title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard did little to stop the stories that he had a courageous wartime service in the British Army's Royal Corps of Signals, which earned him much respect among fellow actors and fans. However, as set out in a 2001 biography of Howard by the journalist Terence Pettigrew, files held in the Public Record Office revealed he had actually been discharged from the British Army in 1943 for mental instability and having a "psychopathic personality". Initially Howard's widow, actress Helen Cherry, denied this, but after being confronted with the official records, she said that Howard's mother had claimed he was a holder of the Military Cross adding that her late husband had an honourable military record with "nothing to be ashamed of".


title: Trevor Howard

text: "The London Gazette" shows that Trevor Wallace Howard-Smith (247202) was actually commissioned into the South Staffordshire Regiment as a Second lieutenant effective 3 October 1942, but he had relinquished his commission on 2 October 1943 "on account of "ill-health", still a 2nd lieutenant, contradicting the stories that he had been a captain in the Royal Corps of Signals.


title: Trevor Howard

text: After a theatrical role in "The Recruiting Officer" (1943), Howard began working in films with an uncredited part "The Way Ahead" (1944), directed by Carol Reed. He was in a big stage hit, "A Soldier for Christmas" (1944), and a production of Eugene O'Neill's "Anna Christie" (1944). Howard received his first credit for "The Way to the Stars" (1945), playing a pilot.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard's performance in "The Way Ahead" came to the attention of David Lean, who was looking for someone to play the role of Alec in "Brief Encounter" (1945). Lean recommended him to Noël Coward, who agreed with the suggestion, and the success of the film launched Howard's film career.


title: Trevor Howard

text: He followed it with "I See a Dark Stranger" (1946) with Deborah Kerr, and "Green for Danger" (1947), starring Alastair Sim. Both films were successful as was "They Made Me a Fugitive" (1947). That year British exhibitors voted Howard the 10th most popular British star at the box office. "So Well Remembered" (1948) was made with American talent and money and was a hit in Britain but lost money overall. Howard was reunited with Lean for "The Passionate Friends" (1949), but the film was not a success.


title: Trevor Howard

text: However, "The Third Man" (1949), which Howard starred in alongside Orson Welles and Joseph Cotten for Carol Reed from a story by Graham Greene, was a huge international success, and became the film of which Howard was most proud. During filming in Vienna, Howard was keen to get to his favourite bar for a drink as soon as filming had finished for the evening. On one occasion Howard was in too much of a hurry to change out of his uniform as a British Army major. After a few drinks, he got into an argument and attracted the attention of the Military Police who detained him for impersonating a British officer. The MPs, being non-commissioned officers, then had to summon an officer to arrest him. On the lieutenant's arrival the matter was settled by an apology.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard was the lead in "Golden Salamander" (1950) and played Peter Churchill in "Odette" (1950) with Anna Neagle, a big hit in Britain. It was directed by Herbert Wilcox who put Howard under contract. He loaned Howard to Betty Box and Ralph Thomas to make "The Clouded Yellow" (1950), a popular thriller with Jean Simmons. These films helped Howard be voted the 2nd biggest British star at the box office in 1950 and the 5th biggest (and eleventh bigger over-all) in 1951.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard was reunited with Carol Reed for "Outcast of the Islands" (1952) and he made a war film, "Gift Horse" (1952). That year he made his final appearance in Britain's ten most popular actors, coming in at number nine. He was in another adaptation of a Graham Greene story, "The Heart of the Matter" (1953). Greene also wrote and produced Howard's next film, the British-Italian "The Stranger's Hand" (1954).


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard was in a French movie, "The Lovers of Lisbon" (1955), then supported Jose Ferrer in a war film from Warwick Pictures, "The Cockleshell Heroes" (1955), which was popular in Britain.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard's first Hollywood film was "Run for the Sun" (1956), where he played a villain to Richard Widmark's hero. He made a cameo in "Around the World in 80 Days" (1956) and again played a villain to an American star, Victor Mature, in Warwick's "Interpol" (1957).


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard starred in "Manuela" (1957) then supported William Holden in Carol Reed's "The Key" (1958), for which he received the Best Actor award from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts. When William Holden dropped out of the lead of "The Roots of Heaven" (1958), Howard stepped in - the star part in a Hollywood film (although top billing went to Errol Flynn).


title: Trevor Howard

text: After a thriller "Moment of Danger" (1960) he was in "Sons and Lovers" (1960), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor. He was nominated for a BAFTA on four other occasions. and received two other Emmy nominations, one as a lead and the other as a supporting actor. He also received three Golden Globe Award nominations.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard was reunited with Holden for "The Lion" (1962). He was Captain Bligh to Marlon Brando's Fletcher Christian in MGM's remake of "Mutiny on the Bounty" (1962). He was in a TV movie production of "Hedda Gabler" (1962) and played the title prime minister in "The Invincible Mr Disraeli" (1963), an episode of the "Hallmark Hall of Fame" for which he won an Emmy Award for his role then supported Robert Mitchum in "Man in the Middle" (1964) and Cary Grant in "Father Goose" (1964). After a cameo in "Operation Crossbow" (1965), Howard supported Frank Sinatra in "Von Ryan's Express" (1965), Brando and Yul Brynner in "Morituri" (1965), and Rod Taylor in "The Liquidator" (1965). After a leading role in "The Poppy Is Also a Flower" (1966) he made two movies with Brynner, "Triple Cross" (1966) and "The Long Duel" (1967).


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard had a change of pace supporting Hayley Mills in "Pretty Polly" (1968). He went back to military roles: "The Charge of the Light Brigade" (1968), as Lord Cardigan, and "Battle of Britain" (1969), as Air Vice Marshal Keith Park. He had support parts in "Lola" (1969) and "Ryan's Daughter" (1970), the latter for David Lean.


title: Trevor Howard

text: He made a Swedish film "The Night Visitor" (1971) then settled into a career as a character actor: "To Catch a Spy" (1971), supporting Kirk Douglas; "Mary, Queen of Scots" (1971), as Sir William Cecil; "Kidnapped" (1971); "Pope Joan" (1972); "Ludwig" (1972); "The Offence" (1972), with Sean Connery; "A Doll's House" (1973), for Joseph Losey; "Who?" (1974), supporting Elliott Gould; and "Catholics" (1974) for British TV.


title: Trevor Howard

text: He appeared in some horror films - "Craze" (1974), "Persecution" (1974) - and the more prestigious "11 Harrowhouse" (1974), in which his wife Helen Cherry starred with him. In "The Count of Monte Cristo (1975)", he mentored Richard Chamberlain. He played military men in "Hennessy" (1975) and "Conduct Unbecoming" (1975). Around this time he complained that he had to work so hard because of the high rate of tax in Britain.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard could be found in "Albino" (1976), shot in Rhodesia; "The Bawdy Adventures of Tom Jones" (1976); "Aces High" (1976); "Eliza Fraser" (1976), shot in Australia; "The Last Remake of Beau Geste" (1977); and "Stevie" (1978). He was one of many names in "Superman" (1978), "Hurricane" (1979), "Meteor" (1979) and "The Sea Wolves" (1980). He appeared in a TV series "Shillingbury Tales" (1980–81). One of his strangest films, and one he took great delight in, was Vivian Stanshall's "Sir Henry at Rawlinson End" (1980), in which he played the title role. He and Celia Johnson from "Brief Encounter" were reunited in "Staying On" (1980) for British TV.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard appeared in some prestigious movies towards the end of his career: "The Deadly Game" (1982), "The Missionary" (1982), "Gandhi" (1982), "George Washington" (1984), "Shaka Zulu" (1986), "Dust" (1985), and "Peter the Great" (1986).


title: Trevor Howard

text: At the time of filming "White Mischief" (1988) on location in Kenya during 1987, Howard was seriously ill and suffering from alcoholism. The company wanted to sack him, but co-star Sarah Miles was determined that Howard's distinguished film career would not end that way. In an interview with Terence Pettigrew for his biography of Howard, Miles describes how she gave an ultimatum to the executives, threatening to quit the production if they got rid of him.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Throughout his film career Howard insisted that all his contracts include a clause excusing him from work whenever a cricket Test match was being played.


title: Trevor Howard

text: Howard recorded two Shakespeare performances, the first, recorded in the 1960s, was as Petruchio opposite Margaret Leighton's Kate in Caedmon Records' complete recording of "The Taming of the Shrew"; the second was in the title role of "King Lear" for the BBC World Service in 1986.


title: Trevor Howard

text: He married stage and screen actress Helen Cherry. He died on 7 January 1988 from hepatic failure and cirrhosis of the liver in Arkley, Barnet, aged 74.


