title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Some scholars have suggested that homosexuality is indirectly adaptive, by conferring a reproductive advantage in a non-obvious way on heterosexual siblings or their children, a hypothesised instance of kin selection. By way of analogy, the allele (a particular version of a gene) which causes sickle-cell anemia when two copies are present, also confers resistance to malaria with a lesser form of anemia when one copy is present (this is called heterozygous advantage).


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Brendan Zietsch of the Queensland Institute of Medical Research proposes the alternative theory that men exhibiting female traits become more attractive to females and are thus more likely to mate, provided the genes involved do not drive them to complete rejection of heterosexuality.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: In a 2008 study, its authors stated that "There is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, so it is not known how homosexuality, which tends to lower reproductive success, is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency." They hypothesized that "while genes predisposing to homosexuality reduce homosexuals' reproductive success, they may confer some advantage in heterosexuals who carry them". Their results suggested that "genes predisposing to homosexuality may confer a mating advantage in heterosexuals, which could help explain the evolution and maintenance of homosexuality in the population". However, in the same study, the authors noted that "nongenetic alternative explanations cannot be ruled out" as a reason for the heterosexual in the homosexual-heterosexual twin pair having more partners, specifically citing "social pressure on the other twin to act in a more heterosexual way" (and thus seek out a greater number of sexual partners) as an example of one alternative explanation. The study acknowledges that a large number of sexual partners may not lead to greater reproductive success, specifically noting there is an "absence of evidence relating the number of sexual partners and actual reproductive success, either in the present or in our evolutionary past".


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: The heterosexual advantage hypothesis was given strong support by the 2004 Italian study demonstrating increased fecundity in the female matrilineal relatives of gay men. As originally pointed out by Hamer, even a modest increase in reproductive capacity in females carrying a "gay gene" could easily account for its maintenance at high levels in the population.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: The "gay uncle hypothesis" posits that people who themselves do not have children may nonetheless increase the prevalence of their family's genes in future generations by providing resources (e.g., food, supervision, defense, shelter) to the offspring of their closest relatives.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: This hypothesis is an extension of the theory of kin selection, which was originally developed to explain apparent altruistic acts which seemed to be maladaptive. The initial concept was suggested by J. B. S. Haldane in 1932 and later elaborated by many others including John Maynard Smith, W. D. Hamilton and Mary Jane West-Eberhard. This concept was also used to explain the patterns of certain social insects where most of the members are non-reproductive.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Vasey and VanderLaan (2010) tested the theory on the Pacific island of Samoa, where they studied women, straight men, and the "fa'afafine", men who prefer other men as sexual partners and are accepted within the culture as a distinct third gender category. Vasey and VanderLaan found that the "fa'afafine" said they were significantly more willing to help kin, yet much less interested in helping children who are not family, providing the first evidence to support the kin selection hypothesis.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: The hypothesis is consistent with other studies on homosexuality, which show that it is more prevalent amongst both siblings and twins.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Vasey and VanderLaan (2011) provides evidence that if an adaptively designed avuncular male androphilic phenotype exists and its development is contingent on a particular social environment, then a collectivistic cultural context is insufficient, in and of itself, for the expression of such a phenotype.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Some studies have found correlations between physiology of people and their sexuality; these studies provide evidence which suggests that:


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: J. Michael Bailey has argued that the early childhood gender nonconforming behavior of homosexuals, as opposed to biological markers, are better evidence of homosexuality being an inborn trait. He argues that gay men are "punished much more than rewarded" for their childhood gender nonconformity, and that such behavior "emerges with no encouragement, and despite opposition", making it "the sine qua non of innateness".


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Whether genetic or other physiological determinants form the basis of sexual orientation is a highly politicized issue. "The Advocate", a U.S. gay and lesbian newsmagazine, reported in 1996 that 61% of its readers believed that "it would mostly help gay and lesbian rights if homosexuality were found to be biologically determined". A cross-national study in the United States, the Philippines, and Sweden found that those who believed that "homosexuals are born that way" held significantly more positive attitudes toward homosexuality than those who believed that "homosexuals choose to be that way" or "learn to be that way".


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Equal protection analysis in U.S. law determines when government requirements create a “suspect classification" of groups and therefore eligible for heightened scrutiny based on several factors, one of which is immutability.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Evidence that sexual orientation is biologically determined (and therefore perhaps immutable in the legal sense) would strengthen the legal case for heightened scrutiny of laws discriminating on that basis.


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: The perceived causes of sexual orientation have a significant bearing on the status of sexual minorities in the eyes of social conservatives. The Family Research Council, a conservative Christian think tank in Washington, D.C., argues in the book "Getting It Straight" that finding people are born gay "would advance the idea that sexual orientation is an innate characteristic, like race; that homosexuals, like African-Americans, should be legally protected against 'discrimination;' and that disapproval of homosexuality should be as socially stigmatized as racism. However, it is not true." On the other hand, some social conservatives such as Reverend Robert Schenck have argued that people can accept any scientific evidence while still morally opposing homosexuality. National Organization for Marriage board member and fiction writer Orson Scott Card has supported biological research on homosexuality, writing that "our scientific efforts in regard to homosexuality should be to identify genetic and uterine causes... so that the incidence of this dysfunction can be minimized... [However, this should not be seen] as an attack on homosexuals, a desire to 'commit genocide' against the homosexual community... There is no 'cure' for homosexuality because it is not a disease. There are, however, different ways of living with homosexual desires."


title: Biology and sexual orientation

text: Some advocates for the rights of sexual minorities resist what they perceive as attempts to pathologise or medicalise 'deviant' sexuality, and choose to fight for acceptance in a moral or social realm. The journalist Chandler Burr has stated that "[s]ome, recalling earlier psychiatric "treatments" for homosexuality, discern in the biological quest the seeds of genocide. They conjure up the specter of the surgical or chemical "rewiring" of gay people, or of abortions of fetal homosexuals who have been hunted down in the womb." LeVay has said in response to letters from gays and lesbians making such criticisms that the research "has contributed to the status of gay people in society".


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems. Ongoing research yields software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as transonic or turbulent flows. Initial validation of such software is typically performed using experimental apparatus such as wind tunnels. In addition, previously performed analytical or empirical analysis of a particular problem can be used for comparison. A final validation is often performed using full-scale testing, such as flight tests.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: CFD is applied to a wide range of research and engineering problems in many fields of study and industries, including aerodynamics and aerospace analysis, hypersonics, weather simulation, natural science and environmental engineering, industrial system design and analysis, biological engineering, fluid flows and heat transfer, engine and combustion analysis, and visual effects for film and games.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems is the Navier–Stokes equations, which define many single-phase (gas or liquid, but not both) fluid flows. These equations can be simplified by removing terms describing viscous actions to yield the Euler equations. Further simplification, by removing terms describing vorticity yields the full potential equations. Finally, for small perturbations in subsonic and supersonic flows (not transonic or hypersonic) these equations can be linearized to yield the linearized potential equations.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Historically, methods were first developed to solve the linearized potential equations. Two-dimensional (2D) methods, using conformal transformations of the flow about a cylinder to the flow about an airfoil were developed in the 1930s.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: One of the earliest type of calculations resembling modern CFD are those by Lewis Fry Richardson, in the sense that these calculations used finite differences and divided the physical space in cells. Although they failed dramatically, these calculations, together with Richardson's book "Weather Prediction by Numerical Process", set the basis for modern CFD and numerical meteorology. In fact, early CFD calculations during the 1940s using ENIAC used methods close to those in Richardson's 1922 book.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The computer power available paced development of three-dimensional methods. Probably the first work using computers to model fluid flow, as governed by the Navier–Stokes equations, was performed at Los Alamos National Lab, in the T3 group. This group was led by Francis H. Harlow, who is widely considered one of the pioneers of CFD. From 1957 to late 1960s, this group developed a variety of numerical methods to simulate transient two-dimensional fluid flows, such as particle-in-cell method, fluid-in-cell method, vorticity stream function method, and


