title: France in the Middle Ages

text: After Louis IX died of bubonic plague crusading in Tunisia in 1270, his son Philip III (1270–1285) and grandson Philip IV (1285–1314) followed him. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him his life in 1285.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Philip III continued the steady expansion of the royal domain. He inherited Toulouse in 1271 from his uncle and married his son and heir to the heiress of Champagne and Navarre.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: After taking the throne, Philip III felt obliged to continue his father's apparently solid diplomacy despite circumstances having changed. In 1282, the misrule of Charles of Anjou in Sicily compelled the island's populace to rebel in favor of King Peter III of Aragon. As Pope Martin IV was a close ally of Philip, he immediately excommunicated Peter and offered his throne to one of the French king's sons. Since Philip the Fair was already slated to inherit Navarre, the entire Spanish March seemed ripe for reconquest by France. However, Philip III's attempted crusade against Aragon, a blatantly political affair, ended in disaster as an epidemic struck his army, which then was soundly defeated by Aragonese forces at Col de Panissars. The humiliated king died shortly afterwards in Perpignan, followed by Charles of Anjou and Martin IV.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Of the later Capetian rulers, Philip IV was the greatest, bringing royal power to the strongest level it would attain in the Middle Ages, yet alienated a great many people and generally left France exhausted. As such, his sons were obliged to follow a more restrained course without however abandoning their father's ambitions. Philip IV for the most part ignored the Mediterranean and instead focused his foreign policy efforts on France's northern frontiers. Some of this was done at the expense of the Holy Roman Emperors, but the king's most aggressive actions were against England. Disputes over Aquitaine were a bone of contention for years and finally in 1294, war broke out. The French armies drove deep into Gascony, leading to Edward I of England joining forces with Flanders and other allies on the northern borders of France. The allied forces were soundly beaten in 1297 by a French army led by Robert of Artois and a truce was agreed to, leading to preservation of the "status quo ante bellum". As part of the peace arrangement, Edward married Philip's sister and the son and daughter of both kings were slated to marry.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Flanders remained stubbornly rebellious and insubordinate. Although their count had been imprisoned by Philip, this did not prevent the Flemish burghers from rising up against French troops stationed there, inflicting a sensational defeat on them at the 1302 Battle of Courtrai. Eventually however, the king began a new offensive into Flanders and a peace was finally agreed to in 1305 which however still failed to placate the Flemish townsmen.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: In addition, Philip IV extended royal jurisdiction by treaty into the ecclesiastical territories of Vivers, Cahors, Mende, and Le Puy. With all this, the king could now assert power nearly anywhere in France, yet there was still a great deal of work yet to be done and French rulers for the time being continued to do without Brittany, Burgundy, and numerous lesser territories although they legislated for the whole realm. Governmental administration in France during this period became more bureaucratic and sophisticated along with the steady expansion of royal power. Even so, the Capetian kings should not be taken as arbitrary tyrants since feudal custom and tradition still acted as restraints on them.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: If Philip's policies provoked hostility and complaints, it was because they favored no class in particular. The king's policy towards the towns remained fairly traditional, but this was not the case with the Church. When he wanted to tax French clergy to fund military campaigns, he encountered the objection of Pope Boniface VIII. The pope had received a number of complaints from French and English clergy over lay taxes and thus issued the bull "Clericis lacios" in 1296 declaring that papal consent was necessary for this. Philip however became infuriated and issued loud arguments in defense of his actions, leaving the clergy divided over the matter. Eventually the pope withdrew his objection.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: In 1301, fresh trouble erupted when the Bishop of Pamiers was accused by the King of heresy and treason, leading to another protest from Boniface VIII that Church property could not be confiscated without Rome's permission and all Christian rulers were subordinate to papal authority. The pope summoned French clergy to the Vatican to debate a reform of the kingdom. Once again the prelates were left divided between loyalty to their country and loyalty to the Church. Those who took the side of Philip met in a large assembly in Paris along with other segments of French society criticizing the Pope, who responded by excommunicating the king and all clergy who had supported him. The following year, Philip struck back with a vengeance. Prelates loyal to the crown formed a scheme to bring Boniface to trial, and the Pope was summarily arrested at Anagni that September. He was beaten by his jailers and threatened with execution if he did not resign the papacy, but he refused. The 68-year-old Pope was released from captivity after only a few days and died several weeks later.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Philip ensured that he would never again have trouble with the Church by promoting Raymond Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, as the next Pope. The papal conclave was evenly divided between French and Italian cardinals, but the latter acquiesced and de Got became Pope Clement V. Thus, Philip successfully installed an obedient French puppet in the papacy that was moved to Avignon.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king signed the Auld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: One of the more bizarre episodes of Philip's reign was his involvement in the destruction of the Knights Templar. The Templars had been founded during the Crusades more than a century earlier, but now consisted of old men whose prestige was greatly diminished after the fall of the Holy Land and no longer seemed to serve any useful purpose worth their privileges. Unable to find suitable evidence of misdeeds by the Templars to justify disposing of the order, Philip had to resort to a mass meeting at Tours in 1308 to rally support. Finally in 1312, Clement V, despite his misgivings, issued a bull ordering their dissolution. The Templars' possessions were handed over to the Knights Hospitallers and their remaining members imprisoned or executed for heresy.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: In 1314, Philip IV died abruptly in a hunting accident at the age of 47 and the throne passed to his son Louis X (1314–1316). Louis's brief reign saw further unsuccessful attempts to assert control over Flanders as the king mobilized an army along the border, but supply problems caused the effort to break down. Louis died in the summer of 1316 at only 26 of an unknown illness (possibly gastroenteritis) after consuming a large quantity of chilled wine following a game of tennis on an extremely hot day. The king's wife was then pregnant and gave birth to a son, John, in November, but he died after a week and the throne passed to his brother Philip.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Philip V (1316–1322) made peace with Flanders via a marriage compact with its count Robert III and faced continued quarrels with Edward II of England over Gascony. He made plans for a new crusade to relieve the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, but the Flanders situation remained unstable and an attempted French naval expedition to the Middle East was destroyed off Genoa in 1319. At this point, peasants and soldiers originally intended to invade Flanders rose in another self-proclaimed crusade (Pastoreux) which once again turned into an assault on the nobility, tax collectors, and Jews. Pope John XXII denounced the uprising and Philip was forced to send troops to break it up.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: In 1321, a rumor began spreading through the country that Jews in the employ of foreign Muslim rulers were using lepers to poison drinking wells. With the Pastoreux still fresh in everyone's mind, a volatile situation had formed especially as Philip V granted tolerance to Jews and even employed a number of them in his service. With the king facing potential disaster no matter what side he took, his health began to fail from stress and he succumbed at the start of 1322, only 29 years old.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Having failed to produce a son that survived infancy, Philip was succeeded by his brother (and the youngest of Philip IV's sons) Charles IV (1322–1328). The new king faced much of the same problems as his predecessors (namely the quarrels over Flanders and Gascony). Having put an end to the chaos in southern France that his brother faced, he turned his attention to Flanders, but then a revolt broke out in Gascony over the unwelcome construction of a fortress on the border by a French vassal. The king's uncle Charles of Valois invaded the province, whereupon the former declared Edward II's claims to it null and void. Although Charles IV's sister married the English king, he still refused to return Gascony and finally came to an agreement to divide it up among the two rulers.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Charles was also eager to begin a new crusade in the Levant and had once plotted to become Byzantine emperor. He failed to work out an agreement with the Pope over funding the expedition however, and his attention was distracted by the events in Gascony. But in 1327, a French ambassador traveled to Constantinople and found the Byzantine Empire beset by civil wars. The following year, Charles IV died, ending any plans for crusades in the region.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: The death of Charles IV in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son was Edward III of England), so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the Hundred Years' War of 1337–1453. The following century was to see devastating warfare and peasant revolts (the English peasants' revolt of 1381 and the "Jacquerie" of 1358 in France).


