title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: The total population at December 31, 2006 was 16,356,914. The population loss due to net emigration was 35,502 (an estimated 40-50% of emigrants were ethnic non-Dutch).


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: In 2007, there were 117,000 immigrants (including 7000 Germans, 6000 Poles, 5000 Bulgarians, 3000 Turks and 2000 Moroccans) and 123,000 emigrants. Nearly half the emigrants were native Dutch, followed at a distance by nearly 5000 Poles and more than 3000 Germans. There was an observable increase in net immigration from the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: The annual death rate was lowest in the municipalities of Valkenburg (2.9 per 1000), Zeewolde (3.2), Renswoude (3.4), Westervoort and Zeevang (both 3.9). The highest annual death rates were recorded in Warmond (22.3 per 1000), Laren (19.9) and Doorn (18.8).


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: 16.4% of the total births in 2003 were to parents of non-European origin, although they account for only 12.4% of the population in the 25-34 age group. For example, 3.8% of the births were ethnic Moroccan, although they were only 2.26% of the 25-34 age group. Respective figures were 3.27% and 3.0% for Turks. The TFR for Moroccans in 2003 was 3.3 while the general TFR was 1.73. TFR was 2.3 for Turks, 1.7 for Surinamese, 1.8 for Arubans, 3.0 for Africans and 1.8 for Americans. (These figures compare with a figure of around 2.1 required to maintain a stable overall population figure.)


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: According to Statistics Netherlands, for the year 2007, the TFR for those born in Netherlands was 1.72 (1.65 in 2000). TFR of Moroccan immigrants was 2.87 (3.22 in 2000) and that of Turkish immigrants was 1.88 (2.18 in 2000).


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: The total fertility rate is the annual average number of children born per woman over her lifespan. It is based on fairly good data for the entire period. Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1,800,000 foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1,400,000 (8.5%) were born outside the EU (including those from Dutch colonies) and 428,000 (2.6%) were born in another EU member state. The most common countries of birth being: Belgium, Germany, Poland and the United Kingdom. On 1 January 2016, 26,2% of persons aged 0–50 had at least one parent born in a foreign country. 11,4% of persons aged 0–50 of 'Dutch background' belonged to the 'third generation', the majority descending from Western immigrants. The third generation constitutes persons born from two second generation immigrants or one second generation immigrant and one person with a Dutch background. First and second generation immigrants and the third generation were 34,5% of the population aged 0–50.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: As the result of immigration from overseas, the Netherlands have a sizeable minority of non-indigenous peoples. There is also a considerable level of emigration, in majority consisting of former immigrants. In 2005, some 121,000 people left the country, while 94,000 entered it. Out of a total of 101,150 people immigrating into the Netherlands in 2006, 66,658 were from Europe, Oceania, the Americas or Japan, and 34,492 were from other (mostly developing) countries. Out of a total of 132,470 emigrants, 94,834 were going to Europe, Oceania, the Americas or Japan and 37,636 to other countries.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: A large number of immigrants come from countries in Western Europe, mostly from the neighbouring countries of Germany and Belgium. There were five subsequent waves of immigration to the Netherlands in recent history.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: Illegal immigration to the Netherlands results in automatic deportation but this is often not enforced for various reasons such as unknown country of origin, etc. Many Dutch provinces in 2012 had quotas for deporting illegal immigrants.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: By 2017, persons with an immigration background, both western and non-western, formed a majority in Amsterdam (2011), Rotterdam (2013) and The Hague, the three largest cities of the Netherlands.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: In 2005, the governmental "Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau" in its annual report, noted recurring integration problems for ethnic minorities. While during the economic boom of the 1990s their unemployment and dependence on welfare had strongly decreased, the economic downturn between 2001 and 2004 disproportionally affected immigrant groups. This would be explained by their functioning as a labour reserve, by their lower educational levels and by lower language skills. The report also noted that per capita social interactions between native Dutch and immigrant populations tended to decline over time, partly explainable by the size growth of immigrant groups. Integration levels strongly varied between groups. Surinamese and Antilleans were well economically integrated, but the latter less so culturally. Cultural integration was limited for Turks, but better for Moroccans. Of the asylum seekers, Somalis were among the least integrated into Dutch society, while Iranians were the best integrated with the highest education levels and modern lifestyles. Though the educational levels of the second generation were a significant improvement over those of the first generation, they still lagged behind the native Dutch who themselves on average had been attending ever higher school types. While half of all native Dutch pupils in 2005 proceeded to higher secondary education (HAVO and VWO), for Turks and Moroccans the share was a fifth and for Somali pupils even lower.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: In 2007, non-Western groups were generally socio-economically disadvantaged and of the four largest non-Western groups, Turks and Moroccans were the most disadvantaged. In 2006 38.7% of Moroccans and 43.9% of Turks aged 15–64 were in employment, their unemployment rate was about four times the level of the native Dutch (17.2% for Moroccans and 15.1% for Turks), and 30% received some type of social welfare.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: After 2008, the financial crisis and the eurocrisis again hit immigrant groups particularly hard. In 2012, at 12% non-Western migrants were six times more likely than native Dutch to receive social welfare benefits, with 2% for the Dutch.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: According to a 2010 Statistics Netherlands report, the third generation of non-Western immigrants was predominantly young with 80% being younger than 15, while growing with 10% each year. The third generation have a similar employment rate as the native Dutch and receive a similar amount of social benefits. The third non-Western generation follow adult education more frequently than both the native Dutch and non-Western immigrants. The non-Western immigrant population as a whole has 1.5 to 2 times the benefit dependence compared to the natives. The non-Western third generation had a rate slightly higher than the native Dutch as crime suspects, but lower than for non-Western immigrants as a whole.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: According to Statistics Netherlands, nearly 53% of refugee households have a low income, six times the Netherlands average (8.2%). For Syrian and Eritrean households the share is about 80%. At 33% the poverty risk is lowest among Iranian refugee households. The group of Syrian households at risk of poverty grew from ten thousand (76% of all Syrian households in 2016) to eighteen thousand (79% of all Syrian households) in 2018. Households of Polish, Romanian or Bulgarian origin have a greater than average risk of poverty even though households from these Eastern European countries generally depend on work for their income. Migrant workers from Eastern Europe generally perform low-skilled work while migrants from Western Europe are often highly educated.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: Immigrants from foreign countries are divided into several ethnic groups. For example, there are both Russians and Chechens from Russia, Turks and Kurds from Turkey, Serbs and Albanians from Serbia and immigrants from Iran are divided into Persians, Azeris and Kurds.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: , 4 438 900 citizens are of non-Dutch/Frisian origin. A majority of these (50,86%) are from seven backgrounds alone: Turks (inc. Kurds), Moroccans (inc. Berbers), Surinamese, Indonesians (inc. Moluccans), Germans, Poles and Curaçao.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: With the huge expansion of the European Union during the 2000s, the Netherlands has seen a rise in the number of immigrants coming from new member states. Migrant workers from these countries are estimated to be about 100,000 as of 2007. Legal migrants from new EU-member states doubled between 2007–11 to 200,000, with estimates totaling up to 300,000. Of the Poles who initially moved to the Netherlands in 2004, about a quarter had returned to Poland by 2006. In addition, a large number of Syrians moved to the Netherlands in the 2010s mostly as refugees, with the population increasing seven-fold between 2014 and 2019. Both Poles and Syrians have overtaken the population of Antilleans during the decade. More than 36,000 Roma live in the Netherlands. Dutch Roma, Sinti and Dutch Jews were decimated by the Holocaust. However, the Jewish population has seen growth in the Netherlands in recent years.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: The Netherlands has seen considerable emigration. In the 1950s, 560,000 people migrated to the United States, South Africa, Australia, Canada and New Zealand, leaving their war-torn and overpopulated home country behind. At least 60,000 of these migrants were Indo-European (mixed Dutch-Indonesian) repatriates that moved on, mostly to the United States, after being repatriated to the Netherlands from the former Dutch East Indies during and after the Indonesian Revolution.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: In 2005, some 121,000 people migrated from the Netherlands. There is considerable migration towards neighbouring states, Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom and to the Netherlands Antilles. Furthermore, almost half of the current emigration consists of people returning to their country of birth, including rejected asylum seekers, after the more stringent migration laws were implemented.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: According to a 2016 study by Statistics Netherlands, students with a non-western background generally study at a lower level of secondary education. 48 percent of those with a Dutch background were at HAVO or VWO level at third year, compared to 23 percent for Dutch Turks, 28 percent for Dutch Moroccans, 35 percent for Dutch Surinamese and 31 percent for Dutch Antilleans. Some backgrounds fared better: over 40 percent of Dutch Afghans studied at HAVO/VWO level, and for Dutch Iranians the rate was 50 percent, which was above native Dutch students.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: In 2013, Statistics Netherlands found that 26% of the population identified as Roman Catholic, 16% as Protestant, 5% as Muslim, and 6% as "other" (the last includes other Christian denominations, Hindus 0.6%, Jews 0.1%, and Buddhists 0.4%). The agency interviewed 355,237 people in the period 2010–2013.


