title: Cry of Pugad Lawin

text: Here are some reasons why Pugad Lawin is not considered as the place of the ‘cry’. (1) People of Balintawak initiated the revolution against the Spaniards that is why it is not appropriate to call it ‘Cry of Pugad Lawin’. (2) The place Pugad Lawin only existed in 1935 after the rebellion happened in 1896. Lastly, (3) The term ‘Pugad Lawin’ was only made up because of the hawk’s nest at the top of a tall tree at the backyard of Tandang Sora in Banlat, Gulod, Kaloocan where it is said to be one of the hiding places of the revolutionary group led by Andres Bonifacio.


title: Cry of Pugad Lawin

text: In 1895, Bonifacio, Masangkay, Emilio Jacinto and other Katipuneros spent Good Friday in the caves of Mt. Pamitinan in Montalban (now part of Rizal province). They wrote "long live Philippine independence" on the cave walls, which some Filipino historians consider the "first cry" ("el primer grito").


title: Cry of Pugad Lawin

text: The first annual commemoration of the Cry occurred in Balintawak in 1908 after the American colonial government repealed the Sedition Law. In 1911 a monument to the Cry (a lone Katipunero popularly identified with Bonifacio) was erected at Balintawak; it was later transferred to Vinzons Hall in the University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City. In 1984, the National Historical Institute of the Philippines installed a commemorative plaque in Pugad Lawin.


title: Elixir (programming language)

text: Elixir is a functional, concurrent, general-purpose programming language that runs on the BEAM virtual machine which is also used to implement the Erlang programming language. Elixir builds on top of Erlang and shares the same abstractions for building distributed, fault-tolerant applications. Elixir also provides productive tooling and an extensible design. The latter is supported by compile-time metaprogramming with macros and polymorphism via protocols.


title: Elixir (programming language)

text: Elixir is used by companies such as Ramp, PagerDuty, Discord, Brex, E-MetroTel, Pinterest, Moz, Bleacher Report, The Outline, Inverse, Divvy, FarmBot and for building embedded systems. The community organizes yearly events in the United States, Europe, and Japan, as well as minor local events and conferences.


title: Elixir (programming language)

text: José Valim is the creator of the Elixir programming language, a research and development project created at Plataformatec. His goals were to enable higher extensibility and productivity in the Erlang VM while keeping compatibility with Erlang's ecosystem.


title: Elixir (programming language)

text: Elixir was aimed for large-scale sites and apps. Elixir uses features of Ruby, Erlang, and Clojure to develop a "high-concurrency" and "low-latency" language. Elixir was designed to handle large data volumes. Elixir is used in telecommunication, eCommerce, and finance industries.


title: Elixir (programming language)

text: Elixir mostly follows semantic versioning and has only 1 major version with no plans for a second. Each of the minor versions supports a specific range of Erlang/OTP versions. The current stable release version is .


title: Elixir (programming language)

text: The following examples can be run in an codice_2 shell or saved in a file and run from the command line by typing codice_3.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: Kyle Anthony Pitts (born October 6, 2000) is an American football tight end for the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Florida, where he was named a unanimous All-American and won the John Mackey Award in 2020.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: Pitts was selected fourth overall by the Falcons in the 2021 NFL Draft, making him the highest drafted tight end in NFL history. He was later named to the Pro Bowl as a rookie, the first at his position to do so in two decades.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: Pitts originally attended Abington Senior High School in Abington, Pennsylvania before transferring to Archbishop Wood Catholic High School in Warminster, Pennsylvania in 2016. He played tight end and defensive end on the football team. Pitts played in the 2018 Under Armour All-America Game. He committed to the University of Florida to play college football.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: Pitts played in 11 games as a backup his true freshman season at Florida in 2018. He finished the year with three receptions for 73 yards and a touchdown. In 2019, he took over as the starting tight end. Pitts played in all 13 games his sophomore season at Florida in 2019. He finished the year with 54 receptions for 649 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pitts earned First-team All-SEC for the season.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: During the 2020 season, curtailed by the COVID-19 pandemic, Pitts scored 12 touchdowns in eight games while gaining 770 yards on 43 receptions. He was named a unanimous All-American and won the John Mackey Award as the most outstanding tight end in college football for the season.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: Pitts was selected in the first round with the fourth overall by the Atlanta Falcons in the 2021 NFL Draft, making him the highest drafted tight end in NFL history. He signed his four-year rookie contract, worth $32.9 million, on June 29, 2021.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: In his NFL debut, Pitts had four receptions for 31 yards in a 6–32 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles in Week 1. In Week 2, Pitts had five catches for 79 yards in a 25–48 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. In Week 5 against the New York Jets at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, Pitts caught nine passes for 119 yards and his first NFL touchdown in the 27–20 win. In Week 7 against the Miami Dolphins, Pitts finished with 163 receiving yards as the Falcons won 30–28. His 163 receiving yards set the Falcons franchise record for receiving yards in a single game by a tight end.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: In Week 16 against the Detroit Lions, Pitts had 6 receptions for 102 yards in the 20–16 win. In that game, Pitts surpassed Tony Gonzalez for the Falcon franchise record for the most receiving yards in a single season by a tight end. In Week 17 against the Buffalo Bills, Pitts had 2 receptions for 69 yards in the 15–29 loss. In that game, Pitts joined Hall of Famer Mike Ditka as the only rookie tight ends in NFL history to surpass 1,000 receiving yards.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: Pitts finished the season with 68 receptions for 1,026 yards and a touchdown. He was named to the 2022 Pro Bowl, making him the first rookie at his position to make the Pro Bowl since Jeremy Shockey in 2002.


title: Kyle Pitts

text: In Week 3 against the Seattle Seahawks, Pitts had five receptions for 87 yards in the 27–23 win. Pitts was ruled out with a hamstring injury for Week 5 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Pitts returned from injury in Week 6 against the San Francisco 49ers and had 3 receptions for 19 yards and his first touchdown of the season. In Week 10 against the Carolina Panthers, Pitts had 5 receptions for 80 yards and a touchdown in the 37–34 overtime win. In Week 11 against the Chicago Bears, Pitts had three catches for 43 yards before suffering a knee injury in the second half. He was placed on injured reserve the following day for a torn MCL. On November 30, 2022, Pitts was ruled out for the remainder of the season after having surgery to repair the MCL in his right knee.


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Sameera Reddy (born 14 December 1978) is a former Indian actress who primarily worked in Hindi films, in addition to Tamil and Telugu language films. Reddy made her film debut with the 2002 film "Maine Dil Tujhko Diya". She is best known for starring in films such as "Darna Mana Hai" (2003), "Musafir" (2004), "Jai Chiranjeeva" (2005), "Taxi Number 9211" (2006), "Ashok" (2006), "Race" (2008), "Varanam Aayiram" (2008), "De Dana Dan" (2009), "Aakrosh" (2010), "Vettai" (2012) and "Tezz" (2012).


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Sameera Reddy was born in Bombay (now Mumbai), Maharashtra to a Telugu father and a Mangalorean mother. Her mother Nakshatra, referred to as Niki by her daughters and the media, was a microbiologist and worked with an NGO. She has two siblings, Meghna Reddy, a former VJ and supermodel, and Sushama Reddy, a Bollywood actress and model, both elder to her. She did her schooling at Bombay Scottish School in Mahim, Mumbai and graduated from Sydenham College.


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Reddy described herself as a "tomboy" and "the ugly duckling in the family", while citing: "I was plump, had glasses and my glam quotient was rather low till I was 19."


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Reddy first appeared in ghazal singer Pankaj Udhas's "Aur Aahista" music video in 1997. She was meant to make her debut as an actress in Saravana Subbiah's Tamil film "Citizen", during early 2000s, but eventually did not feature. She caught the attention of Bollywood and was cast in a pivotal role in the 2002 Hindi film "Maine Dil Tujhko Diya". In 2004, she appeared in "Musafir", opposite Anil Kapoor, Aditya Pancholi and Koena Mitra.


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Reddy is also the first Indian actress to have her own video game, Sameera the Street Fighter. This mobile video game can be downloaded by millions of fans and is available to cell phone users throughout India.


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Reddy married Akshai Varde, an entrepreneur, on 21 January 2014, in a traditional Maharashtrian ceremony. They have a son and daughter.


title: Sameera Reddy

text: Being a fan of American talk show hostess Oprah Winfrey, Reddy met and presented a saree to Winfrey during her visit to India.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: Survivor: Cook Islands is the thirteenth season of the American competitive reality television series, "Survivor". The season was filmed from June 26 to August 3, 2006, and premiered on September 14 of that year. Filmed in the Cook Islands, it was broadcast by CBS.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: The season had 20 contestants who were initially divided into four "tribes" by ethnicity: African American, Asian American, Hispanic American, and Caucasian. The tribes were named after some of the Cook Islands: Manihiki, Puka Puka, Aitutaki, and Rarotonga. They were later merged into a single tribe, Aitutonga. The season was the first with a final consisting of three participants, rather than two. Yul Kwon defeated Ozzy Lusth and Becky Lee by a jury vote of 5–4–0 and was named the Sole Survivor, winning $1,000,000.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: Survivor is a reality television show based on the Swedish show Expedition Robinson, created by Mark Burnett and Charlie Parsons. The series follows a number of participants isolated in a remote location, where they must provide food, fire, and shelter. One participant is removed from the series by majority vote every three days, with challenges held to give a reward (ranging from living- and food-related prizes to a car) and immunity from being voted out of the series. The last remaining player receives a prize of $1,000,000. Pre-production began in spring 2006, and principal photography lasted from July 3 to August 11, 2006.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: The tribal camps, Exile Island, and many of "Survivor: Cook Islands" challenges were filmed on "motu" (islets) in the Aituaki lagoon. The Rarotonga (later Aitutonga) tribe's camp was on Moturakau, and the Aitutaki tribe lived on Motukitiu. The short-lived tribes of Manihiki and Puka Puka lived on Rapota and Muritapua, respectively. Most challenges were filmed on Tekopua and Tapuaetai (One Foot Island). Exile Island is a small sand cay south of Tapuaetai, and the bow of the wooden ship was brought in for the show. West of Tapuaetai is another sand cay, called "Nude Island" by locals because of its lack of vegetation. The third challenge was staged in the shallow water just off the shore of Nude Island. Akaiami hosted challenges and "The Ponderosa," where eliminated contestants remained until the end of the game. The Tribal Council, the production camp, and a few challenges were located on the main island of Aitutaki. There were three reward trips to the neighboring islands of Atiu, Mitiaro, and Rarotonga. Taio Shipping diverted the "MV Maungaroa" from its usual schedule to a charter for the producers of "Survivor: Cook Islands" in June 2006, triggering fuel and electricity crises on the island of Mangaia.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: The tribes were named after the islands of the Cook Islands: Manihiki, Puka Puka, Aitutaki, and Rarotonga. They were later merged into a single tribe, Aitutonga.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: Jonathan Penner, Ozzy Lusth, and Parvati Shallow were selected to compete again in "". Shallow returned for "" with Candice Woodcock. Lusth returned for a third time in "" and for a fourth time in "". Penner returned for his third time in "". Woodcock (now using her husband's surname, Cody) returned for her third time in "" with her husband, John. Shallow and Yul Kwon returned to compete on "".