title: Trevor Howard

text: A British government document leaked to the "Sunday Times" in 2003 shows that Howard was among almost 300 individuals to decline official honours. He declined a CBE in 1982.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Ilyushin Il-28 (; NATO reporting name: Beagle) is a jet bomber of the immediate postwar period that was originally manufactured for the Soviet Air Forces. It was the Soviet Union's first such aircraft to enter large-scale production. It was also licence-built in China as the Harbin H-5. Total production in the USSR was 6,316 aircraft, and over 319 H-5s were built. Only 187 examples of the HJ-5 training variant were manufactured. In the 1990s hundreds remained in service with various air forces over 50 years after the Il-28 first appeared. The only H-5s in service currently are approximately 80 aircraft which operate with the Korean People's Air Force.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Il-28 has the USAF/DoD reporting name "Type 27" and NATO reporting name "Beagle", while the Il-28U trainer variant has the USAF/DoD reporting name "Type 30" and NATO reporting name Mascot.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: After a number of attempts at a four-engined bomber (the Lyulka TR-1 powered Ilyushin Il-22 and the unbuilt Rolls-Royce Derwent powered Ilyushin Il-24), the Ilyushin Design Bureau began development of a new jet-powered tactical bomber in late 1947. Western Intelligence focused on the four-engine developments while the twin-engine Ilyushin Il-28 was created to meet a requirement for a bomber to carry a bombload at . The new design took advantage of the sale of a number of Rolls-Royce Nene jet engines by Great Britain to the Soviet Union, which allowed Soviet engineers to quickly produce an unlicensed copy of the Nene, the RD-45, with Ilyushin designing the new bomber around two RD-45s.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Il-28 was smaller than the previous designs and carried a crew of only three (pilot, navigator and gunner). It was also smaller than the competing design from the Tupolev design bureau, the three-engined (i.e. two Nenes and a Rolls-Royce Derwent) Tupolev Tu-73, which had been started long before the Ilyushin project, and flew before the design of the Il-28 was approved.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Il-28 design was conventional in layout, with high, unswept wings and a swept horizontal tail and fin. The engines were carried in bulky nacelles slung directly under the wings. The nosewheel retracted rearwards, while the mainwheels retracted forwards into the engine nacelles. The crew of three were accommodated in separate, pressurised compartments. The navigator, who also acted as bombardier, was accommodated in the glazed nose compartment and was provided with an OPB-5 bombsight based on the American Norden bombsight of the Second World War, while the pilot sat under a sideways opening bubble canopy with an armoured windscreen. The gunner sat in a separate compartment at the rear of the fuselage, operating a power driven turret armed with two Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 23 mm cannons with 250 rounds each. In service, the turret was sometimes removed as a weight saving measure. While the pilot and navigator sat on ejector seats, the gunner had to parachute out of a hatch in the floor in the event of an emergency. Two more fixed, forward-firing 23 mm cannon with 100 rounds each were mounted under the nose and fired by the pilot, while a bomb bay was located in the fuselage, capable of holding four 100 kg (220 lb) bombs in individual containers, or single large bombs of up to 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) slung from a beam in the bomb bay.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: One unusual design feature of the Il-28 was that the wings and tail were split horizontally through the centre of the wing, while the fuselage was split vertically at the centreline, allowing the separate parts to be built individually and fitted out with systems before being bolted together to complete assembly of the aircraft. This slightly increased the weight of the aircraft structure, but eased manufacture and proved to be more economical.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The first prototype, powered by two imported Nenes, made its maiden flight on 8 July 1948, with Vladimir Kokkinaki at the controls. Testing was successful, with the Il-28 demonstrating good handling and reaching a speed of 833 km/h (518 mph). It was followed on 30 December 1948 by the second prototype, with Soviet built RD-45 engines replacing the Nenes. After the completion of state tests in early 1949 the aircraft was ordered into large scale production on 14 May 1949, with the Klimov VK-1, an improved version of the RD-45 to be used in order to improve the aircraft's performance. The first pre-production aircraft with VK-1 engines flew on 8 August 1949, and featured reshaped engine nacelles to reduce drag, while the radome for the navigation radar was moved from the rear fuselage to just aft of the nosewheel.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: Full production in three factories started in September 1949, with service deliveries starting in early 1950, allowing 25 Il-28s to be displayed at the Moscow May Day parade of 1950 (as ordered by Joseph Stalin when it was ordered into production in 1949). The Il-28 soon became the standard tactical bomber in the Soviet forces and was widely exported.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Il-28 was widely exported, serving in the air arms of some 20 nations ranging from the Warsaw Pact to various Middle-Eastern and African air forces. Egypt was an early customer, and targeting Egyptian Il-28s on the ground was a priority for the Royal Air Force during the Suez Crisis and later by the Israeli Air Force during the Six-Day War, and Yom Kippur War.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: Egyptian Il-28s also took part in the North Yemen Civil War, starting in 1963. In addition to attacks on the royalist forces, they also bombed the Saudi cities of Jizan, Najran, and Khamis Mushait. Two Egyptian Il-28s may have been shot down near Sanaa by Royal Saudi Air Force Hawker Hunters flown by British pilots, in 1966.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Soviet Union was in the process of providing the type for local assembly in Cuba when this was halted by the Cuban Missile Crisis, after which Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove them. The type also saw limited use in Vietnam and with the Afghan forces in Afghanistan. Four ex-Egyptian and two ex-Soviet Il-28s (all with Egyptian crews) were operated by the Nigerian Air Force in the Biafra Wars. Finland also had four examples of this type delivered between 1961 and 1966 for target-towing duties. They remained in service until the 1980s.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The Soviet Union had relegated the Il-28 to second-line duties by the late-1950s. The supersonic Yak-28 was introduced in the early 1960s to take over the Beagle's low-level attack role; some Il-28 variants lingered in Soviet service into the 1980s. The last Soviet-built examples were still flying in Egypt into the 1990s.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The People's Republic of China received over 250 Soviet-built Il-28s from 1952, and when the Sino-Soviet split occurred in the late 1950s, it decided to place the Il-28 into production, despite no manufacturing license being obtained. Chinese-built aircraft differed from the original Soviet aircraft in that they have a redesigned wing structure, abandoning the horizontal manufacturing break, saving at the cost of a more difficult construction. Chinese aircraft also used a different tail turret based on that of the Tupolev Tu-16, and fitted with faster-firing AM-23 cannons.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: Chinese-built Il-28s designated H-5 and built by HAMC were still flying in the 1990s with several hundreds in China itself, and a smaller number in North Korea and Romania. The three main Chinese versions are the H-5 bomber, followed by the HJ-5 trainer, and the H-5R (HZ-5) long range (in comparison to the reconnaissance version of the Shenyang J-6) reconnaissance aircraft, and later, the HD-5 ECM/ESM version. The latter two types have been phased out.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: The type is known to still be in active service with the North Korean Air Force, although little is known as to whether they are a mix of survivors from the batch of 24 Soviet-manufactured aircraft delivered in the 1960s and some of the newer Chinese-built H-5 variant, or are solely H-5s. Some of these are probably used for spares to maintain a small group of around a dozen serviceable aircraft. They give North Korea a means of bombing targets in South Korea and Western Japan, although they would be vulnerable to modern anti air missiles and interceptors.


title: Ilyushin Il-28

text: Several Ilyushin Il-28s are preserved in museums and as monuments in Russia, Germany, Hungary and in other countries.


title: Sliver (film)

text: Sliver is a 1993 American erotic thriller film based on the Ira Levin novel of the same name about the mysterious occurrences in a privately owned New York high-rise sliver building. Phillip Noyce directed the film, from a screenplay by Joe Eszterhas. Because of a major battle with the MPAA (which originally gave the film an NC-17 rating), the filmmakers were forced to make extensive reshoots before release. These reshoots actually necessitated changing the killer's identity. The film stars Sharon Stone, William Baldwin, and Tom Berenger. When he signed on to direct the film, Noyce remarked, "I liked the script a lot. Or at least, I liked the idea of jumping on the Joe Eszterhas bandwagon."


title: Sliver (film)

text: Carly Norris, a book editor and divorcee in her mid-30s, moves into the exclusive New York City sliver building "113". She meets other tenants including Zeke, a video game designer; Jack, a novelist; Vida, a fashion model who moonlights as a call girl; and Gus, a professor of videography at New York University. They tell Carly that she bears a striking resemblance to Naomi Singer, the previous tenant of her apartment who fell to her death from her balcony.


title: Sliver (film)

text: After running into Zeke numerous times, Carly invites him to her housewarming party. Soon afterwards, they begin a sexual relationship. Meanwhile, Jack starts stalking Carly and warning her about Zeke who he says is "sick". As Jack's behavior becomes more erratic, Gus dies under suspicious circumstances and Vida is murdered by Jack. Zeke reveals to Carly that he is the owner of 113, which he bought with his inheritance from his wealthy father. As owner of 113, Zeke has installed a comprehensive video surveillance system throughout the building, allowing him to spy on all of the tenants from his own secret surveillance room. Through deduction and eventually one of Zeke's secret recordings, Carly learns that Jack killed Naomi in a crime of passion. Jack was jealous of Zeke, who had sexual relations with both Naomi and Vida. Jack attacks Carly in her own apartment, and she accidentally shoots him dead.


title: Sliver (film)

text: Angry at Zeke for withholding evidence in Naomi's murder, and jealous of his liaisons with Naomi and Vida, Carly destroys Zeke's surveillance room, tells him to "get a life", then leaves.


title: Sliver (film)

text: In the film, the tall and narrow sliver building is located at 113 East 38th Street in Manhattan, placing it at 38th Street and Park Avenue. The actual building used in the film is known as Morgan Court, located at 211 Madison Avenue New York, one block west and two blocks south of the fictional address. The building has since become a condominium development. It was built in 1985 and has 32 floors. While the movie made use of the building's courtyard, the lobby was a Los Angeles film set.


title: Sliver (film)

text: In the film's original ending Zeke, instead of Jack, turns out to be the antagonist. He and Carly fly over a Hawaiian volcano when Zeke suddenly confesses his crimes. He then veers the aircraft into the volcano as the end credits roll and leaves the audience to decide whether they survive.


title: Sliver (film)

text: The shooting of the final scene resulted in the crashing of the helicopter. After an investigation the pilot's certificate was temporarily suspended. The footage shot during the flight was destroyed.


title: Sliver (film)

text: Preview audiences disliked the idea of Carly turning immoral. In the helicopter scene, she tells Zeke that the evidence against him is "somewhere safe", implying she is willing to cover up his crimes.


