Independent States, Europe, Middle East, and Turkey.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: For China, "Wild Rift" has received game approval from China's National Press and Publication Administration in early 2021. On October 8, 2021, the game went out of open beta and was officially released by Tencent.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: Similar to "League of Legends", "Wild Rift" also receives updates in the form of patches. Smaller balance updates happen once every two or three weeks, with a patch cycle usually consisting of three or four of these.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: "League of Legends: Wild Rift" uses a free-to-play business model. "Skins", used as purely cosmetic customization of champions can be acquired after buying and using an in-game currency called Wild Cores. New skins are debuting in Wild Rift, such as the "Stargazer" skin line, and other standalone skins. A new feature currently exclusive to "Wild Rift" is "champion poses", changing the pose of the selected champion just before the game begins and right after the game ends. These are unlocked through chests in events. Similar to "battle passes", a system called Wild Passes have been introduced as a way to get skins, currency, player icons, emotes, and other cosmetic upgrades. Upon purchasing a pass, players will be given an exclusive skin (the "Hexplorer" skin line), and reaching the maximum level will grant a pose for that exclusive skin. Passes can be leveled up through in-game missions, or buying levels for certain amounts of Wild Cores.


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: "League of Legends: Wild Rift" was well received by video game critics. On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the game received a score of 89 out of 100 based on 7 reviews. Cass Marshall, from "Polygon", said "Wild Rift" provides "a great alternative for those intimidated by the PC version of "League"". Jordan Minor from "PCMag" gave "Wild Rift" 4 out of 5 stars and called it "a surprisingly capable mobile edition" of "League of Legends." The editor praised the art style of the game and also its capacity to function on weak hardware devices. "The Washington Post"'s Shannon Liao said the game was "a much more beginner-friendly" than "League of Legends", but felt that its tutorial could be more comprehensive. Andrew Webster with "The Verge" wrote that despite the complexity of "League of Legends"'s gameplay, "Wild Rift," in contrast, "does an excellent job of easing in new players by explaining the basics in simple terms".


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: Regarding game control, while the touchscreen controls used for attacks were praised as "perfectly playable" and "intuitive", the virtual joystick utilized for movement was described as "serviceable, but like all virtual joysticks, it can be unresponsive at times". Still about it, Minor wrote that command "don't always keep up with the action".


title: League of Legends: Wild Rift

text: "Wild Rift" player base in the United States has reportedly been "way less toxic" than "League of Legends", which Liao and Steven Messner with "PC Gamer" attributed to the amount of effort required to type on a smartphone. Liao observed that despite rare occurrences of bickering she encountered "over taking a role someone else wanted", ""Wild Rift" seems to be injecting new life into a community that has grown pretty insular."


title: Elche CF

text: Elche Club de Fútbol, S.A.D. () is a professional football based in Elche, Province of Alicante, in the Valencian Community. Founded in 1923, the club competes in La Liga, holding home matches at "Estadio Manuel Martínez Valero", with a capacity of 33,732 seats.


title: Elche CF

text: Founded in 1923 as the result of a merger between all of the town's clubs, Elche entered the league system in 1929, reaching Segunda División in 1934 and La Liga in 1959, finishing fifth in the latter tournament in 1963–64. The club were runners-up in the Copa del Rey in 1969. Elche became the first and only club in the history of La Liga to be relegated due to unpaid tax debts in the 2014–15 season. Elche returned to La Liga in 2020–21 after being promoted to the Segunda División and then La Liga in only three seasons.


title: Elche CF

text: Elche Club de Fútbol was founded in the summer of 1923, after the merger of all of the town's football teams. The club's first-ever game was against Monóvar, where they beat the home team 4–0, and its first official match was a 2–0 win over Crevillente. In its first years Elche, like many teams of the time, played in an all white uniform. The team played its first league season in 1929–30, in the Tercera División, achieving promotion to the Segunda División in 1934. However, Elche suffered relegation for the first time six years later, but were promoted back the following season.