title: Demography of the Netherlands

text: The main language is Dutch, while Frisian (known as West Frisian outside of the Netherlands) is also a recognized language in the province of Friesland and is used by the government and schools there. Several dialects of Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch) are spoken in much of the north and east and are recognized by the Netherlands as regional languages according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Another Dutch dialect granted the status of regional language is Limburgish, which is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. Major immigrant languages are Indonesian, Turkish, Arabic, Berber, Papiamento, German and Polish.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Shalwar kameez (also salwar kameez and less commonly shalwar qameez) is a traditional combination dress worn by women, and in some regions by men, in South Asia, and Central Asia.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: "Shalwars" are trousers which are atypically wide at the waist but which narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring or elastic belt, which causes them to become pleated around the waist. The trousers can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias. Shalwars have been traditionally worn in a wide region which includes Eastern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. The "kameez" is a long shirt or tunic. The side seams are left open below the waist-line (the opening known as the "chaak"), which gives the wearer greater freedom of movement. The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional cuts; modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. The kameez may have a European-style collar, a Mandarin collar, or it may be collarless; in the latter case, its design as a women's garment is similar to a kurta. The combination garment is sometimes called salwar kurta, salwar suit, or Punjabi suit.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The shalwar and kameez were introduced into South Asia by arriving Muslims in the north in the 13th century: at first worn by Muslim women, their use gradually spread, making them a regional style, especially in the historical Punjab region. The shalwar-kameez is a widely-worn, and national dress, of Pakistan. It is also widely worn by men in Afghanistan, by women and some men in the Punjab region of India, from which it has been adopted by women throughout India, and more generally South Asia.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: When women wear the shalwar-kameez in some regions, they usually wear a long scarf or shawl called a dupatta around the head or neck. In South Asia, the dupatta is also employed as a form of modesty—although it is made of delicate material, it obscures the upper body's contours by passing over the shoulders. For Muslim women, the dupatta is a less stringent alternative to the chador or burqa (see hijab and purdah); for Sikh and Hindu women, the dupatta is useful when the head must be covered, as in a temple or the presence of elders.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Everywhere in South Asia, modern versions of the attire have evolved; the shalwars are worn lower down on the waist, the kameez have shorter length, with higher splits, lower necklines and backlines, and with cropped sleeves or without sleeves.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The English word "shalwar" derives ultimately from the Persian language. According to the "Oxford English Dictionary": its etymology is: " < Urdu šalwār, Hindi salvār, < Persian šalwār." According to the "Oxford Dictionary of English", it is Originally From Persian šalwār." According to the "Random House Unabridged Dictionary": "1880–85; < Hindi < Persian "shalwār"". According to Steingass's "A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary", " شلوار shalwār, shulwār, Inner breeches, drawers reaching to the feet (the outer breeches being called tuṃbān); sailorsʼ or travellersʼ trousers. شلوار بند shalwār-band, Fastening of breeches." According to Shakespear's "A dictionary of Hindustani and English"," شلوار shalwār Persian (or shilwār) s. m. Trousers." According to McGregor's "Oxford Hindi English Dictionary", "शलवार "śalwār" (Persian: "śalwār") Loose cotton trousers worn by women."


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The English word "kameez," derives from the Arabic language. According to the "Oxford Dictionary of English", "Kameez: A long tunic worn by many people from South Asia, typically with a salwar or churidars. Origin: From Arabic "qamīṣ", perhaps from late Latin "camisia" (see chemise)" According to Wehr's "A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic": " قميص "qamīs": shirt, dress, gown, covering, cover, case, wrap, envelope, jacket; plural: قمص "qamus"" According to Steingass's "A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary", "Arabic قميص qamīṣ, A shirt, shift, or any kind of inner garment of linen; also a tunic, a surplice (of cotton, but not of wool); the membrane which surrounds the fœtus in the womb, amnion; pericardium; a galloping horse that shakes its rider." According to Platt's "A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English", "Arabic قميص qamīṣ, vulg. qamīz, kamīj, s.m. A shirt; a shift; a chemise (cf. It. camicia; Port. camisa). According to McGregor's "Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary": "क़मीज़ "qamīz" (Arabic: "qamīş") a shirt".


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The English word combination "shalwar kameez," is an internationalism derived from the Urdu language; according to Patrizia Anesa, author of "Lexical Innovation in World Englishes: Cross-fertilization and Evolving Paradigms", "Salwar-kameez. ... may also be described as an internationalism given its origin (Urdu). This word-formation process is based on the combination of two elements which are two garments (baggy pants and a tunic or shirt) and constitute an outfit typical of South and Central Asia." Author Garland Cannon in "Problems in Studying Loans," in "Proceedings of the 25th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society", says, "... the old Urdu "shalwar-kameez" 'women's loose-fitting trousers and long tunic' was first used in English by colonial residents on the Indian subcontinent. (page 332)"


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The "shalwar" are loose pajama-like trousers. The legs are wide at the top, and narrow at the ankle. The "kameez" is a long shirt or tunic, often seen with a Western-style collar; however, for female apparel, the term is now loosely applied to collarless or mandarin-collared kurtas. The kameez might be worn with pajamas as well, either for fashion or comfort. Some kameez styles have side seams (known as the "chaak"), left open below the waist-line, giving the wearer greater freedom of movement.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The kameez can be sewn straight and flat, in an "A" shape design or flowing like a dress; there are a variety of styles. Modern kameez styles are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. If the tailor's taste or skill is displayed, this will be seen in the shape of the neckline and the decoration of the kameez. The kameez may be cut with a deep neckline, sewn in diaphanous fabrics, or styled in cap-sleeve or sleeveless designs.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: There are many styles of shalwar: the Peshawari shalwar, Balochi shalwar, Sindhi choreno and Punjabi shalwar.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Although various regions of the Indian subcontinent now wear the outfit in its various forms, the outfit was originally only popular on a wide scale in Afghanistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan and the Punjab region of Indian subcontinent. However, the shalwar kameez has now become popular across the Indian subcontinent.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The shalwar kameez known as the Anarkali suit is named after the court dancer from Lahore. This suit has a timeless style which has become very popular. It is made up of a long, frock-style top and features a slim fitted bottom. This style of suit links the Indian subcontinent with the women's firaq partug (frock and shalwar) of northwestern Pakistan and Afghanistan and to the traditional women's clothing of parts of Central Asia. It also links to the Punjab region, where the Anarkali suit is similar to the anga and the Peshwaz worn in Jammu.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The styles of shalwar kameez worn in Afghanistan include various styles of khet partug, perahan tunban and Firaq partug worn by Pashtuns, Tajiks, and Hazaras. The shalwar tends to be loose and rests above the ankles.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The traditional dress of Peshawar and other parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, is the khalqa (gown) which opens at the front, or shirt which does not open at the front, and the Peshawari shalwar which is very loose down to the ankles. The Peshawari shalwar can be used with a number of upper garments and is part of the clothing of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The clothing of Balochistan, Pakistan includes the shalwar kameez which when worn by males consists of a very baggy shalwar using large lengths of cloth. The kameez is also loose, and traditionally is long, with long sleeves. The present Balochi shalwar kameez replaced the earlier version which consisted of a robe to the ankles and a shalwar using cloth of up to 40 yards. The Pashtuns in northern Balochistan wear clothes similar to the styles worn in Afghanistan.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The traditional shalwar kameez worn in the Punjab region is cut differently to the styles worn in Balochistan and Afghanistan and is known as a "Punjabi suit" with the kameez being cut straight and flat with side slits (which is a local development as earlier forms of kameez did not have side slits). The shalwar is wide at the top but fits closely to the legs and is gathered at the ankles. The Punjabi shalwar is also cut straight and gathered at the ankles with a loose band reinforced with coarse material. In rural Punjab, the shalwar is still called the suthan, which is a different garment that was popular in previous centuries, alongside the churidar and kameez combination (which is still popular). In Britain, British Asian women from the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent have brought the dress to the mainstream, and even high-fashion, appeal. The Punjabi suit is popular in other regions of the Indian subcontinent, such as Mumbai and Sindh. The popularity of Punjabi suits in India was extentuated during the 1960s through Hindi cinema. Punjabi suits are also popular among young women in Bangladesh and are especially popular amongst school girls in India. The outfit is also popular in Afghanistan, where it is called the Punjabi.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Another common type of Punjabi shalwar kameez is the Patiala salwar which has many folds and originates in the city of Patiala.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Another style of the Punjabi suit is the use of the shalwar which hails from the Pothohar region of Punjab, Pakistan and is known as the Pothohari shalwar. The Pothohari shalwar retains the wideness of the older Punjabi suthan and also has some folds. The kameez is also wide. The head scarf is traditionally large, similar to the chador or phulkari that was used throughout the plains of the Punjab region.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Saraiki shalwar suits are Punjabi outfits which include the Bahawalpuri shalwar suit and the Multani shalwar suit.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The Bahawalpuri shalwar originates from the Bahawalpur region of Punjab, Pakistan. The Bahawalpuri shalwar is very wide and baggy with many voluminous folds. The material traditionally used for the Bahawalpuri shalwar and suthan is known as Sufi which is a mixture of cotton warp mixed with silk weft and gold threads running down the material. The other name for these types of mixed cloth is shuja khani. The Bahawalpuri shalwar is worn with the Bahawalpur style kameez, the Punjabi kurta or chola.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The Multani shalwar, also known as the 'ghaire wali' or 'Saraiki ghaire wali' shalwar as it is very wide around the waist, originates from the Multan area of the Punjab region. The style is similar to the Sindhi kancha shalwar as both are derivatives of the pantaloon shalwar worn in Iraq and adopted in these locations during the 7th century A.D. The Multani shalwar is very wide, baggy, and full, and has folds like the Punjabi suthan. The upper garments include the Punjabi kameez and the chola of the Punjab region.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: An older variety of shalwar kameez of the Punjab region is the Punjabi suthan and kurta suit. The Punjabi suthan is a local variation of the ancient svasthana tight fitting trousers which have been used in the Punjab region since the ancient period and were worn with the tunic called varbana which was tight fitting.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The Punjabi suthan is arranged in plaits and uses large amounts of material (traditionally coloured cotton with vertical silk lines, called sussi) of up to 20 yards hanging in many folds. The suthan ends at the ankles with a tight band which distinguishes the suthan from a shalwar. The modern equivalent of the loose Punjabi suthan are the cowl pants and dhoti shalwars which have many folds.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: Some versions of the Punjabi suthan tighten from the knees down to the ankles (a remnant of the svasthana). If a tight band is not used, the ends of the suthan fit closely around the ankles. The Jodhpuri breeches devised during the 1870s by Sir Pratap Singh of Jodhpur offer a striking slim line resemblance to the centuries-old tight Punjabi suthan, although the churidar is cited as its source. The tight pantaloon style suthan was popular with the Indian Cavalry during the 19th and early 20th centurie; they were dyed in Multani mutti or mitti (clay/fuller's earth), which gave the garments a yellow colour.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The kurta is a remnant of the 11th-century female kurtaka which was a shirt extending to the middle of the body with side slits worn in parts of north India which has remained a traditional garment for women in Punjab, albeit longer than the kurtaka. The suthan was traditionally worn with a long kurta but can also be worn with a short kurti or frocks. Modern versions of the kurta can be knee length. The head scarf is also traditionally long but again, modern versions are shorter.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The outfit in Jammu is the Dogri kurta and suthan. When the tight part of the suthan, up to the knees, has multiple close fitting folds, the suthan is referred to as Dogri pants or suthan, in Jammu, and churidar suthan in the Punjab region and some parts of Himachal Pradesh.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The traditional Sindhi shalwar, also called kancha, are wide pantaloons which are wide down the legs and are also wide at the ankles. The Sindhi shalwar is plaited at the waist. The kancha shalwar is traditionally worn with either the Sindhi cholo (blouse) by women, or a knee length robe which flares out, by men.