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: French losses in the first phase of the conflict (1337–60) were partly reversed in the second (1369–96); but Henry V's shattering victory at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 against a France now bitterly divided between rival Armagnac and Burgundian factions of the royal house was to lead to his son Henry VI's recognition as king in Paris seven years later under the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, reducing Valois rule to the lands south of the Loire River Valley.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: France's humiliation was abruptly reversed in 1429 by the appearance of a restorationist movement embodied by the peasant maid Joan of Arc from Domremy la Pucelle, who claimed the guidance of divine voices for the campaign which rapidly ended the English siege of Orléans and ended in Charles VII's coronation in the historic city of Rheims. Subsequently, captured by the Burgundians and sold to their English allies, her execution for heresy in 1431 redoubled her value as the embodiment of France's cause.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Reconciliation in 1435 between the king and Philippe the Good, duke of Burgundy, removed the greatest obstacle to French recovery, leading to the recapture of Paris (1436), Normandy (1450) and Guienne (1453), reducing England's foothold to a small area around Calais (lost also in 1558). After victory over England, France's emergence as a powerful national monarchy was crowned by the "incorporation" of the Duchies of Burgundy (1477) and Brittany (1532), which had previously been independent European states.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the Black Death, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 hearth tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50% or more.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death, as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. In 1420 by the Treaty of Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the Dual-Monarchy of England and France.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baugé (1421), the humiliating defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII (reigned 1422–1461) established the first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the Plantagenets once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450). The Battle of Castillon (1453) was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: In the Middle Ages, France was primarily made up of a Christian population that maintained a positive relationship with the Jewish minority. In a historical sense, Christians and Jews both made generalizations about the success of their community relations in Medieval France. The history of Jewish-Christian relations was focused primarily on the persecution that Jews faced in a prominently Christian world. In France, however, there were many examples of Jewish and Christian people working together towards a prosperity that was beneficial to both religions. They conducted business together, as well as participated in intimate social affairs. While the Jews would never fully assimilate into French culture by choice, they were accepted by the Christians in their societies.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: After years of peace, in the 13th Century, Louis IX became obsessed with restricting Jewish activities. Eventually, after the Jewish population suffered multiple expulsions from France, the anti-Jewish rhetoric gained some popularity in small villages and towns. Jews began to face a fatal price for practicing their religious traditions. This discriminatory action promoted by the Royals, did not take hold with the general civilian populations in large cities because a large population of Christians permitted and accepted the differing Jewish faith.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Small communities however, incorporated these prejudiced ideas into their beliefs, which led to some instances of blood libels which took many Jewish lives. Blood Libels consisted of accusations directed at small Jewish communities that promoted a false belief that there was a sacrificial aspect in Jewish prayer. These falsities proclaimed that a Jewish religious event included the sacrifice of a Christian child. In Blois, France, as many as 40 Jews were accused of killing a young Christian boy. They were found guilty and killed. Though Blood Libels and persecution did not define Jewish-Christian relations in the Middle-Ages in France, it had a large impact on the way the history of this time period is recited.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: The period after the death of Charlemagne was marked by an economic crisis caused by political instability; town life all but disappeared. However, this had changed by the 11th century. The introduction of new crops, the improvements in the climate, and the introduction of new agricultural technologies created a large agricultural surplus. This was accompanied by the growth in town life, trade, and industry. The economy once again collapsed in the fourteenth century because of war, bad weather, and the Black Death.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: The rural economy was based on the manor; in urban areas economic activity was organized around guilds.


title: France in the Middle Ages

text: Art was a large staple of the medieval France. Illuminated manuscripts were diligently written and illustrated within this period, some notable examples include the "Hours of Philip the Bold", the "Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux" and the "Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry" of the 14th and 15th centuries. Some of the earliest painters lived in the Later Middle Ages in France such as Jacquemart de Hesdin, Jean de Beaumetz and Colart de Laon. While in music, the Ars antiqua musical style was common in the High Middle Ages and Ars nova in the Later Middle Ages. A group of composers from the Notre-Dame school, were active during Ars antiqua period, arguably the most famous being the 12th-century Léonin and Pérotin. Troubadour culture flourished after the 12th century, exemplified by famous personages of the High Middle Ages such as Perdigon, Bertran de Born and Raimbaut de Vaqueiras among others.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Windsor is a historic market town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British monarch. The town is situated west of Charing Cross, central London, southeast of Maidenhead, and east of the county town of Reading. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with its smaller, ancient twin town of Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: "Windlesora" is first mentioned in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle." (The settlement had an earlier name but this is unknown.) The name originates from old English "Windles-ore" or "winch by the riverside". By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the castle, referred to as New Windsor. By the late 12th century the settlement at Windelsora had been renamed Old Windsor.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conqueror had a timber motte-and-bailey castle constructed. The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about downstream, possibly established from the 7th century. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site and this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented. In later medieval time royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until , under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191 but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester. By directing traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of New Windsor's fledgling economy.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The town was the site of the Treaty of Windsor in the year 1175, following the Normans invasion of Ireland. The treaty was between Henry II and Ruadhrí Ua Conchobhair, High King of Ireland. The treaty involved agreements regarding the two kings' respective spheres of influence on the island of Ireland, control over their subjects, and the paying of tribute to Henry. Despite the agreement, the treaty would collapse and conflict in Ireland would continue for several centuries.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a free borough, for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350 and 1368, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucer held the honorific post of Clerk of the Works at Windsor Castle in 1391.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of that city's patron saint Thomas Becket.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrims traffic died out, and the town began to stagnate about ten years afterwards. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play "The Merry Wives of Windsor" is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river Thames, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles I was buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century. In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid-18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th century the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III. Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century. However the main street, Peascod Street () is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Anglo-Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1,000-year-old royal castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The original parish church of Windsor is dedicated to St John the Baptist and is situated adjacent to the High Street. The church is said to have dated from the time that King Henry I moved the Royal Court from Old Windsor to 'New Windsor'. The church was clearly established by the time of Henry II in about 1110, as there are references to it by then. In 1543, Henry Filmer, Robert Testwood and Anthony Pearson, the three Windsor Martyrs, were burnt at the stake in Deanery Gardens, near the church. The original church building had Saxon arches and Norman work and by the 18th century it was described as 'a vast building with 10 side altars and several chantries' and perhaps eight gabled roofs. There was a small spire on top of the main central tower.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: In 1818 the high cost of repairs to the old building led to plans for a complete rebuild at a cost of £14,000. Charles Hollis was appointed architect and the new building was erected between 1820 and 1822 with cast iron columns that were floated down the Thames. The ribs that support the roof are also cast iron. The new church, Gothic in style with a pinnacle tower containing the bells, was officially consecrated by the Bishop of Salisbury on 22 June 1822. Samuel Sanders Teulon added the chancel and the apse in 1880. The chancel screen was added in 1898 to mark the 60-year reign of Queen Victoria. In 1906 the Hunter organ was installed. The north side gallery was reduced in length to make way for the organ.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: The more recent church of All Saints' is situated on Frances Road. The incumbent vicar is the Revd Canon Sally Lodge. The author Thomas Hardy trained as an architect and joined Arthur Blomfield's practice as assistant architect in April 1862. Between 1862 and 1864 he worked with Blomfield on All Saints'. A reredos, possibly designed by Hardy, was discovered behind panelling at All Saints' in August 2016.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: As a result of the castle, Windsor is a popular tourist destination and has facilities usually found in larger towns: two railway stations, a theatre and several substantial hotels. Various boat trips operate on the River Thames, with connections to Maidenhead and Staines-upon-Thames. In winter, Alexandra Gardens hosts a temporary ice rink. Near the town is Legoland Windsor, the only Legoland park in the United Kingdom and the largest Legoland park in the world in terms of area. Legoland Windsor was built on the site of the former Windsor Safari Park.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: As a tourist town there are many gift shops around the castle, and there are shops and restaurants in Windsor Royal Station inside Windsor & Eton Central railway station. The main shopping street is Peascod Street.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station is the southern terminus of the Slough–Windsor & Eton line. A Great Western Railway shuttle to Slough connects with services to London Paddington and Reading. Windsor & Eton Riverside station is the terminus for South Western Railway direct services from London Waterloo. Both stations were built at around the same time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege. From 1883 to 1885, London's District Railway's westbound service from ran as far as Windsor.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Bus services in the town are provided by Thames Valley Buses, First Berkshire & The Thames Valley and Reading Buses. There are frequent bus services between Windsor and Heathrow Airport, Green Line Coach Station in Central London, and Legoland Windsor Resort. Windsor has a large central coach park with 74 spaces to cater mostly for the large tourist groups coming to visit Windsor Castle and town. It is accessed by pedestrians via a footbridge adjacent to Windsor & Eton Central railway station. Windsor is linked to the town of Eton (on the opposite bank of the River Thames) by Windsor Bridge. Originally a fully trafficked road bridge, Windsor Bridge is now for pedestrians and cyclists only. To the south of the town lies Windsor Great Park and the towns of Old Windsor, Egham and Virginia Water. Windsor lies on National Cycle Route 4 (London–Fishguard). The main access roads serving the town have adjacent cycle paths or nearby alternative traffic-free cycle routes.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Windsor's senior football team is Windsor F.C. The team currently play in the Combined Counties Football League and their home ground is Stag Meadow, granted to the original club by King George V in 1911. The club's most recent president was the former commentator Barry Davies. Windsor Cricket Club's clubhouse and pitches are at Home Park (public) in the shadow of Windsor Castle. The club played host to a 2006 Lord's Taverners cricket match. The Windsor 1st team currently play in Division 2A of the Thames Valley League. Neighbours Windsor Rugby Club also use the ground and the team currently plays in the Southern Counties North division. Several other local sports clubs are based at Home Park (public), including hockey and archery clubs, and the Datchet Dashers running club. Royal Windsor Rollergirls were one of the first roller derby leagues to be founded in the UK in 2007, they regularly hold games at Windsor Leisure Centre.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: State-funded schooling in the town is provided by a system of three-tier schooling. Schools are controlled by either the local authority or academy trusts. The town is served by eleven first schools for children up to 9 years old, and three middle schools until age 13:


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: Windsor is part of the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead which is administered by an elected unitary authority. The mayor is Cllr John Story. The current Member of Parliament for the Windsor constituency (which includes the surrounding small towns and villages, such as Eton and Datchet) is Adam Afriyie (Conservative), who was first elected at the 2005 General Election. Afriyie is notable for being the first black Conservative Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. In 2012 the council reintroduced the role of town crier to the borough. The previous town crier had retired in 1892 and for 120 years the post remained vacant.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

text: In 2018 the belongings of homeless people were controversially removed and stored for reasons of security. A bus intended to shelter the Windsor homeless was impounded by police.


title: Criminal Minds (season 1)

text: In the pilot episode, "Extreme Aggressor", Andrew Jackson guest-starred as Timothy Vogel. Chelah Horsdal guest-starred as his victim, Heather Woodland. In the episode "Won't Get Fooled Again", Tim Kelleher guest-starred as Adrian Bale, a serial bomber responsible for the deaths of six FBI agents. In the episode "Plain Sight", Kirk B. R. Woller guest-starred as serial rapist Franklin Graney. In the episode "Broken Mirror", Matt Letscher guest-starred as Vincent Shyer, an erotomaniacal stalker who abducts one of the twin daughters of Executive Assistant District Attorney Evan Davenport, played by Robin Thomas. Elisabeth Harnois guest-starred in a dual role as Davenport's daughters, Patricia and Cheryl.


title: Criminal Minds (season 1)

text: In the episode "L.D.S.K.", Marcus Giamatti guest-starred as Barry Landman, a narcissistic trauma surgeon suspected of committing several shootings. Paula Newsome portrays Detective Shea Calvin, who leads the investigation of the shootings. In the episode "The Fox", Neal Jones guest-starred as one of the series' most notorious criminals, Karl Arnold, aka "The Fox", a serial killer who murders entire families. Tony Todd guest-starred as Eric Miller, a man who was wrongfully imprisoned for the murder of his family. In the episode "Natural Born Killer", Patrick Kilpatrick guest-starred as Vincent Perotta, a professional hitman who abducts FBI agent Josh Cramer of the Organized Crime Unit. Francesco Quinn guest-starred as Michael Russo, a mob boss who hires Perotta to abduct Cramer.


title: Criminal Minds (season 1)

text: In the episode "Derailed", Chris Bauer guest-starred as Dr. Theodore Bryar, who has paranoid schizophrenia and held several passengers hostage, including Elle Greenaway, on a train. Jeff Kober guest-starred as Bryar's imaginary friend, Leo, and M. C. Gainey guest-starred as Detective Frank Moretti, who leads the investigation of the hostage situation. In the episode "The Popular Kids", Will Rothhaar guest-starred as Cory Bridges, a cult killer who murdered two high school students. In the episode "Blood Hungry", Kris Lemche guest-starred as cannibalistic spree killer, Eddie Mays, and Lindsay Crouse played his mother, Mary. In the episode "What Fresh Hell?", Ned Vaughn guest-starred as Donald Curtis, a pedophile who abducts an eleven-year-old girl named Belinda Copeland.


title: Criminal Minds (season 1)

text: In the episode "Poison", Nick Jameson guest-starred as Edward Hill, a serial killer who murders people with poisonous drugs. In the episode "Riding the Lightning", Jeannetta Arnette guest-starred as Sarah Jean Dawes, an inmate on death row who is determined to make sure her son never finds out the truth of his parentage. Michael Massee guest-starred as Jacob Dawes, her husband and a serial killer who murdered several teenage girls. In the episode "Unfinished Business", Aaron Lustig guest-starred as Walter Kern, aka "The Keystone Killer", and Geoff Pierson guest-starred as Max Ryan, a retired FBI Agent who is determined to find the killer.


title: Criminal Minds (season 1)

text: In the episode "The Tribe", Chad Allen guest-starred as Jackson Cally, a cult leader who tortures and murders college students. In the episode "A Real Rain", Ethan Phillips guest-starred as schizophrenic vigilante killer Marvin Doyle. David Aaron Baker played Will Sykes, an attempted copycat of Doyle who wanted to be famous, and Tonya Pinkins played Detective Nora Bennett, who leads the investigation of the killings. In the episode "Somebody's Watching", Katheryn Winnick guest-starred as Maggie Lowe, a serial killer and stalker who obsesses over actress Lila Archer. Ian Anthony Dale guest-starred as Detective Owen Kim, who leads the investigation of the murders.


title: Criminal Minds (season 1)

text: In the episode "Charm and Harm", Andy Comeau guest-starred as Mark Gregory, a serial killer and abductor who murders his victims by drowning them. In the episode, "Secrets and Lies", Ray Baker guest-starred as rogue CIA Agent Bruno Hawks. In the season finale "The Fisher King (Part I)", Charles Haid guest-starred as one of the series most notorious criminals, Randall Garner, aka "The Fisher King", a serial killer and abductor responsible for the attempted murder of Elle Greenaway. The incident proved to be so traumatizing, she resigned from the BAU the following season.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are neoplasms that arise from cells of the endocrine (hormonal) and nervous systems. They most commonly occur in the intestine, where they are often called carcinoid tumors, but they are also found in the pancreas, lung, and the rest of the body.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Although there are many kinds of NETs, they are treated as a group of tissue because the cells of these neoplasms share common features, such as looking similar, having special secretory granules, and often producing biogenic amines and polypeptide hormones.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) classification scheme places neuroendocrine tumors into three main categories, which emphasize the tumor grade rather than the anatomical origin:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Additionally, the WHO scheme recognizes mixed tumors with both neuroendocrine and epithelial carcinoma features, such as goblet cell cancer, a rare gastrointestinal tract tumor.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Placing a given tumor into one of these categories depends on well-defined histological features: size, lymphovascular invasion, mitotic count, Ki-67 labelling index, invasion of adjacent organs, presence of metastases and whether they produce hormones.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Traditionally, neuroendocrine tumors have been classified by their anatomic site of origin. NETs can arise in many different areas of the body, and are most often located in the intestine, pancreas or the lungs. The various kinds of cells that can give rise to NETs are present in endocrine glands and are also diffusely distributed throughout the body, most commonly Kulchitsky cells or similar enterochromaffin-like cells, that are relatively more common in the gastrointestinal and pulmonary systems.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: NETs include certain tumors of the gastrointestinal tract and of the pancreatic islet cells, certain thymus and lung tumors, and medullary carcinoma of the parafollicular cells of the thyroid. Tumors with similar cellular characteristics in the pituitary, parathyroid, and adrenomedullary glands are sometimes included or excluded.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Within the broad category of neuroendocrine tumors there are many different tumor types, representing only a small proportion of the tumors or cancers in most of these tissues:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Neuroendocrine lesions are graded histologically according to markers of cellular proliferation, rather than cellular polymorphism. The following grading scheme is currently recommended for all gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms by the World Health Organization:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: G1 and G2 neuroendocrine neoplasms are called neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) – formerly called carcinoid tumours. G3 neoplasms are called neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs).