title: Elche CF

text: In the late 1950s, Elche achieved two consecutive promotions from the third level to La Liga, securing the club's first promotion to the latter competition with a 3–0 success against Tenerife in 1959.


title: Elche CF

text: Elche opened its first season in the top level with a 1–1 draw against Real Oviedo, the first goal being scored by Vicente Pahuet. The club finished tenth out of 16 sides, nine points ahead of relegated Osasuna – the campaign included a 2–1 comeback home victory over Barcelona, but also a 2–11 loss at Real Madrid. The following season saw the team having to compete in the relegation/promotion play-off, where it overcame a 0–1 loss in the away leg against Atlético Ceuta with a 4–0 home victory.


title: Elche CF

text: Elche achieved their best-ever league finish in 1963–64, ranking in fifth position. The season also saw the club's reserve team, Elche Ilicitano, promote to Segunda División.


title: Elche CF

text: In 1969 the club reached their first and only Copa del Rey final, following victories over Pontevedra, Valencia and Real Sociedad. The semi-final against the latter was won 2–0 in a replay in neutral Madrid, as the tie had finished 4–4 on aggregate; the final, played on June 15 at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in the same city, brought a 0–1 loss to Athletic Bilbao.


title: Elche CF

text: After twelve seasons Elche were relegated to division two in 1971, having finished second from bottom. Two years later the team returned to the main category, as champions. Its second spell in the top flight lasted five seasons, often immerse in relegation fights as the best campaign (1974–75) ended with the club in eighth position; at the end of 1977–78 the side returned to the second division after finishing 17th out of 18 clubs, the last game being a 4–4 draw with Atlético Madrid, which was led 2–4 with five minutes remaining.


title: Elche CF

text: After the relegation in 1978 Elche suffered. Although on paper they had a good team they never managed to gain promotion to the top flight – in fact, in the first five years since their return to the second level, they were fourth on three occasions and fifth on two (and on a further two, even on points with the third-placed team but with a worse goal difference), often losing the chance of promotion on the last matchday. Especially traumatic was the finish of the 1980–81 season: with one game remaining, they were second two points ahead of Rayo Vallecano and Racing de Santander, only needing a draw against Cádiz at the "Martínez Valero"; the game ended however in a loss, and Elche finished with 45 points alongside Castellón, Cádiz, Racing and Rayo.


title: Elche CF

text: A promotion finally occurred at the end of 1983–84, even though Elche only finished fifth in the regular season – the first two positions were occupied by Real Madrid Castilla and Athletic Bilbao B, who could not promote as reserve sides. The whole of the top division campaign was spent in the relegation zone, and relegation consequently befell as 17th. In 1988 they were promoted again for another cameo appearance, as the side went on to finish dead last with eighteen points, dropping down a category alongside Real Murcia, who they trailed by nine points; the last match for years in the category was a 1–3 away loss against Real Zaragoza, the goal coming courtesy of Alfonso Fernández.


title: Elche CF

text: After the relegation in 1989, Elche started to suffer heavily in the financial department, and relegated to Segunda División B – the new third level created in 1977 – at the end of 1990–91. During the better part of the 1990s the club reached the second division promotion playoffs, only to consecutively fall short.


title: Elche CF

text: In 1997 Elche finally managed to return to the second category, being immediately relegated back but gaining another promotion subsequently.


title: Elche CF

text: In 2010–11, again in the "silver category", the team finished fourth and thus qualified for the play-offs: after disposing of Real Valladolid in the first round (3–2 on aggregate) the dream of top flight promotion ended at the hands of Granada, on the away goals rule.


title: Elche CF

text: On May 18, 2013, following Barcelona B and Alcorcón's 1–1 draw, Elche was automatically promoted to the top level, returning to the competition after 24 years. In the meantime the team coached by Fran Escribá had broken a number of Segunda División records, being the only team to date able to lead the competition from the first until the last match of the season, setting in the process a new record of both matches won and points scored to date as well as the best first round in the history of Segunda's championship.