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: marker-and-cell method. Fromm's vorticity-stream-function method for 2D, transient, incompressible flow was the first treatment of strongly contorting incompressible flows in the world.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The first paper with three-dimensional model was published by John Hess and A.M.O. Smith of Douglas Aircraft in 1967. This method discretized the surface of the geometry with panels, giving rise to this class of programs being called Panel Methods. Their method itself was simplified, in that it did not include lifting flows and hence was mainly applied to ship hulls and aircraft fuselages. The first lifting Panel Code (A230) was described in a paper written by Paul Rubbert and Gary Saaris of Boeing Aircraft in 1968. In time, more advanced three-dimensional Panel Codes were developed at Boeing (PANAIR, A502), Lockheed (Quadpan), Douglas (HESS), McDonnell Aircraft (MACAERO), NASA (PMARC) and Analytical Methods (WBAERO, USAERO and VSAERO). Some (PANAIR, HESS and MACAERO) were higher order codes, using higher order distributions of surface singularities, while others (Quadpan, PMARC, USAERO and VSAERO) used single singularities on each surface panel. The advantage of the lower order codes was that they ran much faster on the computers of the time. Today, VSAERO has grown to be a multi-order code and is the most widely used program of this class. It has been used in the development of many submarines, surface ships, automobiles, helicopters, aircraft, and more recently wind turbines. Its sister code, USAERO is an unsteady panel method that has also been used for modeling such things as high speed trains and racing yachts. The NASA PMARC code from an early version of VSAERO and a derivative of PMARC, named CMARC, is also commercially available.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: In the two-dimensional realm, a number of Panel Codes have been developed for airfoil analysis and design. The codes typically have a boundary layer analysis included, so that viscous effects can be modeled. developed the PROFILE code, partly with NASA funding, which became available in the early 1980s. This was soon followed by Mark Drela's XFOIL code. Both PROFILE and XFOIL incorporate two-dimensional panel codes, with coupled boundary layer codes for airfoil analysis work. PROFILE uses a conformal transformation method for inverse airfoil design, while XFOIL has both a conformal transformation and an inverse panel method for airfoil design.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: An intermediate step between Panel Codes and Full Potential codes were codes that used the Transonic Small Disturbance equations. In particular, the three-dimensional WIBCO code, developed by Charlie Boppe of Grumman Aircraft in the early 1980s has seen heavy use.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Developers turned to Full Potential codes, as panel methods could not calculate the non-linear flow present at transonic speeds. The first description of a means of using the Full Potential equations was published by Earll Murman and Julian Cole of Boeing in 1970. Frances Bauer, Paul Garabedian and David Korn of the Courant Institute at New York University (NYU) wrote a series of two-dimensional Full Potential airfoil codes that were widely used, the most important being named Program H. A further growth of Program H was developed by Bob Melnik and his group at Grumman Aerospace as Grumfoil. Antony Jameson, originally at Grumman Aircraft and the Courant Institute of NYU, worked with David Caughey to develop the important three-dimensional Full Potential code FLO22 in 1975. Many Full Potential codes emerged after this, culminating in Boeing's Tranair (A633) code, which still sees heavy use.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The next step was the Euler equations, which promised to provide more accurate solutions of transonic flows. The methodology used by Jameson in his three-dimensional FLO57 code (1981) was used by others to produce such programs as Lockheed's TEAM program and IAI/Analytical Methods' MGAERO program. MGAERO is unique in being a structured cartesian mesh code, while most other such codes use structured body-fitted grids (with the exception of NASA's highly successful CART3D code, Lockheed's SPLITFLOW code and Georgia Tech's NASCART-GT). Antony Jameson also developed the three-dimensional AIRPLANE code which made use of unstructured tetrahedral grids.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: In the two-dimensional realm, Mark Drela and Michael Giles, then graduate students at MIT, developed the ISES Euler program (actually a suite of programs) for airfoil design and analysis. This code first became available in 1986 and has been further developed to design, analyze and optimize single or multi-element airfoils, as the MSES program. MSES sees wide use throughout the world. A derivative of MSES, for the design and analysis of airfoils in a cascade, is MISES, developed by Harold Youngren while he was a graduate student at MIT.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The Navier–Stokes equations were the ultimate target of development. Two-dimensional codes, such as NASA Ames' ARC2D code first emerged. A number of three-dimensional codes were developed (ARC3D, OVERFLOW, CFL3D are three successful NASA contributions), leading to numerous commercial packages.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: CFD can be seen as a group of computational methodologies (discussed below) used to solve equations governing fluid flow. In the application of CFD, a critical step is to decide which set of physical assumptions and related equations need to be used for the problem at hand. To illustrate this step, the following summarizes the physical assumptions/simplifications taken in equations of a flow that is single-phase (see multiphase flow and two-phase flow), single-species (i.e., it consists of one chemical species), non-reacting, and (unless said otherwise) compressible. Thermal radiation is neglected, and body forces due to gravity are considered (unless said otherwise). In addition, for this type of flow, the next discussion highlights the hierarchy of flow equations solved with CFD. Note that some of the following equations could be derived in more than one way.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The stability of the selected discretisation is generally established numerically rather than analytically as with simple linear problems. Special care must also be taken to ensure that the discretisation handles discontinuous solutions gracefully. The Euler equations and Navier–Stokes equations both admit shocks, and contact surfaces.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The finite volume method (FVM) is a common approach used in CFD codes, as it has an advantage in memory usage and solution speed, especially for large problems, high Reynolds number turbulent flows, and source term dominated flows (like combustion).


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: In the finite volume method, the governing partial differential equations (typically the Navier-Stokes equations, the mass and energy conservation equations, and the turbulence equations) are recast in a conservative form, and then solved over discrete control volumes. This discretization guarantees the conservation of fluxes through a particular control volume. The finite volume equation yields governing equations in the form,


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: where formula_22 is the vector of conserved variables, formula_23 is the vector of fluxes (see Euler equations or Navier–Stokes equations), formula_24 is the volume of the control volume element, and formula_25 is the surface area of the control volume element.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The finite element method (FEM) is used in structural analysis of solids, but is also applicable to fluids. However, the FEM formulation requires special care to ensure a conservative solution. The FEM formulation has been adapted for use with fluid dynamics governing equations. Although FEM must be carefully formulated to be conservative, it is much more stable than the finite volume approach. However, FEM can require more memory and has slower solution times than the FVM.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: where formula_27 is the equation residual at an element vertex formula_28, formula_22 is the conservation equation expressed on an element basis, formula_30 is the weight factor, and formula_31 is the volume of the element.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The finite difference method (FDM) has historical importance and is simple to program. It is currently only used in few specialized codes, which handle complex geometry with high accuracy and efficiency by using embedded boundaries or overlapping grids (with the solution interpolated across each grid).


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: where formula_22 is the vector of conserved variables, and formula_23, formula_35, and formula_36 are the fluxes in the formula_37, formula_38, and formula_39 directions respectively.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Spectral element method is a finite element type method. It requires the mathematical problem (the partial differential equation) to be cast in a weak formulation. This is typically done by multiplying the differential equation by an arbitrary test function and integrating over the whole domain. Purely mathematically, the test functions are completely arbitrary - they belong to an infinite-dimensional function space. Clearly an infinite-dimensional function space cannot be represented on a discrete spectral element mesh; this is where the spectral element discretization begins. The most crucial thing is the choice of interpolating and testing functions. In a standard, low order FEM in 2D, for quadrilateral elements the most typical choice is the bilinear test or interpolating function of the form formula_40. In a spectral element method however, the interpolating and test functions are chosen to be polynomials of a very high order (typically e.g. of the 10th order in CFD applications). This guarantees the rapid convergence of the method. Furthermore, very efficient integration procedures must be used, since the number of integrations to be performed in numerical codes is big. Thus, high order Gauss integration quadratures are employed, since they achieve the highest accuracy with the smallest number of computations to be carried out.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: At the time there are some academic CFD codes based on the spectral element method and some more are currently under development, since the new time-stepping schemes arise in the scientific world.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with its simplified kinetic picture on a lattice provides a computationally efficient description of hydrodynamics.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Unlike the traditional CFD methods, which solve the conservation equations of macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and energy) numerically, LBM models the fluid consisting of fictive particles, and such particles perform consecutive propagation and collision processes over a discrete lattice mesh. In this method, one works with the discrete in space and time version of the kinetic evolution equation in the Boltzmann Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) form.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The vortex method, also Lagrangian Vortex Particle Method, is a meshfree technique for the simulation of incompressible turbulent flows. In it, vorticity is discretized onto Lagrangian particles, these computational elements being called vortices, vortons, or vortex particles. Vortex methods were developed as a grid-free methodology that would not be limited by the fundamental smoothing effects associated with grid-based methods. To be practical, however, vortex methods require means for rapidly computing velocities from the vortex elements – in other words they require the solution to a particular form of the N-body problem (in which the motion of N objects is tied to their mutual influences). This breakthrough came in the 1980s with the development of the Barnes-Hut and fast multipole method (FMM) algorithms. These paved the way to practical computation of the velocities from the vortex elements.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Software based on the vortex method offer a new means for solving tough fluid dynamics problems with minimal user intervention. All that is required is specification of problem geometry and setting of boundary and initial conditions. Among the significant advantages of this modern technology;


