title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: 1) FBI firearms expert Robert A. Frazier testified that "It is a very accurate weapon. The targets we fired show that." From , all three bullets in a test firing landed approximately high, and to the right, in the area about the size of a dime (0.705 inch diameter). At , the test shots landed high, within a circle. Frazier testified that the scope's high variation would actually work in the shooter's favor: with a target moving away from the shooter, no lead correction would have been necessary to follow the target. "At that range, at that distance, , with this rifle and that telescopic sight, I would not have allowed any lead — I would not have made any correction for lead merely to hit a target of that size."


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: 2) The rifle couldn't be perfectly sighted using the scope (i.e., thereby eliminating the above overshoot completely) without installing two metal shims (small metal plates), which were not present when the rifle arrived for testing, and were never found. Frazier testified that there was "a rather severe scrape" on the scope tube, and that the sight could have been bent or damaged. He was unable to determine when the defect occurred before the FBI received the rifle and scope on November 27, 1963.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: In an effort to test the rifle under conditions that matched the assassination, the Infantry Weapons Evaluation Branch of the U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory had expert riflemen fire the assassination weapon from a tower at three silhouette targets at distances of . Using the assassination rifle mounted with the telescopic sight, three marksmen, rated as master by the National Rifle Association, each fired two series of three shots. In the first series, the firers required time spans of 4.6, 6.75, and 8.25 seconds respectively. On the second series, they required 5.15, 6.45, and 7 seconds. The marksmen took as much time as they wanted for the first target at , and all hit the target. For the first four attempts, the firers missed the second shot at by several inches. Five of the six shots hit the third target at , the distance of President Kennedy from the sixth floor window when he was struck in the head. None of the marksmen had any practice with the assassination weapon beforehand except to work the bolt.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: During the investigation by the House Select Committee on Assassinations (1976–1978), the lead attorneys for the Committee, Robert Blakey and Gary Cornwell, were allowed to use WC-139 at an FBI firing range. The attorneys wanted to see how fast the bolt action could be operated. Blakey was able to fire two rounds in 1.5 seconds and Cornwell fired two rounds in 1.2 seconds. This was an experiment to test a possible theory that Oswald in his excitement may have pointed and fired, as opposed to aimed and fired. Some critics of the Warren Commission had claimed it was impossible to fire a Carcano rifle in less than 2.3 seconds. Both the CBS and HSCA tests proved conclusively that the claim was not accurate.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: In 1972, the Kennedy family chose John K. Lattimer, MD, as the first nongovernmental expert to examine evidence taken at Kennedy's autopsy. Lattimer performed ballistic tests and other research to prove that Lee Harvey Oswald was likely the sniper who shot and killed President John F. Kennedy from the Texas School Book Depository in Dallas. Dr. Lattimer frequently performed a demonstration of Oswald's shooting, firing three well-aimed shots within 8.3 seconds with Carcano M91/38 and under the same firing conditions. By doing so Dr. Lattimer intended to prove that Oswald could have performed such a feat. He continued to perform this demonstration well into his late 80s. Lattimer owned Oswald's Marine shooting record which he said showed that Oswald was an excellent shot. In 1980, Dr. Lattimer wrote a book: "Kennedy and Lincoln: Medical & Ballistic Comparisons of Their Assassinations" in which he did an investigation of both the Lincoln and the Kennedy assassinations, and supported the findings of the Warren Commission. In his book, Lattimer theorized that President Kennedy's arms exhibited the "Thorburn Position" with elbows extended and arms folded inward, as a neurological reaction to the bullet wound to his spine.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: Vincent Bugliosi put forward the hypothesis that Oswald aimed the Carcano with the open sights, which reduced the time necessary to take the three shots postulated by the Warren Commission. He notes that, with the downward slope on Dealey Plaza, President Kennedy's head would have appeared to Oswald to be a stationary target as the vehicle moved down and away at a slow speed. This suggestion also therefore makes any claim that the scope was defective to be meaningless with respect to Oswald's shooting ability.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: However, with the M91/38 open sights being factory set to be accurate at 200 meters, the final shot being well under 100 meters and the M91/38 not being a very flat shooting rifle to begin with (up to high at 100 meters), this rifle would have been shooting quite high and would have made hitting Kennedy extremely difficult. This would have been further exacerbated by the steep downward angle from the sixth floor of the Depository building to the limo, which would have made the shot go even higher than what Oswald would have been aiming at.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: In 2008, the Discovery Channel produced a documentary that played out several different versions of the Kennedy assassination on a dummy that had been specifically designed for ballistics tests, recreating the elevation, wind speed and distance at a California shooting range. Their forensic analysis, backed by computer models, showed that it was most likely that the shot that killed President Kennedy came from the Texas School Book Depository. They also concluded that a shot from the grassy knoll would have obliterated Kennedy's skull, contrary to what is seen in the Zapruder film. However, in this conclusion they assumed that an assassin on the grassy knoll would have used hollow point ammunition, which expands on impact to maximize damage. Thereafter, they attempted a second shot from the grassy knoll position, using a solid round. Analysis revealed that this bullet would have passed through Kennedy's skull from right to left, causing an exit wound on the left-hand side of the skull that did not match any postmortem reports. They also suggested that the bullet trajectory from this shot would have struck and likely killed Mrs. Kennedy.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: The rifle remained in the possession of the FBI from November 1963 to November 1966, except for brief periods in 1964 when it was loaned to the Warren Commission and tested by the U.S. Army's Weapons Evaluation Branch. Likewise, the pistol was held by the FBI from November 1963 to November 1966, except for a brief period in 1964 when it was loaned to the Warren Commission.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: In December 1964, Lee Oswald's widow, Marina, sold whatever right, interest, or title that she had in the rifle and pistol for $5,000; and in March 1965 she sold whatever power of sale she had in them for an additional $5,000. A $35,000 additional payment to Marina Oswald was contingent upon the buyer obtaining possession "free and clear of all adverse claims".


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: The buyer, Denver oilman and gun collector John J. King, commenced an action in federal court in May 1965 for the recovery of the weapons from possession of the U.S. government. In response, the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax Division of the Internal Revenue Service began an "in rem" forfeiture proceeding against the rifle and the pistol. The U.S. District Court held that Oswald had used fictitious names when purchasing the weapons, in violation of the Federal Firearms Act of 1938, which allowed for immediate seizure and forfeiture of any such illegally obtained weapons.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: The lower court's decision was reversed on appeal in July 1966, with the appellate court holding that "There is no provision in the Federal Firearms Act requiring a purchaser to use his true name when ordering weapons from a dealer licensed under the Act", and that the government would have to acquire title to the weapons by condemnation. Thereafter, in November 1966, the U.S. Attorney General, acting under the authority provided by Public Law 89-318, published his determination that the various items considered by the Warren Commission, including the weapons which were the subject of the forfeiture proceeding, should be acquired by the United States. Upon the publication of the Attorney General's determination, "all rights, title, and interest in and to" the weapons "vested in the United States".


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: The buyer sued the U.S. government for damages of $5 million for the taking of the weapons, but his claim was rejected by the court, which set the case for trial, and wrote:


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: King's claim was heard at trial in federal court in 1969, where a twelve-person jury agreed with the government's contention that Lee Oswald had abandoned the rifle in 1963, therefore Marina Oswald had no claim to it or a right of sale. King received no compensation for the rifle's taking by the federal government, although he did receive $350 in compensation for the government's taking of the pistol found on Oswald at his arrest, which King had also purchased from Marina Oswald.


title: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

text: The rifle is listed in the online inventory of the National Archives and Records Administration Building in College Park, Maryland. The Sixth Floor Museum in Dallas has another example of this rifle on display.


title: Sorbet

text: Sorbet (), also called "water ice", is a frozen dessert made using ice combined with fruit juice, fruit purée, wine, liqueur, honey and etc. Generally sorbets do not contain dairy ingredients, while sherbets do.


title: Sorbet

text: The word "sorbet" enters the English language from French, derived from the Italian "sorbetto", which in turn came from the Ottoman Turkish or Iranian "sharbat", originally referring to a type of beverage. (The word "sharbat" is derived from the Arabic verb "shariba", which means "to drink").


title: Sorbet

text: Sherbet in Europe still refers to a type of flavored drink, while North American sherbet is similar to sorbet. August Escoffier describes sorbet as "very light and barely-congealed ices, served after the Entrées. They serve in freshening the stomach; preparing it to properly receive the roast. They are appetizers and help to aid digestion."