title: Shalwar kameez

text: The other styles of shalwar kameez are female Sindhi suthan and cholo and male Sindhi suthan and angelo.


title: Army

text: An army (from Old French "armee", itself derived from the Latin verb "armāre", meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun "arma", meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by possessing an army aviation component. Within a national military force, the word army may also mean a field army.


title: Army

text: In some countries, such as France and China, the term "army", especially in its plural form "armies", has the broader meaning of armed forces as a whole, while retaining the colloquial sense of land forces. To differentiate the colloquial army from the formal concept of military force, the term is qualified, for example in France the land force is called "Armée de terre", meaning Land Army, and the air and space force is called "Armée de l'Air et de l’Espace", meaning Air and Space Army. The naval force, although not using the term "army", is also included in the broad sense of the term "armies" — thus the French Navy is an integral component of the collective French Armies (French Armed Forces) under the Ministry of the Armies. A similar pattern is seen in China, with the People's Liberation Army (PLA) being the overall military, the land force being the PLA Ground Force, and so forth for the PLA Air Force, the PLA Navy, and other branches.


title: Army

text: By convention, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia. Regular in this case refers to standardized doctrines, uniforms, organizations, etc. Regular military can also refer to full-time status (standing army), versus reserve or part-time personnel. Other distinctions may separate statutory forces (established under laws such as the National Defence Act), from de facto "non-statutory" forces such as some guerrilla and revolutionary armies. Armies may also be expeditionary (designed for overseas or international deployment) or fencible (designed for – or restricted to – homeland defence).


title: Army

text: India's armies were among the first in the world. The first recorded battle, the Battle of the Ten Kings, happened when a Hindu Aryan king named Sudas defeated an alliance of ten kings and their supportive chieftains. During the Iron Age, the Maurya and Nanda Empires had the largest armies in the world, the peak being approximately over 600,000 Infantry, 30,000 Cavalry, 8,000 War-Chariots and 9,000 War Elephants not including tributary state allies. In the Gupta age, large armies of longbowmen were recruited to fight off invading horse archer armies. Elephants, pikemen and cavalry were other featured troops.


title: Army

text: In Rajput times, the main piece of equipment was iron or chain-mail armor, a round shield, either a curved blade or a straight sword, a chakra disc, and a katar dagger.


title: Army

text: The states of China raised armies for at least 1000 years before the Spring and Autumn Annals. By the Warring States period, the crossbow had been perfected enough to become a military secret, with bronze bolts that could pierce any armor. Thus any political power of a state rested on the armies and their organization. China underwent political consolidation of the states of Han (韓), Wei (魏), Chu (楚), Yan (燕), Zhao (趙) and Qi (齊), until by 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇帝), the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, attained absolute power. This first emperor of China could command the creation of a Terracotta Army to guard his tomb in the city of Xi'an (西安), as well as a realignment of the Great Wall of China to strengthen his empire against insurrection, invasion and incursion.


title: Army

text: Sun Tzu's "The Art of War" remains one of China's Seven Military Classics, even though it is two thousand years old. Since no political figure could exist without an army, measures were taken to ensure only the most capable leaders could control the armies. Civil bureaucracies (士大夫) arose to control the productive power of the states, and their military power.


title: Army

text: The Spartan Army was one of the earliest known professional armies. Boys were sent to a barracks at the age of seven or eight to train for becoming a soldier. At the age of thirty, they were released from the barracks and allowed to marry and have a family. After that, men devoted their lives to war until their retirement at the age of 60. The Spartan Army was largely composed of hoplites, equipped with arms and armor nearly identical to each other. Each hoplite bore the Spartan emblem and a scarlet uniform. The main pieces of this armor were a round shield, a spear and a helmet.


title: Army

text: The Roman Army had its origins in the citizen army of the Republic, which was staffed by citizens serving mandatory duty for Rome. Reforms turned the army into a professional organization which was still largely filled by citizens, but these citizens served continuously for 25 years before being discharged.


title: Army

text: The Romans were also noted for making use of auxiliary troops, non-Romans who served with the legions and filled roles that the traditional Roman military could not fill effectively, such as light skirmish troops and heavy cavalry. After their service in the army they were made citizens of Rome and then their children were citizens also. They were also given land and money to settle in Rome. In the Late Roman Empire, these auxiliary troops, along with foreign mercenaries, became the core of the Roman Army; moreover, by the time of the Late Roman Empire tribes such as the Visigoths were paid to serve as mercenaries.


title: Army

text: In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every aristocrat to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would be.


title: Army

text: Initially, the words "knight" and "noble" were used interchangeably as there was not generally a distinction between them. While the nobility did fight upon horseback, they were also supported by lower class citizens – and mercenaries and criminals – whose only purpose was participating in warfare because, most often than not, they held brief employment during their lord's engagement. As the Middle Ages progressed and feudalism developed in a legitimate social and economic system, knights started to develop into their own class with a minor caveat: they were still in debt to their lord. No longer primarily driven by economic need, the newly established vassal class were, instead, driven by fealty and chivalry.


title: Army

text: As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. England was one of the most centralized states in the Middle Ages, and the armies that fought in the Hundred Years' War were, predominantly, composed of paid professionals.


title: Army

text: In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent.


title: Army

text: Thus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.


title: Army

text: As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy they came to dominate the armies of the city states. This made them considerably less reliable than a standing army. Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy also led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on maneuver as on battles.


title: Army

text: In 1439 the French legislature, known as the Estates General (French: "états généraux"), passed laws that restricted military recruitment and training to the king alone. There was a new tax to be raised known as the "taille" that was to provide funding for a new Royal army. The mercenary companies were given a choice of either joining the Royal army as "compagnies d'ordonnance" on a permanent basis, or being hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, which was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating on their own. The new standing army had a more disciplined and professional approach to warfare than its predecessors. The reforms of the 1440s, eventually led to the French victory at Castillon in 1453, and the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War. By 1450 the companies were divided into the field army, known as the "grande ordonnance" and the garrison force known as the "petite ordonnance".


title: Army

text: First nation states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire mercenaries to serve in their armies during wartime. Such mercenaries typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments.


title: Army

text: The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia.


title: Army

text: As late as the 1650s, most troops were mercenaries. However, after the 17th century, most states invested in better disciplined and more politically reliable permanent troops. For a time mercenaries became important as trainers and administrators, but soon these tasks were also taken by the state. The massive size of these armies required a large supporting force of administrators.


title: Army

text: The newly centralized states were forced to set up vast organized bureaucracies to manage these armies, which some historians argue is the basis of the modern bureaucratic state. The combination of increased taxes and increased centralisation of government functions caused a series of revolts across Europe such as the Fronde in France and the English Civil War.


title: Army

text: In many countries, the resolution of this conflict was the rise of absolute monarchy. Only in England and the Netherlands did representative government evolve as an alternative. From the late 17th century, states learned how to finance wars through long term low interest loans from national banking institutions. The first state to master this process was the Dutch Republic. This transformation in the armies of Europe had great social impact. The defense of the state now rested on the commoners, not on the aristocrats.


title: Army

text: However, aristocrats continued to monopolise the officer corps of almost all early modern armies, including their high command. Moreover, popular revolts almost always failed unless they had the support and patronage of the noble or gentry classes. The new armies, because of their vast expense, were also dependent on taxation and the commercial classes who also began to demand a greater role in society. The great commercial powers of the Dutch and English matched much larger states in military might.