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: High-resolution schemes are used where shocks or discontinuities are present. Capturing sharp changes in the solution requires the use of second or higher-order numerical schemes that do not introduce spurious oscillations. This usually necessitates the application of flux limiters to ensure that the solution is total variation diminishing.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: In computational modeling of turbulent flows, one common objective is to obtain a model that can predict quantities of interest, such as fluid velocity, for use in engineering designs of the system being modeled. For turbulent flows, the range of length scales and complexity of phenomena involved in turbulence make most modeling approaches prohibitively expensive; the resolution required to resolve all scales involved in turbulence is beyond what is computationally possible. The primary approach in such cases is to create numerical models to approximate unresolved phenomena. This section lists some commonly used computational models for turbulent flows.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Turbulence models can be classified based on computational expense, which corresponds to the range of scales that are modeled versus resolved (the more turbulent scales that are resolved, the finer the resolution of the simulation, and therefore the higher the computational cost). If a majority or all of the turbulent scales are not modeled, the computational cost is very low, but the tradeoff comes in the form of decreased accuracy.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: In addition to the wide range of length and time scales and the associated computational cost, the governing equations of fluid dynamics contain a non-linear convection term and a non-linear and non-local pressure gradient term. These nonlinear equations must be solved numerically with the appropriate boundary and initial conditions.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations are the oldest approach to turbulence modeling. An ensemble version of the governing equations is solved, which introduces new "apparent stresses" known as Reynolds stresses. This adds a second order tensor of unknowns for which various models can provide different levels of closure. It is a common misconception that the RANS equations do not apply to flows with a time-varying mean flow because these equations are 'time-averaged'. In fact, statistically unsteady (or non-stationary) flows can equally be treated. This is sometimes referred to as URANS. There is nothing inherent in Reynolds averaging to preclude this, but the turbulence models used to close the equations are valid only as long as the time over which these changes in the mean occur is large compared to the time scales of the turbulent motion containing most of the energy.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Large eddy simulation (LES) is a technique in which the smallest scales of the flow are removed through a filtering operation, and their effect modeled using subgrid scale models. This allows the largest and most important scales of the turbulence to be resolved, while greatly reducing the computational cost incurred by the smallest scales. This method requires greater computational resources than RANS methods, but is far cheaper than DNS.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Detached eddy simulations (DES) is a modification of a RANS model in which the model switches to a subgrid scale formulation in regions fine enough for LES calculations. Regions near solid boundaries and where the turbulent length scale is less than the maximum grid dimension are assigned the RANS mode of solution. As the turbulent length scale exceeds the grid dimension, the regions are solved using the LES mode. Therefore, the grid resolution for DES is not as demanding as pure LES, thereby considerably cutting down the cost of the computation. Though DES was initially formulated for the Spalart-Allmaras model (Spalart et al., 1997), it can be implemented with other RANS models (Strelets, 2001), by appropriately modifying the length scale which is explicitly or implicitly involved in the RANS model. So while Spalart–Allmaras model based DES acts as LES with a wall model, DES based on other models (like two equation models) behave as a hybrid RANS-LES model. Grid generation is more complicated than for a simple RANS or LES case due to the RANS-LES switch. DES is a non-zonal approach and provides a single smooth velocity field across the RANS and the LES regions of the solutions.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Direct numerical simulation (DNS) resolves the entire range of turbulent length scales. This marginalizes the effect of models, but is extremely expensive. The computational cost is proportional to formula_44. DNS is intractable for flows with complex geometries or flow configurations.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The coherent vortex simulation approach decomposes the turbulent flow field into a coherent part, consisting of organized vortical motion, and the incoherent part, which is the random background flow. This decomposition is done using wavelet filtering. The approach has much in common with LES, since it uses decomposition and resolves only the filtered portion, but different in that it does not use a linear, low-pass filter. Instead, the filtering operation is based on wavelets, and the filter can be adapted as the flow field evolves. Farge and Schneider tested the CVS method with two flow configurations and showed that the coherent portion of the flow exhibited the formula_45 energy spectrum exhibited by the total flow, and corresponded to coherent structures (vortex tubes), while the incoherent parts of the flow composed homogeneous background noise, which exhibited no organized structures. Goldstein and Vasilyev applied the FDV model to large eddy simulation, but did not assume that the wavelet filter eliminated all coherent motions from the subfilter scales. By employing both LES and CVS filtering, they showed that the SFS dissipation was dominated by the SFS flow field's coherent portion.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Probability density function (PDF) methods for turbulence, first introduced by Lundgren, are based on tracking the one-point PDF of the velocity, formula_46, which gives the probability of the velocity at point formula_47 being between formula_48 and formula_49. This approach is analogous to the kinetic theory of gases, in which the macroscopic properties of a gas are described by a large number of particles. PDF methods are unique in that they can be applied in the framework of a number of different turbulence models; the main differences occur in the form of the PDF transport equation. For example, in the context of large eddy simulation, the PDF becomes the filtered PDF. PDF methods can also be used to describe chemical reactions, and are particularly useful for simulating chemically reacting flows because the chemical source term is closed and does not require a model. The PDF is commonly tracked by using Lagrangian particle methods; when combined with large eddy simulation, this leads to a Langevin equation for subfilter particle evolution.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The vorticity confinement (VC) method is an Eulerian technique used in the simulation of turbulent wakes. It uses a solitary-wave like approach to produce a stable solution with no numerical spreading. VC can capture the small-scale features to within as few as 2 grid cells. Within these features, a nonlinear difference equation is solved as opposed to the finite difference equation. VC is similar to shock capturing methods, where conservation laws are satisfied, so that the essential integral quantities are accurately computed.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The Linear eddy model is a technique used to simulate the convective mixing that takes place in turbulent flow. Specifically, it provides a mathematical way to describe the interactions of a scalar variable within the vector flow field. It is primarily used in one-dimensional representations of turbulent flow, since it can be applied across a wide range of length scales and Reynolds numbers. This model is generally used as a building block for more complicated flow representations, as it provides high resolution predictions that hold across a large range of flow conditions.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: The modeling of two-phase flow is still under development. Different methods have been proposed, including the Volume of fluid method, the level-set method and front tracking. These methods often involve a tradeoff between maintaining a sharp interface or conserving mass . This is crucial since the evaluation of the density, viscosity and surface tension is based on the values averaged over the interface.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Discretization in the space produces a system of ordinary differential equations for unsteady problems and algebraic equations for steady problems. Implicit or semi-implicit methods are generally used to integrate the ordinary differential equations, producing a system of (usually) nonlinear algebraic equations. Applying a Newton or Picard iteration produces a system of linear equations which is nonsymmetric in the presence of advection and indefinite in the presence of incompressibility. Such systems, particularly in 3D, are frequently too large for direct solvers, so iterative methods are used, either stationary methods such as successive overrelaxation or Krylov subspace methods. Krylov methods such as GMRES, typically used with preconditioning, operate by minimizing the residual over successive subspaces generated by the preconditioned operator.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: Multigrid has the advantage of asymptotically optimal performance on many problems. Traditional solvers and preconditioners are effective at reducing high-frequency components of the residual, but low-frequency components typically require many iterations to reduce. By operating on multiple scales, multigrid reduces all components of the residual by similar factors, leading to a mesh-independent number of iterations.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: For indefinite systems, preconditioners such as incomplete LU factorization, additive Schwarz, and multigrid perform poorly or fail entirely, so the problem structure must be used for effective preconditioning. Methods commonly used in CFD are the SIMPLE and Uzawa algorithms which exhibit mesh-dependent convergence rates, but recent advances based on block LU factorization combined with multigrid for the resulting definite systems have led to preconditioners that deliver mesh-independent convergence rates.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: CFD made a major break through in late 70s with the introduction of LTRAN2, a 2-D code to model oscillating airfoils based on transonic small perturbation theory by Ballhaus and associates. It uses a Murman-Cole switch algorithm for modeling the moving shock-waves. Later it was extended to 3-D with use of a rotated difference scheme by AFWAL/Boeing that resulted in LTRAN3.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: CFD investigations are used to clarify the characteristics of aortic flow in details that are beyond the capabilities of experimental measurements. To analyze these conditions, CAD models of the human vascular system are extracted employing modern imaging techniques such as MRI or Computed Tomography. A 3D model is reconstructed from this data and the fluid flow can be computed. Blood properties such as density and viscosity, and realistic boundary conditions (e.g. systemic pressure) have to be taken into consideration. Therefore, making it possible to analyze and optimize the flow in the cardiovascular system for different applications.


title: Computational fluid dynamics

text: In a more recent trend, simulations are also performed on GPUs. These typically contain slower but more processors. For CFD algorithms that feature good parallelism performance (i.e. good speed-up by adding more cores) this can greatly reduce simulation times. Fluid-implicit particle and lattice-Boltzmann methods are typical examples of codes that scale well on GPUs.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: Mohammad Rizwan (Urdu, ; born 1 June 1992) is a Pakistani international cricketer who has represented Pakistan in international cricket since 2015. Possessing a high batting average of 50+ in the T20I format, he is also the only batter in the world to score 2000+ international runs in a calendar year in T20s. He is a right-handed batter and wicket-keeper and has scored centuries in all three international formats: Tests, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. He is the vice-captain of the Pakistan cricket team in Test cricket. He was one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 2021. He was also the ICC Men's T20I Cricketer of the Year 2021. He also led the Multan Sultans to victory in the Pakistan Super League 2021. Mohammad Rizwan is the leading run scorer in T20 International in a calendar year with 1326 runs in 26 innings at a whopping average of 73.66.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: He played for Lahore Qalandars in the Pakistan Super League from 2016 to 2017, for Karachi Kings from 2018 to 2020, and currently captains Multan Sultans. He captains Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in domestic cricket.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: Playing for Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited in the final of the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy in 2014–15, Rizwan scored 224 to help Sui Northern to a 301-run first-innings lead and their second title. He kept wicket for Pakistan A in the five limited-overs matches against Kenya in December 2014.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In April 2018, he was named the vice-captain of Punjab's squad for the 2018 Pakistan Cup. On 1 May 2018, he scored his highest total in List A cricket, with 140 off 123 balls against Federal Areas. In March 2019, he was named as the captain of Federal Areas squad for the 2019 Pakistan Cup.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In September 2019, Rizwan was named as the captain of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the 2019–20 Quaid-e-Azam Trophy tournament. In October 2019, he was named the player of the tournament in the 2019–20 National T20 Cup, for scoring 215 runs and taking six wickets.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: He was retained by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the 2020–21 domestic season, both as player and captain of the team.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In February 2021, Multan Sultans announced Rizwan as their captain replacing Shan Masood ahead of PSL 6. In June 2021 he led Multan Sultans to their first PSL title, and was awarded Wicket-Keeper of the Tournament.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: Rizwan made his One Day International (ODI) debut for Pakistan against Bangladesh in April 2015, scoring 67 runs off 58 balls. He made his Twenty20 International debut for Pakistan in the same series. He made his Test debut for Pakistan against New Zealand on 25 November 2016. He was out for a golden duck in his maiden Test innings.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In August 2018 he was one 33 players awarded a central contract for the 2018–19 season by the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB). He captained Pakistan's team in the 2018 ACC Emerging Teams Asia Cup. Pakistan reached the semi-finals. In March 2019, during the second ODI against Australia, Rizwan scored his first century in an ODI match, making 115 runs.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In November 2019, Rizwan was recalled to the Pakistan team against Sri Lanka. He was also selected against Australia later that month, where in the first innings of the First Test it was debated as to whether he was given out on a no ball. In the second innings he made 95.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In June 2020, he was named in a 29-man squad for Pakistan's tour to England during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, on 23 June 2020, Rizwan was one of seven players from Pakistan's squad to test positive for COVID-19. In July, he was shortlisted in Pakistan's 20-man squad for the Test matches against England. He had an excellent Test series, both with the bat and gloves, managing to score 161 runs with two-half centuries, therefore, cementing his place as first choice wicket-keeper in Test matches, above the returning former captain Sarfaraz Ahmed. He was named as Pakistan's player of the Test series.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In December 2020, Rizwan was named as the captain of Pakistan's Test side for the first match against New Zealand. He replaced Babar Azam, after he was ruled out due to an earlier injury. In the same tour, he was also added to Pakistan's T20I squad against New Zealand. In the 3rd T20I of the series against New Zealand, Rizwan scored his career-best T20I score of 89 to give Pakistan a win and saved them from getting white-washed by New Zealand.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In February 2021, in Pakistan's series against South Africa, Rizwan scored his first century in Test cricket, with an unbeaten 115 as he was awarded the player of the series. In February 2021, in Pakistan's series against South Africa, Rizwan scored his first century in T20I cricket, with an unbeaten 104 including 6 boundaries and 7 sixes. He also became the first wicket-keeper batter for Pakistan to score a century in T20I cricket and became only the second wicketkeeper batter after Brendon McCullum to score centuries in all three formats of international cricket. He also became only the second Pakistani batter to score a century in T20I cricket after Ahmed Shehzad and also became the fifth designated wicketkeeper batter to notch a T20I century.