title: Sliver (film)

text: The film premiered on May 19, 1993, at Mann National Theatre in Los Angeles. It was released two days later, on May 21, and received negative reviews from critics. Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 11% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 3.61/10. The site's critics consensus reads ""Sliver" is an absurd erotic thriller with technobabble and posits prime Sharon Stone as a professional book nerd." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 38 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Sliver (film)

text: The main criticisms were that the film provided little in the way of compelling thriller elements, the script diluted the plot of the novel, the characters were underdeveloped, and the actors were not on form. Critics argued that compared to Sharon Stone's role as a femme fatale in "Basic Instinct" the year prior, her portrayal in "Sliver" as a passive character who has to be "lured into sexual intrigue" is unconvincing. "The" "Austin Chronicle" stated, "There's no suspense, no drama, no tension, no logic. It makes you appreciate all the craft that went into "Basic Instinct"".


title: Sliver (film)

text: Another criticism was that the film did not have anything insightful to say on the themes of voyeurism and surveillance. Peter Rainer of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "There’s no emotional pull to the neo-Gothic world in "'Sliver",' where people connect up by video monitor and computer with occasional forays in the flesh. It’s no news that we like to watch. But first you must give us something worth watching." Lastly, many critics also singled out the editing and ending, calling the latter hasty and unconvincing. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "C−" on a scale from A+ to F.


title: Sliver (film)

text: Director Phillip Noyce claimed he had to make 110 edits to the film in order to avoid an NC-17 rating.


title: Sliver (film)

text: According to a Showtime special about the film before the late-night premiere showing of the original NC-17 version, the debate over the NC-17 versus R-rating was linked solely to the display of male frontal nudity. However, when Paramount released the unrated version to video there was no male frontal nudity included, though the sex scenes were considerably more graphic.


title: Sliver (film)

text: The film debuted at No. 1 at the box office making $12.1 million in 2,093 theaters. By the second week the box office taking dropped to No. 6. "Sliver" eventually grossed $36.3 million domestically and $87.6 million internationally to a total of $123.9 million worldwide.


title: Sliver (film)

text: When originally released on VHS, the film was released in both an R-rated and an unrated version (the original NC-17 version). In March 2006, to coincide with the theatrical release of "Basic Instinct 2", which starred Stone, "Sliver" was released on DVD. Only the unrated cut was made commercially available, but the R-rated cut was distributed for rental. There are no special features and although the film was presented theatrically in the 2.35 aspect ratio, the DVD features a matted, 2.10 aspect ratio transfer. In 2013, the film was released on Blu-ray, using the same matted 2.10 aspect ratio version of the R-rated theatrical cut.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Star Trek: The Animated Series (TAS), is an American animated science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry. It originally aired as The Animated Adventures of Gene Roddenberry's Star Trek at Saturday mornings from September 8, 1973, to October 12, 1974, on NBC, spanning 22 episodes over two seasons. The second series in the "Star Trek" franchise, it features mostly the same characters as "". Set in the 23rd century, when Earth is part of a United Federation of Planets, it follows the adventures of the Starfleet vessel USS "Enterprise" as it explores the Milky Way galaxy.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: After the cancellation of "The Original Series" ("TOS") in 1969, the live action show proved popular in syndication and generated significant fan enthusiasm. This resulted in Roddenberry's decision to continue the series in animated form. Much of the original cast returned to provide voice-overs for their characters. Show writers David Gerrold and D. C. Fontana characterized "The Animated Series" as effectively a fourth season of "The Original Series". After the conclusion of "The Animated Series", the adventures of the characters continued in live-action theatrical films, the first being the 1979 film "".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "The Animated Series" was critically acclaimed and was the first "Star Trek" series to win an Emmy Award when its second season won the 1975 Emmy for Outstanding Entertainment – Children's Series.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "Star Trek: The Animated Series" is set in the 23rd century in the "Star Trek" universe, in which Earth is part of the multi-species United Federation of Planets. The Federation's military and exploration division, Starfleet, operates a fleet of starships that travel the galaxy establishing contact with alien races. It follows the adventures of the Starfleet vessel USS "Enterprise" under the command of Captain James T. Kirk as it explores the Milky Way galaxy.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Lou Scheimer of Filmation was in talks with "Star Trek" producer Paramount Television, TV network NBC, and creator Gene Roddenberry to create an animated spin-off series while "The Original Series" was still on the air, during its third season (1968–69).


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Paramount's director of special programming Philip Mayer and Filmation writer/animator Don R. Christensen worked together to create a proposal for a series that would target a young audience and have an educational spin. The main cast of "Star Trek: The Original Series" would train the teenage crew of a ship called "Excalibur" about space exploration; the new teenage crew included a Vulcan named Steve, an African-American boy named Bob, and a Chinese boy named Stick. Due to the bitter relationship between Roddenberry and Paramount at the time, however, Scheimer was not able to get the two parties talking to each other in order to agree on a deal for several years. During this time, the project in its original form was phased out.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: A deal was finally reached in early 1973, and publicly announced in early March 1973. Because of NBC's strong interest in the series, Roddenberry and Filmation were allotted very generous terms: a guaranteed minimum of two seasons with a combined 22 episodes; a budget of US$75,000 () per episode; and full creative control in Gene Roddenberry's hands.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Roddenberry and Filmation agreed that the series should be for all ages, rather than the children-oriented approach of the original proposal, and at Roddenberry's suggestion "The Original Series" script editor D. C. Fontana was hired as the series' story editor and associate producer. Despite the meager payment for writers ($1,300 () per script, with no residuals), the opportunity to write a "Star Trek" episode without the special effects limitations of live action proved appealing, and many of "The Original Series" writers joined the staff. Fontana steered the series away from the romantic and sexual elements of "The Original Series", as she felt children would not be interested in them, and she wanted "The Animated Series" to appeal to children as well as adults.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The series' writing benefited from a Writers Guild of America, East strike in 1973, which did not apply to animation. A few episodes were written by well-known science fiction authors:


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "The Animated Series" featured most of the original cast voicing their characters. The major exception was the character of Pavel Chekov (Walter Koenig), who did not appear in the series because the series' budget could not afford the complete cast. He was replaced by Lieutenant Arex, whose Edosian species had three arms and three legs; Lieutenant M'Ress, a female Caitian, sometimes stood in for Uhura as communications officer. Besides performing their characters Montgomery Scott and Christine Chapel, James Doohan and Majel Barrett also performed the voices of Arex and M'Ress, respectively. Barrett also voiced various other characters and the main computer.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Initially, Filmation was only going to use the voices of William Shatner, Leonard Nimoy, DeForest Kelley, Doohan and Barrett. Doohan and Barrett would also perform the voices of Sulu and Uhura. Nimoy refused to voice Spock in the series unless Nichelle Nichols and George Takei were added to the cast, claiming that Sulu and Uhura were proof of the ethnic diversity of the 23rd century and should not be recast. Nimoy also took this stand as a matter of principle, as he knew of the financial troubles many of his "Star Trek" co-stars were facing after cancellation of the series. According to Scheimer, when Nimoy pointed out that the casting would cut the only two minority actors from the series, "We were horrified at our unintended slight, made all the worse because we were the one studio who had been championing diversity in its output." Koenig was not forgotten, as Filmation were able to assuage Nimoy's complaints on his account by buying a script from Koenig for one episode ("The Infinite Vulcan").


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Voice recording began in June 1973, with the first three episodes recorded as an ensemble, i.e. all the voice actors for the episode in the room at the same time. Later episodes used the more typical model of recording the voice actors separately to work around their other commitments. William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy, who were both touring in plays at the time, recorded their lines in whatever city they happened to be performing in and had the tapes shipped to the studio. Doohan and Barrett, besides providing the voices of their "Original Series" characters and newcomers Arex and M'Ress, performed virtually all of the "guest star" characters in the series, with exceptions such as Sarek, Cyrano Jones and Harry Mudd, who were performed by the original actors from "The Original Series". Other guest voice actors included Ed Bishop, who voiced the Megan Prosecutor in "The Magicks of Megas-tu", and Ted Knight, who voiced Carter Winston in "". Nichelle Nichols performed character voices in addition to Uhura in several episodes, including "The Time Trap" and "The Lorelei Signal".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Similar to most animated series of the era, the 22 episodes of "TAS" were spread out over two brief seasons, with copious reruns of each episode. The director of the first season (16 episodes) was Hal Sutherland and Bill Reed directed the six episodes of season two, though the first four episodes of season two erroneously credit Sutherland.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Don Christensen, creator of the original proposal, remained involved as art director. Other animation staff included Reuben Timmins (who oversaw all shots involving the "Enterprise") and a young Bob Kline. The animators rotoscoped the animations for the "Enterprise" and the original cast from 35 mm film footage of "The Original Series". The chevrons were enlarged to make them easier to animate, but otherwise the crew's uniforms were unaltered from "The Original Series". Due to the hiring of nearly the entire regular cast of the original show, little money was left in the budget for the animation, so Filmation cut costs by using stock footage and shortcuts such as having a character put a hand to their mouth while speaking (thus eliminating the need to animate the lips) and silhouetting characters in action.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "Star Trek: The Animated Series" was the only "Star Trek" series not to be produced with a cold open ("teaser"), instead starting directly with the title credits sequence. However, some overseas versions of the original live action series, such as those aired by the BBC in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and 1970s, were edited to run the teaser after the credits.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The animated series dispensed with the original series' theme music, composed by Alexander Courage, in favor of a new theme credited to Yvette Blais and Jeff Michael, but actually written by Filmation composer Ray Ellis. Ellis used the pseudonym Yvette Blais (the maiden name of his wife) due to complications with royalties and publishing companies, while Jeff Michael is a pseudonym for producer Norm Prescott, who received a pseudonymous credit and a cut of the royalties on all of Filmation's music as part of a standard deal for the time. Writing on Facebook's "Starlog" Magazine official page in March 2021, Gerrold revealed that the reason for this was a longstanding feud between Courage and Roddenberry over residual payments for airings of "" episodes using the original theme: "When Courage turned in the original music, Roddenberry added his own lyrics to it, thereby depriving Courage of half his residuals. Courage never forgave Roddenberry and refused to give permission for the reuse of the theme. That's why new music was written for the animated series and again for the movies."