title: Sorbet

text: "Oxford English Dictionary" defines sorbet as an alternate term sharing the same meaning as "sherbet", a beverage. The usage of "sorbet" to describe a beverage is attested to in the English language literature in the 16ths and 17th centuries. A 17th century text describes "sorbetta" as "a kinde of drinke made of Water, Suger, and iuyce of Lemonds, mixed with Amber and Muske." The term is still being used for drinks in the 19th century: "They resorted to drink coffee and sorbet, with laughter and merriment".


title: Sorbet

text: It is believed sorbets originated in Persia due to the earliest known mention of sorbets being described as flavored ice in 550-530 BCE.


title: Sorbet

text: There are a number of legendary origin myths, unsupported by any known evidence, that attribute the origins of sorbet to historical figures like the Roman Emperor Nero, Marco Polo and the Italian duchess Catherine de' Medici.


title: Sorbet

text: Romans did not add ice to their drinks because easily accessible ice along the lower slopes was not sanitary for use in food preparation. Iced drinks were believed to cause convulsions, colic and a host of other ailments. Hippocrates was known to have criticized chilled drinks for causing "fluxes of the stomach", while Seneca lambasted the extravagant costs associated with iced desserts. Despite this, ice and snow were prized ingredients in ancient cuisines including Japanese, Chinese, Greek and Roman cuisines.


title: Sorbet

text: The first Western mention of "sherbet" is an Italian reference to something that Turks drink. The word "sherbet" entered the Italian language as "sorbetto", which later became "sorbet" in French. August Escoffier describes sorbet as "very light and barely-congealed ices, served after the Entrées. They serve in freshening the stomach; preparing it to properly receive the roast. They are appetizers and help to aid digestion." He recommends that they register 15° on the saccharometer and be of drinkable consistency.


title: Sorbet

text: The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, in Nicholas Lemery's "Recueil de curiositéz rares et nouvelles de plus admirables effets de la nature". Recipes for "sorbetti" saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latini's "Lo Scalco alla Moderna" (The Modern Steward). Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialot's "Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits", starting with the 1692 edition. Massialot's recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the fine consistency of sugar and snow. When Europeans figured out how to freeze sherbet they began making "sorbetto" by adding fruit juices and flavorings to a frozen simple syrup base. In the US sherbet generally meant an ice milk, but recipes from early soda fountain manuals include ingredients like gelatin, beaten egg whites, cream, or milk.


title: Sorbet

text: Like granitas and other ices, sorbet can be made without an ice cream maker. Alcohol, honey or corn syrup can be added to lower the freezing point and make softer sorbets.


title: Sorbet

text: Sorbet is usually made with fresh fruit and simple syrup, but other types of preparations exist. Tart sorbets are served as palate cleansers between savory courses of a meal. Mulled wine sorbet can be made with red wine, orange, lemons, mulling spices, ruby port, and egg whites. Muscat sorbet is made with dessert wine, lemon juice, and egg whites.


title: Sorbet

text: Givré (French for "frosted") is the term for a sorbet served in a frozen coconut shell or fruit peel, such as a lemon peel. Agraz is a type of sorbet with an acidic flavor attributed by Larousse Gastronomique to the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is made from almonds, verjuice, and sugar.


title: French press

text: A French press, also known as a cafetière, cafetière à piston, caffettiera a stantuffo, press pot, coffee press, or coffee plunger, is a coffee brewing device, although it can also be used for other tasks. In 1923 Ugo Paolini, an Italian, filed patent documents relating to a tomato juice separator and he developed the idea of making a coffee pot with a press action and a filter. He assigned his 1928 patent to Italian designer Attilio Calimani and Giulio Moneta who filed it in 1929.


title: French press

text: In English, the device is known in North America as a "French press" or "coffee press"; in Britain and Ireland as a "cafetière"; in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa as a "coffee plunger", and coffee brewed in it as "plunger coffee". In Italian, it is known as a ; in German as a ' ("stamp pot") or ' ("coffee press"); in French as ', or simply as ' (also the usage in Dutch), though some speakers might also use genericized trademarks, such as Melior or Bodum.


title: French press

text: Over the years, the French press has undergone several design modifications. The first coffee press, which may have been made in France, was the modern coffee press in its rudimentary form—a metal or cheesecloth screen fitted to a rod that users would press into a pot of hot water and coffee grounds. Two French inventors (Mayer and Delforge) patented in 1852 a forerunner of the French press. A patent was filed by a Frenchman, Marcel-Pierre Paquet dit Jolbert, officially published on August 5, 1924.


title: French press

text: A coffee press was patented in the United States by Milanese designer Attilio Calimani in 1929. It underwent several design modifications through Faliero Bondanini, who patented his own version in 1958 and manufactured it in French clarinet factory Martin SA under the brand name Melior. Its popularity may have been aided in 1965 by its use in the Michael Caine film "The Ipcress File". The device was further popularized across Europe by British company Household Articles Ltd. and Danish tableware and kitchenware company Bodum.


title: French press

text: The modern French press consists of a narrow cylindrical beaker, usually made of glass or clear plastic, equipped with a metal or plastic lid and plunger that fits tightly in the cylinder and has a fine stainless steel wire or nylon mesh filter.


title: French press

text: Coffee is brewed by placing coarsely ground coffee in the empty beaker and adding hot—between —water, in proportions of about of coffee grounds to of water, more or less to taste. It is sometimes recommended that the grounds be pre-infused with a small amount of hot water. . Plunging slowly is purported to maximize the extraction of the oils and flavonoids from the ground bean. The mesh piston normally does not compress the coffee grounds, as most designs leave a generous space—about —below the piston in its lowest position. If the brewed coffee is allowed to remain in the beaker with the used grounds, the coffee may become astringent and bitter, though this is an effect that some users of the French press consider desirable.


title: French press

text: A French press works best with coffee of a coarser grind than does a drip brew coffee filter, about the consistency of cooking salt. Finer coffee grounds, when immersed in water, have lower permeability, requiring an excessive amount of force to be applied by hand to lower the plunger and are more likely to seep through or around the perimeter of the press filter and into the coffee drink. Additionally, finer grounds will tend to over-extract and cause the coffee to taste bitter.


title: French press

text: Some writers give the optimum time for brewing as around four minutes. Other approaches, such as cold brewing, require several hours of contact between the water and the grounds to achieve the desired extraction.


title: French press

text: French presses are more portable and self-contained than other coffee makers. Travel mug versions exist, which are made of tough plastic instead of the more common glass, and have a sealed lid with a closable drinking hole. Some versions are marketed to hikers and backpackers not wishing to carry a heavy, metal percolator or a filter using drip brew.


title: French press

text: Other versions include stainless steel, insulated presses designed to keep the coffee hot, similar in design to thermos flasks. Coffee filters commonly used in South Indian households are a stainless steel version but without insulation. The decant known as decoction is mixed immediately with milk and sugar to make kaapi. One variation uses a "pull" design: the coffee grounds are placed in a mesh basket, which is then pulled into the lid after brewing, trapping the grounds out of the coffee. Others produce a similar effect by having shutters that can be closed via the top of the press, sealing the grounds off from the coffee entirely. French presses are also sometimes used to make cold brew coffee.


title: French press

text: An all-in-one French press consists of a heating element that can receive its power from a 12-volt power source.


title: French press

text: In the same way as coffee, a French press can also be used in place of a tea infuser to brew loose tea. To some extent the tea will continue to steep even after the plunger is depressed, which may cause the tea remaining in the press to become bitter. It might thus be advisable to decant the tea into a serving vessel after preparation. The same French press should not be used for both tea and coffee unless thoroughly cleaned, as coffee residue may spoil the flavor of the tea. However, this method is more suitable for light teas and is not suitable for Indian Chai (which must be boiled) or Chinese tea (which tends to be diffused for a long time, with tea leaves reused as a rule).