title: Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)

text: In April 2021, during the third T20I between Pakistan and South Africa he along with Babar Azam made 197 run partnership for the opening wicket which is also the highest partnership recorded by a pair for Pakistan for any wicket in T20I cricket. It was also the highest ever partnership for any wicket by a pair in T20I cricket while chasing. In September 2021, he was named in Pakistan's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. In December 2021, in the third match against the West Indies, Rizwan became the first batter to score 2,000 runs in Twenty20 cricket in a calendar year.


title: Honest Thief

text: Honest Thief is a 2020 American action thriller film directed by Mark Williams, from a screenplay by Williams and Steve Allrich. The film stars Liam Neeson, Kate Walsh, Jai Courtney, Jeffrey Donovan, Anthony Ramos and Robert Patrick, and follows a brooding former bank robber (Liam Neeson) who decides to turn himself in to the FBI, only to be set up by corrupt agents.


title: Honest Thief

text: "Honest Thief" was theatrically released, including in IMAX, in the United States on October 16, 2020, by Open Road Films and Briarcliff Entertainment. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised Neeson's performance, but noted the film's familiarity.


title: Honest Thief

text: Tom Dolan, a former US Marine and demolitions expert, has become a successful bank robber nicknamed the "In-and-Out Bandit". One day, while storing his money in a storage unit, he meets Annie Wilkins, a psychology graduate student working at the facility.


title: Honest Thief

text: A year later, Tom is in a relationship with Annie and decides to turn himself and the money in to the FBI in exchange for a short sentence to put his criminal past behind him. FBI Agent Sam Baker dismisses him, having received false confessions in the past, and sends subordinates John Nivens and Ramon Hall to interview him. Tom directs them to the storage unit where his money is kept but Nivens convinces Hall to take the money for themselves. Nivens and Hall confront Tom at gunpoint at his hotel and learn he has two-thirds of the money hidden elsewhere as a bargaining chip. When Baker unexpectedly arrives, Nivens murders him while Tom flees with Annie.


title: Honest Thief

text: Tom tells Annie everything and asks her to leave. However, she returns to the storage unit to get security camera footage of Nivens and Hall stealing the money. Nivens and Hall show up and Nivens knocks Annie unconscious before the pair escape with the footage. Tom finds Annie and races her to the hospital. Baker's partner, Sean Meyers, attempts to arrest Tom, but Tom escapes while telling Meyers what really happened. Meyers begins seeing discrepancies in Nivens' story.


title: Honest Thief

text: Tom ambushes Hall in his home and convinces him to give up the security footage and the location of the safe house where the two stored the stolen money. Tom gets Annie out of the hospital and her give Meyers the security footage. She also leads him to the rest of the money. After Tom blows up Nivens' house with a bomb, Nivens flees to the safe house and finds Tom and Hall there. When Nivens discovers Hall turned over the security footage, he murders him in a rage, wounds Tom, and escapes. Anticipating his actions, Tom activates a bomb he placed in Nivens' car, forcing him to call in a bomb squad to disarm it. Meyers has Nivens arrested and recovers the stolen money from his car. It’s revealed that the car bomb was a harmless dud and that Hall was wearing a wire with which he caught Nivens' confession to Baker's murder as well as Nivens' murder of Hall.


title: Honest Thief

text: With his name cleared of the murder charges, Tom turns himself in, and Meyers promises to try to get him a lighter sentence. Meyers expresses his respect for Tom's actions in both taking down Nivens and turning himself in for Annie, suggesting that in other circumstances, Tom would make a good FBI agent.


title: Honest Thief

text: On October 12, 2018, it was announced that Liam Neeson and Kate Walsh would star in the thriller film "Honest Thief", as bank robber Tom and his love interest Annie, respectively, with Mark Williams directing. Jai Courtney and Jeffrey Donovan were also in talks for roles, with Tai Duncan, Myles Nestel, Williams, and Craig Chapman producing the film. Courtney and Donovan were later confirmed along with Anthony Ramos, and Robert Patrick added to the cast in November, with filming set to begin on November 5. The film was set in Boston, and shot in and around Worcester, Massachusetts.


title: Honest Thief

text: In January 2020, Briarcliff Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film and set it for a September 4, 2020 release. It was then re-scheduled to be released on October 9, 2020. In June 2020, it was announced Open Road Films would co-distribute the film with Briarcliff. After temporarily being pulled from the schedule due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the film's ultimate U.S. release date was October 16, 2020. Due to the lack of big-budget competition, the film also played in IMAX and Dolby theaters.


title: Honest Thief

text: "Honest Thief" has grossed $14.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $15.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $30.1 million.


title: Honest Thief

text: In the United States, the film grossed $1.3 million from 2,425 theaters on its first day, including $225,000 from Thursday night preview screenings. It went on to debut to $3.6 million, or $4.1 million including Canada's opening weekend the previous week, topping the box office. In its second weekend the film made $2.4 million, remaining in first, before being dethroned by newcomer "Come Play" in its third weekend.


title: Honest Thief

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, "Honest Thief" holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average score of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Guilty of first-degree squandering, "Honest Thief" returns Liam Neeson to late-period action thriller mode but neglects to supply much of a story." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews." According to PostTrak, 75% of audience members gave the film a positive score, with 53% saying they would definitely recommend it.


title: Honest Thief

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" complimented Neeson for not phoning in his performance, but added, ""Honest Thief" isn't incompetent (for a certain kind of pulp action fan, it delivers just enough of the goods), but it's a textbook case of an action movie that goes through the motions." Frank Scheck for "The Hollywood Reporter" said the film "delivers exactly what you expect" and wrote, "Running a sleek 90 minutes before the credits roll, "Honest Thief" is certainly efficient if not exactly original, with writer/director Williams infusing it with enough quirky character touches — such as Tom crankily complaining how much he hates his 'In and Out Bandit' moniker — to distract from the derivative feeling of it all."


title: Erik Lamela

text: Erik Manuel Lamela Cordero (born 4 March 1992) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder or winger for La Liga club Sevilla and the Argentina national team.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela began his career at River Plate and in 2011 transferred to Roma for an initial €12 million. After two Serie A seasons he joined Tottenham for a fee of £25.8 million. A full international since 2011, he was part of the Argentine squad which finished as runners-up at the 2015 and 2016 editions of the Copa América.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela was born on 4 March 1992 to Miriam and José Lamela in a northern suburb of Buenos Aires, Argentina. His family gave him the nickname "Coco". After he had joined River Plate as a seven-year-old, Barcelona reportedly offered Lamela and his family $160,000 USD a year as well as a house and employment for his parents to move to Barcelona in a similar deal to the one that saw Lionel Messi move to Spain as a youngster. In 2004, a "Trans World Sport" film crew travelled to Argentina to interview a 12-year-old Lamela who was already making headlines after scoring 120 goals for River Plate's youth side the previous season. In the video, Lamela declares his wish to follow in the footsteps of Diego Maradona and win a World Cup for Argentina.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela made his first-team debut for River Plate on 14 June 2009 in a game against Tigre for the 2009 Clausura tournament. He entered the field on the 80th minute, substituting Robert Flores. Lamela scored his first goal for River on 5 December 2010 in a match against Colón for the Apertura tournament. He scored his second goal against Lanús in the final fixture of that Apertura, helping River win the match 4–2.


title: Erik Lamela

text: The midfielder was a regular starter for River during the 2010–11 Argentine Primera División season, playing 34 games and scoring four goals. He helped his team to finish in an overall sixth place that would have qualified them for the 2011 Copa Sudamericana. Due to the relegation format of the Argentine Primera that accounts for a team's last three seasons, however, River was relegated after losing a playoff with Belgrano.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 6 August 2011, Lamela joined Italian club Roma of Serie A for a fee of €12 million, plus €2 million in bonuses, which was activated after his 20th club appearance. Roma also paid an additional €3.2 million to Orel B.V. — plus 10% added value if the player was later sold above €12 million — and €3.06 million in the form of taxes to the Government of Argentina. Lamela signed a 5-year contract worth €1.8 million in gross in the first season, but would gradually increase by €350,000 on 1 July 2012 (to €2.15M), 2014 (€2.5M) and 2015 (€2.85M). On 23 October 2011, he scored his first goal in Serie A against Palermo. Later, he scored goals against Lecce, Novara, and Cesena. Lamela ended his first season at the Stadio Olimpico with six goals in 31 games in all competitions.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela began the 2012–13 season well, his first goal of the season coming against Bologna on 16 September 2012. Lamela hit a superb patch of form in October and early November, scoring seven goals in six games, including a brace against Udinese in a 3–2 home defeat and goals against Atalanta, Genoa, Parma, and Palermo. He also scored a goal in the Derby della Capitale against Lazio. After almost a month out with an ankle ligament injury, he returned to the field and scored a brace against Milan in a 4–2 victory on 22 December.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela went on to score 15 times in 33 games, putting him joint-fifth in Serie A and second to striker Pablo Osvaldo (16 goals) at Roma. Lamela's and Roma's season, however, ended in heartache with defeat to Rome rivals Lazio in the Coppa Italia final, coupled with finishing sixth in Serie A, meaning that Roma would not play European football for the second consecutive season.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 30 August 2013, Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur completed the transfer of Lamela from Roma for a deal worth an initial £25.8 million, plus up to £4.2 million in bonus payments. The fee for Lamela made him the most expensive player in the club's history, breaking the two previous records that had been set earlier in the transfer window, first for Paulinho and then Roberto Soldado.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 1 September, Lamela made his debut for Tottenham as a 75th-minute substitute in a 1–0 North London derby loss to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. On 19 September, he made his first start for Tottenham against Tromsø IL in the UEFA Europa League, assisting Jermain Defoe for Tottenham's opening goal in a 3–0 win at White Hart Lane. On 22 September, he assisted Paulinho's stoppage-time winning goal after appearing as a substitute in Tottenham's 1–0 win at Cardiff City.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 29 October, with Lamela having yet to start a Premier League match, Tottenham manager André Villas-Boas said of the player, "He knows he isn't producing half of what he can produce, but he understands the situation now is that he has to compete for his place." On 7 November, Lamela scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 Europa League win against Sheriff Tiraspol. Seventeen days later, he made his first start in the Premier League as Tottenham were beaten 6–0 by Manchester City. His season was ended by a back injury in April 2014.