title: Elche CF

text: During the 2013–14 season, the team managed to keep in the top competition, with an average attendance to home matches estimated at 25,104 people.


title: Elche CF

text: In the 2014–15 season, despite managing once again to keep in the top flight (the team was already safe from relegation four dates before the end of the competition) Elche became the first team ever in the history of the Spanish "Primera División" being relegated to "Segunda" following new regulations by the Spanish football league limiting excess debt and economic mismanagement.


title: Elche CF

text: One year later, Elche promoted back to second level after defeating Villarreal B in the final play-off promotion to second level.


title: Elche CF

text: In the 2019–20 season, Elche were promoted to La Liga by beating Girona in the promotion play-off final 1–0 on aggregate. They were promoted back to La Liga after five years in the second and third divisions.


title: Elche CF

text: Elche's reserve team, Elche Ilicitano, was founded in 1932. It managed to spend two seasons in the second division, when the main squad was in the top flight.


title: History of animation

text: While the history of animation began much earlier, this article is concerned with the development of the medium after the emergence of celluloid film in 1888, as produced for theatrical screenings, television and (non-interactive) home entertainment.


title: History of animation

text: Between 1895 and 1920, during the rise of the cinematic industry, several different animation techniques were re-invented or newly developed, including stop-motion with objects, puppets, clay or cutouts, and drawn or painted animation. Hand-drawn animation, mostly animation painted on cels, was the dominant technique throughout most of the 20th century and became known as traditional animation.


title: History of animation

text: Around the turn of the millennium, computer animation became the dominant animation technique in most regions (while Japanese anime and European hand-drawn productions continue to be very popular). Computer animation is mostly associated with a three-dimensional appearance with detailed shading, although many different animation styles have been generated or simulated with computers. Some productions may be recognized as Flash animation, but in practice, computer animation with a relatively two-dimensional appearance, stark outlines and little shading, will generally be considered "traditional animation". For instance, the first feature movie made on computers, without a camera, is "The Rescuers Down Under" (1990), but its style can hardly be distinguished from cel animation.


title: History of animation

text: Animated movies are part of ancient traditions in storytelling, visual arts and theatre. Popular techniques with moving images before film include shadow play, mechanical slides, and mobile projectors in magic lantern shows (especially phantasmagoria). Techniques with similarly fanciful three-dimensional moving figures include masks and costumes, puppetry and automata. Illustrated children's books, caricature, political cartoons and especially comic strips are closely related to animation, with much influence on visual styles and types of humour.


title: History of animation

text: The technical principles of modern animation are based on the stroboscopic illusion of motion that was introduced in 1833 with stroboscopic discs (better known as the phenakistiscope). These animated discs with an average of about 8 to 16 images were usually designed as endless loops (like many GIF animations), for home use as a hand-operated "philosophical toy". Although several pioneers hoped it could be applied to longer scenes for theatrical use, throughout the 19th century further development of the technique mostly concentrated on combinations with the stereoscope (introduced in 1838) and photography (introduced in 1839). The breakthrough of cinematography partly depended on the novelty of a technique that was able to record and reproduce reality in life-like motion pictures. During the first years, drawing animated pictures seemed an archaic technique, until some artists produced popular and influential animated shorts and producers embraced cheap techniques to turn popular comic strips into animated cartoons.


title: History of animation

text: Charles-Émile Reynaud developed his projection praxinoscope into the Théâtre Optique with transparent hand-painted colorful pictures in a long perforated strip wound between two spools, patented in December 1888. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900 Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500,000 visitors at the Musée Grévin in Paris. His "Pantomimes Lumineuses" series of animated films each contained 300 to 700 frames manipulated back and forth to last 10 to 15 minutes per film. A background scene was projected separately. Piano music, song and some dialogue were performed live, while some sound effects were synchronized with an electromagnet. The first program included three cartoons: "Pauvre Pierrot" (created in 1892), "Un bon bock" (created in 1892, now lost), and "Le Clown et ses chiens" (created in 1892, now lost). Later on the titles "Autour d'une cabine " (created in 1894) and "A rêve au coin du feu" would be part of the performances.