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The Scottish Terrier (; also known as the Aberdeen Terrier), popularly called the Scottie, is a breed of dog. Initially one of the highland breeds of terrier that were grouped under the name of "Skye Terrier", it is one of five breeds of terrier that originated in Scotland, the other four being the modern Skye, Cairn, Dandie Dinmont, and West Highland White terriers. They are an independent and rugged breed with a wiry outer coat and a soft dense undercoat. The First Earl of Dumbarton nicknamed the breed "the diehard". According to legend, the Earl of Dumbarton gave this nickname because of the Scottish Terriers' bravery, and Scotties were also the inspiration for the name of his regiment, The Royal Scots, Dumbarton’s Diehard. Scottish Terriers, were originally bred to hunt vermin on farms.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: They are a small breed of terrier with a distinctive shape and have had many roles in popular culture. They have been owned by a variety of celebrities, including the 32nd president of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, whose Scottie Fala is included with FDR in a statue in Washington, D.C., as well as by the 43rd president, George W. Bush. They are also well known for being a playing piece in the board game "Monopoly". Described as territorial, feisty dogs, they can make a good watchdog and tend to be very loyal to their family. Healthwise, Scottish Terriers can be more prone to bleeding disorders, joint disorders, autoimmune diseases, allergies, and cancer than some other breeds of dog, and there is a condition named after the breed called Scotty cramp. They are also one of the more successful dog breeds at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show with a best in show in 2010.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The Scottish Terrier is a small, compact, short-legged, sturdily-built terrier of good bone and substance. They have a hard, wiry, weather-resistant coat and a thick-set, cobby body which is hung between short, heavy legs. These characteristics, joined with their very special keen, piercing, "varminty" expression, and their erect ears and tail are salient features of the breed. According to The Scottish Terrier Club of America's Breed Standard, the eyes should be small, bright and piercing, and almond-shaped not round. Their color can range from black, greyish-black, and even white. The ears should be small, prick, set well up on the skull and pointed, but never cut. They should be covered with short velvety hair.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: According to the STCA Breed Standard, height at withers for both genders should be roughly , and the length of back from withers to tail is roughly . Generally a well-balanced Scottie dog should weigh from and a female from . It is about in height.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The Scottish Terrier typically has a hard, wiry outer coat with a soft, dense undercoat. According to the STCA Breed Standard, the coat should be trimmed and blended into the furnishings to give a distinct Scottish Terrier outline. The longer coat on the beard, legs and lower body may be slightly softer than the body coat but should not be or appear fluffy. This longer coat on the legs is often referred to as the skirt of the Scottie and should be brushed daily to avoid knotted or matted fur.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The coat colours range from dark gray to jet black and brindle, a mix of black and brown. Scotties with wheaten (straw to nearly white) coats sometimes occur, and are similar in appearance to the Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier or West Highland White Terrier.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Many black and brindle Scottish Terrier coats can contain specks of silver and white all throughout or in small patch-like areas of the dog's fur.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: It is not recommended that Scottish terriers swim. They can swim, but not well. Because they are dense dogs and have short legs, they run a high risk of sinking and drowning. They often do drown when exposed to water that is too deep for them. If a Scottish Terrier is around water, life vests can be worn to ensure some level of safety, and close supervision of the Scottie is necessary to keep the dog safe around water.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Scotties are territorial, alert, quick moving and feisty, perhaps even more so than other terrier breeds. The breed is known to be independent and self-assured, playful, intelligent, and has been nicknamed the 'Diehard' because of its rugged nature and endless determination. The "Diehard" nickname was originally given to it in the 19th century by George, the fourth Earl of Dumbarton. The Earl had a famous pack of Scottish Terriers, so brave that they were named “Diehards”. They were supposed to have inspired the name of his Regiment, The Royal Scots, "Dumbarton’s Diehards".


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Scotties, while being described as very loving, have also been described as stubborn. They are sometimes described as an aloof breed, although it has been noted that they tend to be very loyal to their family and are known to attach themselves to one or two people.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: It has been suggested that the Scottish Terrier can make a good watchdog due to its tendency to bark only when necessary and because it is typically reserved with strangers, although this is not always the case. They have been described as a fearless breed that may be aggressive around other dogs unless introduced at an early age. Scottish Terriers were originally bred to hunt and fight Eurasian badgers. Therefore, the Scottie is prone to dig as well as chase small mammals, such as squirrels, rats, and mice. Keeping cats, rabbits, ferrets, and other small Domesticated animals in the home with a Scottish terrier is not advisable due to the fact that this dog breed was specifically bred to hunt small mammals, as mentioned above. Scottish Terriers are also not recommended to cohabitate with small children or children who are inexperienced with dogs.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Two genetic health concerns seen in the breed are von Willebrand disease (vWD) and craniomandibular osteopathy (CMO); Scottie cramp, patellar luxation and cerebellar abiotrophy are also sometimes seen in this breed. Common eye conditions seen in a variety of breeds such as cataracts and glaucoma can appear in Scotties as they age. There are no specific conditions relating the skin that affect the breed, but they can be affected by common dog related conditions such as parasites and mange. Scotties typically live from 11 to 13 years.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Scottish Terriers have a greater chance of developing some cancers than other purebreds. According to research by the Veterinary Medical Data Program (1986), six cancers that Scotties appeared to be more at risk for (when compared to other breeds) are: (in descending order) bladder cancer and other transitional cell carcinomas of the lower urinary tract; malignant melanoma; gastric carcinoma; squamous cell carcinoma of the skin; lymphosarcoma and nasal carcinoma. Other cancers that are known to commonly affect Scotties include mast cell sarcoma and hemangiosarcoma.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Research has suggested that Scottish Terriers are 20 times more likely to get bladder cancer than other breeds and the most common kind of bladder cancer is transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder (TCC). Dr. Deborah Knapp of Purdue University School of Veterinary Medicine has commented "TCC usually occurs in older dogs (average age 11 years) and is more common in females (2:1 ratio of females to males)." Symptoms of TCC are blood in the urine, straining to urinate, and frequent urination—although owners noticing any of these symptoms should also be aware that the same symptoms may also be indicative of a urinary tract infection.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The most common and effective form of treatment for TCC is Piroxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that "allows the cancer cells to kill themselves."


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Scottie cramp is an autosomal recessive hereditary disorder which inhibits the dog's ability to walk. It is caused by a defect in the pathways in the brain that control muscle contraction due to a low level of serotonin in the body. Typically symptoms only show when the particular dog is under some degree of stress. The front legs are pushed out to the side, the back arches and the rear legs overflex, causing the dog to fall should it be moving at speed. The condition is not seizure related, and the dog remains conscious throughout the event, with symptoms abating once the cause of the stress has been removed. Currently, there is no known genetic testing available for Scottie cramp. A diagnosis will come from a veterinarian once diagnostic tests have been conducted. Diagnostic tests for Scottie cramp, include a physical, complete blood count, a biochemistry profile, and a urinalysis. Although Scottie cramp is an inherited disease, it is a non-painful, non-life threatening, episodic disorder. Affected dogs with Scotty cramp and their litter mates should not be bred, otherwise this disease can be passed to any future offspring they may have.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Vitamin E, Diazepam and Prozac have all been shown to be effective treatments should it be required. Scotty cramp is found in other breeds of terrier, including the Cesky Terrier. "Episodic Falling", a condition found in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels is considered to be similar to this disorder.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Also known as "Lion Jaw", "Westie Jaw" or "Scottie Jaw", this condition of craniomandibular osteopathy is caused by excessive bone growth in the bottom jaw, usually occurring between four and seven months of age. Like Scottie Cramp, it is an autosomal recessive hereditary disorder, and can cause discomfort to the dog when it attempts to chew. The progression of the condition usually slows down between eleven and thirteen months of age, and is sometimes followed by a slow partial or complete regression. Craniomandibular osteopathy can affect dogs of the same litter and symptoms of this disease include, difficulty grasping and chewing food, drooling, and swelling of the face, more specifically, swelling around the jaw. Treatment for Craniomandibular osteopathy does not exist, but the use of Prednisone and cortisone can help to ease symptoms.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: This condition has also been seen in other breeds of dog, such as the West Highland White Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Boston Terrier, as well as some larger breeds such as Bullmastiffs. Genetic testing for craniomandibular osteopathy is available at this time and will help to identify the craniomandibular osteopathy mutation.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Von Willebrand's disease is a hereditary bleeding disorder found in both dogs and humans. DNA testing used widespread by what are known as reputable breeders, has caused a huge decrease in affected dogs..Once the mutation is found in a dog, the dog should not be bred. This disease is caused by a lack of von Willebrand factor which plays a role in the clotting process of blood. This can cause abnormal platelet function and prolonged bleeding times. Affected dogs can be prone to nose bleeds, and increased bleeding following trauma or surgery. There are three types of this condition with Type I being the most common, while Type II and III being rarer, but more severe. Type I von Willebrand's disease is relatively common in the Scottish Terrier.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Type I is more widespread in Doberman Pinscher, but is as common in the Shetland Sheepdog as the Scottish Terrier. The condition appears in most breeds to some extent, but other breeds with an increased risk include the Golden Retriever, German Shepherd Dog, Basset Hound and Manchester Terrier.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Initial grouping of several of the highland terriers (including the Scottie) under the generic name "Skye Terriers" caused some confusion in the breed's lineage. There is disagreement over whether the Skye Terriers mentioned in