title: Army

text: As any man could be quickly trained in the use of a musket, it became far easier to form massive armies. The inaccuracy of the weapons necessitated large groups of massed soldiers. This led to a rapid swelling of the size of armies. For the first time huge masses of the population could enter combat, rather than just the highly skilled professionals.


title: Army

text: It has been argued that the drawing of men from across the nation into an organized corps helped breed national unity and patriotism, and during this period the modern notion of the nation state was born. However, this would only become apparent after the French Revolutionary Wars. At this time, the "levée en masse" and conscription would become the defining paradigm of modern warfare.


title: Army

text: Before then, however, most national armies were in fact composed of many nationalities. In Spain armies were recruited from all the Spanish European territories including Spain, Italy, Wallonia (Walloon Guards) and Germany. The French recruited some soldiers from Germany, Switzerland as well as from Piedmont. Britain recruited Hessian and Hanovrian troops until the late 18th century. Irish Catholics made careers for themselves in the armies of many Catholic European states.


title: Army

text: Prior to the English Civil War in England, the monarch maintained a personal bodyguard of Yeomen of the Guard and the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms, or "gentlemen pensioners", and a few locally raised companies to garrison important places such as Berwick on Tweed or Portsmouth (or Calais before it was recaptured by France in 1558).


title: Army

text: Troops for foreign expeditions were raised upon an "ad hoc" basis. Noblemen and professional regular soldiers were commissioned by the monarch to supply troops, raising their quotas by indenture from a variety of sources. On January 26, 1661 Charles II issued the Royal Warrant that created the genesis of what would become the British Army, although the Scottish and English Armies would remain two separate organizations until the unification of England and Scotland in 1707. The small force was represented by only a few regiments.


title: Army

text: After the American Revolutionary War the Continental Army was quickly disbanded as part of the Americans' distrust of standing armies, and irregular state militias became the sole ground army of the United States, with the exception of one battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. Then First American Regiment was established in 1784. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The first of these, the Legion of the United States, was established in 1791.


title: Army

text: Until 1733 the common soldiers of Prussian Army consisted largely of peasantry recruited or impressed from Brandenburg–Prussia, leading many to flee to neighboring countries. To halt this trend, Frederick William I divided Prussia into regimental cantons. Every youth was required to serve as a soldier in these recruitment districts for three months each year; this met agrarian needs and added extra troops to bolster the regular ranks.


title: Army

text: Russian tsars before Peter I of Russia maintained professional hereditary musketeer corps (streltsy in Russian) that were highly unreliable and undisciplined. In times of war the armed forces were augmented by peasants. Peter I introduced a modern regular army built on German model, but with a new aspect: officers not necessarily from nobility, as talented commoners were given promotions that eventually included a noble title at the attainment of an officer's rank. Conscription of peasants and townspeople was based on quota system, per settlement. Initially it was based on the number of households, later it was based on the population numbers. The term of service in the 18th century was for life. In 1793 it was reduced to 25 years. In 1834 it was reduced to 20 years plus 5 years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus 3 years of reserve.


title: Army

text: The first Ottoman standing army were Janissaries. They replaced forces that mostly comprised tribal warriors ("ghazis") whose loyalty and morale could not always be trusted. The first Janissary units were formed from prisoners of war and slaves, probably as a result of the sultan taking his traditional one-fifth share of his army's booty in kind rather than cash.


title: Army

text: From the 1380s onwards, their ranks were filled under the "devşirme" system, where feudal dues were paid by service to the sultan. The "recruits" were mostly Christian youths, reminiscent of mamluks.


title: Army

text: China organized the Manchu people into the Eight Banner system in the early 17th century. Defected Ming armies formed the Green Standard Army. These troops enlisted voluntarily and for long terms of service.


title: Army

text: Conscription allowed the French Republic to form the "Grande Armée", what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which successfully battled European professional armies.


title: Army

text: Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies.


title: Army

text: In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.


title: Army

text: Russia, as well as many other nations, retains mainly a conscript army. There is also a very rare "citizen army" as used in Switzerland (see Military of Switzerland).


title: Army

text: A particular army can be named or numbered to distinguish it from military land forces in general. For example, the First United States Army and the Army of Northern Virginia. In the British Army it is normal to spell out the ordinal number of an army (e.g. First Army), whereas lower formations use figures (e.g. 1st Division).


title: Army

text: Armies (as well as army groups and theaters) are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility.


title: Army

text: In the Soviet Red Army and the Soviet Air Force, "Armies" could vary in size, but were subordinate to an Army Group-sized "front" in wartime. In peacetime, a Soviet army was usually subordinate to a military district. Viktor Suvorov's "Inside the Soviet Army" describes how Cold War era Soviet military districts were actually composed of a front headquarters and a military district headquarters co-located for administration and deception ('maskirovika') reasons.


title: Grace Tame

text: Grace Tame (born 28 December 1994) is an Australian activist and advocate for survivors of sexual assault. Tame was named 2021 Australian of the Year on 25 January 2021.


title: Grace Tame

text: In 2013, Tame dropped out of St Michael's Collegiate, and later re-enrolled at a different high school. She then moved to the United States, where she graduated from Santa Barbara City College with degrees in theatre arts and liberal arts.


title: Grace Tame

text: Tame was a dual-scholarship holder at St Michael's Collegiate girls' school in Hobart, and had been diagnosed with anorexia in Year 10. She was groomed when she was 15 and then repeatedly sexually abused by her 58-year-old teacher, Nicolaas Bester. Although the school was found to have had multiple opportunities to intervene, the abuse did not stop until Tame reported her attacker. Nicolaas Bester was arrested and convicted of the offence of "maintaining a sexual relationship with someone under the age of 17", a crime, Tame argued, that needed to be renamed as in other jurisdictions due to its misleading use of the word "relationship" for abuse. He was also sentenced for possessing child pornography. In sentencing Tame's abuser, Justice Helen Wood said Tame had been "particularly vulnerable given her mental state" and that her abuser "knew her psychological condition was precarious" and had "betrayed the trust of the child's parents and the school's trust in an utterly blatant fashion." At the time of the abuse, Tame had undiagnosed autism spectrum disorder.


title: Grace Tame

text: In 2017, social commentator Bettina Arndt conducted an interview with Tame's abuser claiming "sexually provocative behaviour from female students". Tame criticised Arndt for supporting her abuser, accusing her of "trivialising" and "laughing off" his crime, saying, "Not only is the interview disturbing because it gives a platform to a paedophile. It's not a truthful interview." Arndt did not seek out Tame for her side of the story, and published her name and photo without consent. Her abuser had spoken publicly about the case many times, but Tame was gagged by Tasmanian law. He was subsequently jailed again for the production of child exploitation material, after describing online how he sexually abused Tame.


title: Grace Tame

text: Tasmania's "Evidence Act" had prohibited publication of information identifying survivors of sexual assault since 2001. In practice, this prevented Tame and other survivors speaking publicly about their experiences, even as Tame's abuser bragged about his crimes on social media. Tame's case led to journalist and sexual assault survivor advocate Nina Funnell working alongside Tame to create a campaign called #LetHerSpeak, in partnership with Marque Lawyers and End Rape on Campus Australia, seeking to overturn this law and a similar law in the Northern Territory. The campaign attracted global support from celebrities including Alyssa Milano, Tara Moss and John Cleese, and from leaders of the MeToo movement. In August 2019, Tame spoke out for the first time after the campaign obtained a court order on her behalf through the Supreme Court of Tasmania winning Tame an exemption from the gag law. She was the first female sexual assault survivor in Tasmania to win a court order to speak about her experience.


title: Grace Tame

text: In October 2019, in response to the #LetHerSpeak campaign led by Funnell and featuring Tame, Attorney-General of Tasmania Elise Archer announced that legislation would be amended to allow sexual assault survivors to publicly speak out. Archer also announced planned changes to the wording of the crime noting that "the word relationship has connotations of consent." In April 2020, the law was changed to allow Tasmanian survivors to speak out.


title: Grace Tame

text: Tame has become an advocate for others, focusing on helping them understand grooming and psychological manipulation and breaking down the stigma associated with sexual assault. She has assisted the Los Angeles Human Trafficking Squad with understanding how child grooming works. Tame advocates education as a means of primary prevention of child sex abuse, rather than too heavily focusing on responses, which can "fuel the unconscious belief that child sexual abuse is just a fact of life that we have to accept in our society". Tame wants to eradicate victim blaming and normalise speaking out, and says greater consistency is needed between federal and state laws.


title: Grace Tame

text: On 9 February 2022, Tame and former Liberal Party parliamentary staffer and alleged rape survivor Brittany Higgins gave an address at the National Press Club of Australia, which sold out quickly and garnered a huge amount of coverage in the press and on social media. In her talk, Tame revealed that a "senior member" of a government-funded organisation had phoned her and, she felt, in a threatening way, asked her not to criticise the Prime Minister in her outgoing Australian of the Year speech, in the light of the forthcoming election. Both women advocated strongly for structural change, saying the time for talking was past.


title: Grace Tame

text: In December 2021, Tame founded the Grace Tame Foundation which aims for cultural and structural change to eradicate sexual abuse of children. Tame, her fiancé Max Heerey, and step-father, Ron Plaschke are board directors for the foundation.


title: Grace Tame

text: In October 2020, Tame was named Tasmanian Australian of the Year 2021. She said, "I could be wrong but I don't think that a survivor of rape has ever been awarded in such a way and that's huge." "It's hugely empowering for that community recognising and normalising the act of speaking out. There's no shame in surviving. The shame sits at the feet of predators, of perpetrators of these crimes."