title: Erik Lamela

text: The 2014–15 season saw Lamela establish himself as a regular starter under Mauricio Pochettino, Tottenham's new Argentine manager.


title: Erik Lamela

text: He was named in the starting line-up for the opening match of the 2014–15 Premier League season against West Ham United, making his first appearance of 2014. He repaid his new manager's faith in the following two games; assisting twice after coming off of the bench in a 2–1 win against AEL Limassol on 21 August, and assisting twice more in a 4–0 win against Queens Park Rangers three days later at White Hart Lane.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela scored his first goals of the season on 23 October, a brace in a 5–1 victory over Greek club Asteras Tripoli in the Europa League. His first goal was a rabona-style strike from outside the area, the goal being praised by the BBC as brilliant and by ITV as "world-class." This goal would later be named as the Europa League 'Goal of the Season'. His first Premier League goal came on 20 December in a 2–1 win against Burnley at White Hart Lane.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 1 March 2015, Lamela played in the League Cup final, coming off of the bench in the 71st minute as Tottenham lost 2–0 to Chelsea.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela finished the season with a return of only two Premier League goals, six in all competitions. However, he was the team's leading provider of assists, with a total of ten in all competitions.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela continued to be a key player in Pochettino's Tottenham side in the 2015–16 season, helping the side to a club-record third-place finish in the Premier League.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela would prove prolific in the group stages of the UEFA Europa League. His first goal of the season came in a 3–1 win over Qarabağ FK on 17 September 2015. On 1 October, he scored away against Monaco. On 10 December, he scored a hattrick – the first of his professional career – in the reverse fixture.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 26 September, Lamela scored his first Premier League goal of the season in a 4–1 home victory over Manchester City. He finished the season with five Premier League goals, his best total to date.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela scored with a second half header on the opening day of the 2016–17 season in a 1–1 draw against Everton at Goodison Park. However, a hip injury in late October left him unfit for matches for a long period and ended his season.


title: Erik Lamela

text: After more than a year out due to the hip injury that required two operations, Lamela appeared in the Premier League away game against Leicester on 28 November 2017 as a substitute. He assisted in the only goal for Spurs, but the game ended in a 2–1 loss. He followed that up with his first league start of the season in a 2–0 home win against Brighton on 13 December 2017. He scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 win against Newport County in the fourth round replay of the FA Cup on 7 February 2018.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela scored his first goal of the 2018–19 season after coming on as a substitute in the game against Liverpool that Spurs lost 2–1. He also scored in the next league game against Brighton in a 2–1 win, followed by another goal in the next game in the EFL Cup against Watford. On 3 October, Lamela scored Tottenham's second goal in a 4–2 defeat at home to Barcelona in the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League group stage; it was the 8,000th goal in the history of the Champions League. He made his first league start of the season in the away match against West Ham United, scoring the only goal that secured a 1–0 win. He was an unused substitute in the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final in which Spurs lost 2–0 to Liverpool.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela scored his first goal of the 2019–20 season against Manchester City on 17 August 2019. He later registered his first assist of the season in the same match, setting up Lucas Moura's goal, and helping Tottenham to a 2–2 away draw.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela was a starter in the Carabao Cup quarterfinal against Chelsea. He equalized with his first goal of the season, then scored his penalty in the 5–4 penalty shootout win after a 1–1 draw. In January 2021, he was fined after breaking the COVID-19 regulations by attending a Christmas party, and was left off the team in a number of games. On 14 March, Lamela came off the bench and scored a rabona to help Spurs take the lead in the North London derby, but he was subsequently sent off for a second yellow card and Spurs fell to a 2–1 defeat. The goal was voted Goal of the Season by Match of the Day. The goal also later won the 2021 FIFA Puskás Award as the best goal of the year.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 26 July 2021, Lamela signed for Sevilla in a swap deal for Bryan Gil. He scored two goals on his La Liga debut in a 3–0 victory over Rayo Vallecano.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela took part in the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup with the Argentina national under-20 team and scored three goals in four matches.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela made his debut with the Argentina national team on 25 May 2011 in a friendly game against Paraguay.


title: Erik Lamela

text: On 3 September 2014, Lamela scored his first goal for the senior national team, putting Argentina 2–0 ahead against Germany, in an eventual 4–2 win in a rematch of the World Cup final.


title: Erik Lamela

text: In May 2015, Lamela was selected by coach Gerardo Martino in Argentina's squad for the 2015 Copa América held in Chile.


title: Erik Lamela

text: In 2016, Lamela was selected by coach Gerardo Martino in Argentina's squad for the 2016 Copa América. Lamela was part of the Argentine side that ran to the final. He appeared in all of Argentina's group stage matches, and scored a goal in the 3–0 win against Bolivia with a long range free kick. He scored again in the 4–1 win in the quarter final against Venezuela minutes after coming on as a sub. In the final against Chile, he only appeared as a sub in extra-time in the 111th minute, which Chile won 4–2 on penalties.


title: Erik Lamela

text: Lamela's partner of many years is Sofia Herrero. The couple have two sons: Tobias, born 2017 and Thiago, born in 2020.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: Better Off Dead is a 1985 American surrealist black comedy film written and directed by Savage Steve Holland. It stars John Cusack as high school student Lane Myer, who becomes suicidal after his girlfriend breaks up with him shortly before Christmas.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: In the town of Greendale in Northern California, high school student Lane Myer's two main interests are skiing and his girlfriend of six months, Beth Truss. Shortly before Christmas, Beth dumps Lane for the handsome and popular captain of the ski team, Roy Stalin. Roy is an arrogant bully who unfairly rejects Lane at ski team tryouts. Beth also criticizes Lane's car, an old station wagon. Although Lane also owns a 1967 Camaro, he has not been able to get it running and it sits in the driveway in a dilapidated state.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: Lane lives in a suburban development with his mother, Jenny, a ditzy housewife who routinely concocts creepy (and creeping) family meals; his genius little brother, Badger, who never speaks but at the age of "almost 8" can build powerful lasers and attract trashy women from "How-to" books; and his lawyer father, Al, who daily tries to stop the menacing paperboy, Johnny Gasparini, from breaking his garage door windows with thrown newspapers. Furthermore, Johnny claims that the Myers owe him two dollars for newspapers, and persistently hounds Lane, yelling "I want my two dollars!" Lane also regularly encounters two Korean drag racers, one of whom learned to speak English by listening to Howard Cosell.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: Lane cannot get past Beth's rejection and decides that death is the only way out of his misery. He makes several half-hearted attempts at suicide, which all comically fail. With the help of his best friend, Charles de Mar (who in lieu of not being able to get "real drugs" in their "bodaciously small town," constantly inhales everyday substances like Jell-O, snow, and nitrous oxide from a whipped cream can), Lane tries to ski the K-12, the highest peak in town, in hopes of getting Beth back, but wipes out. Lane is further embarrassed when he gets fired from his humiliating fast food job at Pig Burgers in front of Roy and Beth, who are there on a date. To top it all, he increasingly begins to suffer from neurotic hallucinations owing to the mounting frustrations in his life.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: As Lane attempts to either end his life or win back his ex-girlfriend, he gradually gets to know a new girl: a French foreign-exchange student named Monique Junot, who has a crush on him. She is staying with Lane's overbearing neighbor Mrs. Smith, who continually tries to force Monique into being a girlfriend for her socially awkward son Ricky. The pair are so annoying that she pretends she cannot speak English. Monique, a Los Angeles Dodgers fan, turns out to be an excellent auto mechanic and skier who helps Lane fix his Camaro and tries to build his confidence. When Roy insults Monique, Lane challenges him to a ski race down the K-12, with the winner to be captain of the ski team. Monique helps Lane prepare for the race, which he ultimately wins despite losing a ski and being pursued by Johnny. Beth rushes to embrace Lane at the finish line, but he rejects her and after besting Ricky (who attempts to keep Lane from rescuing Monique from the restraints of his mother) in a ski-pole swordfight, drives off with Monique in his Camaro. Lane and Monique are last seen kissing on home plate at Dodger Stadium, with Johnny bicycling towards them, while in a mid-credit scene Badger launches a homemade space shuttle from his room through the roof of the house.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: The hand-drawn animation in the movie was animated by Savage Steve Holland’s collaborator Bill Kopp, who would later work with him on "One Crazy Summer" and "Eek! The Cat". A dream sequence where hamburgers and fries come to life was produced in stop motion.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: According to an interview with Diane Franklin on the RetroZest Podcast, actor Yano Anaya, who played one of Johnny Gasparini's paperboy gang members, also looped all of Demian Slade's dialogue as Johnny the paperboy. Anaya also played bully Grover Dill in A Christmas Story and young Michael Anthony in Van Halen's "Hot For Teacher" music video.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: One of few films Siskel & Ebert featured (they gave two thumbs down) on their weekly television show, yet bypassed entirely in print publications (in either's respective Chicago newspapers). Bill Cosford of "The Miami Herald" wrote, ""Better Off Dead" has the body of a tired teen comedy but the soul of an inspired student film; it's the first movie in a long time to interrupt itself periodically with flights of animated fancy. At one point, romantic foreshadowing is accomplished by a "clay-mation" sequence featuring cheeseburgers in love. At another, a lovesick teen draws a cartoon picture of his faithless girlfriend, and the drawing tells him to get lost."