title: Scottish Terrier

text: early 16th century records actually descended from forerunners of the Scottie or vice versa. It is certain, however, that Scotties and West Highland White Terriers are closely related—both their forefathers originated from the Blackmount region of Perthshire and the Moor of Rannoch. Scotties were originally bred to hunt and kill vermin on farms and to hunt badgers and foxes in the Highlands of Scotland.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The actual origin of a breed as old as the Scottish Terrier is obscure and undocumented. The first written records about a dog of similar description to the Scottish Terrier dates from 1436, when Don Leslie described them in his book "The History of Scotland 1436–1561". Two hundred years later, Sir Joshua Reynolds painted a portrait of a young girl caressing a dog similar in appearance to the modern-day Scottie. King James VI of Scotland was an important historical figure featuring in the Scottish Terrier's history. In the 17th century, when King James VI became James I of England, he sent six terriers—thought to be forerunners of the Scottish terrier—to a French monarch as a gift. His love and adoration for the breed increased their popularity throughout the world.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Many dog writers after the early 19th century seem to agree that there were two varieties of terrier existing in Britain at the time—a rough-haired so-called Scotch Terrier and a smooth-haired English Terrier. Thomas Brown, in his "Biological Sketches and Authentic Anecdotes of Dogs" (1829), states that "the Scotch Terrier is certainly the purest in point of breed and the (smooth) English seems to have been produced by a cross from him". Brown went on to describe the Scotch Terrier as "low in stature, with a strong muscular body, short stout legs, a head large in proportion to the body" and was "generally of a sandy colour or black" with a "long, matted and hard" coat. Although the Scotch Terrier described here is more generic than specific to a breed, it asserts the existence of a small, hard, rough-coated terrier developed for hunting small game in the Scottish Highlands in the early 19th century; a description that shares characteristics with what was once known as the Aberdeen Terrier and is today known as the Scottish Terrier. In addition, the paintings of Sir Edwin Landseer and an 1835 lithograph entitled "Scottish Terriers at Work on a Cairn in the West Highlands" both depict Scottie type terriers very similar to those described in the first Scottish Terrier Standard.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: In the 19th century, the Highlands of Scotland, including the Isle of Skye, were abundant with terriers originally known by the generic term "short-haired terriers" or "little Skye Terriers." Towards the end of the 19th century, it was decided to separate these Scottish terriers and develop pure bloodlines and specific breeds. Originally, the breeds were separated into two categories: Dandie Dinmont Terriers and Skye Terriers (not the Skye Terrier known today, but a generic name for a large group of terriers with differing traits all said to originate from the Isle of Skye). The Birmingham England dog show of 1860 was the first to offer classes for these groups of terriers. They continued to be exhibited in generic groups for several years and these groups included the ancestors of today's Scottish Terrier. Recorded history and the initial development of the breed started in the late 1870s with the development of dog shows. The exhibition and judging of dogs required comparison to a breed standard and thus the appearance and temperament of the Scottie was written down for the first time. Eventually, the Skye Terriers were further divided into what are known today as the Scottish Terrier, Skye Terrier, West Highland White Terrier and Cairn Terrier.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: While fanciers sought to identify and standardize the breed and its description through the late 19th century, the Scottish Terrier was known by many different names: the Highland, the Cairn, Diehard, and most often, the Aberdeen Terrier—named because of the abundant number of the dogs in the area and because a J. A. Adamson of Aberdeen successfully exhibited his dogs during the 1870s. Roger Rough, a dog owned by Adamson, Tartan, a dog owned by Mr Paynton Piggott, Bon Accord, owned by Messrs Ludlow and Bromfield, and Splinter II owned by Mr Ludlow, were early winners of dog exhibitions and are the four dogs from which all Scottish Terrier pedigrees ultimately began. It is often said that all present day Scotties stem from a single bitch, Splinter II, and two sires. In her book, "The New Scottish Terrier", Cindy Cooke refers to Splinter II as the "foundation matron of the modern Scottish Terrier." Cooke goes on to say "For whatever reason, early breeders line bred on this bitch to the virtual exclusion of all others. Mated to Tartan, she produced Worry, the dam of four champions. Rambler, her son by Bonaccord, sired the two founding sires of the breed, "Ch. Dundee" (out of Worry) and "Ch. Alistair" (out of a Dundee daughter)" Show champions on both sides of the Atlantic descend from Splinter and her sires.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Captain Gordon Murray and S.E. Shirley were responsible for setting the type in 1879. Shortly afterwards, in 1879, Scotties were for the first time exhibited at Alexander Palace in England, while the following year they began to be classified in much the same way as is done today. The first written standard of the breed was drafted by J.B. Morrison and D.J. Thomson Gray and appeared in Vero Shaw's "Illustrated Book of The Dog", published in 1880; it was extremely influential in setting both breed type and name. The standard described the breed's colouring as "Grey, Grizzle or Brindle", as the typically Black colouring of Scotties did not become fashionable or favoured until the 20th century.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: In 1881 the "Scottish Terrier Club of England" was founded, being the first club dedicated to the breed. The club secretary, H.J. Ludlow, is responsible for greatly popularising the breed in the southern parts of Great Britain. The "Scottish Terrier Club of Scotland" was not founded until 1888, seven years after the English club. Following the formation of the English and Scottish clubs there followed several years of disagreement regarding the breed's official standard. The issue was finally settled by a revised standard in 1930, which was based on four prepotent dogs. The dogs were Robert and James Chapman's Heather Necessity, Albourne Barty, bred by AG Cowley, Albourne Annie Laurie, bred by Miss Wijk and Miss Wijk's Marksman of Docken (the litter brother of Annie Laurie). These four dogs and their offspring modified the look of the Scottie, particularly the length of the head, closeness to the ground and the squareness of body. Their subsequent success in the show ring led to them becoming highly sought after by the British public and breeders. As such, the modified standard completely revolutionized the breed. This new standard was subsequently recognised by the Kennel Club UK circa 1930.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Scotties were introduced to America in the early 1890s, but it was not until the years between World War I and World War II that the breed became popular. The Scottish Terrier Club of America (STCA) was formed in 1900 and a standard written in 1925. The Scottish Terrier was recognized by the United Kennel Club in 1934. By 1936, Scotties were the third most popular breed in the United States. Although they did not permanently stay in fashion, they continue to enjoy a steady popularity with a large segment of the dog-owning public across the world. The STCA founded its Health Trust Fund (HTF) in 1995 which supports research on health issues in the breed.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Scottish Terriers have won best in show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show more than any other breed except for the Wire Fox Terrier, a total of nine times. These victories began in 1911 with a win by Ch. Tickle Em Jock and include recent victories such as in 1995 when Ch. Gaelforce Post Script (Peggy Sue) won, and in 2010 with a victory by Ch. Roundtown Mercedes Of Maryscot.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The Scottie and the German Shepherd are the only breeds of dog that have lived in the White House more than three times. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was renowned for owning a Scottie named Fala, a gift from his distant cousin, Margaret Suckley. The President loved Fala so much that he rarely went anywhere without him. Roosevelt had several Scotties before Fala, including one named Duffy and another named Mr. Duffy. Eleanor Roosevelt had a Scottish Terrier named Meggie when the family entered the White House in 1933. More recently, President George W. Bush has owned two black Scottish Terriers, Barney and Miss Beazley. Barney starred in nine films produced by the White House.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: Other famous people who are known to have owned Scotties include: Queen Victoria, Eva Braun, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Ed Whitfield, Rudyard Kipling, Gilbert Chesterton and President of Poland, Lech Kaczyński. Actress Tatum O'Neal owned a Scottish Terrier. She was said to be so saddened by her dog's death to cancer and old age that she relapsed into drugs.