title: Grace Tame

text: On the eve of Australia Day 2021, she was named Australian of the Year. The panel said, "Grace has demonstrated extraordinary courage, using her voice to push for legal reform and raise public awareness about the impacts of sexual violence." She is the first Tasmanian recipient of the award and the first as a public survivor of sexual assault. Upon receiving the award, she said "All survivors of child sexual abuse, this is for us... When we share, we heal. Together we can end child sexual abuse. I remember him saying, 'Don't make a sound.' Well, hear me now, using my voice amongst a chorus of voices that will not be silenced." Her speech was praised as "powerful" and "extraordinary".


title: Grace Tame

text: In 2021, Tame was named as one of "Time" magazine's Next Generation Leaders, and by the "Australian Financial Review" as one of the "10 most culturally powerful people in Australia in 2021".


title: Grace Tame

text: Tame was featured on the cover of the May 2021 Australian issue of "Marie Claire" magazine. She was the first non-celebrity to appear on the magazine's cover in its 25-year history.


title: Grace Tame

text: A portrait of Tame by Kirsty Neilson was a finalist in the 2021 Archibald Prize. Neilson was inspired by Tame's passion, strength, and bravery in playing an instrumental role in changing Tasmania's gag law.


title: Grace Tame

text: On Australia Day 2022, Tame was photographed with a frosty expression while meeting Prime Minister Scott Morrison. Several commentators criticised this, calling her "childish" and "rude", while others praised her integrity. Tame herself stated that "the survival of abuse culture is dependent on submissive smiles and self-defeating surrenders" and she was not willing to wear the "consequences of civility for the sake of civility".


title: Grace Tame

text: In 2017, Tame married American actor Spencer Breslin. They later divorced. Since late 2020, she has been in a relationship with Tasmanian Max Heerey. Tame met Heerey through the running and cycling app Strava. On 22 January 2022, Tame announced her engagement to Heerey via Instagram and Twitter. She has referred to Heerey as her "biggest supporter" and "true soulmate".


title: Grace Tame

text: Tame is a visual artist, and her clientèle has included actor John Cleese, and musician Martin Gore. She is also a yoga teacher and long-distance runner, having won the 2020 Ross Marathon in a course record time.


title: Grace Tame

text: She has a younger brother, Oscar, whom she calls her "little hero", saying, "He came into the world right when the abuse started, and pardon the pun, but he was a literal saving grace".


title: Tennis elbow

text: Tennis elbow, also known as lateral epicondylitis or enthesopathy of the extensor carpi radialis origin, is a condition in which the outer part of the elbow becomes painful and tender. The pain may also extend into the back of the forearm. Onset of symptoms is generally gradual although they can seem sudden and be misinterpreted as an injury. Golfer's elbow is a similar condition that affects the inside of the elbow.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Enthesopathies are idiopathic, meaning science has not yet determined the cause. Enthesopathies are most common in middle age (ages 35 to 60).


title: Tennis elbow

text: It is often stated that the condition is caused by excessive use of the muscles of the back of the forearm, but this is not supported by experimental evidence and is a common misinterpretation or unhelpful thought about symptoms. It may be associated with work or sports, classically racquet sports, but most people with the condition are not exposed to these activities. The diagnosis is based on the symptoms and examination. Medical imaging is not particularly useful. Signs consistent with the diagnosis include pain when a subject tries to bend back the wrist when the wrist is against resistance.


title: Tennis elbow

text: The natural history of untreated enthesopathy is resolution over a period of 1-2 years. Palliative (symptoms alleviating) treatment may include pain medications such as NSAIDS or acetaminophen (paracetamol), a wrist brace or strap over the upper forearm. The role of corticosteroid injections is debated. Recent evidence suggests corticosteroid injections may delay symptom resolution.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Symptoms associated with tennis elbow include, but are not limited to, pain from the outside of the elbow to the forearm and wrist and pain during extension of wrist.


title: Tennis elbow

text: The term "tennis elbow" is widely used (although informal), but the condition should be understood as not limited to tennis players. Historically, the medical term "lateral epicondylitis" was most commonly used for the condition, but "itis" implies inflammation and the condition is not inflammatory.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Since histological findings reveal noninflammatory tissue, the terms “lateral elbow tendinopathy" and "tendinosis” are suggested. In 2019, a group of international experts suggested that "lateral elbow tendinopathy" was the most appropriate terminology. But a disease of an attachment point (or enthesia) is most accurately referred to as an "enthesopathy."


title: Tennis elbow

text: Enthesopathy of the extensor carpi radialis brevis origin is idiopathic, meaning that it has no known cause.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Tennis players generally believe tennis elbow is caused by the repetitive nature of hitting thousands of tennis balls, which leads to tiny tears in the forearm tendon attachment at the elbow. Traditionally, people have speculated that tennis elbow is a type of repetitive strain injury resulting from tendon overuse and failed healing of the tendon, but there is no evidence of injury or repair on histopathology, and misinterpretation of painful activities as a source of damage is common.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Other speculative risk factors for lateral epicondylitis include taking up tennis later in life, unaccustomed strenuous activity, decreased mental chronometry and speed and repetitive eccentric contraction of muscle (controlled lengthening of a muscle group).


title: Tennis elbow

text: Histological findings are of mucoid degeneration: disorganized collagen, increased extracellular matrix, and chondroid metaplasia. There is no evidence of inflammation or repair. Therefore, the disorder is more appropriately referred to as "tendinosis" or "tendinopathy—more accurately an enthesopathy—"rather than "tendinitis."


title: Tennis elbow

text: Diagnosis is based on symptoms and clinical signs that are discrete and characteristic. For example, extension of the elbow and flexion of the wrist cause outer elbow pain. There is point tenderness at the origin of the extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle from the lateral epicondyle (extensor carpi radialis brevis origin). There is also pain with resisted wrist extension (Cozen's test).


title: Tennis elbow

text: X-rays can confirm and distinguish possibilities of existing causes of pain that are unrelated to tennis elbow, such as fracture or arthritis. Rarely, calcification can be found where the extensor muscles attach to the lateral epicondyle. Medical ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are other valuable tools for diagnosis but are frequently avoided due to the high cost.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Longitudinal sonogram of the lateral elbow displays thickening and heterogeneity of the common extensor tendon that is consistent with tendinosis, as the ultrasound reveals calcifications, intrasubstance tears, and marked irregularity of the lateral epicondyle. Although the term “epicondylitis” is frequently used to describe this disorder, most histopathologic findings of studies have displayed no evidence of an acute, or a chronic inflammatory process. Histologic studies have demonstrated that this condition is the result of tendon degeneration, which replaces normal tissue with a disorganized arrangement of collagen.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Stretching and isometric strengthening are the most common recommended exercises. The muscle is stretched with the elbow straight and the wrist passively flexed. Isometric strengthening can be done by pushing the top of the hand up against the undersurface of a table and holding the wrist straight.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Other approaches that are not experimentally tested include eccentric exercise using a rubber bar, joint manipulation directed at the elbow and wrist, spinal manipulation directed at the cervical and thoracic spinal regions, low level laser therapy, and extracorporeal shockwave therapy.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Orthosis is a device externally used on the limb to improve the function or reduce the pain. Orthotics may be useful in tennis elbow, however long-term effects are unknown. There are two main types of orthoses prescribed for this problem: counterforce elbow orthoses and wrist extension orthoses. Counterforce orthosis has a circumferential structure surrounding the arm. This orthosis usually has a strap which applies a binding force over the origin of the wrist extensors. The applied force by orthosis reduces the elongation within the musculotendinous fibers. Wrist extensor orthosis maintains the wrist in the slight extension. This position reduces the overloading strain at the lesion area.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Although anti-inflammatories are a commonly prescribed treatment for tennis elbow, the evidence for their effect is usually anecdotal with only limited studies showing a benefit. A systematic review found that topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may improve pain in the short term (up to 4 weeks) but was unable to draw firm conclusions due to methodological issues. Evidence for oral NSAIDs is mixed.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Evidence is poor for long term improvement from injections of any type, whether corticosteroids, botulinum toxin, prolotherapy or other substances. Corticosteroid injection may be effective in the short term however are of little benefit after a year, compared to a wait-and-see approach. A randomized control trial comparing the effect of corticosteroid injection, physiotherapy, or a combination of corticosteroid injection and physiotherapy found that patients treated with corticosteroid injection versus placebo had lower complete recovery or improvement at 1 year (Relative risk 0.86). Patients that received corticosteroid injection also had a higher recurrence rate at 1 year versus placebo (54% versus 12%, relative risk 0.23).


title: Tennis elbow

text: Complications from repeated steroid injections include skin problems such as hypopigmentation and fat atrophy leading to indentation of the skin around the injection site. Steroid injections against appear to be more effective than shock wave therapy. Botulinum toxin type A to paralyze the forearm extensor muscles in those with chronic tennis elbow that has not improved with conservative measures may be viable.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Surgical techniques for lateral epicondylitis can be done by open surgery, percutaneous surgery or arthroscopic surgery, with no high-quality evidence that any particular type is better or worse than another. Side effects include infection, damage to nerves and inability to straighten the arm. A review of the evidence related to surgery found that published studies were of low quality and did not show that surgery was any more effective than other treatments. A subsequent research trial showed that surgery was no more effective than sham surgery, where patients only received a skin incision, although the trial was limited by a small number of patients.