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: According to Savage Steve Holland, Cusack did not like the film and walked out of a screening, later confronting Holland, saying "Better Off Dead" "was the worst thing I have ever seen. I will never trust you as a director ever again, so don't speak to me." Holland claimed that Cusack felt he had been made to look foolish and that his comments "made me not care about movies anymore". In a 2013 Reddit "Ask Me Anything" chat, however, Cusack was asked if he hated filming "Better Off Dead", and responded, "No, I just thought it could have been better, but I think that about almost all my films. I have nothing against the film... Glad people love it still."


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: "Better Off Dead" holds a rating of 77% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 26 reviews with a weighted average of 6.9/10. The site's consensus reads: ""Better Off Dead" is an anarchic mix of black humor and surreal comedy anchored by John Cusack's winsome, charming performance."


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: The opening track, "With One Look (The Wildest Dream)", was produced by Hine and features Cy Curnin and Jamie West-Oram of The Fixx on lead vocals and guitars respectively. Hine had previously worked with Curnin and West-Oram, and also contributed vocals to the song. The following track, "Arrested By You", as well as "Better Off Dub (Title Music)" and "Race The K-12 (Instrumental)" were performed solely by Hine.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: "Dancing in Isolation" features Terri Nunn of Berlin on lead vocals. Hine produced the song and was reportedly under consideration to produce an album for Berlin.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: "Come to Your Rescue" was performed by Thinkman, a group formed by, and including, Hine for the purpose of restoring his solo career without the music press knowing about it. West-Oram also provided guitar work to this song, as well as the instrumental "The Falcon Beat".


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: The only two tracks on the CD without Hine's involvement are "A Little Luck" and "One Way Love (Better Off Dead)." "Valley Girl" Elizabeth Daily, credited on the soundtrack as E. G. Daily, sang lead vocals on both songs and also performed them in the film during the high school dance scene.


title: Better Off Dead (film)

text: A number of songs that appear in the film do not appear on the CD soundtrack, including Howard Jones' "Like To Get To Know You Well", Van Halen's "Everybody Wants Some!!", Neil Sedaka's "Breaking Up Is Hard to Do", Paul Simon's "Fifty Ways To Leave Your Lover", Jimi Hendrix's "Foxy Lady", Frank Sinatra singing "A Man Alone" by Rod McKuen, Hall & Oates' "She's Gone", and Muddy Waters' "Mannish Boy".


title: Jimmy Hart

text: James Ray Hart (born January 1, 1944) is an American professional wrestling manager, executive, composer, and musician currently signed with WWE in a Legends deal. He is best known for his work in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW), where he used the nickname "The Mouth of the South".


title: Jimmy Hart

text: He has managed many professional wrestlers, including The Honky Tonk Man, Bret Hart (no relation) and Jim Neidhart (The Hart Foundation), Greg "The Hammer" Valentine, Jerry "The King" Lawler, "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase, Irwin R. Schyster, The Mountie, The Natural Disasters, Dino Bravo, the Nasty Boys, The Giant, and Hulk Hogan. He was briefly the AWA Southern Heavyweight Champion in 1981.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Before becoming involved with professional wrestling, Hart was a member of rock band The Gentrys, best known for their 1965 top five "Billboard" Hot 100 hit, "Keep on Dancing".


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Jimmy Hart was born in Jackson, Mississippi. He was brought into wrestling by Jerry "The King" Lawler, who knew of Hart because both had attended Memphis Treadwell High School. Having been asked to sing back-up with Lawler, Hart later became Lawler's manager. After splitting from Lawler, Hart created a stable known as the First Family of Wrestling to attack Lawler, which among others included Hulk Hogan, King Kong Bundy, "Ravishing" Rick Rude, "Leaping" Lanny Poffo, Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart, Ox Baker, Kamala, "Macho Man" Randy Savage, "Hot Stuff" Eddie Gilbert, The Iron Sheik and Kevin Sullivan.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In 1982, Hart earned national headlines doing a program with comedian and television star Andy Kaufman. Hart, Lawler and Kaufman would continue this feud for over a year. Around this time, Hart became known as "The Wimp", a nickname given to him by Lawler and chanted by fans, and was the subject of the song "Wimpbusters," which was sung by Lawler to the tune of "Ghostbusters" by Ray Parker Jr.; a music video was also made featuring Lawler, announcer Lance Russell, and wrestlers such as Randy Savage, Jimmy Valiant, Dutch Mantel, Tommy Rich, and Rufus R. Jones, along with footage of Lawler beating Hart and his "First Family". In 1981 through 1984, Hart led Austin Idol, Masao Ito, and Gilbert to NWA/AWA International titles.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In 1985, Hart's friend Hillbilly Jim recommended him to WWF owner Vince McMahon, who hired him. He was nicknamed "The Mouth of the South" due to his loose-lipped style, often augmented by his trademark megaphone, which he used to instruct and encourage his protégés, to discourage and annoy opponents and announcers (especially Gorilla Monsoon) and also as a weapon. Hart's first acquisition in the WWF was Greg "The Hammer" Valentine, then the Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion, whom Hart managed at WrestleMania. After Valentine lost the Intercontinental Heavyweight Title to Tito Santana, Hart briefly co-managed the Dream Team (Valentine and Beefcake), until he was phased out and gave full control to "Luscious Johnny" Valiant. At WrestleMania, Hart also managed King Kong Bundy as he defeated S.D. Jones. Hart later traded Bundy's contract to Bobby "The Brain" Heenan for The Missing Link and Adrian Adonis. He helped the latter to establish his "Adorable Adrian" gimmick. Hart also managed Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart. 1985 also marked the appearance of the legendary Bret "Hitman" Hart. Jimmy Hart teamed him up with Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart to form The Hart Foundation. On January 26, 1987, Hart guided the Hart Foundation to the WWF World Tag Team Title, which they won from the British Bulldogs. Disgraced-referee-turned-wrestler Danny Davis also was managed by Jimmy Hart.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In 1985, Hart took the Funk Family under his wing. The Funks included Terry and Hoss Funk, as well as their kayfabe brother Jimmy Jack Funk. Hart wrestled on house shows with the Funks. On July 12, 1986, Hart won a battle royal to receive $50,000 at Madison Square Garden. When The Honky Tonk Man turned heel, Hart became his manager. In this position, Hart was nicknamed "The Colonel" in a reference to Colonel Tom Parker, the manager of Elvis Presley. With Hart in his corner, the Honky Tonk Man captured the Intercontinental Heavyweight Title from Ricky "The Dragon" Steamboat on June 2, 1987, and held it until August 1988. During that time, the Honky Tonk Man feuded with Randy Savage and his manager Miss Elizabeth. "The Colonel" moniker stuck with him for years, even after the Honky Tonk Man departed the company in early 1991. At WrestleMania III, Hart was involved in three matches and took some incredible bumps during the show. His first appearance was with "Adorable Adrian" Adonis who fought Rowdy Roddy Piper. Then came the six-man tag match, pitting the Hart Foundation and Danny Davis against the Bulldogs and Tito Santana. Jimmy Hart's third appearance on the show was when The Honky Tonk Man fought Jake "The Snake" Roberts who had rock legend Alice Cooper in his corner. Following that match, Hart was left alone in the ring where Roberts and Cooper teamed up to terrorise him with Roberts' pet snake Damien. Also in 1987, Hart managed the WWF Women's Tag Team champions Judy Martin and Leilani Kai, known as The Glamour Girls. Martin and Kai mostly feuded with Japanese team the Jumping Bomb Angels (Noriyo Tateno and Itsuki Yamazaki).