title: Scottish Terrier

text: The Scottie is also renowned for being featured in the popular board game, Monopoly, as a player token. When the game was first created in the 1930s, Scotties were one of the most popular pets in the United States, and it is also one of the most popular Monopoly game tokens, according to Matt Collins, vice president of marketing for Hasbro. In Disney's 1955 film "Lady and the Tramp", a Scottish terrier named Jock is the friend of Lady, the American Cocker Spaniel. A Scottie named Buster is Fatty's pet in Enyd Blyton's "Five Find-Outers and Dog" mystery novel series (1943-61). A Scottish Terrier named Dulcinea is a scene-stealer in the 1998 Latin American novel Yo-Yo Boing! by Giannina Braschi. In P. G. Wodehouse’s Jeeves and Wooster novels, Bertie Wooster’s principal antagonist Aunt Agatha has an Aberdeen terrier called Mackintosh. Scottish Terriers are also prevalent in scenes of Coraline (film).


title: Scottish Terrier

text: In May 2007, Carnegie Mellon University named the Scottish Terrier its official mascot. The Scottie had been a long-running unofficial mascot of the university, whose founder's Scottish heritage is also honored by the official athletic nickname of "Tartans". Agnes Scott College in Decatur, Georgia also uses the Scottie as their mascot. The amateur athletics organisation Jogscotland has an anthropomorphic Scottish Terrier as its mascot.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Sean Morton Downey Jr. (December 9, 1932 – March 12, 2001) was an American television talk show host and actor who pioneered the "trash TV" format in the late-1980s on his program "The Morton Downey Jr. Show".


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Downey's parents were in show business; his father, Morton Downey, was a popular singer, and his mother, Barbara Bennett, was a stage and film actress and singer and dancer. Downey did not use his legal first name (Sean) in his stage name. His aunts included Hollywood film stars Constance and Joan Bennett, from whom he was estranged, and his maternal grandfather was the celebrated matinée idol Richard Bennett. Born into a wealthy family, he was raised during the summers next door to the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. Downey attended New York University.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: He was a program director and announcer at radio station WPOP in Hartford, Connecticut in the 1950s. He went on to work as a disc jockey, sometimes using the moniker "Doc" Downey, in various markets around the U.S., including Phoenix (KRIZ), Miami (WFUN), Kansas City (KUDL), San Diego (KDEO) and Seattle (KJR). He had to resign from WFUN after drawing ire from the FCC for announcing a competing disc jockey's home phone number on the air and insulting his wife. Like his father, Downey pursued a career in music, recording in both pop and country styles. He sang on a few records and then began to write songs, several of which were popular in the 1950s and 1960s. He joined ASCAP as a result. In 1958, he recorded "Boulevard of Broken Dreams", which he sang on national television on a set that resembled a dark street with one street light. In 1981, "Green Eyed Girl" charted on the "Billboard Magazine" country chart, peaking at No. 95.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In the 1980s, Downey was a talk show host at KFBK-AM in Sacramento, California, where he employed his abrasive style. He was fired in 1984, and was subsequently replaced by Rush Limbaugh. Downey also had a stint on WMAQ-AM in Chicago where he unsuccessfully tried to get other on air radio personalities to submit to drug testing. Downey's largest effect on American culture came from his popular, yet short-lived, syndicated late 1980s television talk show, "The Morton Downey Jr. Show".


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: On January 22, 1980, Downey, a devoted pro-life activist, hosted the California State Rally for Life at the invitation of the California ProLife Council and United Students for Life. At that time, he was also running for President of the United States, as a Democrat. The United Students for Life, at California State University, Sacramento helped organize his California presidential rallies. Downey worked to help promote anti-abortion candidates in California and around the country.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Downey headed to Secaucus, New Jersey, where his highly controversial television program "The Morton Downey Jr. Show" was taped. Starting as a local program on New York-New Jersey superstation WWOR-TV in October 1987, it expanded into national syndication in early 1988. The program featured screaming matches among Downey, his guests, and audience members. Using a large silver bowl for an ashtray, he would chainsmoke during the show and blow smoke in his guests' faces. Downey's fans became known as "Loudmouths", patterned after the studio lecterns decorated with gaping cartoon mouths, from which Downey's guests would go head-to-head against each other on their respective issues.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Downey's signature phrases "pablum puking liberal" (in reference to left-liberals) and "zip it!" briefly enjoyed some popularity in the contemporary vernacular. He particularly enjoyed making his guests angry with each other, which on a few occasions resulted in physical confrontations. One such incident occurred on a 1988 show taped at the Apollo Theater, involving Al Sharpton and CORE National Chairman Roy Innis. The exchange between the two men culminated in Innis shoving Sharpton into his chair, knocking him to the floor and Downey intervening to separate the pair.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Because of the controversial format and content of the show, distributor MCA Television had problems selling the show to a number of stations and advertisers. Even Downey's affiliates, many of which were low-rated independent television stations in small to medium markets, were so fearful of advertiser and viewer backlash that they would air one or even two local disclaimers during the broadcast.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: During one controversial episode Downey introduced his gay brother, Tony Downey, to his studio audience and informed them Tony was HIV positive. During the episode Downey stated he was afraid his audience would abandon him if they knew he had a gay brother, but then said he did not care.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: "The Washington Post" wrote about him, "Suppose a maniac got hold of a talk show. Or need we suppose?" David Letterman said, "I'm always amazed at what people will fall for. We see this every ten or twelve years, an attempt at this, and I guess from that standpoint I don't quite understand why everybody's falling over backwards over the guy."