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: It has been proposed that the current G3 category be further separated into histologically well-differentiated and poorly-differentiated neoplasms to better reflect prognosis.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Currently there is no one staging system for all neuroendocrine neoplasms. Well-differentiated lesions generally have their own staging system based on anatomical location, whereas poorly differentiated and mixed lesions are staged as carcinomas of that location. For example, gastric NEC and mixed adenoneuroendocrine cancers are staged as primary carcinoma of the stomach.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Conceptually, there are two main types of NET within the gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEP-NET) category: those which arise from the gastrointestinal (GI) system and those that arise from the pancreas. In usage, the term "carcinoid" has often been applied to both, although sometimes it is restrictively applied to NETs of GI origin (as herein), or alternatively to those tumors which secrete functional hormones or polypeptides associated with clinical symptoms, as discussed.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Carcinoids most commonly affect the small bowel, particularly the ileum, and are the most common malignancy of the appendix. Many carcinoids are asymptomatic and are discovered only upon surgery for unrelated causes. These coincidental carcinoids are common; one study found that one person in ten has them. Many tumors do not cause symptoms even when they have metastasized. Other tumors even if very small can produce adverse effects by secreting hormones.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Ten per cent (10%) or less of carcinoids, primarily some midgut carcinoids, secrete excessive levels of a range of hormones, most notably serotonin (5-HT) or substance P, causing a constellation of symptoms called carcinoid syndrome:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: A carcinoid crisis with profound flushing, bronchospasm, tachycardia, and widely and rapidly fluctuating blood pressure can occur if large amounts of hormone are acutely secreted, which is occasionally triggered by factors such as diet, alcohol, surgery chemotherapy, embolization therapy or radiofrequency ablation.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Chronic exposure to high levels of serotonin causes thickening of the heart valves, particularly the tricuspid and the pulmonic valves, and over a long period can lead to congestive heart failure. However, valve replacement is rarely needed. The excessive outflow of serotonin can cause a depletion of tryptophan leading to niacin deficiency, and thus pellagra, which is associated with dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea. Many other hormones can be secreted by some of these tumors, most commonly growth hormone that can cause acromegaly, or cortisol, that can cause Cushing's syndrome.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Occasionally, haemorrhage or the effects of tumor bulk are the presenting symptoms. Bowel obstruction can occur, sometimes due to fibrosing effects of NET secretory products with an intense desmoplastic reaction at the tumor site, or of the mesentery.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PanNETs) are often referred to as "islet cell tumors", or "pancreatic endocrine tumors"


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: The PanNET denomination is in line with current WHO guidelines. Historically, PanNETs have also been referred to by a variety of terms, and are still often called "islet cell tumors" or "pancreatic endocrine tumors". originate within the pancreas. PanNETs are quite distinct from the usual form of pancreatic cancer, adenocarcinoma, which arises in the exocrine pancreas. About 95 percent of pancreatic tumors are adenocarcinoma; only 1 or 2% of clinically significant pancreas neoplasms are GEP-NETs.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Well or intermediately differentiated PanNETs are sometimes called islet cell tumors; neuroendocrine cancer (NEC) (synonymous with islet cell carcinoma) is more aggressive. Up to 60% of PanNETs are nonsecretory or nonfunctional, which either don't secrete, or the quantity or type of products such as pancreatic polypeptide (PPoma), chromogranin A, and neurotensin do not cause a clinical syndrome, although blood levels may be elevated. Functional tumors are often classified by the hormone most strongly secreted by the pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor, as discussed in that main article.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: In addition to the two main categories of GEP-NET, there are rarer forms of neuroendocrine tumors that arise anywhere in the body, including within the lung, thymus and parathyroid. Bronchial carcinoid can cause airway obstruction, pneumonia, pleurisy, difficulty with breathing, cough, and hemoptysis, or may be associated with weakness, nausea, weight loss, night sweats, neuralgia, and Cushing's syndrome. Some are asymptomatic.Animal neuroendocrine tumors include neuroendocrine cancer of the liver in dogs, and devil facial tumor disease in Tasmanian devils.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Most pancreatic NETs are sporadic. However, neuroendocrine tumors can be seen in several inherited familial syndromes, including:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Given these associations, recommendations in NET include family history evaluation, evaluation for second tumors, and in selected circumstances testing for germline mutations such as for MEN1.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: NETs are believed to arise from various neuroendocrine cells whose normal function is to serve at the neuroendocrine interface. Neuroendocrine cells are present not only in endocrine glands throughout the body that produce hormones, but are found in all body tissues.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Symptoms from secreted hormones may prompt measurement of the corresponding hormones in the blood or their associated urinary products, for initial diagnosis or to assess the interval change in the tumor. Secretory activity of the tumor cells is sometimes dissimilar to the tissue immunoreactivity to particular hormones.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Given the diverse secretory activity of NETs there are many other potential markers, but a limited panel is usually sufficient for clinical purposes. Aside from the hormones of secretory tumors, the most important markers are:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Newer markers include N-terminally truncated variant of Hsp70 is present in NETs but absent in normal pancreatic islets. High levels of CDX2, a homeobox gene product essential for intestinal development and differentiation, are seen in intestinal NETs. Neuroendocrine secretory protein-55, a member of the chromogranin family, is seen in pancreatic endocrine tumors but not intestinal NETs.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: For morphological imaging, CT-scans, MRIs, sonography (ultrasound), and endoscopy (including endoscopic ultrasound) are commonly used. Multiphase CT and MRI are typically used both for diagnostics and for evaluation of therapy. The multiphase CT should be performed before and after an intravenous injection of an iodine-based contrast agent, both in the late arterial phase and in the portal venous phase (triple-phase study). While MRI is generally superior to CT, both for detection of the primary tumor and for evaluation of metastases, CECT is more widely available, even at academic institutions. Therefore, multiphase CT is often the modality of choice.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Advances in nuclear medicine imaging, also known as molecular imaging, have improved diagnostic and treatment paradigms in patients with neuroendocrine tumors. This is because of its ability to not only identify sites of disease but also characterize them. Neuroendocrine tumours express somatostatin receptors providing a unique target for imaging. Octreotide is a synthetic modification of somatostatin with a longer half-life. OctreoScan, also called somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (SRS or SSRS), utilizes intravenously administered octreotide that is chemically bound to a radioactive substance, often indium-111, to detect larger lesions with tumor cells that are avid for octreotide.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Somatostatin receptor imaging can now be performed with positron emission tomography (PET) which offers higher resolution, three-dimensional and more rapid imaging. Gallium-68 receptor PET-CT is much more accurate than an Octreotide scan. Thus, octreotide scanning for NET tumors is being increasingly replaced by gallium-68 DOTATOC scan.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Imaging with fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET may be valuable to image some neuroendocrine tumors. This scan is performed by injected radioactive sugar intravenously. Tumors that grow more quickly use more sugar. Using this scan, the aggressiveness of the tumor can be assessed. However, neuroendocrine tumors are often slow growing and indolent, and these do not show well on FDG-PET.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Functional imaging with gallium-labelled somatostatin analog and 18F-FDG PET tracers ensures better staging and prognostication of neuroendocrine neoplasms.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: The combination of somatostatin receptor and FDG PET imaging is able to quantify somatostatin receptor cell surface (SSTR) expression and glycolytic metabolism, respectively. The ability to perform this as a whole body study is highlighting the limitations of relying on histopathology obtained from a single site. This is enabling better selection of the most appropriate therapy for an individual patient.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Neuroendocrine tumors, despite differing embryological origin, have common phenotypic characteristics. NETs show tissue immunoreactivity for markers of neuroendocrine differentiation (pan-neuroendocrine tissue markers) and may secrete various peptides and hormones. There is a lengthy list of potential markers in neuroendocrine tumors; several reviews provide assistance in understanding these markers. Widely used neuroendocrine tissue markers are various chromogranins, synaptophysin and PGP9.5. Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) is less specific. The nuclear neuroendocrine marker insulinoma-associated protein-1 (INSM1) has proven to be sensitive as well as highly specific for neuroendocrine differentiation.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: NETs are often small, yellow or tan masses, often located in the submucosa or more deeply intramurally, and they can be very firm due to an accompanying intense desmoplastic reaction. The overlying mucosa may be either intact or ulcerated. Some GEP-NETs invade deeply to involve the mesentery. Histologically, NETs are an example of "small blue cell tumors," showing uniform cells which have a round to oval stippled nucleus and scant, pink granular cytoplasm. The cells may align variously in islands, glands or sheets. High power examination shows bland cytopathology. Electron microscopy can identify secretory granules. There is usually minimal pleomorphism but less commonly there can be anaplasia, mitotic activity, and necrosis.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Some neuroendocrine tumor cells possess especially strong hormone receptors, such as somatostatin receptors and uptake hormones strongly. This avidity can assist in diagnosis and may make some tumors vulnerable to hormone targeted therapies.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: NETs from a particular anatomical origin often show similar behavior as a group, such as the foregut (which conceptually includes pancreas, and even thymus, airway and lung NETs), midgut and hindgut; individual tumors within these sites can differ from these group benchmarks:


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Several issues help define appropriate treatment of a neuroendocrine tumor, including its location, invasiveness, hormone secretion, and metastasis. Treatments may be aimed at curing the disease or at relieving symptoms (palliation). Observation may be feasible for non-functioning low-grade neuroendocrine tumors. If the tumor is locally advanced or has metastasized, but is nonetheless slowly growing, treatment that relieves symptoms may often be preferred over immediate challenging surgeries.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Intermediate and high grade tumors (noncarcinoids) are usually best treated by various early interventions (active therapy) rather than observation (wait-and-see approach).