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Through both seasons, "Star Trek: The Animated Series" faced the reverse situation of "The Original Series" with regard to its popularity: ratings were high, but skewed away from the young children which Saturday morning advertisers were trying to reach, being more popular with adults and older children.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "Star Trek: The Animated Series" was named the 96th best animated series by IGN. They declared that although the series suffered from technical limitations, its format allowed the writers far greater freedom and creativity than was possible in the original live-action series. In 2019, CBR ranked all 31 seasons of "Star Trek" television shows, placing season 1 of "TAS" at 23rd, and season 2 at 24th. Similarly to IGN, they commented that "The animation is definitely limited by today's standards, but the idea of an animated "Star Trek" makes perfect sense, since concerns over budget and scope would be very different. Although only two seasons long, we were given some memorable moments."


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The comic "Star Trek vs Transformers" was inspired by "The Animated Series", and takes place in a similar universe.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: In 2016, in a listing that included each "Star Trek" film and TV series separately, "The Animated Series" was ranked 11th by the "L.A. Times".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: All of this series' episodes were novelized by Alan Dean Foster and released in ten volumes under the "Star Trek Logs" banner. Initially, Foster adapted three episodes per book, but later editions saw the half-hour scripts expanded into full, novel-length stories.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: In the original "Star Trek" series, the main character was given the name James T. Kirk. It was not until the animated series that writer David Gerrold expanded on the "T", establishing Kirk's middle name as Tiberius. By coincidence, on Gene Roddenberry's first series "The Lieutenant", the principal character was William Tiberius Rice. According to Gerrold, he had been influenced by "I, Claudius", and had approached Roddenberry with his choice of middle name, who agreed; Gerrold did not learn about the earlier use of the name until 2014.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The animated series introduced a three-armed, three-legged alien member of the bridge crew with a long neck named Arex and a cat-like alien crew member named M'Ress. According to Roddenberry, budget limitations would have made it impossible for either alien species to appear in a live action series of the time.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The USS "Enterprise" in this series, while supposedly the same ship as from the original series, had a holodeck similar to the one later seen in "", which was set about eighty years later. It only appeared once, in Chuck Menville's "The Practical Joker", and was known as the "Rec Room". This feature was originally proposed for the original series but was never used.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: A personal force field technology known as the life support belt was seen only in "Star Trek: The Animated Series". In addition to supplying the wearer with the appropriate atmosphere and environmental protection, it permitted the animators to simply draw the belt and yellow glow around the existing characters, instead of having to redraw them with an environmental suit. A version of the life support belt later appeared in an early "Star Trek: The Next Generation" novel, "The Peacekeepers", where they were referred to as "field-effect suits".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The episode "The Lorelei Signal" provides a rare instance in early "Star Trek" in which a woman took temporary command of a starship. Due to the male crew members being incapacitated, Uhura assumes command of the "Enterprise" from Scotty. Other instances occurred on the first and last adventures filmed in the original series:


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "The Lorelei Signal" and "The Infinite Vulcan", the latter written by Walter Koenig, are rare occurrences where Captain Kirk comes close to actually saying, "Beam me up, Scotty" (long erroneously believed to be a "Star Trek" catchphrase), when he commands "Beam us up, Scotty". "" arguably comes closer to it by having Kirk say "Scotty, beam me up".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: An anti-pollution public service announcement was created for non-profit Keep America Beautiful featuring the "ST: TAS" characters and original cast voices. In the ad, the "Enterprise" encounters the "Rhombian Pollution Belt". The ad ran during Saturday morning network programming during the series' run.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: At the end of the first season of "", all licenses for "Star Trek" spin-off fiction were renegotiated, and the animated series was essentially "decanonized" by Gene Roddenberry's office. Writers of the novels, comics and role-playing games were prohibited from using concepts from the animated series in their works. Among the facts established within the animated series that were called into question by the "official canon" issue was its identification of Robert April as the first captain of the USS "Enterprise" in the episode "The Counter-Clock Incident".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The "Star Trek Chronology" by production staffers Michael Okuda and Denise Okuda does not include the animated series, but does include certain events from "Yesteryear" and acknowledges Robert April as first captain of the "Enterprise". The timeline in "Voyages of the Imagination" dates the events of the series to 2269–2270, assuming the events of the show represented the final part of Kirk's five-year mission, and using revised Alan Dean Foster stardates. In the updated October 1999 edition of their book: "The Star Trek Encyclopedia: A Reference Guide to the Future", Michael and Denise Okuda state that:


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: David Gerrold, who contributed two stories to "TAS", stated in an interview his views on the canon issue:


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Since Roddenberry's death in 1991, and the subsequent exit of Richard H. Arnold (who vetted the licensed tie-ins for Roddenberry's "Star Trek" office at Paramount during its later years), there have been several references to the animated series in the various other Trek series. In the "" episode "", Kor referred to his ship, the "Klothos", which was first named in the "TAS" episode "". Other "DS9" episodes to make reference to the animated series include "", where Elim Garak mentions Edosian orchids (Arex is an Edosian) and "Tears of the Prophets" where a "Miranda"-class starship is called the USS "ShirKahr" (sic) after ShiKahr, the city from "Yesteryear". In the episode "Prophet Motive" the title of healer is resurrected from "Yesteryear" as well. Vulcan's Forge is also mentioned in "", in which Worf wants to honeymoon there with Jadzia Dax, as well as in episodes "", "" and "Kir'Shara" from "".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The "Star Trek: Enterprise" episodes "The Catwalk" and "" included references to "", the latter featuring a CGI rendition of a wild sehlat. The remastered Original Series episode "Amok Time" featured ShiKahr in the background as Spock beams up at the episode's ending, and the remastered version of "The Ultimate Computer" replaced the "Botany Bay"-style "Woden" with an automated grain carrier from "More Tribbles, More Troubles".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The 2009 film "Star Trek" also references "Yesteryear", featuring a nearly identical scene in which a young Spock is confronted by several other Vulcan children, who bully and provoke him for being part human.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The 2017 series "" episode "Context Is for Kings" has Spock's foster sister Michael Burnham state that their mother Amanda read "Alice in Wonderland" to them as children, as in the episode "Once Upon a Planet." The second season episode "Light and Shadows" expands on Amanda's reasons for doing so.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: The 2021 series Season 2 of "" episode 2 "" features the skeleton of Giant Spock from TAS season 1 Episode 7 The Infinite Vulcan. Also in Season 2 of "" episode 8 "" features a Pandronian drill administrator named Shari yn Yem, the first Pandronian in the history of Trek to appear outside of TAS. The race was introduced in TAS episode .


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Carter Winston, from "", has a small but important role late in the 1984 tie-in novel "The Final Reflection" by John M. Ford. In recent years, references to "The Animated Series" have also cropped up again in the licensed books and comics. M'Ress and Arex, characters from the animated series, appear in the "" novels by Peter David, in which M'Ress and Arex are transported through time to the 24th Century, and are made officers on board the USS "Trident". (David's previous use of these characters, in TOS movie-era comics published by DC Comics, had been ended by Gene Roddenberry's office.)


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: A race introduced in the episode "The Jihad", represented by a character named M3 Green, is named the Nasat in the Starfleet Corps of Engineers e-book novellas. These stories feature a regular Nasat character, P8 Blue. The Vulcan city of ShiKahr also appears in many books. Paula Block, then of CBS Consumer Products, was responsible for approving proposals and all completed manuscripts for the licensed media tie-ins and granted many such uses of "TAS" material since Roddenberry's death.


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Amarillo Design Bureau has—as part of its license for the Star Fleet Universe series of games—incorporated many aspects of "The Animated Series" into its works, not least being the inclusion of the Kzinti, although in a modified form. In addition FASA used elements from "The Animated Series" in its sourcebooks and modules for its .


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: "" producer Manny Coto has commented that had the show been renewed for a fifth season, the Kzinti would have been introduced. Starship designs were produced which closely resemble the Kzinti/Mirak ships from the "Star Fleet Universe", a gaming universe that includes the boardgame "Star Fleet Battles" and its PC analogue "". The Kzinti were referenced in dialog in the "" episode "Nepenthe", which marked their first canon on-screen mention since "The Animated Series".


title: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: On June 27, 2007, "Star Trek"s official site incorporated information from "The Animated Series" into its library section, with many pointing to this as evidence that the animated series is canon, though this has not been officially confirmed. Both David Gerrold and D. C. Fontana have stated that the animated series is essentially the fourth season that fans wanted originally.


title: Jwan Yosef

text: Jwan Yosef (born 6 September 1984) is a Syrian-born Swedish painter and artist of Kurdish and Armenian heritage. He specializes in plastic arts and is based in London, England.


title: Jwan Yosef

text: Yosef was born in Syria, to a Kurdish father and an Armenian mother. His family immigrated to Sweden when he was two years old, and later he studied painting in Pernby School of Painting in Stockholm between 2004 and 2006, then moved to Konstfack University College of Arts, Crafts and Design, Stockholm.


title: Jwan Yosef

text: Yosef has taken part in a great number of art fairs and group exhibitions. He held two solo exhibitions in 2013 titled "Painting about Sex, Flesh and Violence, lol" at the DIVUS Gallery in London and "High Notes", at the Galleri Anna Thulin, Stockholm. He participated in the Threadneedle Prize exhibition in 2013 and the BEERS Contemporary Award for Emerging Art both in 2013. In 2015 he exhibited at Galleri Bon with group exhibition "There and Back Again" with fellow Konstfack graduates Josef Bull, Petr Davydtchenko and Natasja Loutchko. He is a founding member and studio holder at The Bomb Factory Art Foundation in Archway, North London.