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: Outside of "Survivor", J. P. Calderon became a cast member in the Oxygen reality series "The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency" as one of the models. Lusth competed on the second season of "American Ninja Warrior". Kwon was a contestant on the USA Network reality competition series, "Snake in the Grass".


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: The 20 participants, divided into four tribes (based on race) for the first six days of the competition, were then merged into two tribes. An early visit to Exile island resulted in Yul discovering the hidden immunity idol. With the tribes equal at six members each on Day 19, the castaways were given the choice to mutiny and join the other tribe; Candice and Jonathan opted to do so, leaving the Aitutaki tribe at four members (Yul, Ozzy, Becky, and Sundra) against the eight-member Rarotonga tribe. With teamwork, Yul's intelligence and Ozzy's swimming skills, Aitutaki defeated Rarotonga at every subsequent challenge and left Rarotonga with only five members at the merge.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: While the Aitu Four merged, Yul cemented his Aitutaki alliance by showing them the idol and convinced Jonathan to vote with them. The Aitu Four took control of the game, and were the final four players remaining. With Yul holding the hidden immunity idol and Ozzy winning the final challenge, the four agreed to let a fire-making challenge decide who would join them at the final tribal council; it took over an hour to complete, with Becky victorious. The jury, seeing Becky following Yul and her poor performance in the fire-making challenge, did not vote for her; Yul's brains edged out Ozzy's brawn, five votes to four.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: "Survivor: Cook Islands" received mixed reviews when it was first broadcast, but has become more popular over time. Although the racial cast divide was seen as polarizing, Kwon, Lusth and Penner were praised. Dalton Ross of "Entertainment Weekly" ranked the season 18th out of 40, calling it "listless" until the mutiny. In 2014, Joe Reid of "The Wire" ranked the season fifth out of 27. A "Rob Has a Podcast" poll the following year ranked the season 14th out of 30, with Rob Cesternino ranking it 24th. Cesternino's 2021 "Survivor All-Time Top 40 Rankings" podcast ranked the season 19th out of 40. The "Purple Rock Podcast" ranked this season seventh out of 40 in 2020, saying that it "features one of the more compelling narratives the show has ever had, and gives you the rare opportunity to see in-depth strategy talk between players." Later that year, "Inside Survivor" ranked the season 18th out of 40 and praised it for "having one of the best underdog stories of all time." In 2021, Kristen Kranz of "Collider" ranked "Cook Islands" as the 7th best season of the series and praised the diversity of the contestants, the "phenomenal" gameplay, as well as the introduction of "another group of influential players that would go on to shape the game in ways we couldn’t imagine."


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: Kwon's gameplay had a positive reception. In the 2015 issue of "CBS Watch" commemorating the 15th anniversary of "Survivor", he was ranked the ninth-greatest contestant in series history by viewers. That year, shortly before the premiere of "", host Jeff Probst called Kwon one of his top ten winners and one of his top six male winners. A 2007 online readers' poll by "Entertainment Weekly" chose Kwon its favorite "Survivor" winner. In 2017, the magazine had fans rank the 34 winners of "Survivor"; Kwon was ranked ninth.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: The decision to divide the teams by race and ethnicity was controversial before the season aired, with members of the New York City Council's Black, Latino and Asian Caucus asking CBS not to broadcast the show. Those who worked on the show said that as divisions by age, gender, or gender and age combined had been accepted, race should not have been treated much differently. Probst conceded a slight difference, in that racial segregation was part of US history. Previous seasons have been criticized for their relative lack of diversity, with Probst saying that over 80 percent of Survivor's applicants were white.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: According to "Advertising Age" magazine, more than a half-dozen major advertisers (including General Motors and Coca-Cola) withdrew their sponsorship after hearing about the teams' division. According to a "New York Times" report, the decision by several advertisers (also including the Home Depot, United Parcel Service, and Campbell Soup) not to sponsor the season was made three months before its start and was unrelated to its racial format.