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Treatments have improved over the past several decades, and outcomes are improving. In malignant carcinoid tumors with carcinoid syndrome, the median survival has improved from two years to more than eight years.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Detailed guidelines for managing neuroendocrine tumors are available from ESMO, NCCN and a UK panel. The NCI has guidelines for several categories of NET: islet cell tumors of the pancreas, gastrointestinal carcinoids, Merkel cell tumors and pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma. However, effective predictive biomarkers are yet to be discovered. Similarly, recent advances in understanding neuroendocrine tumor's molecular and genomic alterations still have to find their ways into a definitive management strategy.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Even if the tumor has advanced and metastasized, making curative surgery infeasible, surgery often has a role in neuroendocrine cancers for palliation of symptoms and possibly increased lifespan.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Cholecystectomy is recommended if there is a consideration of long-term treatment with somatostatin analogs.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: In secretory tumors, somatostatin analogs given subcutaneously or intramuscularly alleviate symptoms by blocking hormone release. A consensus review has reported on the use of somatostatin analogs for GEP-NETs.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: These medications may also anatomically stabilize or shrink tumors, as suggested by the PROMID study (Placebo-controlled prospective randomized study on the antiproliferative efficacy of Octreotide LAR in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine MIDgut tumors): at least in this subset of NETs, average tumor stabilization was 14.3 months compared to 6 months for placebo.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: The CLARINET study (a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study on the antiproliferative effects of lanreotide in patients with enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors) further demonstrated the antiproliferative potential of lanreotide, a somatostatin analog and recently approved FDA treatment for GEP-NETS. In this study, lanreotide showed a statistically significant improvement in progression-free survival, meeting its primary endpoint. The disease in sixty-five percent of patients treated with lanreotide in the study had not progressed or caused death at 96 weeks, the same was true of 33% of patients on placebo. This represented a 53% reduction in risk of disease progression or death with lanreotide based on a hazard ratio of .47.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Lanreotide is the first and only FDA approved antitumor therapy demonstrating a statistically significant progression-free survival benefit in a combined population of patients with GEP-NETS.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Interferon is sometimes used to treat GEP-NETs. Its effectiveness is somewhat uncertain, but low doses can be titrated within each person, often considering the effect on the blood leukocyte count; Interferon is often used in combination with other agents, especially somatostatin analogs such as octreotide.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Most gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors tend not to respond to chemotherapy agents, showing 10 to 20% response rates that are typically less than 6 months. Combining chemotherapy medications has not usually been of significant improvement showing 25 to 35% response rates that are typically less than 9 months.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: The exceptions are poorly differentiated (high-grade or anaplastic) metastatic disease, where cisplatin with etoposide may be used and Somatostatin Receptor Scintigraphy (SSRS) negative tumors which had a response rate in excess of 70% compared to 10% in strongly positive SRSS carcinoid tumors.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Targeted therapy with everolimus (Afinitor) and sunitinib (Sutent) is approved by the FDA in unresectable, locally advanced or metastatic PanNETs. Some PanNETs are more responsive to chemotherapy than gastroenteric carcinoid tumors. Several agents have shown activity and combining several medicines, particularly doxorubicin with streptozocin and fluorouracil (5-FU or f5U), is often more effective. Although marginally effective in well-differentiated PETs, cisplatin with etoposide is active in poorly differentiated neuroendocrine cancers (PDNECs).


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is a type of radioisotope therapy (RIT) in which a peptide or hormone conjugated to a radionuclide or radioligand is given intravenously, the peptide or neuroamine hormone previously having shown good uptake of a tracer dose, using Somatostatin receptor imaging as detailed above. This type of radiotherapy is a systemic therapy and will impact somatostatin positive disease. The peptide receptor may be bound to lutetium-177, yttrium-90, indium-111 and other isotopes including alpha emitters. This is a highly targeted and effective therapy with minimal side effects in tumors with high levels of somatostatin cell surface expression, because the radiation is absorbed at the sites of the tumor, or excreted in the urine. The radioactively labelled hormones enter the tumor cells which, together with nearby cells, are damaged by the attached radiation. Not all cells are immediately killed; cell death can go on for up to two years.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: PRRT was initially used for low grade NETs. It is also very useful in more aggressive NETs such as Grade 2 and 3 NETs provided they demonstrate high uptake on SSTR imaging to suggest benefit.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Metastases to the liver can be treated by several types of hepatic artery treatments based on the observation that tumor cells get nearly all their nutrients from the hepatic artery, while the normal cells of the liver get about 70–80 percent of their nutrients and 50% their oxygen supply from the portal vein, and thus can survive with the hepatic artery effectively blocked.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: AdVince, a type of gene therapy using a genetically modified oncolytic adenovirus and supported by the crowdfunding campaign iCancer was used in a Phase 1 trial against NET in 2016.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Further efforts towards more personalized therapies in neuroendocrine tumors are undertaken i.a. combining drug screening platforms and patient-derived "ex vivo" cell cultures that mimic relevant aspects of the original tumors.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Although estimates vary, the annual incidence of clinically significant neuroendocrine tumors is approximately 2.5–5 per 100,000; two thirds are carcinoid tumors and one third are other NETs.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: The prevalence has been estimated as 35 per 100,000, and may be considerably higher if clinically silent tumors are included. An autopsy study of the pancreas in people who died from unrelated causes discovered a remarkably high incidence of tiny asymptomatic NETs. Routine microscopic study of three random sections of the pancreas found NETs in 1.6%, and multiple sections identified NETs in 10%. As diagnostic imaging increases in sensitivity, such as endoscopic ultrasonography, very small, clinically insignificant NETs may be coincidentally discovered; being unrelated to symptoms, such neoplasms may not require surgical excision.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Small intestinal neuroendocrine tumors were first distinguished from other tumors in 1907. They were named carcinoid tumors because their slow growth was considered to be "cancer-like" rather than truly cancerous.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: However, in 1938 it was recognized that some of these small bowel tumors could be malignant. Despite the differences between these two original categories, and further complexities due to subsequent inclusion of other NETs of pancreas and pulmonary origin, all NETs are sometimes (incorrectly) subsumed into the term "carcinoid".


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Enterochromaffin cells, which give rise to carcinoid tumors, were identified in 1897 by Nikolai Kulchitsky and their secretion of serotonin was established in 1953 when the "flushing" effect of serotonin had become clinically recognized. Carcinoid heart disease was identified in 1952, and carcinoid fibrosis in 1961.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: Neuroendocrine tumors were sometimes called APUDomas because these cells often show amine precursor (L-DOPA and 5-hydroxytryptophan) uptake and decarboxylation to produce biogenic amines such as catecholamines and serotonin. Although this behavior was also part of the disproven hypothesis that these cells might all embryologically arise from the neural crest, neuroendocrine cells sometimes produce various types of hormones and amines, and they can also have strong receptors for other hormones to which they respond.


title: Neuroendocrine tumor

text: There have been multiple nomenclature systems for these tumors, and the differences between these schema have often been confusing. Nonetheless, these systems all distinguish between well-differentiated (low and intermediate-grade) and poorly differentiated (high-grade) NETs. Cellular proliferative rate is of considerable significance in this prognostic assessment.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Nabeel Asif Qureshi (Urdu: ; April 13, 1983 – September 16, 2017) was a Pakistani-American Christian apologist. Raised by a devout Muslim family from the Ahmadi sect, Qureshi converted to Christianity as a university student following several years of debate with a Christian friend. He subsequently became a Christian apologist and was a speaker with Ravi Zacharias International Ministries (RZIM) from 2013 until 2016. Qureshi authored three books: "Seeking Allah, Finding Jesus: A Devout Muslim Encounters Christianity", "Answering Jihad: A Better Way Forward", and "No God But One—Allah or Jesus".


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: In August 2016, Qureshi announced that he had been diagnosed with stage IV stomach cancer. After a year of treatment, he died on September 16, 2017.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Qureshi was born in San Diego, California to Pakistani Ahmadi Muslim parents who immigrated to the United States. His father served in the U.S. Navy throughout Qureshi's childhood, ultimately becoming a lieutenant commander before retiring. Qureshi described his childhood home in positive terms, stating that his parents "modeled love for others and love for country".