title: Jwan Yosef

text: In April 2016, during the amfAR, The Foundation for AIDS Research gala in São Paulo, Brazil, Yosef publicly announced that he had been in a relationship with Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin. The couple married in 2017. On 31 December 2018, Martin and Yosef announced, via Instagram, the birth of their daughter, Lucia Martin-Yosef. On 29 October 2019, Martin and Yosef announced the birth of their son, Renn Martin-Yosef.


title: Conservatorship

text: Under U.S. law, conservatorship is the appointment of a guardian or a protector by a judge to manage the financial affairs and/or daily life of another person due to old age or physical or mental limitations. A person under conservatorship is a "conservatee", a term that can refer to an adult. A person under guardianship is a "ward", a term that can also refer to a minor child. Conservatorship may also apply to corporations and organizations.


title: Conservatorship

text: The conservator may be only of the "estate" (financial affairs), but may be also of the "person", wherein the conservator takes charge of overseeing the daily activities, such as health care or living arrangements of the conservatee. A conservator of the person is more typically called a legal guardian.


title: Conservatorship

text: Conservatorship is established either by court order (with regard to individuals) or via a statutory or regulatory authority (with regard to organizations such as business entities). In other legal terms, a conservatorship may refer to the legal responsibilities over a person who is mentally disordered, including individuals who are psychotic, suicidal, demented, incapacitated, or in some other way unable to make legal, medical or financial decisions on behalf of themselves.


title: Conservatorship

text: When referring to government control of private corporations such as Freddie Mac or Fannie Mae, conservatorship implies a more temporary control than does nationalisation.


title: Conservatorship

text: Conservatorship is a legal term referring to the legal responsibilities of a conservator over the affairs of a person who has been deemed gravely disabled by the court and unable to meet their basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter. They are governed by the state's individual laws. Terminology varies, and some states or jurisdictions may refer to a conservator as a guardian of the estate or as a trustee.


title: Conservatorship

text: Conservatorships are generally put in place for people who are significantly disabled by mental illness, elderly individuals who lack mental capacity due to medical conditions such as dementia, or individuals with developmental disabilities who lack the capacity to manage their own affairs. In typical conservatorship proceedings, an allegedly mentally incapacitated person must be evaluated by a qualified physician or psychiatrist who prepares a report documenting the person's mental capacity that is provided to the court and may be used as evidence.


title: Conservatorship

text: A "limited conservatorship" usually refers to the limited legal responsibilities of a conservator over the affairs of an individual who is developmentally disabled, but still capable of making important decisions for themselves. In these cases, the conservatee to whom the limited conservatorship applies can retain more control over their personal affairs than other conservatees can; for example, they may retain their right to decide where they may live.


title: Conservatorship

text: An example of a conservator's duties includes: locating and marshalling assets, such as property and money, which belong to the conservatee; using the assets to buy food for the conservatee, secure and pay for placement in a facility which would take care of the conservatee or treat a mental illness, pay bills for the conservatee, manage property by paying for property insurance, mortgage payments or rent, property clean-up, or pay for a property management company to rent the property. An example of a conservator or guardian's medical responsibilities would be the court granting medical authority to the conservator or guardian, and the conservator or guardian authorising a physician to place a feeding tube to provide nourishment into the protected person's stomach if they are in medical need of it. It is not uncommon for one person to hold both offices and be referred to as the "guardian and conservator" of the conservatee, even though a conservator or guardian can be appointed over the person only, the estate only, or both. Generally, a conservator or guardian over the estate is only appointed if the conservatee has assets that need to be protected, marshalled, and managed. These terms may be found in use in Uniform Probate Code (UPC) jurisdictions, even though the UPC uses the term "protected person" in either case.


title: Conservatorship

text: In most states, an outside party or agency must review the facts of the case and submit a report, usually required to be in writing, to the court before the court makes a decision on the request to establish a conservatorship or guardianship. Usually the outside party is a local county mental health representative called an investigator. They are often required to be experts in some appropriate field, such as social work, mental health, a medical field, or law. Procedures for conservatorship of an adult are often different from those for minors.


title: Conservatorship

text: The court may appoint an attorney to represent the proposed conservatee or ward. If the proposed conservatee or ward is unable to have an attorney-client relationship because of some impairment, the court may appoint a guardian-ad-litem (who is often also an attorney). A guardian-ad-litem does not take instruction from the client, but rather acts on their behalf and tells the court what they think is in the best interests of the proposed conservatee or ward, whether or not that is what the proposed conservatee or ward wants. The conservatee has the right to be represented by an attorney, and if they cannot afford a private attorney, they are appointed a public defender that will represent them free of cost.


title: Conservatorship

text: In the state of California there are two types of conservatorships: Lanterman–Petris–Short (Lanterman–Petris–Short Act of 1967, referred to as LPS) and Probate conservatorships. These forms of conservatorship are governed by the California Probate Code, and Welfare and Institutions Codes.


title: Conservatorship

text: LPS conservatorships begin with a temporary 30-day conservatorship, and if the conservatee remains gravely disabled, the conservator is reappointed for a year; the LPS conservatorship can be renewed annually, or terminated if no longer needed. Probate conservatorships are referred to as "general conservatorships", and typically do not have a temporary period unless an urgent emergency exists that is creating risk to the person or their estate. Probate conservatorship do not automatically expire as LPS conservatorships do if they are not renewed by the conservator.


title: Conservatorship

text: In an LPS conservatorship, a court-appointed conservator over the person is responsible for managing the conservatee's placement, medical decisions, and mental health treatment. A conservator over the estate is responsible for marshalling, protecting, and managing the conservatee's assets that remain in their estate. A conservator reports to the court that appointed them, and is monitored by the supervising judicial court in the county in which the conservatee permanently resides.


title: Conservatorship

text: LPS conservatorships usually begin in the county mental health system and are referred from acute psychiatric hospitals, where Probate conservatorships can result from any referral source if validated with proper medical documentation. Mental Health consumers have the right to a Patient's Rights advocate, and are taken through a series of hearings while they are in the acute hospital before they reach the point of needing a conservator.


title: Conservatorship

text: In 2022, a law was enacted requiring judges in California to document all alternatives to a conservatorship before granting one, giving potential conservatees in California preference in selecting a conservator, and making it easier to end probate conservatorships in California.


title: Conservatorship

text: Conservatorship for individuals is called "deputyship" in the UK, "guardianship" in India and "guardianship and administration" in Australia.


title: Conservatorship

text: In the United States, in some states, corporations can be placed under conservatorship, as a less extreme alternative to receivership. Whereas a receiver is expected to terminate the rights of shareholders and managers, a conservator is expected merely to assume those rights, with the prospect that they will be relinquished. Robert Ramsey and John Head, law professors who both specialise in financial issues, suggest that an insolvent bank should go into receivership rather than conservatorship to guard against false hope and moral hazard.


title: Conservatorship

text: At the federal government level in the United States, in July 2008, the failing IndyMac Bank was taken into administrative receivership by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and its assets and secured liabilities transferred to a specially established bridge bank called IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB which was placed into conservatorship, also by the FDIC.


title: Conservatorship

text: Again, in the U.S. at the federal level, in September 2008, the chief executive officers and board of directors of Fannie Mae and of Freddie Mac were dismissed. Then, the companies were placed into the conservatorship of the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) via the determination of its director James B. Lockhart III, with the support and financial backing of U.S. Treasury via Treasury secretary Hank Paulson's commitment to keep the corporations solvent. The intervention leading to the conservatorship of these two entities has become the largest in government history, and was justified as necessary step to prevent the damage to the financial system that would have been caused by their failure. Entities like this are considered "too big to fail".


title: Conservatorship

text: An even more ambitious use of the conservatorship model has been proposed by Duke professors Lawrence Baxter, Bill Brown, and Jim Cox. They suggest that the troubled U.S. banks be placed in conservatorship, that some of their "good assets" be dropped into newly created "good bank" subsidiaries (presumably under new management), and the remaining "bad assets" be left to be managed under the supervision of a conservatorship structure.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Ascaris lumbricoides is a large parasitic worm that causes ascariasis in humans. A roundworm of genus "Ascaris", it is the most common parasitic worm in humans. An estimated one-sixth of the human population is at some point infected by a roundworm such as "A. lumbricoides"; people living in tropical and subtropical countries are at greater risk of infection.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: It has been proposed that "Ascaris lumbricoides" and "Ascaris suum" (pig roundworm) are the same species.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: "Ascaris lumbricoides", a roundworm, infects humans via the fecal-oral route. Eggs released by adult females are shed in feces. Unfertilized eggs are often observed in fecal samples but never become infective. Fertilized eggs embryonate and become infectious after 18 days to several weeks in soil, depending on the environmental conditions (optimum: moist, warm, shaded soil).