title: History of animation

text: Despite the success of Raynaud's films, it took some time before animation was adapted in the film industry that came about after the introduction of Lumiere's Cinematograph in 1895. Georges Méliès' early fantasy and trick films (released between 1896 and 1913) occasionally contain elements that somewhat resemble animation, including painted props or painted creatures that were moved in front of painted backgrounds (mostly using wires), and film colorization by hand. Méliès also popularized the stop trick, with a single change made to the scene in between shots, that had already been used in Edison's "The Execution of Mary Stuart" in 1895 and probably led to the development of stop-motion animation some years later. It seems to have lasted until 1906 before proper animated films appeared in cinemas. The dating of some presumed earlier films with animation is contested, while other early films that may have used stop motion or other animation techniques are lost or unidentified, and thus can't be checked.


title: History of animation

text: By 1897, German toy manufacturer Gebrüder Bing had a first prototype of their toy "kinematograph", which they eventually presented at a toy convention in Leipzig in November 1898. Soon after, other toy manufacturers in Germany and France, including Ernst Plank, Georges Carette, and Lapierre, started selling similar devices. The toy cinematographs were basically traditional toy magic lanterns, adapted with one or two small spools that used standard "Edison perforation" 35mm film, a crank, and a shutter. These projectors were intended for the same type of "home entertainment" toy market that most of the manufacturers already provided with praxinoscopes and magic lanterns. Apart from relatively expensive live-action films, the manufacturers produced many cheaper films by printing lithographed drawings. These animations were probably made in black-and-white from around 1898 or 1899, but at the latest by 1902 they were made in color. The pictures were often traced from live-action films (much like the later rotoscoping technique). These very short films typically depicted a simple repetitive action and most were designed to be projected as a loop - playing endlessly with the film ends put together. The lithograph process and the loop format follow the tradition that was set by the stroboscopic disc, zoetrope and praxinoscope.


title: History of animation

text: "Katsudō Shashin" (circa 1905?-1911?), speculated to be the oldest work of animation in Japan, was probably made in imitation of similar Western printed film strips.


title: History of animation

text: J. Stuart Blackton was a British-American filmmaker, co-founder of the Vitagraph Studios and one of the first to use animation in his films. His "The Enchanted Drawing" (1900) can be regarded as the first theatrical film recorded on standard picture film that included animated elements, although this concerns just a few frames of changes in drawings. It shows Blackton doing "lightning sketches" of a face, cigars, a bottle of wine and a glass. The face changes expression when Blackton pours wine into the face's mouth and when Blackton takes his cigar. The technique used in this film was basically the stop trick: the single change to the scenes was the replacement of a drawing by a similar drawing with a different facial expression. In some scenes, a drawn bottle and glass were replaced by real objects. Blackton had possibly used the same technique in a lost 1896 lightning sketch film.


title: History of animation

text: Blackton's 1906 film "Humorous Phases of Funny Faces" is often regarded as the oldest known hand-drawn animation on standard film. It features a sequence made with blackboard drawings that are changed between frames to show two faces changing expressions and some billowing cigar smoke, as well as two sequences that feature cutout animation with a similar look for more fluid motion.


title: History of animation

text: Alexander Shiryaev was a Russian ballet dancer, ballet master and choreographer who served at the Mariinsky Theatre who is credited with the independent invention of stop motion animation. From 1906-1909, created the earliest known animated films made in Russia, using puppet animation, drawn animation, and mixed techniques. While some were made as experiments (for example, a 20-minute drawn animation showing the flight of birds in a continuous line), most of them were made for educational purpose of showing the ballet dancers what their choreography should look like. The puppet animations ranged in length from just over a minute to 10 minutes long. Shiryaev's films were only screened within the Mariinsky Theatre for the performers, not publicly, and were generally unknown until 2003, when Russian documentarist and ballet historian Viktor Bocharov released a one-hour movie titled "A Belated Premiere" which included fragments of the various films.