title: Tennis elbow

text: According to a review and metanalysis from 2022 about 90% of tennis elbow achieve resolution within one year


title: Tennis elbow

text: Depending upon severity and quantity of multiple tendon injuries that have built up, the extensor carpi radialis brevis may not be fully healed by conservative treatment. Nirschl defines four stages of lateral epicondylitis, showing the introduction of permanent damage beginning at Stage 2.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Evidence from imaging studies suggests that about 1 in 5 humans have detectable enthesopathy of the extensor carpi radialis brevis origin in their lifetime. Symptoms likely vary and are self-limited. The signal changes on MRI seem permanent. There is no evidence that specific occupations or activities are associated with enthesopathy.


title: Tennis elbow

text: Symptoms suggestive of lateral epicondylitis are present in about 1% of the adult population, and is most common between ages 40 and 60. The prevalence varies somewhat between studies, likely as a result of varied diagnostic criteria and limited reliability between different observers. The data regarding symptoms of lateral epicondylitis in relation to occupations and sports are inconsistent and inconclusive. The shortcomings of the evidence that addresses the relationship between symptoms and occupation/sport include: variation in diagnostic criteria, limited reliability of diagnosis, confounding association of psychosocial factors, selection bias due to a high non-response rate, and the fact that exposures are usually by subjective patient report and symptomatic patient might perceive greater exposure.


title: Tennis elbow

text: German physician F. Runge is usually credited for the first description of the condition, calling it "writer's cramp" ("Schreibekrampf") in 1873. Later, it was called "washer women's elbow". British surgeon Henry Morris published an article in "The Lancet" describing "lawn tennis arm" in 1883. The popular term "tennis elbow" first appeared the same year in a paper by H. P. Major, described as "lawn-tennis elbow".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Manfred Mann's Earth Band are an English rock band formed by South African musician Manfred Mann. Their hits include covers of Bruce Springsteen's "For You", "Blinded by the Light" and "Spirit in the Night". After forming in 1971 and with a short hiatus in the late 1980s/early 1990s, the Earth Band continues to perform and tour.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Keyboardist Manfred Mann started in the 1960s with the self-titled band that had such hits as "Do Wah Diddy Diddy" and Bob Dylan's "The Mighty Quinn" and then moved on to jazz fusion-inspired Manfred Mann Chapter Three before forming the Earth Band in 1971.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Feeling that Chapter Three had suffered from too many self-imposed rules, being frustrated with mostly only playing Mike Hugg's compositions and not being an economically feasible venture (due to the number of musicians involved) were all reasons for forming the new group, which was open to songs from outside the band (like Mann's earlier groups) and developed due to the different musical backgrounds of its members as opposed to adhering to a strict musical concept.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The original line-up consisted of Mick Rogers (guitar and vocals), Manfred Mann (keyboards, Minimoog synthesizer and vocals), Colin Pattenden (bass guitar) and Chris Slade (drums and vocals). In its very earliest stages, the band was sometimes billed as "Manfred Mann" and thus a continuation of the 1960s group, sometimes as "Manfred Mann Chapter Three" due to that being the most recent incarnation of Mann's career. The quartet released their first single, Bob Dylan's "Please, Mrs. Henry", in 1971, simply credited to "Manfred Mann". A debut album "Stepping Sideways" was recorded but not released because the band's style was rapidly maturing, and the group felt it wasn't representative of their live act anymore. In September 1971, a new name was chosen. Manfred Mann suggested a title containing "band" (which almost rhymes with "Mann") and after considering the likes of "Arm Band", "Head Band" and "Elastic Band", Chris Slade suggested "Earth Band", a name both related to the band's originally straightforward musical style and the ecological movement ongoing at the time.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Their second single, Randy Newman's "Living Without You", was still credited to 'Manfred Mann' in Europe, but by 'Manfred Mann's Earth Band' in the US, where the track became a minor chart hit. On two non-charting single releases in the UK in 1972/73, the group was billed simply as 'Earth Band', but otherwise, from 1972 forward, 'Manfred Mann's Earth Band' was the band name used on all releases. The membership of the Earth Band was stable between 1971 and 1976, during which time they released their first six albums. The iconic logo, which appeared on the band's most future album covers, debuted on the second released LP, "Glorified Magnified".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The Earth Band combines the stylistic approach of progressive rock with Mann's jazz-influenced Moog synthesizer playing and keen ear for melody. Beside producing their own material, a staple of the band's music and live performances from the beginning has been also relying on covers of songs by other modern pop/rock artists, notably Bob Dylan and Bruce Springsteen, in their progressive rock style.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Mann's interest in English 20th century classical music saw him adapt Gustav Holst's "Planets Suite" and turn a version of the "Jupiter" movement into a UK hit entitled "Joybringer" (perhaps surprisingly excluded from the 1973 album "Solar Fire"). Other classical music adaptations include "Questions" from the 1976 album "The Roaring Silence" (which is based on the main theme of Franz Schubert's Impromptu in G flat Major), "Solar Fire is in Earth, the Circle, Pt. 1" (which uses the melody from Claude Debussy's "Jimbo's Lullaby") and "Starbird" also from 1976's "The Roaring Silence" (which is based upon Igor Stravinski's ballet "The Firebird").


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The title song to 1973's "Messin'" (written by Mike Hugg and originally recorded by Chapter Three on their unissued third album), as well as most of the 1974 album "The Good Earth", tapped into ecological concerns, a recurring theme in Mann's music in later years, with "The Good Earth" giving away a free gift of a piece of land in Wales with each album sold.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Like other prog-rock acts, the band also issued concept albums on space and sci-fi themes (particularly the 1973 album "Solar Fire" and the singles "Launching Place" off the 1974 "The Good Earth" and "Starbird" off the 1976 "The Roaring Silence") and religious or biblical imagery ("Prayer" on the band's debut album, "Buddah" on "Messin"', Dylan's "Father of Day, Father of Night" and "In the Beginning, Darkness" on "Solar Fire", "The Road to Babylon" and "This Side of Paradise" on "The Roaring Silence" and "Resurrection" on the 1979 "Angel Station").


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Social criticism was also addressed ("Black and Blue" on "Messin"' dealt particularly with slavery and "Chicago Institute" on "Watch" with mental institutions and science as a means of social control); a trend which grew throughout the 1980s, with songs such as "Lies (Through the 1980s)" on technological progress vs. social setbacks on "Chance" (1980), and with Mann's growing involvement with the anti-apartheid movement which was featured on the 1982 album "Somewhere in Afrika". Mann's intention for acknowledgement of oppressed ethnic groups also influenced the 1992 album "Plains Music", which featured traditional Native American music.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The group's sixth album, 1975's "Nightingales & Bombers", took its title from a World War II naturalist's recording of a nightingale singing in a garden as warplanes flew overhead; the recording appears in a track on the album (the US version included an extra track, a cover of Bob Dylan's; "Quit Your Low Down Ways" sung by Mick Rogers). After this album, Mick Rogers left the band (temporarily, and he still contributed backing vocals to the next album). He was replaced by two musicians, Chris Thompson (lead vocals, guitar) and Dave Flett (lead guitar, backing vocals).