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Infection occurs when a human swallows water or food contaminated with embryonated eggs. In the duodenum, a single rhabditiform larva hatches from each of the ingested eggs. The larvae then penetrate the mucosa and submucosa and enter the venules or lymphatic vessels. From there, the larvae then pass through the heart to enter the pulmonary circulation. The larvae then break through the walls of the pulmonary capillaries to enter the alveoli. The juvenile worms then migrate from the alveoli, through the bronchioles and bronchi, and into the trachea. An acute inflammatory reaction can occur if some of the worms get lost during this migration process and accumulate in other organs of the body.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Once in the trachea, the worms are coughed up into the pharynx and then swallowed again, after which they pass through the stomach and into the small intestine, where they mature into adult worms. The adult worms begin producing fertilized eggs within 60–65 days of being swallowed; females produce as many as 200,000 eggs per day for 12–18 months. These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: It might seem odd that the worms end up in the same place where they began. One hypothesis to account for this behavior is that the migration mimics an intermediate host, which would be required for juveniles of an ancestral form to develop to the third stage. Another possibility is that tissue migration enables faster growth and larger size, which increases reproductive capacity.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: The eggs have a lipid layer which makes them resistant to the effects of acids and alkalis, as well as other chemicals. This resilience helps to explain why this nematode is such a ubiquitous parasite.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: "Ascaris lumbricoides" is characterized by its great size. Males are in diameter and long. The male's posterior end is curved ventrally and has a bluntly pointed tail. Females are wide and long. The vulva is located in the anterior end and accounts for about one-third of its body length. Uteri may contain up to 27 million eggs at a time, with 200,000 being laid per day. Fertilized eggs are oval to round in shape and are long and wide with a thick outer shell. Unfertilized eggs measure long and wide.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: An estimated 1 billion people are infected with "A. lumbricoides" worldwide. While infection occurs throughout most of the world, "A. lumbricoides" infection is most common in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, China, and east Asia. Although the prevalence is low in the United States, the infection still exists in southeastern part of the United States due to its temperature and humid climate.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: "Ascaris lumbricoides" eggs are extremely resistant to strong chemicals, desiccation, and low temperatures. The eggs can remain viable in the soil for several months or even years. Eggs of "A. lumbricoides" have been identified in archeological coprolites in the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and New Zealand, the oldest ones being more than 24,000 years old.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Infections with these parasites are more common where sanitation is poor, and raw human feces are used as fertilizer.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Often, no symptoms are presented with a minor "A. lumbricoides" infection, the inevitable consequence being the e.g. once a year passage of such clearly visible worm(s) on close inspection. In the case of bad infections symptoms commonly include bloody sputum, cough, fever, abdominal discomfort, intestinal ulcer(s), as well as a less commonly missed passing of the quite long worms. Ascariasis is the most common cause of Löffler's syndrome worldwide. Accompanying pathological symptoms include pulmonary infiltration, eosinophilia (symptoms of the overabundance of eosinophils in the blood such as asthma and allergic reactions), and a diagnostic symptom is, aside from standard microscopy of stools, radiographic opacities. One study has observed increases in fertility in infected women, in a similar vein to good diet and exercise, but with all of the pathological negatives and discomforts the disease carries with it, varying from host to host and again with diet.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Preventing any fecal-borne disease requires educated hygienic habits/culture and effective fecal treatment systems. This is particularly important with "A. lumbricoides" because its eggs are one of the most difficult pathogens to kill (second only to prions), and the eggs commonly survive 1–3 years. "A. lumbricoides" lives in the intestine where it lays eggs. Infection occurs when the eggs, too small to be seen by the unaided eye, are eaten. The eggs may get onto vegetables when improperly processed human feces of infected people are used as fertilizer for food crops. Infection may occur when food is handled without removing or killing the eggs on the hands, clothes, hair, raw vegetables/fruit, or cooked food that is (re)infected by handlers, containers, etc. Bleach does not readily kill "A. lumbricoides" eggs, but it will remove their sticky film, to allow the eggs to be rinsed away. "A. lumbricoides" eggs can be reduced by hot composting methods, but to completely kill them may require rubbing alcohol, iodine, specialized chemicals, cooking heat, or "unusually" hot composting (for example, over for 24 hours).


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Acetic acid, found in vinegar, will effectively kill "A. lumbricoides" eggs on vegetable surfaces in 30 minutes at 5% solution strength.


title: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Giant intestinal roundworms have been known since antiquity. In 1758 Linnaeus named them "Ascaris lumbricoides". For many centuries, they were thought to arise by spontaneous generation. In 1855, "Ascaris" eggs were found in human faeces by Henry Ransom in England then this was described in the literature two years later by Casimir-Joseph Davaine in France. Attempts to infect animals by feeding them eggs were unsuccessful. In 1886, Salvatore Calandruccio in Italy successfully infected a boy to whom he had given 150 eggs. Battista Grassi published this information without giving any acknowledgement to Calandruccio. Development was thought to occur directly within the bowel lumen but in Francis Stewart in Hong Kong in 1916 fed eggs to rats, then later mice, and found infective larvae in the faeces and in the lungs but no mature worms. In 1918, Sadao Yoshida ingested larvae recovered from the trachea of a guinea pig, then found eggs in his own stools 76 days later. In 1922, Shimesu Koino ingested 2,000 "Ascaris lumbricoides" eggs, found larvae in his sputum a few days later, then after 50 days took an anthelmintic and recovered 667 immature "Ascaris lumbricoides", thus confirming the life cycle.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: It was released as a single and included on his album "The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan" in 1963. It has been described as a protest song and poses a series of rhetorical questions about peace, war, and freedom. The refrain "The answer, my friend, is blowin' in the wind" has been described as "impenetrably ambiguous: either the answer is so obvious it is right in your face, or the answer is as intangible as the wind".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: In 1994, the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2004, it was ranked number 14 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: Dylan originally wrote and performed a two-verse version of the song; its first public performance, at Gerde's Folk City on April 16, 1962, was recorded and circulated among Dylan collectors. Shortly after this performance, he added the middle verse to the song. Some published versions of the lyrics reverse the order of the second and third verses, apparently because Dylan simply appended the middle verse to his original manuscript, rather than writing out a new copy with the verses in proper order. The song was published for the first time in May 1962, in the sixth issue of "Broadside", the magazine founded by Pete Seeger and devoted to topical songs.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: The theme may have been taken from a passage in Woody Guthrie's autobiography, "Bound for Glory", in which Guthrie compared his political sensibility to newspapers blowing in the winds of New York City streets and alleys. Dylan was certainly familiar with Guthrie's work; his reading of it had been a major turning point in his intellectual and political development.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: Dylan recorded "Blowin' in the Wind" on July 9, 1962, for inclusion on his second album, "The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan", released in May, 1963.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: Bobby Darin recorded "Blowin' in the Wind" on July 30, 1962, for inclusion on his album, "Golden Folk Hits", also released in 1963. Arranged by Walter Raim, there was Roger Mcguinn, Glen Campbell, James Burton, and Phil Ochs all on guitar, and singing harmony.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: In his sleeve notes for "The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991", John Bauldie wrote that Pete Seeger first identified the melody of "Blowin' in the Wind" as an adaptation of the old African-American spiritual "No More Auction Block/We Shall Overcome". According to Alan Lomax's "The Folk Songs of North America", the song was sung by former slaves who fled to Nova Scotia after Britain abolished slavery in 1833. In 1978, Dylan acknowledged the source when he told journalist Marc Rowland: "'Blowin' in the Wind' has always been a spiritual. I took it off a song called 'No More Auction Block' – that's a spiritual and 'Blowin' in the Wind' follows the same feeling." Dylan's performance of "No More Auction Block" was recorded at the Gaslight Cafe in October 1962, and appeared on "The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: The critic Michael Gray suggested that the lyric is an example of Dylan's "quiet incorporation of Biblical rhetoric into his own", starting with a text from the Old Testament book of Ezekiel (12:1–2): "Son of Man, thou dwellest in the midst of a rebellious house, which have eyes to see and see not; they have ears to hear and hear not." which Dylan transforms into: "Yes' n' how many times must a man turn his head / Pretending he just doesn't see?" and "Yes'n' how many ears must one man have / Before he can hear people cry?"


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: "Blowin' in the Wind" has been described as an anthem of the civil rights movement. In Martin Scorsese's documentary on Dylan, "No Direction Home", Mavis Staples expressed her astonishment on first hearing the song and said she could not understand how a young white man could write something that captured the frustration and aspirations of black people so powerfully. Sam Cooke was similarly deeply impressed by the song, incorporating it into his repertoire soon after its release (a version would be included on "Sam Cooke at the Copa"), and being inspired by it to write "A Change Is Gonna Come".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: "Blowin' in the Wind" was first covered by the Chad Mitchell Trio, but their record company delayed release of the album containing it because the song included the word "death", so the trio lost out to Peter, Paul and Mary, who were represented by Dylan's manager, Albert Grossman. The single sold a phenomenal 300,000 copies in the first week of release and made the song world-famous. On August 17, 1963, it reached number two on the "Billboard" pop chart, with sales exceeding one million copies. Peter Yarrow recalled that, when he told Dylan he would make more than $5,000 () from the publishing rights, Dylan was speechless. Peter, Paul and Mary's version of the song also spent five weeks atop the easy listening chart.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: Dylan performed the song for the first time on television in the UK in January 1963, when he appeared in the BBC television play "Madhouse on Castle Street". He also performed the song during his first national US television appearance, filmed in March 1963, a performance made available in 2005 on the DVD release of Martin Scorsese's PBS television documentary on Dylan, "No Direction Home".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: An allegation that the song was written by a high-school student named Lorre Wyatt (a member of Millburn High School's "Millburnaires" all-male folk band) and subsequently purchased or plagiarised by Dylan before he gained fame was reported in an article in "Newsweek" magazine in November 1963. The plagiarism claim was eventually shown to be false.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: The first line of the song ("How many roads must a man walk down?") is proposed as the "Ultimate Question" in the science fiction novel "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", by Douglas Adams.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: In the 1994 film "Forrest Gump", Jenny sings this song for a show in a strip club and is introduced as "Bobbi Dylan". The film's soundtrack album features Joan Baez's 1975 live recording of the song, from her 1976 album "From Every Stage".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: In 1975, the song was included as poetry in a high-school English textbook in Sri Lanka. The textbook caused controversy because it replaced Shakespeare's work with Dylan's.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: During the protests against the Iraq War, commentators noted that protesters were resurrecting songs such as "Blowin' in the Wind" rather than creating new ones.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: The song has been embraced by many liberal churches, and in the 1960s and 1970s it was sung both in Catholic church "folk masses" and as a hymn in Protestant ones. In 1997, Bob Dylan performed three other songs at a Catholic church congress. Pope John Paul II, who was in attendance, told the crowd of some 300,000 young Italian Catholics that the answer was indeed "in the wind" – not in the wind that blew things away, but rather "in the wind of the spirit" that would lead them to Christ. In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI (who had also been in attendance) wrote that he was uncomfortable with music stars such as Dylan performing in a church environment. The Westboro Baptist Church has parodied the song.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: In 2009, Dylan licensed the song to be used in an advertisement for the British consumer-owned Co-operative Group. The Co-op claimed that Dylan's decision was influenced by "the Co-op's high ethical guidelines regarding fair trade and the environment." The Co-op, which is owned by about 3 million consumers, also includes Britain's largest funeral parlour and farming business.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: In Mario + Rabbids Kingdom Battle, in the level "Temple of Bwahmanweewee", Beep-0 parodies this song.