title: Survivor: Cook Islands

text: "Mad TV" parodied "Cook Islands" in its twelfth-season premiere episode, which aired on September 16, 2006. The parody gave the white challengers significantly-easier tasks; a swimming challenge allowed the whites to use a canoe. A white fire-building kit consisted of gasoline and a DVD on how to make a fire; the Hispanic contestants received flint, the Asians received a matchstick, and the African-Americans received a glass of water.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The 2022–23 season is Manchester United's 31st season in the Premier League and their 48th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. In addition to the domestic league, they are also competing in the FA Cup, the EFL Cup and the UEFA Europa League.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: There is a mid-season break for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, with the last match being played on 13 November 2022. The team's first match after the World Cup will be in the EFL Cup on 21 December 2022, following the World Cup final on 18 December.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United confirmed the first of their tour destinations, travelling to Bangkok, Thailand and Melbourne, Australia to face Liverpool in the Bangkok Century Cup, Melbourne Victory and Crystal Palace. A third friendly in Australia was later added, against Aston Villa. A trip to Norway was also confirmed for a fixture against Atlético Madrid. A home match, Erik ten Hag's first as United manager, was confirmed against Rayo Vallecano for 31 July.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United began the tour with a 4–0 win over rivals Liverpool; goals from Jadon Sancho, Fred and Anthony Martial put them 3–0 up by half-time, before Facundo Pellistri added a fourth less than 15 minutes from the end. The tour resumed in Australia, where United came back from a goal down – scored by Chris Ikonomidis – to beat Melbourne Victory 4–1; goals from Scott McTominay, Martial, Marcus Rashford and an own goal from Victory youngster Edmond Lupancu maintained United's 100% start to pre-season. On 19 July, United led Crystal Palace 3–0 first via Martial, Rashford, and Sancho before a goal from Joel Ward pulled one back for the London club. Four days later, United led Aston Villa 2–0 in the first half via Sancho and a Matty Cash own goal before goals from Leon Bailey and Calum Chambers equalised for the Birmingham club. A week later, United suffered their first defeat in pre-season against Atlético Madrid, following a late goal from João Félix. The next day, United played another Madrid club, Rayo Vallecano. Amad Diallo scored first early in the second half before Álvaro García equalised nine minutes later.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: During the break for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Manchester United had a week-long training camp in Cádiz, Spain, highlighted by a friendly match against Cádiz CF at Nuevo Mirandilla on 7 December. A second friendly will be played against Real Betis at the Estadio Benito Villamarín in Seville three days later. United lost both matches, going down 4–2 to Cádiz and 1–0 to Real Betis.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The league season began with a home loss against Brighton & Hove Albion on 7 August. Pascal Groß scored twice in the first half for Brighton before they conceded an own goal by Alexis Mac Allister in the second to give United their first ever home defeat to Brighton. Named in the starting line-up, Lisandro Martínez and Christian Eriksen made their debuts for United, as did Tyrell Malacia, who came on as a substitute. United then suffered another defeat to Brentford, the first time they had started a league campaign with consecutive losses since the 1992–93 season. Josh Dasilva, Mathias Jensen, Ben Mee and Bryan Mbeumo all scored without reply before the clock had reached 38 minutes. The rest of the game went goalless, but it meant United went bottom of the league table. This was United's seventh straight away defeat in the league, their worst streak since a run of 10 in the 1936–37 season, which ended in relegation from the First Division. That season, United lost both of their meetings with Brentford: 4–0 away on 10 October 1936 and 3–1 on 13 February 1937; those were United's most recent defeats to Brentford prior to this. Erik ten Hag became the first United manager since John Chapman in 1921 to lose his opening two games in charge of the club.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 22 August, United achieved their first league victory of the season, a 2–1 home win against Liverpool. Jadon Sancho scored 15 minutes into the first half and Marcus Rashford early in the second, before Mohamed Salah scored a consolation goal that made him the fixture's outright top scorer with 10 goals. This was United's first league win against Liverpool since March 2018. In the next match, United visited Southampton on 27 August. Bruno Fernandes scored the game's only goal with a volley as United won their first away match in the league and won back-to-back league matches for the first time since February 2022. Casemiro made his United debut when he came on as a substitute in the 80th minute. On 1 September, United achieved a second away victory as they won 1–0 against Leicester City. Sancho scored the only goal after 23 minutes as United won three league matches in a row for the first time since December 2021. On 4 September, United obtained their fourth consecutive league victory with a 3–1 home win against rivals Arsenal. Antony scored the opening goal 35 minutes into his United debut, before Bukayo Saka equalised at the hour mark. Rashford then scored two goals in order to secure victory against Arsenal, who were on top of the league table, having started the season on a five-match winning streak.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II on 8 September, all league matches on the weekend of 10–12 September were postponed. United then announced that their home game against rivals Leeds United, originally scheduled for 18 September, would also be postponed due to a police shortage ahead of the Queen's state funeral.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United's break from league action was further extended by the September international window, which meant their first Premier League match in almost a month saw them face Manchester City away in the derby on 2 October. Erling Haaland and Phil Foden each scored twice for City in the first half to give the hosts a 4–0 lead at the break. Antony scored for United early in the second half, but Haaland and Foden both scored again to complete their hat-tricks before Anthony Martial came on to score two late goals for United. With a total of nine goals, it was the highest-scoring Manchester derby of all time. The next week, United travelled to play Everton. Alex Iwobi opened the scoring after just five minutes, but Everton led only briefly before Antony scored the equaliser, his third consecutive league game scoring. An injury to Martial saw him replaced by Cristiano Ronaldo just before the half-hour mark, who only took 15 minutes to score the winning goal, assisted by Casemiro. It was Ronaldo's first open-play goal of the season and the 700th overall in his club career. On the next match United faced Newcastle United in their first home league game in six weeks. Both teams had plenty of chances but ultimately had to settle for a goalless draw. Three days later, they hosted Tottenham Hotspur. Fred scored his first goal of the season before Fernandes sealed the win.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: They visited Chelsea three days later in the last game against a fellow top six side in 2022. Following a foul in the penalty area by Scott McTominay, Jorginho slotted home the penalty three minutes from time, but Casemiro then headed home in the fourth minute of stoppage time – his first United goal – as United extended their unbeaten league record against the West London side to 10 matches, dating back to November 2017. United hosted West Ham United on 30 October. Rashford scored his 100th club goal, which proved to be the sole goal of the game. The match was held 85 years to the start of United's run of including academy graduates in their matchday squads, which by this point already reached 4,163 consecutive matches. A week later United travelled to Aston Villa, in their manager Unai Emery's first Premier League game since his days with Arsenal. A seventh-minute goal from Leon Bailey and a free kick from Lucas Digne four minutes later gave Villa an early two-goal lead, before a shot from Luke Shaw was deflected into his own net by Jacob Ramsey. Four minutes into the second half, Ramsey redeemed himself and made it 3–1. This was United's first loss at Villa Park in all competitions since October 1999, and the first in the league since August 1995. The following Sunday saw United travel to West London to face Fulham for the last Premier League game prior to the World Cup. Christian Eriksen opened the scoring with his first goal for the club with less than 15 minutes played, but as the game passed the hour mark, former United winger Daniel James scored from close range to equalise. Alejandro Garnacho, who was subbed on for Martial 11 minutes later, scored the winning goal in the final minute of added time.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As a Premier League side, United will enter the 2022–23 FA Cup in the Third Round Proper in January 2023. They were drawn against Everton and the match will be played at Old Trafford on 6 January 2023, which kicks off the round.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As United were competing in UEFA competition in 2022–23, they entered the EFL Cup in the third round. They were drawn against Aston Villa, and the match was played at Old Trafford on 10 November 2022. United gave a debut to goalkeeper Martin Dúbravka, who kept a clean sheet in the first half, but within three minutes of the second half starting, United were behind to a goal from Ollie Watkins. Anthony Martial equalised 19 seconds after the ensuing kick-off, only for United to go behind again when Diogo Dalot diverted a ball from Leon Bailey into his own net just after the hour mark. Marcus Rashford equalised six minutes later, before Bruno Fernandes and Scott McTominay sealed the victory.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United received another home draw in the fourth round; they will play against Burnley on 21 December 2022.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Having finished sixth in the 2021–22 Premier League, United qualified for the 2022–23 UEFA Europa League. They entered the competition in the group stage, which was drawn on 26 August 2022, with United in Pot 1 along with Roma, Arsenal, Lazio, Braga, Red Star Belgrade, Dynamo Kyiv and Olympiacos. They were drawn into Group E with Spanish club Real Sociedad, Moldovan champions Sheriff Tiraspol and Cypriot representative Omonia. They last met Sociedad in the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League round of 32, which they won 4–0 away and drew 0–0 at home. They also met in the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League group stage, when United drew 0–0 away and won 1–0 at home. The meetings with Sheriff and Omonia were United's first against teams from either Moldova or Cyprus. The group stage began on 8 September and concluded on 3 November 2022.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Before United's opening group match at home to Real Sociedad, a moment of silence was observed following the death of Queen Elizabeth II earlier that day. Real Sociedad's Brais Méndez scored the only goal of the game from the penalty spot after 59 minutes, following a contentious handball decision against substitute Lisandro Martínez, to give the Spanish side their first ever win over United. For the next match United travelled to Chișinău, where Zimbru Stadium hosted the match instead of Sheriff's regular stadium, Sheriff Stadium, Tiraspol, due to Transnistria's involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Jadon Sancho opened the scoring before Cristiano Ronaldo scored his first goal of the season via a penalty.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The next match saw United travel to Omonia's GSP Stadium in Nicosia. Despite a heavily dominant United display in the first half, Karim Ansarifard put Omonia into the lead after 34 minutes. Half-time substitutes Rashford and Martial put United 3–1 up before Nikolas Panayiotou scored a late consolation goal for the hosts. The return fixture was played the next week, with Scott McTominay scoring the game's winning goal.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United hosted Sheriff Tiraspol on 27 October, with Alejandro Garnacho making his first senior start for the club. Diogo Dalot scored the opener with a header. It was only his second ever goal for United, and the first since January 2020. Rashford then doubled the lead with another header before Ronaldo ensured United's passage to the Europa League knockout stage. On the final matchday, United needed to win by two goals in their return match against Real Sociedad at Anoeta Stadium to win the group. Garnacho scored his first senior goal for the club in the first half, but there were no further goals, which meant United finished second based on their overall goal difference.


title: 2022–23 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Having finished second in their group, United will play in the Europa League knock-out round playoffs against one of the eight third-placed teams from the UEFA Champions League group stage. There were no other English teams in the draw conducted on 7 November 2022, so all eight opponents were possible: Ajax, Barcelona, Bayer Leverkusen, Juventus, Red Bull Salzburg, Sevilla, Shakhtar Donetsk and Sporting CP. United were drawn first from the group runners-up pot, paired with Barcelona. The two teams have previously met in 13 competitive matches, most notably in the 1991 European Cup Winners' Cup Final – which United won 2–1 – and the 2009 and 2011 UEFA Champions League Finals, which Barcelona won 2–0 and 3–1, respectively. It is the sides' first meeting since the 2018–19 Champions League quarter-finals, which United lost 4–0 on aggregate.


title: Lake Huron

text: Lake Huron ( ) is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Hydrologically, it comprises the easterly portion of Lake Michigan–Huron, having the same surface elevation as Lake Michigan, to which it is connected by the , Straits of Mackinac. It is shared on the north and east by the Canadian province of Ontario and on the south and west by the U.S. state of Michigan. The name of the lake is derived from early French explorers who named it for the Huron people inhabiting the region.


title: Lake Huron

text: The Huronian glaciation was named from evidence collected from Lake Huron region. The northern parts of the lake include the North Channel and Georgian Bay. Saginaw Bay is located in the southwest corner of the lake. The main inlet is the St. Marys River, and the main outlet is the St. Clair River.


title: Lake Huron

text: By surface area, Lake Huron is the second-largest of the Great Lakes, with a surface area of —of which lies in Michigan; and lies in Ontario—making it the third-largest fresh water lake on Earth (or the fourth-largest lake, if the Caspian Sea is counted as a lake). By volume however, Lake Huron is only the third largest of the Great Lakes, being surpassed by Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. When measured at the low water datum, the lake contains a volume of and a shoreline length (including islands) of .


title: Lake Huron

text: The surface of Lake Huron is above sea level. The lake's average depth is 32 fathoms 3 feet (), while the maximum depth is . It has a length of and a greatest breadth of . A large bay that protrudes northeast from Lake Huron into Ontario, Canada, is called Georgian Bay. A notable feature of the lake is Manitoulin Island, which separates the North Channel and Georgian Bay from Lake Huron's main body of water. It is the world's largest lake island. A smaller bay that protrudes southwest from Lake Huron into Michigan is called Saginaw Bay.


title: Lake Huron

text: Cities with over 10,000 people on Lake Huron include Sarnia, the largest city on Lake Huron, and Saugeen Shores in Canada and Bay City, Port Huron, and Alpena in the United States. Major centres on Georgian Bay include Owen Sound, Wasaga Beach, Collingwood, Midland, Penetanguishene, Port Severn and Parry Sound.


title: Lake Huron

text: The lake fluctuates from month to month with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is above datum ("577.5 ft or 176.0 m"). In the summer of 1986, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their highest level at above datum. The high-water records were broken for several months in a row in 2020.


title: Lake Huron

text: Lake levels tend to be the lowest in winter. The normal low-water mark is below datum ("577.5 ft or 176.0 m"). In the winter of 1964, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their lowest level at below datum. As with the high-water records, monthly low-water records were set each month from February 1964 through January 1965. During this twelve-month period, water levels ranged from below Chart Datum. The all-time low-water mark was eclipsed in January 2013.


title: Lake Huron

text: Lake Huron has the largest shore line length of any of the Great Lakes, counting its 30,000 islands. It is separated from Lake Michigan, which lies at the same level, by the , Straits of Mackinac, making them hydrologically the same body of water (sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron and sometimes described as two 'lobes of the same lake'). Aggregated, Lake Huron-Michigan, at , "is technically the world's largest freshwater lake". Lake Superior, at 21 feet higher elevation, drains into the St. Marys River which then flows into Lake Huron. The water then flows south to the St. Clair River, at Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario. The Great Lakes Waterway continues thence to Lake St. Clair; the Detroit River and Detroit, Michigan; into Lake Erie and thence – via Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River – to the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Lake Huron

text: Like the other Great Lakes, it was formed by melting ice as the continental glaciers retreated toward the end of the last ice age. Before this, Lake Huron was a low-lying depression through which flowed the now-buried Laurentian and Huronian Rivers; the lake bed was criss-crossed by a large network of tributaries to these ancient waterways, with many of the old channels still evident on bathymetric maps.