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: The success of the show made Downey a pop culture celebrity, leading to appearances on "Saturday Night Live" in 1988, WrestleMania V in 1989 in which he traded insults with Roddy Piper and Brother Love on "Piper's Pit", and later roles in movies such as "Predator 2" and "". He was also cast in several television roles, often playing tabloid TV hosts or other obnoxious media types. Downey notably starred in the "Tales from the Crypt" episode "Television Terror" which utilized several scenes shot by characters within the story, a format which became popular in horror films a decade later with the found footage genre.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In 1989, Downey released an album of songs based on his show entitled "Morton Downey Jr. Sings". The album's single, "Zip It!" (a catch-phrase from the TV show, used to quiet an irate guest), became a surprise hit on some college radio stations. Over the course of the 1988–89 television season, his TV show suffered a decline in viewership, resulting from many markets downgrading its time slot; even flagship station WWOR moved Downey's program from its original 9:00 PM slot to 11:30 PM in the fall of 1988. Beginning in January 1989, the time slot immediately following Downey's program was given to the then-new "Arsenio Hall Show". Following Hall's strong early ratings, however, the two series swapped time slots several weeks later, thus relegating Downey to 12:30 AM in the number-one television market.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In late April 1989, he was involved in an incident in a San Francisco International Airport restroom in which he claimed to have been attacked by neo-Nazis who painted a swastika on his face and attempted to shave his head. Some inconsistencies in Downey's account (e.g., the swastika was painted in reverse, suggesting that Downey had drawn it himself in a mirror), and the failure of the police to find supportive evidence, led many to suspect the incident was a hoax and a ploy for attention. In July 1989, his show was canceled, with the owners of the show announcing that the last episode had been taped on June 30, and that no new shows would air after September 15, 1989.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: At the time of its cancellation, the show was airing on a total of 70 stations across the country, and its advertisers had been reduced primarily to "direct-response" ads (such as 900 chat line and phone sex numbers). In February 1990, Downey filed for bankruptcy in the US Bankruptcy Court for the District of New Jersey.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In 1990, Downey resurfaced on CNBC with an interview program called "Showdown", which was followed by three attempted talk radio comebacks: first in 1992 on Washington, D.C. radio station WWRC; then in 1993 on Dallas radio station KGBS, where he would scream insults at his callers. He was also hired as the station's VP of Operations. The following year, he returned to CNBC with a short-lived television show, "Downey"; in one episode, Downey claimed to have had a psychic communication with O.J. Simpson's murdered ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: His third – and final – attempt at a talk radio comeback occurred in 1997 on Cleveland radio station WTAM in a late evening time slot. It marked his return to the Cleveland market, where Downey had been a host for crosstown radio station WERE in the early 1980s prior to joining KFBK. This stint came shortly after the surgery for lung cancer that removed one of his lungs. At WTAM, Downey abandoned the confrontational schtick of his TV and previous radio shows, and conducted this program in a much more conversational and jovial manner.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: On August 30, 1997, Downey quit his WTAM show to focus on pursuing legal action against Howard Stern. Downey had accused Stern of spreading rumors that he had resumed his smoking habit, to which publicist Les Schecter retorted, "He hasn't picked up a cigarette." His replacement was former WERE host Rick Gilmour.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Following his death, news reports and obituaries incorrectly (according to the "Orange County Register") credited him as the composer of "Wipe Out." As of 2008, Downey's official website (and others) continue to make this claim. Prior to Downey's death, "Spin" in April 1989 had identified the "Wipe Out" authorship as a myth.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In 1984, at KFBK radio, Downey used the word "Chinaman" while telling a joke. His use of the word upset portions of the sizable Asian community in Sacramento. One Asian-American city councilman called for an apology and pressured the station for Downey's resignation. Downey refused to apologize and was forced to resign.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Downey was sued for allegedly appropriating the words and music to his theme song from two songwriters. He was sued for $40 million after bringing then-stripper Kellie Everts onto the show and calling her a "slut", a "pig", a "hooker", and a "tramp", claiming that she had venereal diseases, and banging his pelvis against hers.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In April 1988, he was arraigned on criminal charges for allegedly attacking a gay guest on his show, in a never-aired segment. In another lawsuit, he was accused of slandering a newscaster (a former colleague), and of indecently exposing himself to her and slapping her. Downey punched Stuttering John during an interview done for "The Howard Stern Show", while also shouting verbal insults at John, referring to him as an "uneducated slob". The situation then began to evolve into a brawl between the two until Downey had to be pulled off of John by security; the entire incident was caught on camera. When an "Inside Edition" camera crew approached Downey in 1989 to question him about his involvement in an alleged business scam, Downey grabbed the boom mike and struck the soundman's head with it.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: In his later years, Downey expressed remorse for some of the extreme theatrics of his TV show, as well as various incidents outside the studio, including the "Inside Edition" confrontation. However, he also claimed that his show was of a higher quality and not as "sleazy" as Jerry Springer's show.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Downey was married four times and had four children from three of those marriages. With wife Helen, he had daughter Melissa; with Joan, he had daughters Tracey and Kelli; and, with fourth wife Lori, he had daughter Seanna Micaela. He and Lori met when she appeared as a dancer in a show he attended in Atlantic City. According to Terry Pluto's book, "Loose Balls", Downey was one of the owners of the New Orleans Buccaneers basketball team in the American Basketball Association in the late 1960s. Downey was also president and co-founder of the proposed World Baseball Association in 1974.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Morton Koopa Jr., a character from the "Super Mario" series and one of the Koopalings, was named after him.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Downey started smoking at the age of thirteen, and he smoked 4-5 packs of cigarettes a day for most of his adult life. In June 1996, Downey was diagnosed with lung cancer, while being treated for pneumonia, and had one of his lungs removed. His views on tobacco use changed substantially, going from a one-time member of the National Smokers Alliance to a staunch anti-smoking activist. He continued to speak against smoking until his death from lung cancer and pneumonia on March 12, 2001.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: After being diagnosed with lung cancer, he commented: He also blamed tobacco companies for lying to consumers about cigarettes.


title: Morton Downey Jr.

text: Released in 2012, the documentary film "" touches upon Downey's upbringing and formative years in radio and politics before launching into the history of "The Morton Downey Jr. Show" and Downey's influence on trash TV. The film also looks at Downey's relationship with Al Sharpton and other important 80s figures, as well as Downey's role as a predecessor for commentators like Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The has a history that spans more than 100 years. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2021, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. In 2011 Japan produced 411 feature films that earned 54.9% of a box office total of US$2.338 billion. Films have been produced in Japan since 1897, when the first foreign cameramen arrived.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: "Tokyo Story" (1953) ranked number three in "Sight & Sound" critics' list of the 100 greatest films of all time. "Tokyo Story" also topped the 2012 "Sight & Sound" directors' poll of The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time, dethroning "Citizen Kane", while Akira Kurosawa's "Seven Samurai" (1954) was voted the greatest foreign-language film of all time in BBC's 2018 poll of 209 critics in 43 countries. Japan has won the Academy Award for the Best International Feature Film four times, more than any other Asian country.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Japan's Big Four film studios are Toho, Toei, Shochiku and Kadokawa, which are the only members of the Motion Picture Producers Association of Japan (MPPAJ). The annual Japan Academy Film Prize hosted by the Nippon Academy-shō Association is considered to be the Japanese equivalent of the Academy Awards.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The kinetoscope, first shown commercially by Thomas Edison in the United States in 1894, was first shown in Japan in November 1896. The Vitascope and the Lumière Brothers' Cinematograph were first presented in Japan in early 1897, by businessmen such as Inabata Katsutaro. Lumière cameramen were the first to shoot films in Japan. Moving pictures, however, were not an entirely new experience for the Japanese because of their rich tradition of pre-cinematic devices such as "gentō" ("utsushi-e") or the magic lantern. The first successful Japanese film in late 1897 showed sights in Tokyo.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 1898 some ghost films were made, the Shirō Asano shorts "Bake Jizo" (Jizo the Spook / 化け地蔵) and "Shinin no sosei" (Resurrection of a Corpse). The first documentary, the short "Geisha no teodori" (芸者の手踊り), was made in June 1899. Tsunekichi Shibata made a number of early films, including "Momijigari", an 1899 record of two famous actors performing a scene from a well-known kabuki play. Early films were influenced by traditional theater – for example, kabuki and bunraku.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: At the dawn of the 20th century theaters in Japan hired benshi, storytellers who sat next to the screen and narrated silent movies. They were descendants of kabuki jōruri, kōdan storytellers, theater barkers and other forms of oral storytelling. Benshi could be accompanied by music like silent films from cinema of the West. With the advent of sound in the early 1930s, the benshi gradually declined.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 1908, Shōzō Makino, considered the pioneering director of Japanese film, began his influential career with "Honnōji gassen" (本能寺合戦), produced for Yokota Shōkai. Shōzō recruited Matsunosuke Onoe, a former kabuki actor, to star in his productions. Onoe became Japan's first film star, appearing in over 1,000 films, mostly shorts, between 1909 and 1926. The pair pioneered the "jidaigeki" genre. Tokihiko Okada was a popular romantic lead of the same era.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The first Japanese film production studio was built in 1909 by the Yoshizawa Shōten company in Tokyo.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The first female Japanese performer to appear in a film professionally was the dancer/actress Tokuko Nagai Takagi, who appeared in four shorts for the American-based Thanhouser Company between 1911 and 1914.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Among intellectuals, critiques of Japanese cinema grew in the 1910s and eventually developed into a movement that transformed Japanese film. Film criticism began with early film magazines such as "Katsudō shashinkai" (begun in 1909) and a full-length book written by Yasunosuke Gonda in 1914, but many early film critics often focused on chastising the work of studios like Nikkatsu and Tenkatsu for being too theatrical (using, for instance, elements from kabuki and shinpa such as onnagata) and for not utilizing what were considered more cinematic techniques to tell stories, instead relying on benshi. In what was later named the Pure Film Movement, writers in magazines such as "Kinema Record" called for a broader use of such cinematic techniques. Some of these critics, such as Norimasa Kaeriyama, went on to put their ideas into practice by directing such films as "The Glow of Life" (1918), which was one of the first films to use actresses (in this case, Harumi Hanayagi). There were parallel efforts elsewhere in the film industry. In his 1917 film "The Captain's Daughter", Masao Inoue started using techniques new to the silent film era, such as the close-up and cut back. The Pure Film Movement was central in the development of the gendaigeki and scriptwriting.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: New studios established around 1920, such as Shochiku and Taikatsu, aided the cause for reform. At Taikatsu, Thomas Kurihara directed films scripted by the novelist Junichiro Tanizaki, who was a strong advocate of film reform. Even Nikkatsu produced reformist films under the direction of Eizō Tanaka. By the mid-1920s, actresses had replaced onnagata and films used more of the devices pioneered by Inoue. Some of the most discussed silent films from Japan are those of Kenji Mizoguchi, whose later works (including "Ugetsu"/"Ugetsu Monogatari") retain a very high reputation.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Japanese films gained popularity in the mid-1920s against foreign films, in part fueled by the popularity of movie stars and a new style of jidaigeki. Directors such as Daisuke Itō and Masahiro Makino made samurai films like "A Diary of Chuji's Travels" and "Roningai" featuring rebellious antiheroes in fast-cut fight scenes that were both critically acclaimed and commercial successes. Some stars, such as Tsumasaburo Bando, Kanjūrō Arashi, Chiezō Kataoka, Takako Irie and Utaemon Ichikawa, were inspired by Makino Film Productions and formed their own independent production companies where directors such as Hiroshi Inagaki, Mansaku Itami and Sadao Yamanaka honed their skills. Director Teinosuke Kinugasa created a production company to produce the experimental masterpiece "A Page of Madness", starring Masao Inoue, in 1926. Many of these companies, while surviving during the silent era against major studios like Nikkatsu, Shochiku, Teikine, and Toa Studios, could not survive the cost involved in converting to sound.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: With the rise of left-wing political movements and labor unions at the end of the 1920s, there arose so-called tendency films with left-leaning tendencies. Directors Kenji Mizoguchi, Daisuke Itō, Shigeyoshi Suzuki, and Tomu Uchida were prominent examples. In contrast to these commercially produced 35 mm films, the Marxist Proletarian Film League of Japan (Prokino) made works independently in smaller gauges (such as 9.5mm and 16mm), with more radical intentions. Tendency films suffered from severe censorship heading into the 1930s, and Prokino members were arrested and the movement effectively crushed. Such moves by the government had profound effects on the expression of political dissent in 1930s cinema. Films from this period include: "Sakanaya Honda, Jitsuroku Chushingura, Horaijima, Orochi, Maboroshi, Kurutta Ippeji, Jujiro, ", and "Kurama Tengu".