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: Hip hop group Public Enemy reference it in their 2007 Dylan tribute song "Long and Whining Road": "Tears of rage left a friend blowing in the wind / But time is God, been back for ten years, and black again".


title: Blowin' in the Wind

text: The most commercially successful version is by folk music trio Peter, Paul and Mary, who released the song in June 1963, three weeks after "The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan" was issued. Albert Grossman, then managing both Dylan and Peter, Paul and Mary, brought the trio the song which they promptly recorded (on a single take) and released. The trio's version, which was the title track of their third album, peaked at number 2 on the "Billboard" charts behind "Fingertips" by Stevie Wonder. The group's version also went to number one on the Middle-Road charts for five weeks. "Cash Box" described it as "a medium-paced sailor’s lament sung with feeling and authority by the folk trio."


title: Shape of the universe

text: The shape of the universe, in physical cosmology, is the local and global geometry of the universe. The local features of the geometry of the universe are primarily described by its curvature, whereas the topology of the universe describes general global properties of its shape as a continuous object.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The spatial curvature is defined by general relativity, which describes how spacetime is curved due to the effect of gravity. The spatial topology cannot be determined from its curvature, due to the fact that there exist locally indistinguishable spaces that may be endowed with different topological invariants.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Cosmologists distinguish between the observable universe and the entire universe, the former being a ball-shaped portion of the latter that can, in principle, be accessible by astronomical observations. Assuming the cosmological principle, the observable universe is similar from all contemporary vantage points, which allows cosmologists to discuss properties of the entire universe with only information from studying their observable universe. The main discussion in this context is whether the universe is finite, like the observable universe, or infinite.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Several potential topological and geometric properties of the universe need to be identified. Its topological characterization remains an open problem. Some of these properties are:


title: Shape of the universe

text: There are certain logical connections among these properties. For example, a universe with positive curvature is necessarily finite. Although it is usually assumed in the literature that a flat or negatively curved universe is infinite, this need not be the case if the topology is not the trivial one. For example, a multiply connected space may be flat and finite, as illustrated by the three-torus. Yet, in the case of simply connected spaces, flatness implies infinitude.


title: Shape of the universe

text: To this day, the exact shape of the universe remains a matter of debate in physical cosmology. In this regard, experimental data from various independent sources (WMAP, BOOMERanG, and Planck for example) confirm that the universe is flat with only a 0.4% margin of error. Yet, the issue of simple versus multiple connectivity has not yet been decided based on astronomical observation. On the other hand, any non-zero curvature is possible for a sufficiently large curved universe (analogously to how a small portion of a sphere can look flat). Theorists have been trying to construct a formal mathematical model of the shape of the universe relating connectivity, curvature and boundedness. In formal terms, this is a 3-manifold model corresponding to the spatial section (in comoving coordinates) of the four-dimensional spacetime of the universe. The model most theorists currently use is the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) model. Arguments have been put forward that the observational data best fit with the conclusion that the shape of the global universe is infinite and flat, but the data is also consistent with other possible shapes, such as the so-called Poincaré dodecahedral space, the multiply connected three-torus, and the Sokolov–Starobinskii space (quotient of the upper half-space model of hyperbolic space by a 2-dimensional lattice).


title: Shape of the universe

text: Physical cosmology is based on the theory of General Relativity, a physical picture cast in terms of differential equations. Therefore, only the local geometric properties of the universe become theoretically accessible. Thus, Einstein's field equations determine only the local geometry but have absolutely no saying on the topology of the universe. At present, the only possibility to elucidate such global properties relies on observational data, especially the fluctuations (anisotropies) of the temperature gradient field of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).


title: Shape of the universe

text: The observable universe can be thought of as a sphere that extends outwards from any observation point for 46.5 billion light-years, going farther back in time and more redshifted the more distant away one looks. Ideally, one can continue to look back all the way to the Big Bang; in practice, however, the farthest away one can look using light and other electromagnetic radiation is the cosmic microwave background (CMB), as anything past that is opaque. Experimental investigations show that the observable universe is very close to isotropic and homogeneous.


title: Shape of the universe

text: If the observable universe encompasses the entire universe, it may be possible to determine the structure of the entire universe by observation. However, if the observable universe is smaller than the entire universe, our observations will be limited to only a part of the whole, and we may not be able to determine its global geometry through measurement. From experiments, it is possible to construct different mathematical models of the global geometry of the entire universe, all of which are consistent with current observational data; thus it is currently unknown whether the observable universe is identical to the global universe, or is instead many orders of magnitude smaller. The universe may be small in some dimensions and not in others (analogous to the way a cuboid is longer in the dimension of length than it is in the dimensions of width and depth). To test whether a given mathematical model describes the universe accurately, scientists look for the model's novel implications—phenomena in the universe that have not yet been observed, but that must exist if the model is correct—and they devise experiments to test whether those phenomena occur or not. For example, if the universe is a small closed loop, one would expect to see multiple images of an object in the sky, although not necessarily images of the same age.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Cosmologists normally work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates, the existence of a preferred set of which is possible and widely accepted in present-day physical cosmology. The section of spacetime that can be observed is the backward light cone (all points within the cosmic light horizon, given time to reach a given observer), while the related term Hubble volume can be used to describe either the past light cone or comoving space up to the surface of last scattering. To speak of "the shape of the universe (at a point in time)" is ontologically naive from the point of view of special relativity alone: due to the relativity of simultaneity, different points in space cannot be said to exist "at the same point in time" nor, therefore, of "the shape of the universe at a point in time". However, the comoving coordinates (if well-defined) provide a strict sense to those by using the time since the Big Bang (measured in the reference of CMB) as a distinguished universal time.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The curvature is a quantity describing how the geometry of a space differs locally from the one of the flat space. The curvature of any locally isotropic space (and hence of a locally isotropic universe) falls into one of the three following cases:


title: Shape of the universe

text: Curved geometries are in the domain of Non-Euclidean geometry. An example of a positively curved space would be the surface of a sphere such as the Earth. A triangle drawn from the equator to a pole will have at least two angles equal 90°, which makes the sum of the 3 angles greater than 180°. An example of a negatively curved surface would be the shape of a saddle or mountain pass. A triangle drawn on a saddle surface will have the sum of the angles adding up to less than 180°.


title: Shape of the universe

text: General relativity explains that mass and energy bend the curvature of spacetime and is used to determine what curvature the universe has by using a value called the density parameter, represented with Omega (). The density parameter is the average density of the universe divided by the critical energy density, that is, the mass energy needed for a universe to be flat. Put another way,


title: Shape of the universe

text: One can experimentally calculate this to determine the curvature two ways. One is to count up all the mass-energy in the universe and take its average density then divide that average by the critical energy density. Data from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as well as the Planck spacecraft give values for the three constituents of all the mass-energy in the universe – normal mass (baryonic matter and dark matter), relativistic particles (photons and neutrinos), and dark energy or the cosmological constant:


title: Shape of the universe

text: The actual value for critical density value is measured as ρ = 9.47×10 kg m. From these values, within experimental error, the universe seems to be flat.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Another way to measure Ω is to do so geometrically by measuring an angle across the observable universe. We can do this by using the CMB and measuring the power spectrum and temperature anisotropy. For instance, one can imagine finding a gas cloud that is not in thermal equilibrium due to being so large that light speed cannot propagate the thermal information. Knowing this propagation speed, we then know the size of the gas cloud as well as the distance to the gas cloud, we then have two sides of a triangle and can then determine the angles. Using a method similar to this, the BOOMERanG experiment has determined that the sum of the angles to 180° within experimental error, corresponding to an Ω ≈ 1.00±0.12.


title: Shape of the universe

text: These and other astronomical measurements constrain the spatial curvature to be very close to zero, although they do not constrain its sign. This means that although the local geometries of spacetime are generated by the theory of relativity based on spacetime intervals, we can approximate "3-space" by the familiar Euclidean geometry.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) model using Friedmann equations is commonly used to model the universe. The FLRW model provides a curvature of the universe based on the mathematics of fluid dynamics, that is, modeling the matter within the universe as a perfect fluid. Although stars and structures of mass can be introduced into an "almost FLRW" model, a strictly FLRW model is used to approximate the local geometry of the observable universe. Another way of saying this is that if all forms of dark energy are ignored, then the curvature of the universe can be determined by measuring the average density of matter within it, assuming that all matter is evenly distributed (rather than the distortions caused by 'dense' objects such as galaxies). This assumption is justified by the observations that, while the universe is "weakly" inhomogeneous and anisotropic (see the large-scale structure of the cosmos), it is on average homogeneous and isotropic.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Global structure covers the geometry and the topology of the whole universe—both the observable universe and beyond. While the local geometry does not determine the global geometry completely, it does limit the possibilities, particularly a geometry of a constant curvature. The universe is often taken to be a geodesic manifold, free of topological defects; relaxing either of these complicates the analysis considerably. A global geometry is a local geometry plus a topology. It follows that a topology alone does not give a global geometry: for instance, Euclidean 3-space and hyperbolic 3-space have the same topology but different global geometries.