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Hart was named "Pro Wrestling Illustrated"'s Manager of the Year in 1987, an award he won again in 1994. At WrestleMania IV, Hart received a haircut from Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake, after interfering in the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship match between Beefcake and the Honky Tonk Man, helping Honky Tonk Man retain the title by getting disqualified. When the Hart Foundation fired Hart as manager (and turned face) in 1988, Hart managed The Fabulous Rougeau Brothers to feud with his former team; the angle was that Hart still retained the managerial rights to his former team and gave a portion of it to the Rougeaus, giving them the right to appear at ringside whenever the Hart Foundation wrestled. At SummerSlam 1988, Hart accompanied Demolition and Mr. Fuji to help retain their WWF Tag Team title against the Hart Foundation. Ax used Hart's megaphone as a foreign object to strike Bret in the head and secure the victory. In 1989, Hart brought Dino Bravo into his stable after the departure of Frenchy Martin. Then at a push-up contest between the Ultimate Warrior and Bravo, Hart and Bravo invited a large 460-pound man from the audience – later known as Earthquake – into the ring to sit on the contestants' backs. Predictably the large man was planted in the audience by Hart and Bravo and they eventually teamed up against the Warrior. In 1990, Hart groomed Earthquake to be the man to beat Hulk Hogan. Hart continued his war with his former tag team, the Hart Foundation. In 1990, he combined his protégés Honky Tonk Man and Greg Valentine into the short-lived team of Rhythm and Blues, though they had teamed previously as themselves when facing the Hart Foundation at WrestleMania V. In 1991, he managed The Nasty Boys to defeat the Hart Foundation for the WWF World Tag Team title at WrestleMania VII, this time using a motorbike helmet as a weapon.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: When the Nasty Boys lost the title to the Legion of Doom at SummerSlam 1991, Hart sent The Natural Disasters, a team formed out of Earthquake and his former opponent Typhoon (formerly known as Tugboat), to depose the new champions. When the Disasters failed, Hart formed a new team in early 1992: Money Inc., composed of Hart's protégé I.R.S. and "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase. Money, Inc. defeated the L.O.D. Their title win led to the split between Hart and the Natural Disasters, who as faces feuded with Money Inc. and exchanged the tag team titles twice in 1992. Their biggest match came at WrestleMania VIII when Money Inc. retained their titles by leaving the ring and forcing a count-out. In 1991, Hart had also brought in The Mountie, who had a short reign as Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion in early 1992 after defeating Bret Hart on January 17, then losing it just two days later to Rowdy Roddy Piper at the Royal Rumble. A few months earlier, The Mountie feuded with the Big Boss Man over who was the "law and order" in the WWF. Their feud culminated in a match at SummerSlam where the loser (in this case The Mountie) had to spend the night in a New York jail. Late in 1992, Money Inc. regaining the tag team titles from the Natural Disasters led to the Nasty Boys turning on their manager, as he had repeatedly substituted them for Money Inc. in title matches.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Hart broke with Money Inc. early in 1993 and turned face when the team attacked Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake. In the storyline, Hart, conscious of Beefcake's extensive facial injuries from a real-life parasailing accident three years prior which required extensive re-constructive surgery to Beefcake's face and all but ended his full-time career, felt that his team went too far, and tried to stop them. Hart even went so far as to cover an unconscious Beefcake with his own body to stop them from doing more harm. Beefcake's long time friend Hulk Hogan came out the following week and expressed gratitude to Hart for his uncharacteristically heroic actions. He managed both Beefcake and Hogan who at WrestleMania IX lost to Money Inc by disqualification. Later in the show, Hart for the first time would be the manager of the WWF World Heavyweight Champion when Hogan accepted an impromptu challenge by Mr. Fuji, the manager of the new champion Yokozuna who had just defeated Bret Hart for the belt. Hogan would defeat the new champion in a short match. At King of the Ring, Hart was in Hogan's corner as he lost the WWF World Heavyweight Title back to Yokozuna. This appearance was Hart's last in the WWF, as both he and Hogan departed the company.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Following their departure from the WWF, Hogan and Hart briefly toured Mexico. After their return, Hart wrote music and occasionally appeared on Hogan's television show, "Thunder in Paradise". Hogan then had Hart manage him when they went to World Championship Wrestling (WCW). At Bash at the Beach in 1994, Hart managed Hogan to win his first WCW World Heavyweight Title by defeating "The Nature Boy" Ric Flair.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: At Halloween Havoc in 1995, Hart turned on Hogan to help The Giant. Hart also became the manager of the evil faction, the Dungeon of Doom, created by Kevin Sullivan. During that era, he managed Ric Flair to a 12th world title victory over Macho Man Randy Savage at Starrcade '95. After the demise of the Dungeon of Doom, Hart recreated The First Family. After the demise of the First Family, Hart was placed in charge of booking TBS's "WCW Saturday Night" show prior to the program's cancellation. Hart wrestled on April 18, 1999, to defeat Bubba the Love Sponge by disqualification at a house show. On November 15, he wrestled WCW Monday Nitro losing to Norman Smiley in a Hardcore match. Jimmy Hart was also the first Strapmaster for the Yapapi Indian strap match in which Hulk Hogan defeated Ric Flair on March 19, 2000, at the Uncensored PPV. At Spring Stampede in 2000, Hart faced radio personality Mancow. The two had a rematch later in the year at Mayhem. In February 2001, Hart joined WCW's booking committee.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: After the sale of WCW to the then rival WWF, Hart and a close consortium of wrestlers and investors decided to create a wrestling organization—the Xcitement Wrestling Federation (XWF)—that would replace WCW as well as take wrestling back to early 1990s style of fun, family-oriented entertainment with minimal story lines and more solid wrestling. In 2002, Hart restarted his feud with Jerry Lawler by buying, for the XWF, part of the upstart Memphis Wrestling promotion. Hart would wrestle for Memphis Wrestling from 2003 to 2005. He lost to Jimmy Valiant in a Loser Eats Dog Food match on August 2, 2003. In 2007, Hart appeared at the PMG Clash of Legends. On November 7, 2008, Hart appeared at the Jerry "The King" Lawler 35th anniversary event. He also made a few appearances with Florida Championship Wrestling, WWE's developmental territory, as a color commentator in 2008. He made multiple appearances for WrestleMania Axxess during the week leading up to The 25th Anniversary of WrestleMania.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In May 2006, Hart traveled to The Funking Conservatory, owned by Dory Funk Jr and Marti Funk, to shoot promos with the students. His most notable ones being with Studio Sar Ah when he discusses his move from World Wrestling Entertainment to TNA Wrestling and as well as Wrestlicious. Both promos can be found on the Studio Sar Ah fan page on Facebook and as well as YouTube. Hart continues to work at the school and shoot promos. On January 19, 2010, Hart announced that his all-female wrestling promotion Wrestlicious would be premiering on MavTV and BiteTV on March 1, 2010. He wrestled at Pro Wrestling Guerrilla's Kurt RussellReunion II: The Reunioning in a battle royal won by Roddy Piper. On January 12, 2012, he wrestled at PWS WrestleReunion VI in battle royal won by The Godfather. Hart currently appears at various professional wrestling conventions and autograph signings around the United States. He is a staple at all of the Wrestlereunion shows, and also does various appearances as part of the VOC Nation wrestling radio program in Philadelphia on 1360 WNJC. Hart is a regular guest on the VOC Wrestling Nation radio program on WNJC.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In October 2003 Hart made his debut for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), hyping a match between Hulk Hogan and Jeff Jarrett, which was eventually scrapped as Hogan decided to return to WWE instead. On June 19, 2005, at Slammiversary pay-per-view, The Naturals were assisted in a title defense against Team Canada by Hart, who ran to ringside and threw his megaphone to Chase Stevens, who hit Petey Williams with it and pinned him. Hart acted as the manager of The Naturals until October 3, 2005. On February 14, 2010, at Against All Odds, Hart made his return to TNA as a heel by helping The Nasty Boys defeat Team 3D in a tag team match. The alliance, however, was short-lived, as on March 29, 2010, news broke that the Nasty Boys had been released by TNA following an incident at a TNA function with Spike executives present. Hart stayed with the company following the incident, but his role was unknown. Hart was seen on the January 20, 2011, edition of "Impact!", when Kurt Angle yelled at him to play his entrance music upon entering the Impact! Zone.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: On March 1, 2011, it was reported that Jimmy Hart had left Total Nonstop Action Wrestling and re-signed with WWE to work on WrestleMania-related projects. Hart has since hosted various house shows. On August 14, 2011, Hart made an appearance at SummerSlam, teasing a managerial position with R-Truth during a backstage segment. On April 10, 2012, Hart made an appearance on SmackDown: Blast from the Past, where he managed the team of Heath Slater and Tyson Kidd, but ended up getting the mandible claw from Mick Foley.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: As of April 30, 2014, Hart was part-owner of "Hogan's Beach", a wrestling-themed tiki-bar in Tampa, Florida. As of April 2014, Hart was a regular cast member on the WWE Network original reality show Legends' House.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In April 2017, Hart purchased a beachfront property in Daytona Beach, Florida, and opened “Jimmy Hart’s Hall of Fame Bar and Tiki Deck“, which is a beach bar featuring an abundance of autographed pictures, wrestling paraphernalia, and at times an intercontinental championship belt.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: On January 4, 2021, he made an appearance on the RAW Legends Night where he was involved in a segment with Hulk Hogan, Drew McIntyre and Sheamus.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: His book, "The Mouth of the South", was released on November 18, 2004. Jimmy has also appeared in "Life: for sale" a YouTube series created by Koncrete Inc., which has Benjamin Mallah as its lead.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Before wrestling, Hart, as a teenager, was a vocalist in the 60s band The Gentrys, who had a million selling record with 1965's "Keep on Dancing". Before becoming The Gentrys, they were known as just "The Gents." Their production manager told them that if they did not change their name, then they would not succeed in the music industry. Later, after the leader of the group Larry Raspberry left, Hart took over and they had a few minor hits, most notably "Why Should I Cry" and a cover of Neil Young's "Cinnamon Girl", but were never able to match the success of "Keep on Dancing." Hart and the band were successful in the Memphis area nightclub circuit. The group was under contract to Stax Records at the time of its bankruptcy, and Stax could not properly promote them.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: During his years in the professional wrestling business, Hart composed many theme songs for wrestlers in the WWF and WCW. Some of the wrestlers for whom he composed music were Honky Tonk Man, Jimmy Snuka, Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake, The Rockers, The Hart Foundation, Crush, the Fabulous Rougeau Brothers, Dusty Rhodes, the Legion of Doom, the Nasty Boys, Ted DiBiase, the Mountie, Hulk Hogan, Sting, the nWo Wolfpac, and 3 Count. He also composed the themes for "SummerSlam '88" (which was later reused as the theme for many early "Royal Rumble" events) and "WrestleMania VI" (which was later used for the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth events). One of Hart's most notable compositions is Shawn Michaels's entrance theme, "Sexy Boy."