title: Lake Huron

text: The Alpena-Amberley Ridge is an ancient ridge beneath the surface of Lake Huron, running from Alpena, Michigan, southwest to Point Clark, Ontario.


title: Lake Huron

text: About 9,000 years ago, when water levels in Lake Huron were approximately below today's levels, the Alpena-Amberley Ridge was exposed. That land bridge was used as a migration route for large herds of caribou. Since 2008, archaeologists have discovered at least 60 stone constructions along the submerged ridge that are thought to have been used as hunting blinds by Paleo-Indians. That a trade network brought obsidian from Oregon almost ten thousand years ago to be used for toolmaking was confirmed by a 2013 underwater discovery along the ridge.


title: Lake Huron

text: On the eve of European contact, the extent of development among Eastern Woodlands Native American societies is indicated by the archaeological evidence of a town on or near Lake Huron that contained more than one hundred large structures housing a total population of between 4,000 and 6,000. The French, the first European visitors to the region, often referred to Lake Huron as La Mer Douce, "the fresh-water sea". In 1656, a map by French cartographer Nicolas Sanson refers to the lake by the name , a Wyandot word that has been translated variously, as "Freshwater Sea", "Lake of the Hurons", or simply "lake". Generally, the lake was labeled "Lac des Hurons" (Lake of the Huron) on most early European maps.


title: Lake Huron

text: By the 1860s, many European settlements on the shores of Lake Huron were becoming incorporated, including Sarnia, the largest city on Lake Huron. On October 26, 2010, the Karegnondi Water Authority was formed to build and manage a pipeline from the lake to Flint, Michigan.


title: Lake Huron

text: More than a thousand wrecks have been recorded in Lake Huron. Of these, 185 are located in Saginaw Bay, and 116 are found in the Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary and Underwater Preserve, which was established in 2000. Georgian Bay contains 212 sunken vessels.


title: Lake Huron

text: Purportedly the first European vessel to sail the Great Lakes, "Le Griffon", also became the first ship lost on the Great Lakes. Built in 1679 on the eastern shore of Lake Erie near Buffalo, New York. Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle navigated across Lake Erie, up the Detroit River, Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River out into Lake Huron. Passing the Straits of Mackinac, La Salle made landfall on Washington Island, off the tip of the Door Peninsula on the Wisconsin side of Lake Michigan. La Salle filled "Le Griffon" with pelts and in late November 1679 sent "Le Griffon" back to the site of modern-day Buffalo, never to be seen again. Two wrecks have been identified as "Le Griffon", although neither has gained final verification as the actual wreck. Blown by a fierce storm after leaving, "Le Griffon" ran aground before the storm. The people of Manitoulin Island say that the wreck in Mississagi Strait at the western tip of the island is that of "Le Griffon". Meanwhile, others near Tobermory, say that the wreck on Russell Island, farther east in Georgian Bay, is that of "Le Griffon".


title: Lake Huron

text: On November 9, 1913, the Great Lakes Storm of 1913 in Lake Huron sank 10 ships, and more than 20 were driven ashore. The storm, which raged for 16 hours, killed 235 seamen.


title: Lake Huron

text: "Matoa—a" propeller freighter weighing 2,311 gross register tons—had passed between Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, Ontario, just after midnight. On November 9, just after six in the morning, "Senator" pushed upstream. Less than an hour later, "Manola"—a propeller freighter of 2,325 gross register tons also built in Cleveland in 1890—passed through. Captain Frederick W. Light of "Manola" reported that both the Canadian and the American weather stations had storm flag signals flying from their weather towers. Following behind at 7:00 a.m. that Sunday, "Regina" steamed out of Sarnia into the northwest gale. The warnings had been up for four hours. "Manola" passed "Regina" off Port Sanilac, up the lake. Captain Light determined that if it continued to deteriorate, he would seek shelter at Harbor Beach, Michigan, another up the lake. There, he could seek shelter behind the breakwater. Before he reached Harbor Beach, the winds turned to the northeast and the lake began to rise. It was noon when he reached Harbor Beach and ran for shelter.


title: Lake Huron

text: The waves were so violent that "Manola" touched bottom entering the harbor. With help from a tugboat, "Manola" tied up to the break wall with eight lines. It was about 3:00 p.m. when "Manola" was secured and the crew prepared to drop anchor. As they worked, the cables began to snap from wind pressure against the hull. To keep from being pushed aground, they kept their bow into the wind with the engines running half to full in turns, yet the ship still drifted before its movement was arrested. Waves breaking over the ship damaged several windows, and the crew reported seeing portions of the concrete break wall peeling off as the waves struck it. Meanwhile, fifty miles farther up the lake, "Matoa" and Captain Hugh McLeod had to ride out the storm without a safe harbor. "Matoa" was found stranded on the Port Austin reef when the winds subsided.


title: Lake Huron

text: It was noon on Monday before the winds let up and not until 11:00 p.m. that night before Captain Light determined it to be safe to continue his journey. Although "Manola" survived the storm, she was renamed "Mapledawn" in 1920, and on November 24, 1924, she became stranded on Christian Island in Georgian Bay. It was declared a total loss. Salvagers were able to recover approximately 75,000 bushels of barley.


title: Lake Huron

text: Lake Huron has a lake retention time of 22 years. Like all of the Great Lakes, the ecology of Lake Huron has undergone drastic changes in the last century. The lake originally supported a native deepwater fish community dominated by lake trout, which fed on several species of ciscos as well as sculpins and other native fishes. Several invasive species, including sea lamprey, alewife and rainbow smelt, became abundant in the lake by the 1930s. The major native top predator, lake trout, was virtually extirpated from the lake by 1950 through a combination of overfishing and the effects of sea lamprey. Several species of ciscos were also extirpated from the lake by the 1960s; the only remaining native cisco is the bloater. Non-native Pacific salmon have been stocked in the lake since the 1960s, and lake trout have also been stocked in an attempt to rehabilitate the species, although little natural reproduction of stocked trout has been observed.


title: Lake Huron

text: Lake Huron has suffered recently by the introduction of a variety of new invasive species, including zebra and quagga mussels, the spiny water flea, and round gobies. The demersal fish community of the lake was in a state of collapse by 2006, and a number of drastic changes have been observed in the zooplankton community of the lake. Chinook salmon catches have also been greatly reduced in recent years, and lake whitefish have become less abundant and are in poor condition. These recent changes may be attributable to the new exotic species.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi) is a wild cat native to the Americas. Its range extends from central Argentina in the south to northern Mexico, through Central and South America east of the Andes. The jaguarundi is a medium-sized cat of slender build. Its coloration is uniform with two color morphs, gray and red. It has an elongated body, with relatively short legs, a small, narrow head, small, round ears, a short snout, and a long tail, resembling mustelids in these respects. It is about twice as large as a domestic cat ("Felis catus"), reaching nearly at the shoulder, and weighs .


title: Jaguarundi

text: Secretive and alert, the jaguarundi is typically solitary or forms pairs in the wild, though captive individuals are more gregarious. Unlike other sympatric cats such as the ocelot, the jaguarundi is more active during the day and hunts mainly during daytime and evening hours. Individuals live in large home ranges, and are sparsely distributed within a region. The jaguarundi is an efficient climber, but typically prefers hunting on ground. It feeds on various kinds of prey, especially ground-feeding birds, reptiles, rodents and small mammals. Mating occurs throughout the year, with peaks at different times of the year across the range. After a gestation period of 70 to 75 days, a litter of one to four kittens is born. Lifespans of up to 15 years have been recorded in captivity.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi inhabits a broad array of closed as well as open habitats ranging from tropical rainforests and deciduous forests to deserts and thorn scrubs. It is fairly common in Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela, but may be locally extinct in the United States. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, but populations are in decline in many parts of its range due to loss and fragmentation of habitat and persecution for killing poultry.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The common name "jaguarundi" () comes from the Old Guarani word yaguarundi, similar to the Old Tupi word "yawaum'di". In some Spanish-speaking countries, the jaguarundi is also called "gato colorado", "gato moro", "león brenero", "leoncillo" and "tigrillo". It is also called eyra, "gato-mourisco", "gato-preto", "gato-vermelho" and "maracajá-preto" in Brazilian Portuguese.


title: Jaguarundi

text: In 1803 Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire described two jaguarundi skins and skulls from unknown locations in Central America and proposed the scientific name "Felis yagouarundi". In the 19th and 20th centuries, several more zoological specimens were described:


title: Jaguarundi

text: The generic name "Herpailurus" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858 for the jaguarundi. Later authors classified the jaguarundi in the genus "Puma" along with the cougar ("P. concolor"). Phylogeographical analysis of jaguarundi samples from across its range found no genetic evidence for subspecies. In 2017, the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognises the jaguarundi as a monotypic taxon of the genus "Herpailurus".