title: Shape of the universe

text: As stated in the introduction, investigations within the study of the global structure of the universe include:


title: Shape of the universe

text: One of the presently unanswered questions about the universe is whether it is infinite or finite in extent. For intuition, it can be understood that a finite universe has a finite volume that, for example, could be in theory filled up with a finite amount of material, while an infinite universe is unbounded and no numerical volume could possibly fill it. Mathematically, the question of whether the universe is infinite or finite is referred to as boundedness. An infinite universe (unbounded metric space) means that there are points arbitrarily far apart: for any distance , there are points that are of a distance at least apart. A finite universe is a bounded metric space, where there is some distance such that all points are within distance of each other. The smallest such is called the diameter of the universe, in which case the universe has a well-defined "volume" or "scale."


title: Shape of the universe

text: Assuming a finite universe, the universe can either have an edge or no edge. Many finite mathematical spaces, e.g., a disc, have an edge or boundary. Spaces that have an edge are difficult to treat, both conceptually and mathematically. Namely, it is very difficult to state what would happen at the edge of such a universe. For this reason, spaces that have an edge are typically excluded from consideration.


title: Shape of the universe

text: However, there exist many finite spaces, such as the 3-sphere and 3-torus, which have no edges. Mathematically, these spaces are referred to as being compact without boundary. The term compact means that it is finite in extent ("bounded") and complete. The term "without boundary" means that the space has no edges. Moreover, so that calculus can be applied, the universe is typically assumed to be a differentiable manifold. A mathematical object that possesses all these properties, compact without boundary and differentiable, is termed a closed manifold. The 3-sphere and 3-torus are both closed manifolds.


title: Shape of the universe

text: If space where infinite (flat, simply connected), perturbations in the temperature of the CMB radiation would exist on all scales. If, however, space is finite, then there are those wavelengths missing that are larger than the size of the space. Maps of the CMB perturbation spectrum made with satellites like NASA's WMAP and the ESA's Planck have shown a striking amount of missing perturbations at large scales.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The properties of the observed fluctuations of the CMB show a 'missing power' on scales beyond the size of the universe. That would imply that our universe is multiply-connected and finite. The spectrum of the CMB fits much better with the universe as a gigantic three-torus, a cosmos connected to itself in all three dimensions.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The curvature of the universe places constraints on the topology. If the spatial geometry is spherical, i.e., possess positive curvature, the topology is compact. For a flat (zero curvature) or a hyperbolic (negative curvature) spatial geometry, the topology can be either compact or infinite. Many textbooks erroneously state that a flat universe implies an infinite universe; however, the correct statement is that a flat universe that is also simply connected implies an infinite universe. For example, Euclidean space is flat, simply connected, and infinite, but there are tori which are flat, multiply connected, finite, and compact (see flat torus).


title: Shape of the universe

text: In general, local to global theorems in Riemannian geometry relate the local geometry to the global geometry. If the local geometry has constant curvature, the global geometry is very constrained, as described in Thurston geometries.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The latest research shows that even the most powerful future experiments (like the SKA) will not be able to distinguish between flat, open and closed universe if the true value of cosmological curvature parameter is smaller than 10. If the true value of the cosmological curvature parameter is larger than 10 we will be able to distinguish between these three models even now.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Final results of the "Planck" mission, released in 2018 show the cosmological curvature parameter, 1 – Ω = Ω = –"K c²/a²H²", to be 0.0007±0.0019, consistent with a flat universe. (i.e. positive curvature: "K = +1, Ω < 0", Ω > 1, negative curvature: "K = −1, Ω > 0, Ω < 1", zero curvature: "K = 0, Ω = 0, Ω = 1").


title: Shape of the universe

text: In a universe with zero curvature, the local geometry is flat. The most obvious global structure is that of Euclidean space, which is infinite in extent. Flat universes that are finite in extent include the torus and Klein bottle. Moreover, in three dimensions, there are 10 finite closed flat 3-manifolds, of which 6 are orientable and 4 are non-orientable. These are the Bieberbach manifolds. The most familiar is the aforementioned 3-torus universe.


title: Shape of the universe

text: In the absence of dark energy, a flat universe expands forever but at a continually decelerating rate, with expansion asymptotically approaching zero. With dark energy, the expansion rate of the universe initially slows down, due to the effect of gravity, but eventually increases. The ultimate fate of the universe is the same as that of an open universe.


title: Shape of the universe

text: A positively curved universe is described by elliptic geometry, and can be thought of as a three-dimensional hypersphere, or some other spherical 3-manifold (such as the Poincaré dodecahedral space), all of which are quotients of the 3-sphere.


title: Shape of the universe

text: Poincaré dodecahedral space is a positively curved space, colloquially described as "soccerball-shaped", as it is the quotient of the 3-sphere by the binary icosahedral group, which is very close to icosahedral symmetry, the symmetry of a soccer ball. This was proposed by Jean-Pierre Luminet and colleagues in 2003 and an optimal orientation on the sky for the model was estimated in 2008.


title: Shape of the universe

text: A hyperbolic universe, one of a negative spatial curvature, is described by hyperbolic geometry, and can be thought of locally as a three-dimensional analog of an infinitely extended saddle shape. There are a great variety of hyperbolic 3-manifolds, and their classification is not completely understood. Those of finite volume can be understood via the Mostow rigidity theorem. For hyperbolic local geometry, many of the possible three-dimensional spaces are informally called "horn topologies", so called because of the shape of the pseudosphere, a canonical model of hyperbolic geometry. An example is the Picard horn, a negatively curved space, colloquially described as "funnel-shaped".


title: Shape of the universe

text: When cosmologists speak of the universe as being "open" or "closed", they most commonly are referring to whether the curvature is negative or positive, respectively. These meanings of open and closed are different from the mathematical meaning of open and closed used for sets in topological spaces and for the mathematical meaning of open and closed manifolds, which gives rise to ambiguity and confusion. In mathematics, there are definitions for a closed manifold (i.e., compact without boundary) and open manifold (i.e., one that is not compact and without boundary). A "closed universe" is necessarily a closed manifold. An "open universe" can be either a closed or open manifold. For example, in the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) model the universe is considered to be without boundaries, in which case "compact universe" could describe a universe that is a closed manifold.


title: Shape of the universe

text: If one applies Minkowski space-based special relativity to expansion of the universe, without resorting to the concept of a curved spacetime, then one obtains the Milne model. Any spatial section of the universe of a constant age (the proper time elapsed from the Big Bang) will have a negative curvature; this is merely a pseudo-Euclidean geometric fact analogous to one that concentric spheres in the "flat" Euclidean space are nevertheless curved.


title: Shape of the universe

text: The entire universe in this model can be modelled by embedding it in Minkowski spacetime, in which case the universe is included inside a future light cone of a Minkowski spacetime. The Milne model in this case is the future interior of the light cone and the light cone itself is the Big Bang.


title: Shape of the universe

text: For any given moment of coordinate time within the Milne model (assuming the Big Bang has ), any cross-section of the universe at constant in the Minkowski spacetime is bounded by a sphere of radius .


title: Shape of the universe

text: The apparent paradox of an infinite universe "contained" within a sphere is an effect of the mismatch between coordinate systems of the Milne model and the Minkowski spacetime in which it is embedded.


title: Shape of the universe

text: This model is essentially a degenerate FLRW for . It is incompatible with observations that definitely rule out such a large negative spatial curvature. However, as a background in which gravitational fields (or gravitons) can operate, due to diffeomorphism invariance, the space on the macroscopic scale, is equivalent to any other (open) solution of Einstein's field equations.


title: Alain de Botton

text: Alain de Botton (; born 20 December 1969) is a Swiss-born British author and philosopher. His books discuss various contemporary subjects and themes, emphasizing philosophy's relevance to everyday life. He published "Essays in Love" (1993), which went on to sell two million copies. Other bestsellers include "How Proust Can Change Your Life" (1997), "Status Anxiety" (2004) and "The Architecture of Happiness" (2006).


title: Alain de Botton

text: He co-founded The School of Life in 2008 and Living Architecture in 2009. In 2015, he was awarded "The Fellowship of Schopenhauer", an annual writers' award from the Melbourne Writers Festival, for that work.


title: Alain de Botton

text: De Botton was born in Zürich, the son of Jacqueline (née Burgauer) and Gilbert de Botton. Gilbert was born in Alexandria, Egypt, but after being expelled under Nasser, he went to live and work in Switzerland, where he co-founded an investment firm, Global Asset Management; his family was estimated to have been worth £234 million in 1999.


title: Alain de Botton

text: Alain de Botton's Swiss-born mother was Ashkenazi, and his father was from a Sephardic Jewish family from the town of Boton in Castile and León. De Botton's ancestors include Abraham de Boton. De Botton's paternal grandmother was Yolande Harmer, a Jewish-Egyptian journalist who spied for Israel and died in Jerusalem.


title: Alain de Botton

text: He has one sister, Miel, and they received a secular upbringing. Alain spent the first twelve years of his life in Switzerland where he was brought up speaking French and German.


title: Alain de Botton

text: De Botton attended the Dragon School where English became his primary language. He was later sent to board and study at Harrow School, a public school in England. He has often described his childhood as that of a shy child living in boarding schools.