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: In 2001, Qureshi attended Old Dominion University in Virginia and served as the president of the Pre-Medical Honor Society. He also studied Islamic apologetics and engaged Christians in religious discussions. After one such discussion with a Christian at Old Dominion University, David Wood, the two became friends and began a years-long debate on the historical claims of Christianity and Islam. According to Qureshi, Wood encouraged him to research Christianity and Islam in an equally objective light. Qureshi recounted that he had been happy with his faith and with his Muslim community and did not want to leave it, but he ultimately converted to Christianity after years of dialogue with Wood. He described his conversion as "the most painful thing [he] ever did" because he subsequently lost most of his friendships and relationships with fellow Muslims.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Qureshi was married to Michelle. The couple had one daughter, Ayah, born in August 2015, and named after a Christian martyr.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Qureshi chronicled the story of his personal conversion in his first book, "Seeking Allah, Finding Jesus", which became a "New York Times" bestseller, and was awarded the Christian Book Award for the categories of both "Best New Author" and "Best Non-Fiction" of 2015, the first time in award history. Afterwards, "Christianity Today" heralded Qureshi as one of "33 Under 33" in its cover story on emerging religious leaders in July 2014.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Qureshi attended medical school at the Eastern Virginia Medical School after graduating from Old Dominion University. After completing his medical degree, Qureshi decided to spend his life studying and preaching the Christian Gospel and became a speaker for the Ravi Zacharias International Ministries. He subsequently completed master's degrees in apologetics from Biola University and in religion from Duke University. Qureshi lectured to students at more than 100 universities, including Oxford, Columbia, Dartmouth, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, and the University of Hong Kong. He has participated in 18 moderated, public debates around North America, Europe, and Asia. In 2015, Qureshi debated at Wayne State University with Muslim scholar Shabir Ally.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: On June 18, 2010, Qureshi was arrested at the Dearborn Arab Festival along with David Wood, and Paul Rezkalla on charges of "breach of peace". The city of Dearborn later determined that Qureshi, Wood, and Rezkalla had been "engaging in a peaceful dialogue about their Christian faith with several festival attendees" but that the arrest had been made based on misinformation from some of the festival workers and attendees. Soon afterwards, Dearborn mayor John B. O'Reilly, Jr. released a statement defending the arrests, saying, "The real violation of First Amendment rights occurs with Acts 17 Apologetics trying to imply they were the victim, when the real violation is their attack on the City of Dearborn for having tolerance for all religions including believers in the Qur'an."


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Qureshi, Wood, and Rezkalla were acquitted shortly afterwards when video evidence indicated that, during the festival, they were being asked questions by a small crowd of Muslim teenagers and were not disturbing the peace. After their acquittal, the three filed a separate civil suit against Mayor O'Reilly, police chief Ronald Haddad, 17 police officers, and others, with American Freedom Law Center advocating on their behalf. The court ruled in favor of Qureshi, Wood, and Rezkalla, finding that Dearborn, Michigan had violated their constitutional rights and that there was no basis in law for their arrest. In 2013, the city then settled the suit. As part of the settlement, the city was required to issue a formal apology and maintain that apology on their website for three years. Mayor O'Reilly accepted the verdict, pointing to their court's decision that the arrest had been unfounded. Robert Muise, speaking on behalf of American Freedom Law Center, praised the decision and called for the festival attendees who had supplied the incorrect information leading to the arrest to also be held accountable.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: As a result of the events of the events in Dearborn, Acts 17 Apologetics became focused on "free speech, sharia in the West, and Islam." This led Qureshi to leave and start Creed 2:6 ministries, which focused on sharing the gospel. Qureshi joined Ravi Zacharias International Ministries in 2013.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Following the 2016 Brussels bombings and the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, Qureshi wrote an op-ed in "USA Today" stating that, from his perspective, Islamic terrorism stemmed from a literal interpretation of the Quran, specifically Surah 9. He further wrote that he believed this to be the most accurate understanding of the Quran but noted that most Muslims do not subscribe to this interpretation. When Muslim writers responded critically to this assessment, Qureshi wrote another op-ed for the "Huffington Post" stating that he appreciated the response to his initial article and welcomed dialogue, adding, "Such public dialogue and discussion is the key to moving forward and addressing the roots of jihad." He developed this position further in his second book, "Answering Jihad", and discussed his views during an interview with "Fox News".


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: On 30 August 2016, Qureshi announced that he was in the advanced stages of stomach cancer. He took to his Facebook page to inform fans and followers of his illness saying the prognosis was dismal. He wrote, "This is an announcement that I never expected to make, but God in His infinite and sovereign wisdom has chosen me for this refining, and I pray He will be glorified through my body and my spirit. My family and I have received the news that I have advanced stomach cancer, and the clinical prognosis is quite grim. Nonetheless, we are going to pursue healing aggressively, both medical and miraculous, relying on God and the fact that He is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine."


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: On September 8, after having undergone several months of treatment, including the surgical removal of his stomach, Qureshi posted a video on social media that he had been placed on hospice care. In the same video, he encouraged followers to engage in respectful interfaith dialogue, saying, "As you consider my ministry, I hope it leaves a legacy of love, of peace, of truth, of caring for one another. That's my hope and my purpose behind this." He died of stomach cancer on September 16, 2017, at the age of 34. Two months later, Qureshi's father, a practicing Muslim, posted a video thanking Qureshi's followers for their support and prayers for the family following his death.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Nabeel was featured in a 2018 documentary, "American Gospel". "American Gospel" was created in response to the Prosperity Gospel movement. The film was dedicated to him, since he died from cancer before it was completed. In the film, he discusses the importance of sharing the Good News of the Gospel with others.


title: Nabeel Qureshi (author)