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi is most closely related to the cougar; the jaguarundi-cougar clade is sister to the cheetah. These three species comprise the "Puma" lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae; the "Puma" lineage diverged from the rest . The sister group of the "Puma" lineage is a clade of smaller Old World cats that includes the genera "Felis", "Otocolobus" and "Prionailurus".


title: Jaguarundi

text: The three species of the "Puma" lineage may have had a common ancestor during the Miocene, about . "Acinonyx" possibly diverged from the lineage in the Americas; some authors alternatively suggest that the cheetah diverged in the Old World.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The "Puma" lineage appears to have migrated from Asia to North America after crossing the Bering Strait, arriving in South America via the Isthmus of Panama by the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene. This was possibly followed by the bifurcation of the lineage into the cougar and "Herpailurus" (represented by "H. pumoides") in South America around between the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. "H. pumoides" went extinct around Middle Pleistocene, around the time the modern jaguarundi came into existence; the oldest fossils of the modern jaguarundi date back to the Late Pleistocene in Brazil around . The original North American cougars were extirpated during the Pleistocene extinctions around 10,000 years ago; North America was then recolonized by South American cougars and jaguarundis 10,000–8,000 years ago. The extinct North American genus "Miracinonyx" is another member of this clade.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi is a medium-sized cat of slender build and uniform coloration that differs significantly from other neotropical cats — such as the small, spotted cats in the genus "Leopardus" — in its external appearance. This has been attributed to variations in its karyotype — the jaguarundi has 38 chromosomes, unlike the 36 in other small South American cats, and the chromosomal features resemble those of Old World cats such as the leopard cat ("Prionailurus bengalensis"). In fact, the jaguarundi shows several features seen in mustelids such as otters and weasels — it has an elongated body with relatively short legs, a small, narrow head, small, round ears, a short snout and a long tail. The head-and-body length is between ; the strong, muscular tail is long. Around twice as large as the domestic cat, the jaguarundi reaches nearly at the shoulder and weighs , though larger individuals weighing around have been reported. Males are slightly larger than females.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The coat is uniformly colored with at most a few faint markings on the face and the belly, though kittens are spotted for a short duration. Black and white marks on the lips and the snout, similar to those of the cougar, can be clearly seen in juveniles and some adults. Two color morphs are known (though intermediate shades are also seen) — gray (blackish to brownish-gray fur with a grizzled look due to bright and dark rings on individual hairs) and red (foxy red to chestnut); earlier these morphs were considered two different species. Individuals of both colors can be born in the same litter. Blackish brown individuals superficially resemble the tayra ("Eira barbara"), but the latter can be told apart by the clear, yellowish patch on the throat. The red morph is seen more often in dry, open areas. Melanistic individuals have been reported, but the coat is not completely black; the head and the throat are clearly paler than the rest of the body. The widely spaced ears are long without any spots on the back. The jaguarundi has a total of 30 teeth; the dental formula is .


title: Jaguarundi

text: Among felids, the jaguarundi is closely similar to the flat-headed cat ("Prionailurus planiceps"), but has a longer body and proportionately longer legs, is heavier and lacks the dark markings on the cheeks of the flat-headed cat. Tawny jaguarundis bear a similar coloration as the significantly larger cougar.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi inhabits a wide variety of habitats, from tropical rainforests and deciduous forests to deserts and thorn scrubs. It can also be found in cloud forests, mangroves and savannas. Unlike the sympatric margay, ocelot and oncilla, the jaguarundi can live in open areas as well. In open habitats the jaguarundi prefers areas with vegetative cover such as cacti, which would generally be difficult for potential predators to penetrate; there may be a few clearings at the periphery of such areas. Jaguarundis tend to stay close to a source of running water. The jaguarundi is noted for its resistance to environmental disturbances in its habitat; it can thrive in reforested areas. While commonly inhabiting elevations from lowlands up to above sea level, this cat has been reported at altitudes as high as in Colombia.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The range extends from central Argentina in the south to northern Mexico, through Central and South America east of the Andes — second only to the cougar in the latitudinal extent of its distribution. However, not all parts of its range have been studied well. The jaguarundi is fairly common in Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela. It is possibly extirpated in the US; a 1999 study refuted claims of sightings in Arizona. The last confirmed sighting in the US was probably of a roadkilled individual near Brownsville, Texas in 1986.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The occurrence of the jaguarundi in Florida has remained in doubt for decades, where they have been reported since 1907. They were allegedly introduced in the region by a writer from Chiefland who at some point imported the animals from their native habitat and released them near his hometown and in other locations across the state. W. T. Neill noted that jaguarundis occurred throughout peninsular Florida in the 1950s, but the numbers had plummeted by the late 1970s. Jaguarundis were also reported in the coastal area of Alabama in the 1980s, which may be evidence of the Florida population migrating northward. The jaguarundi has also been recorded from Cerro Largo in Uruguay, where its presence was uncertain.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi is shy and reclusive, and apparently very cautious of traps. There have been only a few radio telemetry studies of jaguarundis in Belize, Brazil and Mexico. Though activity has been observed throughout the day and at night, jaguarundis seem to prefer hunting during daytime and evening hours; for instance, a study in Belize reported that jaguarundis started moving before dawn and remained active through most of the day till sunset with a peak in hunting from late morning to noon. The cat appears to be more diurnal than most other cats, especially spotted cats that tend to be more active at night. The jaguarundi can swim across medium-sized rivers; one in Bolivia was recorded swimming across the Tuichi River. Jaguarundis are efficient climbers as well, but hunt mainly on ground; the coat color works as a good camouflage for terrestrial activity. They can leap up to into the air to catch birds. Predators recorded for jaguarundis include boa constrictors, cougars and domestic dogs. Parasites such as hookworms ("Ancylostoma" species), tapeworms (such as "Spirometra" and "Toxocara" species) and the lung fluke have been found in jaguarundis.


title: Jaguarundi

text: Studies have mostly observed jaguarundis alone or in pairs; pairs could probably be formed between mothers and older kittens or between individuals of opposite sexes during the mating season. Individuals in captivity have been found to be more gregarious. Home ranges tend to be large; a study in Brazil recorded home ranges in size for females, while those of males measured in area. Two males in Belize were recorded to have exceptionally large home ranges spanning an area of and , while the home range of a female in the same region measured in size. Population densities are typically low, around in Brazil, though Tamaulipas (Mexico) and the Llanos in Costa Rica and Venezuela have recorded figures as high as .


title: Jaguarundi

text: Marking behavior could serve as a means of olfactory or visual communication among jaguarundis; individuals in captivity have been observed scraping areas with their hind feet (sometimes with urination), clawing on logs, rubbing objects with their heads and leaving feces uncovered. Social behavior such as grooming, growling and sniffing has been recorded. The jaguarundi has a broad vocal repertoire; 13 different calls have been recorded including chattering, purring, screaming, a 'wah-wah' call, whistling, yapping and a peculiar bird-like chirp. In captivity, females in estrus have been observed making faint sounds as they scent mark the area around their enclosures.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi typically feed on small-sized prey weighing less than , including ground-feeding birds, reptiles, frogs, arthropods, rodents and small mammals. Jaguarundis will also take larger prey such as domestic poultry, fish, marmosets, rabbits and opossums; a study recorded small deer (possibly carrion) in the diet. Vegetation such as grasses have also been recorded in their diet. A study showed jaguarundis take vertebrate prey on an average every day. The broad array of prey recorded for the jaguarundi across its range and varying proportions of different prey in its diet could indicate that the cat tends to feed on the most abundant and easily catchable prey in the area.


title: Jaguarundi

text: Jaguarundis have been observed mating all year round, with peaks at different times of the year across the range; for instance, in Mexico breeding peaks in January and March. Estrus lasts three to five days, marked by the female regularly rolling onto her back and spraying urine. Sexually mature males will pursue the female, not reacting to any aggressive behavior from her side. As in many other felids, the male bites the fur on the female's neck on mounting; the female lets out a loud scream on penetration.


title: Jaguarundi

text: After a gestation period of 70 to 75 days, a litter of one to four kittens is born in a den constructed in a dense thicket, hollow tree, or similar cover. The kittens are covered well with fur and the underside is marked with spots, which disappear as they age; the coat color gradually changes as the kittens grow older. The mother starts bringing solid food for the kittens when they are around three weeks old, but they simply play with it until the mother ultimately ingests it. Kittens are capable of taking solid food like birds and guinea pigs at around six weeks. Jaguarundis become sexually mature at one to three years of age. Lifespan up to 15 years has been recorded in captivity.


title: Jaguarundi

text: The jaguarundi has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2002. Mexican populations, except those in the northeast, appear to be stable. The huge protected areas in the Amazon Basin are probably the only conservation units that can sustain long-term viable populations. IUCN Red List assessors noted that it should be listed as Near Threatened, but the data were not sufficient to extend this classification throughout the jaguarundi's range. The jaguarundi is not particularly sought after for its fur due to its poor quality and low value, but it is suffering decline due to habitat loss.


title: Jaguarundi

text: Other threats include risks of habitat fragmentation and persecution for killing poultry. The North and Central American jaguarundi populations are listed in CITES Appendix I and all the other populations are listed in CITES Appendix II. Populations in the US are protected under the Endangered Species Act; the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department has expressed concern that its presence in South Texas may be imperiled due to loss of the cat's native habitat. Populations in Mexico are listed under the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010.


title: Jaguarundi

text: Hunting jaguarundi is restricted in Peru and banned in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay, United States, and Venezuela.


title: Austerity

text: Austerity is a set of political-economic policies that aim to reduce government budget deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both. There are three primary types of austerity measures: higher taxes to fund spending, raising taxes while cutting spending, and lower taxes and lower government spending. Austerity measures are often used by governments that find it difficult to borrow or meet their existing obligations to pay back loans. The measures are meant to reduce the budget deficit by bringing government revenues closer to expenditures. Proponents of these measures state that this reduces the amount of borrowing required and may also demonstrate a government's fiscal discipline to creditors and credit rating agencies and make borrowing easier and cheaper as a result.


title: Austerity

text: In most macroeconomic models, austerity policies which reduce government spending lead to increased unemployment in the short term. These reductions in employment usually occur directly in the public sector and indirectly in the private sector. Where austerity policies are enacted using tax increases, these can reduce consumption by cutting household disposable income. Reduced government spending can reduce GDP growth in the short term as government expenditure is itself a component of GDP. In the longer term, reduced government spending can reduce GDP growth if, for example, cuts to education spending leave a country's workforce less able to do high-skilled jobs or if cuts to infrastructure investment impose greater costs on business than they saved through lower taxes. In both cases, if reduced government spending leads to reduced GDP growth, austerity may lead to a higher debt-to-GDP ratio than the alternative of the government running a higher budget deficit. In the aftermath of the Great Recession, austerity measures in many European countries were followed by rising unemployment and slower GDP growth. The result was increased debt-to-GDP ratios despite reductions in budget deficits.