title: Cinema of Japan

text: A later version of "The Captain's Daughter" was one of the first talkie films. It used the Mina Talkie System. The Japanese film industry later split into two groups; one retained the Mina Talkie System, while the other used the Eastphone Talkie System used to make Tojo Masaki's films.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 1923 earthquake, the bombing of Tokyo during World War II, and the natural effects of time and Japan's humidity on flammable and unstable nitrate film have resulted in a great dearth of surviving films from this period.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Unlike in the West, silent films were still being produced in Japan well into the 1930s; as late as 1938, a third of Japanese films were silent. For instance, Yasujirō Ozu's "An Inn in Tokyo" (1935), considered a precursor to the neorealism genre, was a silent film. A few Japanese sound shorts were made in the 1920s and 1930s, but Japan's first feature-length talkie was "Fujiwara Yoshie no furusato" (1930), which used the "Mina Talkie System". Notable talkies of this period include Mikio Naruse's "Wife, Be Like A Rose!" ("Tsuma Yo Bara No Yoni", 1935), which was one of the first Japanese films to gain a theatrical release in the U.S.; Kenji Mizoguchi's "Sisters of the Gion" ("Gion no shimai", 1936); "Osaka Elegy" (1936); and "The Story of the Last Chrysanthemums" (1939); and Sadao Yamanaka's "Humanity and Paper Balloons" (1937).


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Film criticism shared this vitality, with many film journals such as "Kinema Junpo" and newspapers printing detailed discussions of the cinema of the day, both at home and abroad. A cultured "impressionist" criticism pursued by critics such as Tadashi Iijima, Fuyuhiko Kitagawa, and Matsuo Kishi was dominant, but opposed by leftist critics such as Akira Iwasaki and Genjū Sasa who sought an ideological critique of films.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 1930s also saw increased government involvement in cinema, which was symbolized by the passing of the Film Law, which gave the state more authority over the film industry, in 1939. The government encouraged some forms of cinema, producing propaganda films and promoting documentary films (also called "bunka eiga" or "culture films"), with important documentaries being made by directors such as Fumio Kamei. Realism was in favor; film theorists such as Taihei Imamura and Heiichi Sugiyama advocated for documentary or realist drama, while directors such as Hiroshi Shimizu and Tomotaka Tasaka produced fiction films that were strongly realistic in style. Films reinforced the importance of traditional Japanese values against the rise of the Westernised modern girl, a character epitomised by Shizue Tatsuta in Ozu's 1930 film "Young Lady".


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Because of World War II and the weak economy, unemployment became widespread in Japan, and the cinema industry suffered.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: During this period, when Japan was expanding its Empire, the Japanese government saw cinema as a propaganda tool to show the glory and invincibility of the Empire of Japan. Thus, many films from this period depict patriotic and militaristic themes. In 1942 Kajiro Yamamoto's film "Hawai Mare oki kaisen" or "The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya" portrayed the attack on Pearl Harbor; the film made use of special effects directed by Eiji Tsuburaya, including a miniature scale model of Pearl Harbor itself.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Yoshiko Yamaguchi was a very popular actress. She rose to international stardom with 22 wartime movies. The Manchukuo Film Association let her use the Chinese name Li Xianglan so she could represent Chinese roles in Japanese propaganda movies. After the war she used her official Japanese name and starred in an additional 29 movies. She was elected as a member of the Japanese parliament in the 1970s and served for 18 years.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 1945, Japan was defeated in World War II, the rule of Japan by the SCAP (Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers) began. Movies produced in Japan were managed by GHQ's subordinate organization CIE (Civil Information Educational Section, 民間情報教育局). This management system lasted until 1952, and it was the first time in the Japanese movie world that management and control by a foreign institution was implemented. During the planning and scripting stages it was translated to English, only the movies approved by the CIE were produced. For example, Akira Kurosawa's “Akatsuki no Dassō” (1950) was originally a work depicting a Korean military comfort woman starring Yoshiko Yamaguchi, but with dozens of CIE censorship, it became an original work. The completed film was censored a second time by a CCD (Civil Censorship Detachment). The censorship was also carried out retroactively to past movie works. Japan was exposed to over a decade's worth of American animation that were banned under the war-time government.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Furthermore, as part of the occupation policy, the issue of responsibility for war spread to the film industry, and when voices of banning war cooperators in movie production during the war began to be expressed, Nagamasa Kawakita, Kanichi Negishi, Shiro Kido in 1947, the person who was involved in such high-motion films was exiled. However, as in other genre pursuits, the position of responsibility for war has been dealt with vaguely in the film industry, and the above measures were lifted in 1950.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The first movie released after the war was “Soyokaze” (そよかぜ) 1945 by Yasushi Sasaki, and the theme song “Ringo no Uta” by Michiko Namiki was a big hit.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In the production ban list promulgated in 1945 by CIE's David Conde, nationalism, patriotism, suicide and slaughter, brutal violent movies, etc. became prohibited items, making the production of historical drama virtually impossible . As a result, actors who have been using historical drama as their business appeared in contemporary drama. This includes Chiezō Kataoka's “Bannai Tarao” (1946), Tsumasaburō Bandō's “Torn Drum (破れ太鼓)” (1949), Hiroshi Inagaki's “The Child Holding Hands (手をつなぐ子等)”, and Daisuke Itō's “King (王将)”.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In addition, many propaganda films were produced as democratic courtesy works recommended by SCAP. Significant movies among them are, Setsuko Hara appeared in Akira Kurosawa's “No Regrets for Our Youth” (1946), Kōzaburō Yoshimura's “A Ball at the Anjo House” (1947), Tadashi Imai's “Aoi sanmyaku” (1949), etc. It gained national popularity as a star symbolizing the beginning of a new era. In Yasushi Sasaki's "Hatachi no Seishun (はたちの青春)" (1946), the first kiss scene of a Japanese movie was filmed.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The first collaborations between Akira Kurosawa and actor Toshiro Mifune were "Drunken Angel" in 1948 and "Stray Dog" in 1949. Yasujirō Ozu directed the critically and commercially successful "Late Spring" in 1949.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 1950s are widely considered the Golden Age of Japanese cinema. Three Japanese films from this decade ("Rashomon", "Seven Samurai" and "Tokyo Story") appeared in the top ten of "Sight & Sound"s critics' and directors' polls for the best films of all time in 2002. They also appeared in the 2012 polls, with "Tokyo Story" (1953) dethroning "Citizen Kane" at the top of the 2012 directors' poll.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: War movies restricted by SCAP began to be produced, Hideo Sekigawa's “Listen to the Voices of the Sea” (1950), Tadashi Imai's “Himeyuri no Tô - Tower of the Lilies” (1953), Keisuke Kinoshita's “Twenty-Four Eyes” (1954), “ Kon Ichikawa's “The Burmese Harp” (1956), and other works aimed at the tragic and sentimental retrospective of the war experience, one after another, It became a social influence. Other Nostalgia films such as Battleship Yamato (1953) and Eagle of the Pacific (1953) were also mass-produced. Under these circumstances, movies such as "Emperor Meiji and the Russo-Japanese War (明治天皇と日露大戦争)" (1957), where Kanjūrō Arashi played Emperor Meiji, also appeared. It was a situation that was unthinkable before the war, the commercialization of the Emperor who was supposed to be sacred and inviolable.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The period after the American Occupation led to a rise in diversity in movie distribution thanks to the increased output and popularity of the film studios of Toho, Daiei, Shochiku, Nikkatsu, and Toei. This period gave rise to the four great artists of Japanese cinema: Masaki Kobayashi, Akira Kurosawa, Kenji Mizoguchi, and Yasujirō Ozu. Each director dealt with the effects the war and subsequent occupation by America in unique and innovative ways.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The decade started with Akira Kurosawa's "Rashomon" (1950), which won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1951 and the Academy Honorary Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1952, and marked the entrance of Japanese cinema onto the world stage. It was also the breakout role for legendary star Toshiro Mifune. In 1953 "Entotsu no mieru basho" by Heinosuke Gosho was in competition at the 3rd Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The first Japanese film in color was "Carmen Comes Home" directed by Keisuke Kinoshita and released in 1951. There was also a black-and-white version of this film available. "Tokyo File 212" (1951) was the first American feature film to be shot entirely in Japan. The lead roles were played by Florence Marly and Robert Peyton. It featured the geisha Ichimaru in a short cameo. Suzuki Ikuzo's Tonichi Enterprises Company co-produced the film. "Gate of Hell", a 1953 film by Teinosuke Kinugasa, was the first movie that filmed using Eastmancolor film, "Gate of Hell" was both Daiei's first color film and the first Japanese color movie to be released outside Japan, receiving an Academy Honorary Award in 1954 for Best Costume Design by Sanzo Wada and an Honorary Award for Best Foreign Language Film. It also won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, the first Japanese film to achieve that honour.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The year 1954 saw two of Japan's most influential films released. The first was the Kurosawa epic "Seven Samurai", about a band of hired samurai who protect a helpless village from a rapacious gang of thieves. The same year, Ishirō Honda directed the anti-nuclear monster-drama "Godzilla", which was released in America two years later under the title "Godzilla, King of the Monsters!". Though edited for its Western release, Godzilla became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of "kaiju" films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history. Also in 1954, another Kurosawa film, "Ikiru" was in competition at the 4th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 1955, Hiroshi Inagaki won an Academy Honorary Award for Best Foreign Language Film for of his "Samurai" trilogy and in 1958 won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for "Rickshaw Man". Kon Ichikawa directed two anti-war dramas: "The Burmese Harp" (1956), which was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards, and "Fires On The Plain" (1959), along with "Enjo" (1958), which was adapted from Yukio Mishima's novel "Temple Of The Golden Pavilion". Masaki Kobayashi made three films which would collectively become known as "The Human Condition Trilogy": "No Greater Love" (1959), and "The Road To Eternity" (1959). The trilogy was completed in 1961, with "A Soldier's Prayer".