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In the late 1980s, Hart released a music album (also available on cassette tape) titled "Outrageous Conduct". The release consisted of comical songs done in character; such as "Barbra Streisand's Nose" and "Eat Your Heart Out Rick Springfield." In 1995, Hulk Hogan released the album "Hulk Rules, on Select Records." Hart, as well as Hogan's then wife Linda, were a part of the band The Wrestling Boot Band and helped write and sing many of the album's songs.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In September 2007, Hart appeared on an episode of "The People's Court" as a witness for a defendant. Hart is a close friend of Hulk Hogan and is featured on many episodes of Hogan's VH1 reality series, "Hogan Knows Best". Hart was also a judge on "Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling". Hart also appears in hair restoration advertisements for Medical Hair Restoration, as a client. He also does a comedic women's wrestling show called Wrestlicious, which can be viewed at Wrestlicious.com. Hart appeared on the WWE Legends' House. Hart has appeared a few times in Hulk Hogan's TV-show Thunder in Paradise. He also sang the intro music for the episode "Deadly Lessons, Pt. 1".


title: Jimmy Hart

text: Jimmy Hart is a constant on Life for Sale with real estate investor Ben Mallah — the $250,000,000 Real Estate Mogul.


title: Jimmy Hart

text: In 1967, Hart appeared in the film "It's a Bikini World" as a member of "The Gentrys." In 2010, Hart appeared in the Insane Clown Posse's film "Big Money Rustlas". In 2011, Hart appeared as himself in the Canadian movie "Monster Brawl." Hart played the announcer to a wrestling tournament of eight classic monsters that fight to the death.


title: Modal verb

text: A modal verb is a type of verb that contextually indicates a modality such as a "likelihood", "ability", "permission", "request", "capacity", "suggestion", "order", "obligation", or "advice". Modal verbs generally accompany the base (infinitive) form of another verb having semantic content. In English, the modal verbs commonly used are "can", "could", "may", "might", "shall", "should", "will", "would", "ought to", "used to", "dare" and "must."


title: Modal verb

text: A modal auxiliary verb gives information about the function of the main verb that it governs. Modals have a wide variety of communicative functions, but these functions can generally be related to a scale ranging from possibility ("may") to necessity ("must"), in terms of one of the following types of modality:


title: Modal verb

text: An ambiguous case is "You must speak Spanish." The primary meaning would be the deontic meaning ("You are required to speak Spanish.") but this may be intended epistemically ("It is surely the case that you speak Spanish").


title: Modal verb

text: Epistemic modals can be analyzed as raising verbs, while deontic modals can be analyzed as control verbs.


title: Modal verb

text: Epistemic usages of modals tend to develop from deontic usages. For example, the inferred certainty sense of English "must" developed after the strong obligation sense; the probabilistic sense of "should" developed after the weak obligation sense; and the possibility senses of "may" and "can" developed later than the permission or ability sense. Two typical sequences of evolution of modal meanings are:


title: Modal verb

text: The following table lists the modal auxiliary verbs of standard English and various senses in which they are used:


title: Modal verb

text: The verbs/expressions "dare", "ought to", "had better", and "need not" behave like modal auxiliaries to a large extent, although they are not productive (in linguistics, the extent commonly or frequently used) in the role to the same extent as those listed here. Furthermore, there are numerous other verbs that can be viewed as modal verbs insofar as they clearly express modality in the same way that the verbs in this list do, e.g. "appear", "have to", "seem" etc. In the strict sense, though, these other verbs do not qualify as modal verbs in English because they do not allow subject-auxiliary inversion, nor do they allow negation with "not". Verbs such as "be able to" and "be about to" allow subject-auxiliary inversion and do not require "do"-support in negatives but these are rarely classified as modal verbs because they inflect and are a modal construction involving the verb "to be" which itself is not a modal verb. If, however, one defines "modal verb" entirely in terms of meaning contribution, then these other verbs would also be modals and so the list here would have to be greatly expanded.


title: Modal verb

text: In English, modals form a very distinctive class of verbs. They are auxiliary verbs as are "be", "do", and "have", but unlike those three verbs, they are grammatically "defective". For example, "have" → "has" vs. "should" → "*shoulds" and "do" → "did" vs. "may" → "*mayed", etc. In clauses that contain two or more verbs, any modal that is present always appears leftmost in the verb catena (chain). Thus, modal verbs are always finite and, in terms of syntactic structure, the root of their containing clause. The following dependency grammar trees illustrate this point:


title: Modal verb

text: The verb catenae are in blue. The modal auxiliary in both trees is the root of the entire sentence. The verb that is immediately subordinate to the modal is always an infinitive. The fact that modal auxiliaries in English are necessarily finite means that within the minimal finite clause that contains them, they can never be subordinate to another verb, e.g.,


title: Modal verb

text: Such limits in form (tense, etc.) and syntactic distribution of this class of verbs are motivation of the designation "defective". Other constructions are frequently used for such a "missing" form in place of a modal, including "be able to" for "can", "have to" for "must", and "be going to" for "shall" and "will" (designating the future). It is of note that in this way, English modal auxiliaries are unlike modal verbs in other closely related languages; see below.


title: Modal verb

text: In English, main verbs but not modal verbs always require the auxiliary verb "do" to form negations and questions, and "do" can be used with main verbs to form emphatic affirmative statements. (Neither negations nor questions in early modern English used to require "do".) Since modal verbs are auxiliary verbs as is "do", in questions and negations they appear in the word order the same as "do".


title: Modal verb

text: Some form of auxiliary "do" occurs in all West Germanic languages except Afrikaans. Its occurrence in the Frisian languages is restricted to Saterland Frisian, where it may be a loan from Low German. In both German and Dutch, the construction has been known since the Middle Ages and is common in dialects, but is considered ungrammatical in the modern standard language. The Duden lists the following three potential uses of ("to do") in modern German, with only the first being considered standard:


title: Modal verb

text: The English modal verbs share many features and often etymology with modal verbs in other Germanic languages.


title: Modal verb

text: The table below lists some modal verbs with common roots in the West Germanic languages English, German, Dutch, Low Saxon, West Frisian and Afrikaans, the North Germanic languages Danish, Swedish and Faroese, and the extinct East Germanic Gothic language. This list comprises cognates, which evolved from old Germanic modal auxiliaries. It does not attempt to be complete for any one of the modern languages, as some verbs have lost or gained modal character later in separate languages. (English modal auxiliary verb provides an exhaustive list of modal verbs in English, and German verb#Modal verbs provides a list for German, with translations. Dutch verbs#Irregular verbs gives conjugations for some Dutch modals.)


title: Modal verb

text: Words in the same row of the table below share the same etymological root. Because of semantic drift, however, words in the same row may no longer be proper translations of each other. For instance, the English and German verbs "will" are completely different in meaning, and the German one has nothing to do with constructing the future tense. These words are false friends.


title: Modal verb

text: In (modern) English, Afrikaans, Danish, and Swedish, the plural and singular forms are identical. For German, Dutch, Low Saxon, West Frisian, Faroese and Gothic, both a (not "the") plural and a singular form of the verb are shown. Forms within parentheses are obsolete, rare, and/or mainly dialectal in the modern languages.


title: Modal verb

text: The English "could" is the preterite form of "can"; "should" is the preterite of "shall"; "might" is the preterite of "may"; and "must" was originally the preterite form of "mote". (This is ignoring the use of "may" as a vestige of the subjunctive mood in English.) These verbs have acquired an independent, present tense meaning. The German verb "möchten" is sometimes taught as a vocabulary word and included in the list of modal verbs, but it is actually the past subjunctive form of "mögen".


title: Modal verb

text: The English verbs dare and need have both a modal use ("he dare not do it"), and a non-modal use ("he doesn't dare to do it"). The Dutch, West Frisian, and Afrikaans verbs "durven", "doarre", and "durf" are not considered modals (but they are there, nevertheless) because their modal use has disappeared, but they have a non-modal use analogous with the English "dare". Some English modals consist of more than one word, such as "had better" and "would rather".


title: Modal verb

text: Owing to their modal characteristics, modal verbs are among a very select group of verbs in Afrikaans that have a preterite form. Most verbs in Afrikaans only have a present and a perfect form.


title: Modal verb

text: Some other English verbs express modality although they are not modal verbs because they are not auxiliaries, including want, wish, hope, and like. All of these differ from the modals in English (with the disputed exception of ought (to)) in that the associated main verb takes its long infinitive form with the particle "to" rather than its short form without "to", and in that they are fully conjugated.


title: Modal verb

text: Germanic modal verbs are preterite-present verbs, which means that their present tense has the form of a vocalic preterite. This is the source of the vowel alternation between singular and plural in German, Dutch, and Low Saxon. Because of their preterite origins, modal verbs also lack the suffix (-s in modern English, -t in German, Dutch, Low Saxon and West Frisian, -r in the North Germanic languages, -þ in Gothic) that would normally mark the third person singular form. Afrikaans verbs do not conjugate, and thus Afrikaans non-modal verbs do not have a suffix either:


title: Modal verb

text: The main verb that is modified by the modal verb is in the infinitive form and is "not" preceded by the word "to" (German: "zu", Low Saxon "to", Dutch and West Frisian "te", Afrikaans "om te",). There are verbs that may seem somewhat similar in meaning to modal verbs (e.g. "like", "want"), but the construction with such verbs would be different:


title: Modal verb

text: Similarly, in North Germanic languages, the infinitive marker ("at" in Danish and Faroese, "att" in Swedish) is not used for main verbs with modal auxiliaries: "Han kan arbejde", "han kan arbeta", "hann kann arbeiða" (he can work). However, there also are some other constructions where the infinitive marker need not be employed, as in Swedish "han försöker arbeta" (he tries to work).


title: Modal verb

text: In English, modal verbs are called defective verbs because of their incomplete conjugation: They have a narrower range of functions than ordinary verbs. For example, most have no infinitive or gerund.