title: Austerity

text: Theoretically in some cases, particularly when the output gap is low, austerity can have the opposite effect and stimulate economic growth. For example, when an economy is operating at or near capacity, higher short-term deficit spending (stimulus) can cause interest rates to rise, resulting in a reduction in private investment, which in turn reduces economic growth. Where there is excess capacity, the stimulus can result in an increase in employment and output. Alberto Alesina, Carlo Favero, and Francesco Giavazzi argue that austerity can be expansionary in situations where government reduction in spending is offset by greater increases in aggregate demand (private consumption, private investment, and exports).


title: Austerity

text: Austerity measures are typically pursued if there is a threat that a government cannot honour its debt obligations. This may occur when a government has borrowed in currencies that it has no right to issue, for example a South American country that borrows in US Dollars. It may also occur if a country uses the currency of an independent central bank that is legally restricted from buying government debt, for example in the Eurozone.


title: Austerity

text: In such a situation, banks and investors may lose confidence in a government's ability or willingness to pay, and either refuse to roll over existing debts, or demand extremely high interest rates. International financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) may demand austerity measures as part of Structural Adjustment Programmes when acting as lender of last resort.


title: Austerity

text: Austerity policies may also appeal to the wealthier class of creditors, who prefer low inflation and the higher probability of payback on their government securities by less profligate governments. More recently austerity has been pursued after governments became highly indebted by assuming private debts following banking crises. (This occurred after Ireland assumed the debts of its private banking sector during the European debt crisis. This rescue of the private sector resulted in calls to cut back the profligacy of the public sector.)


title: Austerity

text: According to Mark Blyth, the concept of austerity emerged in the 20th century, when large states acquired sizable budgets. However, Blyth argues that the theories and sensibilities about the role of the state and capitalist markets that underline austerity emerged from the 17th century onwards. Austerity is grounded in liberal economics' view of the state and sovereign debt as deeply problematic. Blyth traces the discourse of austerity back to John Locke's theory of private property and derivative theory of the state, David Hume's ideas about money and the virtue of merchants, and Adam Smith's theories on economic growth and taxes. On the basis of classic liberal ideas, austerity emerged as a doctrine of neoliberalism in the 20th century.


title: Austerity

text: Economist David M. Kotz suggests that the implementation of austerity measures following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was an attempt to preserve the neoliberal capitalist model.


title: Austerity

text: In the 1930s during the Great Depression, anti-austerity arguments gained more prominence. John Maynard Keynes became a well known anti-austerity economist, arguing that "The boom, not the slump, is the right time for austerity at the Treasury."


title: Austerity

text: Contemporary Keynesian economists argue that budget deficits are appropriate when an economy is in recession, to reduce unemployment and help spur GDP growth. According to Paul Krugman, since a government is not like a household, reductions in government spending during economic downturns worsen the crisis.


title: Austerity

text: Across an economy, one person's spending is another person's income. In other words, if everyone is trying to reduce their spending, the economy can be trapped in what economists call the paradox of thrift, worsening the recession as GDP falls. In the past this has been offset by encouraging consumerism to rely on debt, but after the 2008 crisis, this is looking like a less and less viable option for sustainable economics.


title: Austerity

text: Krugman argues that, if the private sector is unable or unwilling to consume at a level that increases GDP and employment sufficiently, then the government should be spending more in order to offset the decline in private spending. Keynesian theory is proposed as being responsible for post-war boom years, before the 1970s, and when public sector investment was at its highest across Europe, partially encouraged by the Marshall Plan.


title: Austerity

text: An important component of economic output is business investment, but there is no reason to expect it to stabilize at full utilization of the economy's resources. High business profits do not necessarily lead to increased economic growth. (When businesses and banks have a disincentive to spend accumulated capital, such as cash repatriation taxes from profits in overseas tax havens and interest on excess reserves paid to banks, increased profits can lead to decreasing growth.)


title: Austerity

text: Economists Kenneth Rogoff and Carmen Reinhart wrote in April 2013, "Austerity seldom works without structural reforms – for example, changes in taxes, regulations and labor market policies – and if poorly designed, can disproportionately hit the poor and middle class. Our consistent advice has been to avoid withdrawing fiscal stimulus too quickly, a position identical to that of most mainstream economists."


title: Austerity

text: To help improve the U.S. economy, they (Rogoff and Reinhart) advocated reductions in mortgage principal for 'underwater homes'—those whose negative equity (where the value of the asset is less than the mortgage principal) can lead to a stagnant housing market with no realistic opportunity to reduce private debts.


title: Austerity

text: In October 2012, the IMF announced that its forecasts for countries that implemented austerity programs have been consistently overoptimistic, suggesting that tax hikes and spending cuts have been doing more damage than expected and that countries that implemented fiscal stimulus, such as Germany and Austria, did better than expected.


title: Austerity

text: The IMF reported that this was due to fiscal multipliers that were considerably larger than expected: for example, the IMF estimated that fiscal multipliers based on data from 28 countries ranged between 0.9 and 1.7. In other words, a 1% GDP fiscal consolidation (i.e., austerity) would reduce GDP between 0.9% and 1.7%, thus inflicting far more economic damage than the 0.5 previously estimated in IMF forecasts.


title: Austerity

text: In many countries, little is known about the size of multipliers, as data availability limits the scope for empirical research.


title: Austerity

text: For these countries, Nicoletta Batini, Luc Eyraud and Anke Weber propose a simple method—dubbed the "bucket approach"—to come up with reasonable multiplier estimates. The approach bunches countries into groups (or "buckets") with similar multiplier values, based on their characteristics, and taking into account the effect of (some) temporary factors such as the state of the business cycle.


title: Austerity

text: For example, the U.S. Congressional Budget Office estimated that the payroll tax (levied on all wage earners) has a higher multiplier (impact on GDP) than does the income tax (which is levied primarily on wealthier workers). In other words, raising the payroll tax by $1 as part of an austerity strategy would slow the economy more than would raising the income tax by $1, resulting in less net deficit reduction.


title: Austerity

text: In theory, it would stimulate the economy and reduce the deficit if the payroll tax were lowered and the income tax raised in equal amounts.


title: Austerity

text: The term "crowding out" refers to the extent to which an increase in the budget deficit offsets spending in the private sector. Economist Laura D'Andrea Tyson wrote in June 2012, "By itself an increase in the deficit, either in the form of an increase in government spending or a reduction in taxes, causes an increase in demand". How this affects output, employment, and growth depends on what happens to interest rates:


title: Austerity

text: When the economy is operating near capacity, government borrowing to finance an increase in the deficit causes interest rates to rise and higher interest rates reduce or "crowd out" private investment, reducing growth. This theory explains why large and sustained government deficits take a toll on growth: they reduce capital formation. But this argument rests on how government deficits affect interest rates, and the relationship between government deficits and interest rates varies.


title: Austerity

text: When there is considerable excess capacity, an increase in government borrowing to finance an increase in the deficit does not lead to higher interest rates and does not crowd out private investment. Instead, the higher demand resulting from the increase in the deficit bolsters employment and output directly. The resultant increase in income and economic activity in turn encourages, or "crowds in", additional private spending.


title: Austerity

text: According to economist Martin Wolf, the U.S. and many Eurozone countries experienced rapid increases in their budget deficits in the wake of the 2008 crisis as a result of significant private-sector retrenchment and ongoing capital account surpluses.


title: Austerity

text: Policy choices had little to do with these deficit increases. This makes austerity measures counterproductive. Wolf explained that government fiscal balance is one of three major financial sectoral balances in a country's economy, along with the foreign financial sector (capital account) and the private financial sector.


title: Austerity

text: By definition, the sum of the surpluses or deficits across these three sectors must be zero. In the U.S. and many Eurozone countries other than Germany, a foreign financial surplus exists because capital is imported (net) to fund the trade deficit. Further, there is a private-sector financial surplus because household savings exceed business investment.


title: Austerity

text: By definition, a government budget deficit must exist so all three net to zero: for example, the U.S. government budget deficit in 2011 was approximately 10% of GDP (8.6% of GDP of which was federal), offsetting a foreign financial surplus of 4% of GDP and a private-sector surplus of 6% of GDP.


title: Austerity

text: Wolf explained in July 2012 that the sudden shift in the private sector from deficit to surplus forced the U.S. government balance into deficit: "The financial balance of the private sector shifted towards surplus by the almost unbelievable cumulative total of 11.2 per cent of gross domestic product between the third quarter of 2007 and the second quarter of 2009, which was when the financial deficit of US government (federal and state) reached its peak... No fiscal policy changes explain the collapse into massive fiscal deficit between 2007 and 2009, because there was none of any importance. The collapse is explained by the massive shift of the private sector from financial deficit into surplus or, in other words, from boom to bust."


title: Austerity

text: Wolf also wrote that several European economies face the same scenario and that a lack of deficit spending would likely have resulted in a depression. He argued that a private-sector depression (represented by the private- and foreign-sector surpluses) was being "contained" by government deficit spending.


title: Austerity

text: Economist Paul Krugman also explained in December 2011 the causes of the sizable shift from private-sector deficit to surplus in the U.S.: "This huge move into surplus reflects the end of the housing bubble, a sharp rise in household saving, and a slump in business investment due to lack of customers."


title: Austerity

text: One reason why austerity can be counterproductive in a downturn is due to a significant private-sector financial surplus, in which consumer savings is not fully invested by businesses. In a healthy economy, private-sector savings placed into the banking system by consumers are borrowed and invested by companies. However, if consumers have increased their savings but companies are not investing the money, a surplus develops.