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The US breakthrough for the band came in the third week of February 1977, when they charted at No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 with a cover of Bruce Springsteen's "Blinded by the Light" from "The Roaring Silence".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: "The Roaring Silence" also featured a guest appearance by jazz saxophonist Barbara Thompson. Taking advantage of the publicity of their hit song, the band re-released another Springsteen song, "Spirit in the Night", re-titled "Spirits in the Night", which the band had released the previous year on "Nightingales & Bombers", in a vocally re-cut version with Chris Thompson taking a new lead vocal in place of Mick Rogers' vocal on the original album version.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Following these popular successes, the Earth Band released the album "Watch" (1978), which produced another UK hit single in "Davy's on the Road Again". This song, as well as the re-recording of "Mighty Quinn" (also released as a single to celebrate the original 1968 hit's tenth anniversary), was recorded live with studio overdubs. Before the recording of the album, original bassist Colin Pattenden had departed and was replaced by Pat King.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Drummer Chris Slade and lead guitarist Dave Flett left before 1979's "Angel Station". It was announced that Chris Thompson would also be leaving at this same time to pursue his own group, Night, but Night quickly faded after scoring two hits and Thompson was back in time for the Earth Band's next album and tour. Flett was replaced by guitarist Steve Waller, who shared lead vocals with Thompson. Geoff Britton played drums on the album but was soon replaced by John Lingwood, due to illness.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: 1980's "Chance", featuring several guest vocalists alongside Thompson, Mann and Waller, showed a move towards a more electronic approach and produced several cuts that were hits in the UK and/or saw significant airplay in both the US and UK, with the songs "Lies (All Through the 80's)" sung by Thompson, "Stranded" and "For You" (another Springsteen song sung by Thompson). Trevor Rabin, a fellow South African and London session musician, and lead guitarist of the 1980s version of Yes, guested on the album, as did original Earth Band guitarist Mick Rogers. Bassist Pat King left the group in 1982 to be replaced by bassist/guitarist Matt Irving.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: By this time, Mann had become personally active in the international anti-apartheid movement and was banned from entering his home country of South Africa. Undeterred, members of the band made journeys to South Africa to record African musicians for the 1983 album "Somewhere in Afrika". The album included a cover of The Police's "Demolition Man" (sung by Steve Waller) and a version of Bob Marley's "Redemption Song".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The accompanying tour (incorporating visual effects such as cartoons, robots and exploding amplifiers) was a big success and led to the Budapest live album, which was later followed by a DVD of the TV broadcast. After this tour, Steve Waller left the band. Mick Rogers returned, taking Waller's place.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: In 1984 the band issued the single "Runner", a cover of the song by Ian Thomas, which had been written in response to cancer sufferer Terry Fox and his run across Canada for cancer awareness. Fox had succumbed to the cancer before finishing. The Manfred Mann version featured Chris Thompson on lead vocals and Mick Rogers on backing vocals. The song was a non-LP single in the UK but was included on the US release of "Somewhere in Afrika". It was a top 40 hit in both Canada and the US and was used during ABC's broadcasting of the 1984 Summer Olympics and in the film "The Philadelphia Experiment". At 22 on the Hot 100 it was their biggest hit since "Blinded by the Light" and was the band's second highest-charting song, as well as their final US/UK chart single.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Irving exited the group shortly after the single. Steve Kinch played bass on this album "Criminal Tango" (1986), which featured both Mick Rogers and Chris Thompson on vocals. For 1987's "Masque" album, the band consisted solely of Manfred Mann, Mick Rogers and drummer John Lingwood. Shortly thereafter, the Earth Band name was retired for four years.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Manfred Mann's Earth Band was revived in 1991 with a lineup of Manfred Mann, Mick Rogers, Steve Kinch, singer Noel McCalla and former Jethro Tull drummer Clive Bunker and resumed recording, covering tracks by artists as varied as Paul Weller, Robert Cray, Del Amitri and The Lovin' Spoonful. Mann has also released solo projects, including "Plains Music", which was based on Native American music, and "2006", which includes collaborations with the German rapper Thomas D and tracks featuring the music of, amongst others, the Super Furry Animals.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: The Earth Band has had a fluctuating line-up, with Mann being the only continuous member. After drummer Clive Bunker left in 1996, he was succeeded by John Trotter (1996-2000), Richard Marcangelo (2000–2002), Pete May (2002), Geoff Dunn (2002–2007), Jimmy Copley (2007–2015) and then a returning John Lingwood in 2016. Vocalist/guitarist Chris Thompson returned in 1996 to sing alongside Mick Rogers and Noel McCalla until 1999 (then again in 2004, briefly). McCalla was replaced by Peter Cox in 2009, but returned in 2010 for a short time filling in for Cox. Since Cox departed in early 2011, Robert Hart (ex-Bad Company) has been the singer, along with Mick Rogers.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Most of the band's original albums have been re-released in recent years and a 4-CD set ("Odds & Sods - Mis-takes & Out-takes") featuring many previously unissued versions of tracks was released in August 2005. This includes material from the unreleased (and thought to be lost) Manfred Mann "Chapter III Volume 3" album and the first Earth Band album, "Stepping Sideways". The fourth CD in the package includes both unreleased studio material and live performances.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: December 2006 saw the release of the DVD "Unearthed 1973–2005 The Best of Manfred Mann's Earth Band". This features twenty tracks ranging from three recorded in Sweden in 1973 ("Father of Day", "Captain Bobby Stout" and "Black & Blue") to a 2005 performance of "Mighty Quinn". Also included are animations used during the band's live performances of the late 1970s and early 1980s and promo films (including two tracks from the "Plains Music" album).


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: In 2007 two separate dance remixes of Bruce Springsteen songs as performed by Manfred Mann's Earth Band entered the Austrian Charts. The first was a remix of "Blinded by the Light", which was credited to "Michael Mind featuring Manfred Mann's Earth Band". The second was a remix of "For You", credited to "The Disco Boys featuring Manfred Mann's Earth Band". Also in 2007, the 1983 Budapest concert was released in DVD format and included tracks not previously available.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: In 2010 the song "You Are - I Am" from "Angel Station" was sampled by Kanye West on his critically acclaimed album: "My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy."


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Drummer John Lingwood was born on 18 February 1951 in Wembley, London, England. He began playing drums in the 1960s, being heavily influenced by The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Cream, The Jimi Hendrix Experience, turning pro in 1968. During this time he played with a few bands, mainly in Europe.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: In 1972 he joined Steamhammer, staying with them for two and a half years. For the next couple of years Lingwood tried several unsuccessful attempts at forming bands and also started working more as a studio musician. 1974, he joined Stomu Yamashta's East Wind and later that year went on to join Leo Sayer.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Lingwood has played with many musicians over the years, including Roger Chapman (still doing occasional gigs), Maddy Prior and Elkie Brooks. He featured on the albums "Chance", "Somewhere in Afrika", "Budapest Live", "Criminal Tango" and "Masque".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Since leaving the band he has performed with the Company Of Snakes between 1998 and 2002, featuring on the live album "Here They Go Again" and the studio album "Burst the Bubble".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Bassist Steve Kinch was born on May 17, 1955. Kinch first started playing guitar when his parents bought him his first instrument for Christmas at the age of 12. At 14, he began playing in local cover bands. At 16 he left school and became a glass blower while continuing to play music in local bands.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: When he was 18, his friend Steve Demetri asked him if he was willing to switch from guitar to bass. The reason for this was that his band "Stallion" needed a bass player. Kinch agreed to try this and actually stayed with the bass as his instrument.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: In 1974 he was poached by Andy Qunta (who later became successful with the band Icehouse, among others), Tony Qunta and Lol Cooksey, with whom he formed the band "Factory". Kinch accepted the band's offer partly because it could offer him far more gigs than "Stallion". In the following period, "Factory" played in all parts of the United Kingdom. At some point in 1977/78, "Factory" broke up. However, Andy and Tony Qunta subsequently continued to play with Kinch in the formation "Head On", which attempted to implement more sophisticated music. In the emerging punk era, however, this was not very hip and "Head On" turned out to be a short-lived project.


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: In 1980 Kinch got the opportunity to audition for and subsequently join the band of singer and actress Hazel O'Connor through Andy Qunta as well as saxophonist Wesley Magoogan, both of whom, like Kinch, were from his birthplace of Hastings. This engagement ended after several tours and television appearances, an album and several hit singles. After trying to realize different projects, in 1984 he was hired by Jim Capaldi for his band. However, Kinch completed only a few performances with the band, a planned three-month U.S. tour was canceled at short notice. Kinch however did work with Capaldi later again for his final album "Poor Boy Blue".


title: Manfred Mann's Earth Band

text: Then in 1985, again through Andy Qunta, Kinch got the chance to audition for the open position of bassist with Manfred Mann's Earth Band. Qunta, who had written the song "Tribal Statistics" for the 1982 Earth Band album "Somewhere in Afrika," took over Manfred Mann's keyboards for this audition, apparently so that Mann could better concentrate on the auditioning bassists. But this also put Qunta in a position to give Kinch valuable hints and details about the songs being played. Kinch successfully survived the audition and joined the Earth Band as a permanent member in summer of 1985.


title: Chuck Norris filmography

text: Chuck Norris is an American actor and martial artist. He has appeared in a number of action films, such as "Way of the Dragon", in which he starred alongside Bruce Lee, and was The Cannon Group's leading star in the 1980s. He played the starring role in the television series "Walker, Texas Ranger", from 1993 to 2001.


title: Raga

text: A raga or raag (; also raaga or ragam; ) is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a melodic mode. The "rāga" is a unique and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, and as a result has no direct translation to concepts in classical European music. Each "rāga" is an array of melodic structures with musical motifs, considered in the Indian tradition to have the ability to "colour the mind" and affect the emotions of the audience.


title: Raga

text: Each "rāga" provides the musician with a musical framework within which to improvise. Improvisation by the musician involves creating sequences of notes allowed by the "rāga" in keeping with rules specific to the "rāga". "Rāga"s range from small "rāga"s like Bahar and Shahana that are not much more than songs to big "rāga"s like Malkauns, Darbari and Yaman, which have great scope for improvisation and for which performances can last over an hour. "Rāga"s may change over time, with an example being Marwa, the primary development of which has been going down into the lower octave, in contrast with the traditional middle octave. Each "rāga" traditionally has an emotional significance and symbolic associations such as with season, time and mood. The "rāga" is considered a means in the Indian musical tradition to evoking specific feelings in an audience. Hundreds of "rāga" are recognized in the classical tradition, of which about 30 are common, and each "rāga" has its "own unique melodic personality".


title: Raga

text: There are two main classical music traditions, "Hindustani" (North Indian) and "Carnatic" (South Indian), and the concept of "rāga" is shared by both. "Rāga" are also found in Sikh traditions such as in "Guru Granth Sahib", the primary scripture of Sikhism. Similarly, it is a part of the "qawwali" tradition in Sufi Islamic communities of South Asia. Some popular Indian film songs and ghazals use "rāgas" in their composition.


title: Raga

text: Every raga has a swara (a note or named pitch) called shadja, or adhara sadja, whose pitch may be chosen arbitrarily by the performer. This is taken to mark the beginning and end of the "saptak" (loosely, octave). The raga also contains an adhista, which is either the swara Ma or the swara Pa. The adhista divides the octave into two parts or "anga" – the "purvanga", which contains lower notes, and the "uttaranga", which contains higher notes. Every raga has a "vadi" and a "samvadi". The "vadi" is the most prominent swara, which means that an improvising musician emphasizes or pays more attention to the "vadi" than to other notes. The samvadi is consonant with the vadi (always from the "anga" that does not contain the vadi) and is the second most prominent swara in the raga.


title: Raga

text: The Sanskrit word "rāga" (Sanskrit: राग) has Indian roots, as "*reg-" which connotes "to dye". Cognates are found in Greek, Persian, Khwarezmian and other languages, such as "raxt", "rang", "rakt" and others. The words "red" and "rado" are also related. According to Monier Monier-Williams, the term comes from a Sanskrit word for "the act of colouring or dyeing", or simply a "colour, hue, tint, dye". The term also connotes an emotional state referring to a "feeling, affection, desire, interest, joy or delight", particularly related to passion, love, or sympathy for a subject or something. In the context of ancient Indian music, the term refers to a harmonious note, melody, formula, building block of music available to a musician to construct a state of experience in the audience.