text: Author Mary Jo Sharp dedicated "Why I Still Believe: A Former Atheist's Reckoning With The Bad Reputation Christians Give A Good God" (published in 2019) to both her father, Robert Prall and her friend, Nabeel Qureshi.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: Michael Burton Brown (born March 5, 1970) is an American basketball coach who is the head coach for the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Brown was previously the head coach of the Cleveland Cavaliers, the Los Angeles Lakers, and most recently an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors. He is also the head coach of the Nigerian national team.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: Brown began coaching the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2005. The team reached the 2007 NBA Finals, where they were swept by the San Antonio Spurs. Brown was honored as NBA Coach of the Year for leading the Cavaliers to a team-record and league-best 66 wins in 2009. The Cavaliers won 61 games, again a league-best, in 2010. However, after the Cavaliers lost to the Boston Celtics in the 2010 Eastern Conference Semifinals, Brown was fired.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: Brown succeeded Phil Jackson as the head coach of the Los Angeles Lakers in 2011 before being fired after the start of the 2012–13 season. He returned to the Cavaliers in 2013, but was fired after the 2013–14 season. Brown then joined the Golden State Warriors as associate head coach in 2016; the team went on to defeat the Cavaliers in the 2017 and 2018 NBA Finals, and the Boston Celtics in the 2022 NBA Finals.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: Brown was born in Columbus, Ohio, but spent periods of his childhood overseas. He graduated in 1988 from Würzburg American High School in Würzburg, Germany, where he excelled in basketball and football. After studying and playing basketball for two years at Mesa Community College, Brown went on to the University of San Diego, where he played two seasons of college basketball for the San Diego Toreros and graduated in 1992 with a Bachelor of Business Administration degree.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: In 2000, Brown was hired by Gregg Popovich as an assistant coach with the San Antonio Spurs. He also was the head coach for the Spurs' summer league teams in Boston and Salt Lake City. The Spurs won an NBA championship in 2003 while Brown was on their coaching staff.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: In 2003, Brown was hired as associate head coach under Rick Carlisle with the Indiana Pacers. He helped lead Indiana to consecutive playoff appearances, including a trip to the Eastern Conference Finals in 2004. Brown followed Ron Artest into the stands and was instrumental in getting him back to the locker room during the massive brawl between the Pacers, Detroit Pistons, and Pistons fans at the Palace at Auburn Hills on November 19, 2004. Brown remained with the Pacers for two seasons.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: In June 2005, Brown replaced Brendan Malone as head coach of the Cleveland Cavaliers. It was his first NBA head coaching position. Brown became the second-youngest coach in the league (trailing only Lawrence Frank). When Brown arrived in Cleveland, the Cavs had missed the playoffs in emerging superstar LeBron James's first two NBA seasons and had not made the playoffs since 1998. Under Brown, they won 50 games, made the 2005–06 playoffs, and won their first-round series.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On June 2, 2007, Brown's Cavaliers defeated the Detroit Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals and advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history. However, they were swept in four games by his former team, the San Antonio Spurs.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On February 1, 2008, Brown was named the Eastern Conference Coach of the Month for January 2008. In 2009, Brown was named coach of the Eastern Conference All-Star team. On April 20, 2009, Brown was named NBA Coach of the Year after guiding the Cavaliers to a league-high and franchise-best 66–16 record.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: The Cavs won a league-high 61 games in the 2009–10 season. However, the team was eliminated by the Boston Celtics in the Eastern Conference Semifinals on May 13, 2010. With this loss, the Cavaliers became the first team in NBA history to win 60 games in back-to-back seasons without advancing to the NBA Finals. Brown was fired on May 24, 2010, due to the owner Dan Gilbert wanting to lure LeBron James back to Cleveland. Under Brown's leadership, the Cavs made it past the first round of the NBA playoffs for five consecutive seasons.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On May 25, 2011, Brown agreed to succeed Phil Jackson as head coach of the Los Angeles Lakers. He reportedly agreed to a three-year deal with a team option to renew his contract for a fourth year. On May 31, 2011, he was officially named the Lakers' new head coach. The 2011–12 season was shortened to 66 games by the lockout that season, and the Lakers were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: Before the 2012–13 season, Brown decided that the Lakers would use a version of the Princeton offense. Shortly afterward, the Lakers acquired All-Stars Steve Nash and Dwight Howard, giving them a starting lineup of five former All-Stars with a combined 33 All-Star game appearances (the other former All-Stars were Kobe Bryant, Pau Gasol, and Metta World Peace, respectively). Although immediately considered top title contenders, the Lakers struggled to adjust to the changes in both system and personnel, and were winless in eight preseason games. The team's travails continued into the start of the regular season, with the team losing four of its first five games. Nash had played just games due to injury, Howard was playing but recovering from back surgery, and Bryant had been playing with an injured foot and was unable to practice. On November 9, 2012, Brown was fired. The Lakers felt an urgency to win given their aging stars, Howard's pending free agency, and owner Jerry Buss's deteriorating health. Brown's dismissal after five games was the third-fastest coaching change in NBA history.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On April 24, 2013, Brown was rehired by the Cavaliers, replacing Byron Scott as head coach. Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert said that firing Brown the first time was a "mistake". For the first time as a head coach, Brown's team posted a losing record over an 82-game season as his team was marred by injuries and reported infighting in the locker room. On May 12, 2014, he was fired by Gilbert a second time.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On July 4, 2016, the Golden State Warriors hired Brown as an assistant coach; he replaced Luke Walton, who departed for a head coaching position with the Los Angeles Lakers. Brown acted as acting head coach during periods in which head coach Steve Kerr was unable to do so due to chronic back pain. Brown led the Warriors to a 12–0 record in the 2016–17 NBA playoffs while Kerr was absent; the Warriors went on to win the championship in five games that year, defeating the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Warriors finished the playoffs with a 16–1 record, the best postseason winning percentage in NBA history. The Warriors went back to the Finals in 2018 and defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Finals for the second straight year. During these two finals he faced off against LeBron James whom he had coached for five years in Cleveland.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On May 9, 2022, he was the Warriors' acting head coach for Game 4 of the Western Conference semifinals against the Memphis Grizzlies after Kerr tested positive for COVID-19. The team won the game to take a 3–1 lead in the series. The Warriors made it to the 2022 NBA Finals where they defeated the Boston Celtics in six games to give Brown his fourth NBA championship as an assistant coach and third championship with the Warriors overall.


title: Mike Brown (basketball, born 1970)

text: On May 9, 2022, Brown was announced as the next head coach of the Sacramento Kings. His tenure with the team began after the Warriors finished their 2021–22 season where they won an NBA championship.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Brazilian Portuguese (' ), also Portuguese of Brazil (', ) or South American Portuguese ("") is the set of varieties of the Portuguese language native to Brazil and the most influential form of Portuguese worldwide. It is spoken by almost all of the 214 million inhabitants of Brazil and spoken widely across the Brazilian diaspora, today consisting of about two million Brazilians who have emigrated to other countries. With a population of over 214 million, Brazil is by far the world's largest Portuguese-speaking nation and the only one in the Americas.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Brazilian Portuguese differs, particularly in phonology and prosody, from varieties spoken in Portugal and Portuguese-speaking African countries. In these latter countries, the language tends to have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese, partly because Portuguese colonial rule ended much more recently there than in Brazil, partly due to the heavy indigenous and African influence on Brazilian Portuguese. Despite this difference between the spoken varieties, Brazilian and European Portuguese differ little in formal writing and remain mutually intelligible. However, due to the two reasons mentioned above, the gap between the written, formal language and the spoken language is much wider in Brazilian Portuguese than in European Portuguese.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining Portuguese-speaking countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies co-existed. All of the CPLP countries have signed the reform. In Brazil, this reform has been in force since January 2016. Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries have since begun using the new orthography.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Regional varieties of Brazilian Portuguese, while remaining mutually intelligible, may diverge from each other in matters such as vowel pronunciation and speech intonation.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: The existence of Portuguese in Brazil is a legacy of the Portuguese colonization of the Americas. The first wave of Portuguese-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil in the 16th century, but the language was not widely used then. For a time Portuguese coexisted with Língua Geral, a lingua franca based on Amerindian languages that was used by the Jesuit missionaries, as well as with various African languages spoken by the millions of slaves brought into the country between the 16th and 19th centuries. By the end of the 18th century, Portuguese had affirmed itself as the national language. Some of the main contributions to that swift change were the expansion of colonization to the Brazilian interior, and the growing numbers of Portuguese settlers, who brought their language and became the most important ethnic group in Brazil.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Beginning in the early 18th century, Portugal's government made efforts to expand the use of Portuguese throughout the colony, particularly because its consolidation in Brazil would help guarantee to Portugal the lands in dispute with Spain (according to various treaties signed in the 18th century, those lands would be ceded to the people who effectively occupied them). Under the administration of the Marquis of Pombal (1750–1777), Brazilians started to favour the use of Portuguese, as the Marquis expelled the Jesuit missionaries (who had taught Língua Geral) and prohibited the use of Nhengatu, or Lingua Franca.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: The failed colonization attempts by the French in Rio de Janeiro during the 16th century and the Dutch in the Northeast during the 17th century had negligible effects on Portuguese. The substantial waves of non-Portuguese-speaking immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (mostly from Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland, Japan and Lebanon) were linguistically integrated into the Portuguese-speaking majority within a few generations, except for some areas of the three southernmost states (Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul), in the case of Germans, Italians and Slavics, and in rural areas of the state of São Paulo (Italians and Japanese).


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Nowadays the overwhelming majority of Brazilians speak Portuguese as their mother tongue, with the exception of small, insular communities of descendants of European (German, Polish, Ukrainian, and Italian) and Japanese immigrants, mostly in the South and Southeast as well as villages and reservations inhabited by Amerindians. And even these populations make use of Portuguese to communicate with outsiders and to understand television and radio broadcasts, for example. Moreover, there is a community of Brazilian Sign Language users whose number is estimated by "Ethnologue" to be as high as 3 million.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: The development of Portuguese in Brazil (and consequently in the rest of the areas where Portuguese is spoken) has been influenced by other languages with which it has come into contact, mainly in the lexicon: first the Amerindian languages of the original inhabitants, then the various African languages spoken by the slaves, and finally those of later European and Asian immigrants. Although the vocabulary is still predominantly Portuguese, the influence of other languages is evident in the Brazilian lexicon, which today includes, for example, hundreds of words of Tupi–Guarani origin referring to local flora and fauna; numerous West African Yoruba words related to foods, religious concepts, and musical expressions; and English terms from the fields of modern technology and commerce. Although some of these words are more predominant in Brazil, they are also used in Portugal and other countries where Portuguese is spoken.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Words derived from the Tupi language are particularly prevalent in place names ("Itaquaquecetuba," "Pindamonhangaba," "Caruaru", "Ipanema", "Paraíba"). The native languages also contributed the names of most of the plants and animals found in Brazil (and most of these are the official names of the animals in other Portuguese-speaking countries as well), including "arara" ("macaw"), "jacaré" ("South American caiman"), "tucano" ("toucan"), "mandioca" ("cassava"), "abacaxi" ("pineapple"), and many more. However, many Tupi–Guarani toponyms did not derive directly from Amerindian expressions, but were in fact coined by European settlers and Jesuit missionaries, who used the "Língua Geral" extensively in the first centuries of colonization. Many of the Amerindian words entered the Portuguese lexicon as early as in the 16th century, and some of them were eventually borrowed into other European languages.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: African languages provided hundreds of words as well, especially in certain semantic domains, as in the following examples, which are also present in Portuguese:


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Although the African slaves had various ethnic origins, by far most of the borrowings were contributed (1) by Bantu languages (above all, Kimbundu, from Angola, and Kikongo from Angola and the area that is now the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo), and (2) by Niger-Congo languages, notably Yoruba/Nagô, from what is now Nigeria, and Jeje/Ewe, from what is now Benin.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: There are also many loanwords from other European languages, including English, French, German, and Italian. In addition, there is a limited set of vocabulary from Japanese.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Portuguese has borrowed a large number of words from English. In Brazil, these are especially related to the following fields (note that some of these words are used in other Portuguese-speaking countries):


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: French has contributed to Portuguese words for foods, furniture, and luxurious fabrics, as well as for various abstract concepts. Examples include "hors-concours", "chic", "metrô", "batom", "soutien", "buquê", "abajur", "guichê", "içar", "chalé", "cavanhaque" (from Louis-Eugène Cavaignac), "calibre", "habitué", "clichê", "jargão", "manchete", "jaqueta", "boîte de nuit" or "boate", "cofre", "rouge", "frufru", "chuchu", "purê", "petit gâteau", "pot-pourri", "ménage", "enfant gâté", "enfant terrible", "garçonnière", "patati-patata", "parvenu", "détraqué", "enquête", "equipe", "malha", "fila", "burocracia", "birô", "affair", "grife", "gafe", "croquette", "crocante", "croquis", "femme fatale", "noir", "marchand", "paletó", "gabinete", "grã-fino", "blasé", "de bom tom", "bon-vivant", "guindaste", "guiar", "flanar", "bonbonnière", "calembour", "jeu de mots", "vis-à-vis", "tête-à-tête", "mecha", "blusa", "conhaque", "mélange", "bric-brac", "broche", "pâtisserie", "peignoir", "négliglé", "robe de chambre", "déshabillé", "lingerie", "corset", "corselet", "corpete", "pantufas", "salopette", "cachecol", "cachenez", "cachepot", "colete", "colher", "prato", "costume", "serviette", "garde-nappe", "avant-première", "avant-garde", "debut", "crepe", "frappé" (including slang), "canapé", "paetê", "tutu", "mignon", "pince-nez", "grand prix", "parlamento", "patim", "camuflagem", "blindar" (from German), "guilhotina", "à gogo", "pastel", "filé", "silhueta", "menu", "maître d'hôtel", "bistrô", "chef", "coq au vin", "rôtisserie", "maiô", "bustiê", "collant", "fuseau", "cigarette", "crochê", "tricô", "tricot" ("pullover, sweater"), "calção", "culotte", "botina", "bota", "galocha", "scarpin" (ultimately Italian), "sorvete", "glacê", "boutique", "vitrine", "manequim" (ultimately Dutch), "machê", "tailleur", "echarpe", "fraque", "laquê", "gravata", "chapéu", "boné", "edredom", "gabardine", "fondue", "buffet", "toalete", "pantalon", "calça Saint-Tropez", "manicure", "pedicure", "balayage", "limusine", "caminhão", "guidão", "cabriolê", "capilé", "garfo", "nicho", "garçonete", "chenille", "chiffon", "chemise", "chamois", "plissê", "balonê", "frisê", "chaminé", "guilhochê", "château", "bidê", "redingote", "chéri(e)", "flambado", "bufante", "pierrot", "torniquete", "molinete", "canivete", "guerra" (Occitan), "escamotear", "escroque", "flamboyant", "maquilagem", "visagismo", "topete", "coiffeur", "tênis", "cabine", "concièrge", "chauffeur", "hangar", "garagem", "haras", "calandragem", "cabaré", "coqueluche", "coquine", "coquette" ("cocotinha"), "galã", "bas-fond" (used as slang), "mascote", "estampa", "sabotagem", "RSVP", "rendez-vous", "chez...", "à la carte", "à la ...", "forró, forrobodó" (from 19th-century "faux-bourdon").


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Brazilian Portuguese tends to adopt French suffixes as in "aterrissagem" (Fr. "atterrissage" "landing [aviation]"), differently from European Portuguese (cf. Eur.Port. "aterragem"). Brazilian Portuguese (BP) also tends to adopt culture-bound concepts from French. That is the difference between BP "estação" ("station") and EP "gare" ("train station," Portugal also uses "estação"). BP "trem" is from English "train" (ultimately from French), while EP "comboio" is from Fr. "convoi". An evident example of the dichotomy between English and French influences can be noted in the use of the expressions "know-how", used in a technical context, and "savoir-faire" in a social context. Portugal uses the expression "hora de ponta", from French "l'heure de pointe", to refer to the "rush hour," while Brazil has "horário de pico, horário de pique" and "hora do rush". Both "bilhar", from French "billiard", and the phonetic adaptation "sinuca" are used interchangeably for "snooker."


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: From German, besides strudel, pretzel, bratwurst, kuchen (also "bolo cuca"), sauerkraut (also spelled "chucrute" from French "choucroute" and pronounced ), wurstsalat, sauerbraten, Oktoberfest, biergarten, "zelt", Osterbaum, Bauernfest, Schützenfest, "hinterland", "Kindergarten", "bock", "fassbier" and "chope" (from "Schoppen"), there are also abstract terms from German such as "Prost", "zum wohl", "doppelgänger" (also "sósia"), "über", "brinde", "kitsch", "ersatz", "blitz" ("police action"), and possibly "encrenca" ("difficult situation," perhaps from Ger. "ein Kranker", "a sick person"). "Xumbergar", "brega" (from marshal Friedrich Hermann Von Schönberg), and "xote" (musical style and dance) from "schottisch". A significant number of beer brands in Brazil are named after German culture-bound concepts and place names because the brewing process was brought by German immigrants.


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Italian loan words and expressions, in addition to those that are related to food or music, include "tchau" (""ciao""), "nonna", "nonnino", "imbróglio", "bisonho", "entrevero", "panetone", "colomba", "è vero", "cicerone", "male male", "capisce", "mezzo", "va bene", "ecco", "ecco fatto", "ecco qui", "caspita", "schifoso", "gelateria", "cavolo", "incavolarsi", "pivete", "engambelar", "andiamo via", "tiramisu", "tarantella", "grappa", "stratoria". Terms of endearment of Italian origin include "amore", "bambino/a", "ragazzo/a", "caro/a mio/a", "tesoro", and "bello/a"; also "babo", "mamma", "baderna" (from "Marietta Baderna"), "carcamano", "torcicolo", "casanova", "noccia", "noja", "che me ne frega", "io ti voglio tanto bene", and "ti voglio bene assai".


title: Brazilian Portuguese

text: Fewer words have been borrowed from Japanese. The latter borrowings are also mostly related to food and drink or culture-bound concepts, such as "quimono", from Japanese kimono, "karaokê", "yakisoba", "temakeria", "sushi bar", "mangá", "biombo" (from Portugal) (from "byó bu sukurín", "folding screen"), "jó ken pô" or "jankenpon" ("rock-paper-scissors," played with the Japanese words being said before the start), "saquê", "sashimi", "tempurá" (a lexical "loan repayment" from a Portuguese loanword in Japanese), "hashi", "wasabi", "johrei" (religious philosophy), "nikkei", "gaijin" ("non-Japanese"), "issei" ("Japanese immigrant"), as well as the different descending generations "nisei", "sansei", "yonsei", "gossei", "rokussei" and "shichissei". Other Japanese loanwords include racial terms, such as "ainoko" ("Eurasian") and "hafu" (from English "half"); work-related, socioeconomic, historical, and ethnic terms limited to some spheres of society, including "koseki" ("genealogical research"), "dekassegui" ("dekasegi"), "arubaito", "kaizen", "seiketsu", "karoshi" ("death by work excess"), "burakumin", "kamikaze", "seppuku", "harakiri", "jisatsu", "jigai", and "ainu"; martial arts terms such as "karatê", "aikidô", "bushidô", "katana", "judô", "jiu-jítsu", "kyudô", "nunchaku", and "sumô"; terms related to writing, such as "kanji", "kana", "katakana", "hiragana", and "romaji"; and terms for art concepts such as "kabuki" and "ikebana". Other culture-bound terms from Japanese include "ofurô" ("Japanese bathtub"), "Nihong" ("target news niche and websites"), "kabocha" (type of pumpkin introduced in Japan by the Portuguese), "reiki", and "shiatsu". Some words have popular usage while others are known for a specific context in specific circles. Terms used among Nikkei descendants include "oba-chan" ("grandma"); "onee-san", "onee-chan", "onii-san", and "onii-chan"; toasts and salutations such as "kampai" and "banzai"; and some honorific suffixes of address such as "chan", "kun", "sama", "san", and "senpai".