title: Austerity

text: Business investment is one of the major components of GDP. For example, a U.S. private-sector financial deficit from 2004 to 2008 transitioned to a large surplus of savings over investment that exceeded $1 trillion by early 2009, and remained above $800 billion into September 2012. Part of this investment reduction was related to the housing market, a major component of investment. This surplus explains how even significant government deficit spending would not increase interest rates (because businesses still have access to ample savings if they choose to borrow and invest it, so interest rates are not bid upward) and how Federal Reserve action to increase the money supply does not result in inflation (because the economy is awash with savings with no place to go).


title: Austerity

text: Economist Richard Koo described similar effects for several of the developed world economies in December 2011: "Today private sectors in the U.S., the U.K., Spain, and Ireland (but not Greece) are undergoing massive deleveraging [paying down debt rather than spending] in spite of record low interest rates. This means these countries are all in serious balance sheet recessions. The private sectors in Japan and Germany are not borrowing, either. With borrowers disappearing and banks reluctant to lend, it is no wonder that, after nearly three years of record low interest rates and massive liquidity injections, industrial economies are still doing so poorly. Flow of funds data for the U.S. show a massive shift away from borrowing to savings by the private sector since the housing bubble burst in 2007. The shift for the private sector as a whole represents over 9 percent of U.S. GDP at a time of zero interest rates. Moreover, this increase in private sector savings exceeds the increase in government borrowings (5.8 percent of GDP), which suggests that the government is not doing enough to offset private sector deleveraging."


title: Austerity

text: Many scholars have argued that how the debate surrounding austerity is framed has a heavy impact on the view of austerity in the public eye, and how the public understands macroeconomics as a whole. Wren-Lewis, for example, coined the term 'mediamacro', which refers to "the role of the media reproducing particularly corrosive forms of economic illiteracy—of which the idea that deficits are ipso facto 'bad' is a strong example." This can go as far as ignoring economists altogether; however, it often manifests itself as a drive in which a minority of economists whose ideas about austerity have been thoroughly debunked being pushed to the front to justify public policy, such as in the case of Alberto Alesina (2009), whose pro-austerity works were "thoroughly debunked by the likes of the economists, the IMF, and the Centre for Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP)." Other anti-austerity economists, such as Seymour have argued that the debate must be reframed as a social and class movement, and its impact judged accordingly, since statecraft is viewed as the main goal.


title: Austerity

text: Further, critics such as Major have highlighted how the OECD and associated international finance organisations have framed the debate to promote austerity, for example, the concept of 'wage-push inflation' which ignores the role played by the profiteering of private companies, and seeks to blame inflation on wages being too high.


title: Austerity

text: According to a 2020 study, austerity increases the risk of default in situations of severe fiscal stress, but reduces the risk of default in situations of low fiscal stress.


title: Austerity

text: A typical goal of austerity is to reduce the annual budget deficit without sacrificing growth. Over time, this may reduce the overall debt burden, often measured as the ratio of public debt to GDP.


title: Austerity

text: During the European debt crisis, many countries embarked on austerity programs, reducing their budget deficits relative to GDP from 2010 to 2011.


title: Austerity

text: According to the "CIA World Factbook", Greece decreased its budget deficit from 10.4% of GDP in 2010 to 9.6% in 2011. Iceland, Italy, Ireland, Portugal, France, and Spain also decreased their budget deficits from 2010 to 2011 relative to GDP but the austerity policy of the Eurozone achieves not only the reduction of budget deficits. The goal of economic consolidation influences the future development of the European Social Model.


title: Austerity

text: With the exception of Germany, each of these countries had public-debt-to-GDP ratios that increased from 2010 to 2011, as indicated in the chart at right. Greece's public-debt-to-GDP ratio increased from 143% in 2010 to 165% in 2011 Indicating despite declining budget deficits GDP growth was not sufficient to support a decline in the debt-to-GDP ratio for these countries during this period.


title: Austerity

text: Eurostat reported that the overall debt-to-GDP ratio for the EA17 was 70.1% in 2008, 80.0% in 2009, 85.4% in 2010, 87.3% in 2011, and 90.6% in 2012.


title: Austerity

text: Unemployment is another variable considered in evaluating austerity measures. According to the "CIA World Factbook", from 2010 to 2011, the unemployment rates in Spain, Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and the UK increased. France and Italy had no significant changes, while in Germany and Iceland the unemployment rate declined. Eurostat reported that Eurozone unemployment reached record levels in March 2013 at 12.1%, up from 11.6% in September 2012 and 10.3% in 2011. Unemployment varied significantly by country.


title: Austerity

text: Economist Martin Wolf analyzed the relationship between cumulative GDP growth in 2008 to 2012 and total reduction in budget deficits due to austerity policies in several European countries during April 2012 (see chart at right). He concluded, "In all, there is no evidence here that large fiscal contractions budget deficit reductions bring benefits to confidence and growth that offset the direct effects of the contractions. They bring exactly what one would expect: small contractions bring recessions and big contractions bring depressions."


title: Austerity

text: Changes in budget balances (deficits or surpluses) explained approximately 53% of the change in GDP, according to the equation derived from the IMF data used in his analysis.


title: Austerity

text: Similarly, economist Paul Krugman analyzed the relationship between GDP and reduction in budget deficits for several European countries in April 2012 and concluded that austerity was slowing growth. He wrote: "this also implies that 1 euro of austerity yields only about 0.4 euros of reduced deficit, even in the short run. No wonder, then, that the whole austerity enterprise is spiraling into disaster."


title: Austerity

text: The Greek government-debt crisis brought a package of austerity measures, put forth by the EU and the IMF mostly in the context of the three successive bailouts the country endured from 2010 to 2018; it was met with great anger by the Greek public, leading to riots and social unrest. On 27 June 2011, trade union organizations began a 48-hour labour strike in advance of a parliamentary vote on the austerity package, the first such strike since 1974.


title: Austerity

text: Massive demonstrations were organized throughout Greece, intended to pressure members of parliament into voting against the package. The second set of austerity measures was approved on 29 June 2011, with 155 out of 300 members of parliament voting in favor. However, one United Nations official warned that the second package of austerity measures in Greece could pose a violation of human rights.


title: Austerity

text: Around 2011, the IMF started issuing guidance suggesting that austerity could be harmful when applied without regard to an economy's underlying fundamentals.


title: Austerity

text: In 2013, it published a detailed analysis concluding that "if financial markets focus on the short-term behavior of the debt ratio, or if country authorities engage in repeated rounds of tightening in an effort to get the debt ratio to converge to the official target", austerity policies could slow or reverse economic growth and inhibit full employment. Keynesian economists and commentators such as Paul Krugman have suggested that this has in fact been occurring, with austerity yielding worse results in proportion to the extent to which it has been imposed.


title: Austerity

text: Overall, Greece lost 25% of its GDP during the crisis. Although the government debt increased only 6% between 2009 and 2017 (from €300 bn to €318 bn) — thanks, in part, to the 2012 debt restructuring —, the critical debt-to-GDP ratio shot up from 127% to 179% mostly due to the severe GDP drop during the handling of the crisis. In all, the Greek economy suffered the longest recession of any advanced capitalist economy to date, overtaking the US Great Depression. As such, the crisis hit hardly the populace as the series of sudden reforms and austerity measures led to impoverishment and loss of income and property, as well as a small-scale humanitarian crisis. Unemployment shot up from 8% in 2008 to 27% in 2013 and remained at 22% in 2017. As a result of the crisis, Greek political system has been upended, social exclusion increased, and hundreds of thousands of well-educated Greeks left the country.


title: Austerity

text: In April and May 2012, France held a presidential election in which the winner, François Hollande, had opposed austerity measures, promising to eliminate France's budget deficit by 2017 by canceling recently enacted tax cuts and exemptions for the wealthy, raising the top tax bracket rate to 75% on incomes over one million euros, restoring the retirement age to 60 with a full pension for those who have worked 42 years, restoring 60,000 jobs recently cut from public education, regulating rent increases, and building additional public housing for the poor. In the legislative elections in June, Hollande's Socialist Party won a supermajority capable of amending the French Constitution and enabling the immediate enactment of the promised reforms. Interest rates on French government bonds fell by 30% to record lows, fewer than 50 basis points above German government bond rates.


title: Austerity

text: Latvia's economy returned to growth in 2011 and 2012, outpacing the 27 nations in the EU, while implementing significant austerity measures. Advocates of austerity argue that Latvia represents an empirical example of the benefits of austerity, while critics argue that austerity created unnecessary hardship with the output in 2013 still below the pre-crisis level.


title: Austerity

text: According to the CIA World Fact Book, "Latvia's economy experienced GDP growth of more than 10% per year during 2006–07, but entered a severe recession in 2008 as a result of an unsustainable current account deficit and large debt exposure amid the softening world economy. Triggered by the collapse of the second largest bank, GDP plunged 18% in 2009. The economy has not returned to pre-crisis levels despite strong growth, especially in the export sector in 2011–12. The IMF, EU, and other international donors provided substantial financial assistance to Latvia as part of an agreement to defend the currency's peg to the euro in exchange for the government's commitment to stringent austerity measures.


title: Austerity

text: The IMF/EU program successfully concluded in December 2011. The government of Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis remained committed to fiscal prudence and reducing the fiscal deficit from 7.7% of GDP in 2010, to 2.7% of GDP in 2012." The CIA estimated that Latvia's GDP declined by 0.3% in 2010, then grew by 5.5% in 2011 and 4.5% in 2012. Unemployment was 12.8% in 2011 and rose to 14.3% in 2012. Latvia's currency, the Lati, fell from $0.47 per U.S. dollar in 2008 to $0.55 in 2012, a decline of 17%. Latvia entered the euro zone in 2014. Latvia's trade deficit improved from over 20% of GDP in 2006 to 2007 to under 2% GDP by 2012.


title: Austerity

text: Eighteen months after harsh austerity measures were enacted (including both spending cuts and tax increases), economic growth began to return, although unemployment remained above pre-crisis levels. Latvian exports have skyrocketed and both the trade deficit and budget deficit have decreased dramatically. More than one-third of government positions were eliminated, and the rest received sharp pay cuts. Exports increased after goods prices were reduced due to private business lowering wages in tandem with the government.