title: Raga

text: The word appears in the ancient Principal Upanishads of Hinduism, as well as the "Bhagavad Gita". For example, verse 3.5 of the "Maitri Upanishad" and verse 2.2.9 of the "Mundaka Upanishad" contain the word "rāga". The "Mundaka Upanishad" uses it in its discussion of soul (Atman-Brahman) and matter (Prakriti), with the sense that the soul does not "color, dye, stain, tint" the matter. The "Maitri Upanishad" uses the term in the sense of "passion, inner quality, psychological state". The term "rāga" is also found in ancient texts of Buddhism where it connotes "passion, sensuality, lust, desire" for pleasurable experiences as one of three impurities of a character. Alternatively, "rāga" is used in Buddhist texts in the sense of "color, dye, hue".


title: Raga

text: The term "rāga" in the modern connotation of a melodic format occurs in the "Brihaddeshi" by Mataṅga Muni dated ca. 8th century, or possibly 9th century. The "Brihaddeshi" describes "rāga" as "a combination of tones which, with beautiful illuminating graces, pleases the people in general".


title: Raga

text: According to Emmie te Nijenhuis, a professor in Indian musicology, the "Dattilam" section of "Brihaddeshi" has survived into the modern times, but the details of ancient music scholars mentioned in the extant text suggest a more established tradition by the time this text was composed. The same essential idea and prototypical framework is found in ancient Hindu texts, such as the "Naradiyasiksa" and the classic Sanskrit work "Natya Shastra" by Bharata Muni, whose chronology has been estimated to sometime between 500 BCE and 500 CE, probably between 200 BCE and 200 CE.


title: Raga

text: Bharata describes a series of empirical experiments he did with the "Veena", then compared what he heard, noting the relationship of fifth intervals as a function of intentionally induced change to the instrument's tuning. Bharata states that certain combinations of notes are pleasant, and certain others are not so. His methods of experimenting with the instrument triggered further work by ancient Indian scholars, leading to the development of successive permutations, as well as theories of musical note inter-relationships, interlocking scales and how this makes the listener feel. Bharata discusses "Bhairava", "Kaushika", "Hindola", "Dipaka", "SrI-rāga", and "Megha". Bharata states that these can to trigger a certain affection and the ability to "color the emotional state" in the audience. His encyclopedic "Natya Shastra" links his studies on music to the performance arts, and it has been influential in Indian performance arts tradition.


title: Raga

text: The other ancient text, "Naradiyasiksa" dated to be from the 1st century BCE, discusses secular and religious music, compares the respective musical notes. This is earliest known text that reverentially names each musical note to be a deity, describing it in terms of "varna" (colors) and other motifs such as parts of fingers, an approach that is conceptually similar to the 12th century Guidonian hand in European music. The study that mathematically arranges rhythms and modes ("rāga") has been called "prastāra" (matrix).


title: Raga

text: In the ancient texts of Hinduism, the term for the technical mode part of "rāga" was "Jati". Later, "Jati" evolved to mean quantitative class of scales, while "rāga" evolved to become a more sophisticated concept that included the experience of the audience. A figurative sense of the word as 'passion, love, desire, delight' is also found in the "Mahabharata". The specialized sense of 'loveliness, beauty,' especially of voice or song, emerges in classical Sanskrit, used by Kalidasa and in the "Panchatantra".


title: Raga

text: Classical music has ancient roots, and it primarily developed due to the reverence for arts, for both spiritual ("moksha") and entertainment ("kama") purposes in Hinduism.


title: Raga

text: "Rāga", along with performance arts such as dance and music, has been historically integral to Hinduism, with some Hindus believing that music is itself a spiritual pursuit and a means to moksha (liberation). "Rāgas", in the Hindu tradition, are believed to have a natural existence. Artists don't invent them, they only discover them. Music appeals to human beings, according to Hinduism, because they are hidden harmonies of the ultimate creation. Some of its ancient texts such as the "Sama Veda" (~1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes, it is sections of "Rigveda" set to music. The "rāgas" were envisioned by the Hindus as manifestation of the divine, a musical note treated as god or goddess with complex personality.


title: Raga

text: During the Bhakti movement of Hinduism, dated to about the middle of 1st millennium CE, "rāga" became an integral part of a musical pursuit of spirituality. Bhajan and Kirtan were composed and performed by the early South India pioneers. A "Bhajan" has a free form devotional composition based on melodic "rāgas". A "Kirtan" is a more structured team performance, typically with a call and response musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation. It includes two or more musical instruments, and incorporates various "rāgas" such as those associated with Hindu gods Shiva ("Bhairav") or Krishna ("Hindola").


title: Raga

text: The early 13th century Sanskrit text "Sangitaratnakara", by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in the North-Central Deccan region (today a part of Maharashtra), mentions and discusses 253 "rāgas". This is one of the most complete historic treatises on the structure, technique and reasoning behind "rāgas" that has survived.


title: Raga

text: The tradition of incorporating "rāga" into spiritual music is also found in Jainism, and in Sikhism, an Indian religion founded by Guru Nanak in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent. In the Sikh scripture, the texts are attached to a "rāga" and are sung according to the rules of that "rāga". According to Pashaura Singh – a professor of Sikh and Punjabi studies, the "rāga" and "tala" of ancient Indian traditions were carefully selected and integrated by the Sikh Gurus into their hymns. They also picked from the "standard instruments used in Hindu musical traditions" for singing "kirtans" in Sikhism.


title: Raga

text: During the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in and after the 15th century, the mystical Islamic tradition of Sufism developed devotional songs and music called "qawwali". It incorporated elements of "rāga" and "tāla".


title: Raga

text: The Buddha discouraged music aimed at entertainment, but encouraged chanting of sacred hymns. The various canonical "Tripitaka " texts of Buddhism, for example, state "Dasha-shila" or ten precepts for those following the Buddhist spiritual path. Among these is the precept recommending "abstain from dancing, singing, music and worldly spectacles". Buddhism does not forbid music or dance to a Buddhist layperson, but its emphasis has been on chants, not on musical "rāga".


title: Raga

text: A "rāga" is sometimes explained as a melodic rule set that a musician works with, but according to Dorottya Fabian and others, this is now generally accepted among music scholars to be an explanation that is too simplistic. According to them, a "rāga" of the ancient Indian tradition can be compared to the concept of non-constructible set in language for human communication, in a manner described by Frederik Kortlandt and George van Driem; audiences familiar with raga recognize and evaluate performances of them intuitively.


title: Raga

text: The attempt to appreciate, understand and explain "rāga" among European scholars started in the early colonial period. In 1784, Jones translated it as "mode" of European music tradition, but Willard corrected him in 1834 with the statement that a "rāga" is both mode and tune. In 1933, states José Luiz Martinez – a professor of music, Stern refined this explanation to "the "rāga" is more fixed than mode, less fixed than the melody, beyond the mode and short of melody, and richer both than a given mode or a given melody; it is mode with added multiple specialities".


title: Raga

text: A "rāga" is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression, yet the concept has no direct Western translation. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of "rāga" cannot be offered in one or two sentences. "rāga" is a fusion of technical and ideational ideas found in music, and may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression. In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The "rāga" allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.


title: Raga

text: A "rāga" has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs. A musician playing a "rāga", states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale. The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each "rāga", in order for the performance to create a "rasa" (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each "rāga". A "rāga" can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of "rāga" are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred. For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty "rāgas". "Rāga" in Indian classical music is intimately related to "tala" or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a "matra" (beat, and duration between beats).


title: Raga

text: A "rāga" is not a tune, because the same "rāga" can yield an infinite number of tunes. A "rāga" is not a scale, because many "rāgas" can be based on the same scale. A "rāga", according to Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to a mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener". The goal of a "rāga" and its artist is to create "rasa" (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various "rāgas".


title: Raga

text: Joep Bor of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music defined "rāga" as a "tonal framework for composition and improvisation." Nazir Jairazbhoy, chairman of UCLA's department of ethnomusicology, characterized rāgas as separated by scale, line of ascent and descent, transilience, emphasized notes and register, and intonation and ornaments.


title: Raga

text: "Rāginī" (Devanagari: रागिनी) is a term for the "feminine" counterpart of a "masculine" rāga. These are envisioned to parallel the god-goddess themes in Hinduism, and described variously by different medieval Indian music scholars. For example, the "Sangita-darpana" text of 15th-century Damodara Misra proposes six "rāgas" with thirty "ragini", creating a system of thirty six, a system that became popular in Rajasthan. In the north Himalayan regions such as Himachal Pradesh, the music scholars such as 16th century Mesakarna expanded this system to include eight descendants to each "rāga", thereby creating a system of eighty four. After the 16th-century, the system expanded still further.


title: Raga

text: In "Sangita-darpana", the Bhairava "rāga" is associated with the following raginis: Bhairavi, Punyaki, Bilawali, Aslekhi, Bangli. In the Meskarna system, the masculine and feminine musical notes are combined to produce "putra rāgas" called Harakh, Pancham, Disakh, Bangal, Madhu, Madhava, Lalit, Bilawal.


title: Raga

text: This system is no longer in use today because the 'related' rāgas had very little or no similarity and the rāga-rāginī classification did not agree with various other schemes.