title: Austerity

text: Paul Krugman wrote in January 2013 that Latvia had yet to regain its pre-crisis level of employment. He also wrote, "So we're looking at a Depression-level slump, and 5 years later only a partial bounceback; unemployment is down but still very high, and the decline has a lot to do with emigration. It's not what you'd call a triumphant success story, any more than the partial US recovery from 1933 to 1936—which was actually considerably more impressive—represented a huge victory over the Depression. And it's in no sense a refutation of Keynesianism, either. Even in Keynesian models, a small open economy can, in the long run, restore full employment through deflation and internal devaluation; the point, however, is that it involves many years of suffering".


title: Austerity

text: Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis defended his policies in a television interview, stating that Krugman refused to admit his error in predicting that Latvia's austerity policy would fail. Krugman had written a blog post in December 2008 entitled "Why Latvia is the New Argentina", in which he argued for Latvia to devalue its currency as an alternative or in addition to austerity.


title: Austerity

text: Following the Second World War the United Kingdom had huge debts, large commitments, and had sold many income producing assets. Rationing of food and other goods which had started in the war continued for some years.


title: Austerity

text: Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 a period of economic recession began in the UK. The austerity programme was initiated in 2010 by the Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition government, despite some opposition from the academic community. In his June 2010 budget speech, the Chancellor George Osborne identified two goals. The first was that the structural current budget deficit would be eliminated to "achieve cyclically-adjusted current balance by the end of the rolling, five-year forecast period". The second was that national debt as a percentage of GDP would fall. The government intended to achieve both of its goals through substantial reductions in public expenditure. This was to be achieved by a combination of public spending reductions and tax increases. Economists Alberto Alesina, Carlo A. Favero and Francesco Giavazzi, writing in "Finance & Development" in 2018, argued that deficit reduction policies based on spending cuts typically have almost no effect on output, and hence form a better route to achieving a reduction in the debt-to-GDP ratio than raising taxes. The authors commented that the UK government austerity programme had resulted in growth that was higher than the European average and that the UK's economic performance had been much stronger than the International Monetary Fund had predicted. This claim was challenged most strongly by Mark Blyth, whose 2014 book on austerity claims that austerity not only fails to stimulate growth, but effectively passes that debt down to the working classes. As such, many academics such as Andrew Gamble view Austerity in Britain less as an economic necessity, and more as a tool of statecraft, driven by ideology and not economic requirements. A study published in "The BMJ" in November 2017 found the Conservative government austerity programme had been linked to approximately 120,000 deaths since 2010; however, this was disputed, for example on the grounds that it was an observational study which did not show cause and effect. More studies claim adverse effects of austerity on population health, which include an increase in the mortality rate among pensioners which has been linked to unprecedented reductions in income support, an increase in suicides and the prescription of antidepressants for patients with mental health issues, and an increase in violence, self-harm, and suicide in prisons.


title: Austerity

text: The United States' response to the 2008 economic crash was largely influenced by Wall Street and IMF interests, who favored fiscal retrenchment in the face of the economic crash. Evidence exists to suggest that Pete Peterson (and the Petersonites) have heavily influenced US policy on economic recovery since the Nixon era, and presented itself in 2008, despite austerity measures being "wildly out of step with public opinion and reputable economic policy...[and showing] anti-Keynesian bias of supply-side economics and a political system skewed to favor Wall Street over Main Street". The nuance of the economic logic of Keynesianism is, however, difficult to put across to the American Public, and compares poorly to the simplistic message which blames government spending, which might explain Obama's preferred position of a halfway point between economic stimulus followed by austerity, which led to him being criticized by economists such as Stiglitz.


title: Austerity

text: Austerity programs can be controversial. In the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) briefing paper "The IMF and the Third World", the ODI addresses five major complaints against the IMF's austerity conditions. Complaints include such measures being "anti-developmental", "self-defeating", and tending "to have an adverse impact on the poorest segments of the population".


title: Austerity

text: In many situations, austerity programs are implemented by countries that were previously under dictatorial regimes, leading to criticism that citizens are forced to repay the debts of their oppressors.


title: Austerity

text: In 2009, 2010, and 2011, workers and students in Greece and other European countries demonstrated against cuts to pensions, public services, and education spending as a result of government austerity measures.


title: Austerity

text: Following the announcement of plans to introduce austerity measures in Greece, massive demonstrations occurred throughout the country aimed at pressing parliamentarians to vote against the austerity package. In Athens alone, 19 arrests were made, while 46 civilians and 38 policemen had been injured by 29 June 2011. The third round of austerity was approved by the Greek parliament on 12 February 2012 and met strong opposition, especially in Athens and Thessaloniki, where police clashed with demonstrators.


title: Austerity

text: Opponents argue that austerity measures depress economic growth and ultimately cause reduced tax revenues that outweigh the benefits of reduced public spending. Moreover, in countries with already anemic economic growth, austerity can engender deflation, which inflates existing debt. Such austerity packages can also cause the country to fall into a liquidity trap, causing credit markets to freeze up and unemployment to increase. Opponents point to cases in Ireland and Spain in which austerity measures instituted in response to financial crises in 2009 proved ineffective in combating public debt and placed those countries at risk of defaulting in late 2010.


title: Austerity

text: In October 2012, the IMF announced that its forecasts for countries that implemented austerity programs have been consistently overoptimistic, suggesting that tax hikes and spending cuts have been doing more damage than expected and that countries that implemented fiscal stimulus, such as Germany and Austria, did better than expected. These data have been scrutinized by the "Financial Times", which found no significant trends when outliers like Germany and Greece were excluded. Determining the multipliers used in the research to achieve the results found by the IMF was also described as an "exercise in futility" by Professor Carlos Vegh of the University of Michigan. Moreover, Barry Eichengreen of the University of California, Berkeley and Kevin H. O'Rourke of Oxford University write that the IMF's new estimate of the extent to which austerity restricts growth was much lower than historical data suggest.


title: Austerity

text: On 3 February 2015, Joseph Stiglitz wrote: "Austerity had failed repeatedly from its early use under US president Herbert Hoover, which turned the stock-market crash into the Great Depression, to the IMF programs imposed on East Asia and Latin America in recent decades. And yet when Greece got into trouble, it was tried again." Government spending actually rose significantly under Hoover, while revenues were flat.


title: Austerity

text: According to a 2020 study, which used survey experiments in the UK, Portugal, Spain, Italy and Germany, voters strongly disapprove of austerity measures, in particular spending cuts. Voters disapprove of fiscal deficits but not as strongly as austerity. A 2021 study found that incumbent European governments that implemented austerity measures in the Great Recession lost support in opinion polls.


title: Austerity

text: Austerity has been blamed for at least 120,000 deaths between 2010 and 2017 in the UK, with one study putting it at 130,000 and another at 30,000 in 2015 alone. The first study added that "no firm conclusions can be drawn about cause and effect, but the findings back up other research in the field" and campaigners have claimed that cuts to benefits, healthcare and mental health services lead to more deaths including through suicide.


title: Austerity

text: Strategies that involve short-term stimulus with longer-term austerity are not mutually exclusive. Steps can be taken in the present that will reduce future spending, such as "bending the curve" on pensions by reducing cost of living adjustments or raising the retirement age for younger members of the population, while at the same time creating short-term spending or tax cut programs to stimulate the economy to create jobs.


title: Austerity

text: IMF managing director Christine Lagarde wrote in August 2011, "For the advanced economies, there is an unmistakable need to restore fiscal sustainability through credible consolidation plans. At the same time we know that slamming on the brakes too quickly will hurt the recovery and worsen job prospects. So fiscal adjustment must resolve the conundrum of being neither too fast nor too slow. Shaping a Goldilocks fiscal consolidation is all about timing. What is needed is a dual focus on medium-term consolidation and short-term support for growth. That may sound contradictory, but the two are mutually reinforcing. Decisions on future consolidation, tackling the issues that will bring sustained fiscal improvement, create space in the near term for policies that support growth."


title: Austerity

text: Federal Reserve Chair Ben Bernanke wrote in September 2011, "the two goals—achieving fiscal sustainability, which is the result of responsible policies set in place for the longer term, and avoiding creation of fiscal headwinds for the recovery—are not incompatible. Acting now to put in place a credible plan for reducing future deficits over the long term, while being attentive to the implications of fiscal choices for the recovery in the near term, can help serve both objectives."


title: Austerity

text: The term "age of austerity" was popularised by UK Conservative Party leader David Cameron in his keynote speech to the Conservative Party forum in Cheltenham on 26 April 2009, in which he committed to end years of what he called "excessive government spending". Theresa May claimed that "Austerity is over" as of 3 October 2018, a statement which was almost immediately met with criticism on the reality of its central claim, particularly in relation to the high possibility of a substantial economic downturn due to Brexit.


title: Austerity

text: "Merriam-Webster's Dictionary" named the word "austerity" as its "Word of the Year" for 2010 because of the number of web searches this word generated that year. According to the president and publisher of the dictionary, ""austerity" had more than 250,000 searches on the dictionary's free online [website] tool" and the spike in searches "came with more coverage of the debt crisis".


title: Austerity

text: According to economist David Stuckler and physician Sanjay Basu in their study "The Body Economic: Why Austerity Kills", a health crisis is being triggered by austerity policies, including up to 10,000 additional suicides that have occurred across Europe and the U.S. since the introduction of austerity programs.


title: Austerity

text: Much of the acceptance of austerity in the general public has centred on the way debate has been framed, and relates to an issue with representative democracy; since the public do not have widely available access to the latest economic research, which is highly critical of economic retrenchment in times of crisis, the public must rely on which politician sounds most plausible. This can unfortunately lead to authoritative leaders pursuing policies which make little, if any, economic sense.