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Kenji Mizoguchi, who died in 1956, ended his career with a series of masterpieces including "The Life of Oharu" (1952), "Ugetsu" (1953) and "Sansho the Bailiff" (1954). He won the Silver Bear at the Venice Film Festival for "Ugetsu". Mizoguchi's films often deal with the tragedies inflicted on women by Japanese society. Mikio Naruse made "Repast" (1950), "Late Chrysanthemums" (1954), "The Sound of the Mountain" (1954) and "Floating Clouds" (1955). Yasujirō Ozu began directing color films beginning with "Equinox Flower" (1958), and later "Good Morning" (1959) and "Floating Weeds" (1958), which was adapted from his earlier silent "A Story of Floating Weeds" (1934), and was shot by "Rashomon" and "Sansho the Bailiff" cinematographer Kazuo Miyagawa.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The Blue Ribbon Awards were established in 1950. The first winner for Best Film was "Until We Meet Again" by Tadashi Imai.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The number of films produced, and the cinema audience reached a peak in the 1960s. Most films were shown in double bills, with one half of the bill being a "program picture" or B-movie. A typical program picture was shot in four weeks. The demand for these program pictures in quantity meant the growth of film series such as "The Hoodlum Soldier" or "Akumyo".


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The huge level of activity of 1960s Japanese cinema also resulted in many classics. Akira Kurosawa directed the 1961 classic "Yojimbo". Yasujirō Ozu made his final film, "An Autumn Afternoon", in 1962. Mikio Naruse directed the wide screen melodrama "When a Woman Ascends the Stairs" in 1960; his final film was 1967's "Scattered Clouds".


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Kon Ichikawa captured the watershed 1964 Olympics in his three-hour documentary "Tokyo Olympiad" (1965). Seijun Suzuki was fired by Nikkatsu for "making films that don't make any sense and don't make any money" after his surrealist yakuza flick "Branded to Kill" (1967).


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 1960s were the peak years of the "Japanese New Wave" movement, which began in the 1950s and continued through the early 1970s. Nagisa Oshima, Kaneto Shindo, Masahiro Shinoda, Susumu Hani and Shohei Imamura emerged as major filmmakers during the decade. Oshima's "Cruel Story of Youth", "Night and Fog in Japan" and "Death By Hanging", along with Shindo's "Onibaba", Hani's "Kanojo to kare" and Imamura's "The Insect Woman", became some of the better-known examples of Japanese New Wave filmmaking. Documentary played a crucial role in the New Wave, as directors such as Hani, Kazuo Kuroki, Toshio Matsumoto, and Hiroshi Teshigahara moved from documentary into fiction film, while feature filmmakers like Oshima and Imamura also made documentaries. Shinsuke Ogawa and Noriaki Tsuchimoto became the most important documentarists: "two figures [that] tower over the landscape of Japanese documentary."


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Teshigahara's "Woman in the Dunes" (1964) won the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival, and was nominated for Best Director and Best Foreign Language Film Oscars. Masaki Kobayashi's "Kwaidan" (1965) also picked up the Special Jury Prize at Cannes and received a nomination for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards. "Bushido, Samurai Saga" by Tadashi Imai won the Golden Bear at the 13th Berlin International Film Festival. "Immortal Love" by Keisuke Kinoshita and "Twin Sisters of Kyoto" and "Portrait of Chieko", both by Noboru Nakamura, also received nominations for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards. "Lost Spring", also by Nakamura, was in competition for the Golden Bear at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 1970s saw the cinema audience drop due to the spread of television. Total audience declined from 1.2 billion in 1960 to 0.2 billion in 1980.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Film companies fought back in various ways, such as the bigger budget films of Kadokawa Pictures, or including increasingly sexual or violent content and language which could not be shown on television. The resulting pink film industry became the stepping stone for many young independent filmmakers. The seventies also saw the start of the "idol eiga", films starring young "idols", who would bring in audiences due to their fame and popularity.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Toshiya Fujita made the revenge film "Lady Snowblood" in 1973. In the same year, Yoshishige Yoshida made the film "Coup d'État", a portrait of Ikki Kita, the leader of the Japanese coup of February 1936. Its experimental cinematography and mise-en-scène, as well as its avant-garde score by Toshi Ichiyanagi, garnered it wide critical acclaim within Japan.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 1976, the Hochi Film Award was created. The first winner for Best Film was "The Inugamis" by Kon Ichikawa. Nagisa Oshima directed "In the Realm of the Senses" (1976), a film detailing a crime of passion involving Sada Abe set in the 1930s. Controversial for its explicit sexual content, it has never been seen uncensored in Japan.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Kinji Fukasaku completed the epic "Battles Without Honor and Humanity" series of yakuza films. Yoji Yamada introduced the commercially successful "Tora-San" series, while also directing other films, notably the popular "The Yellow Handkerchief", which won the first Japan Academy Prize for Best Film in 1978. New wave filmmakers Susumu Hani and Shōhei Imamura retreated to documentary work, though Imamura made a dramatic return to feature filmmaking with "Vengeance Is Mine" (1979).


title: Cinema of Japan

text: "Dodes'ka-den" by Akira Kurosawa and "Sandakan No. 8" by Kei Kumai were nominated to the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 1980s saw the decline of the major Japanese film studios and their associated chains of cinemas, with major studios Toho and Toei barely staying in business, Shochiku supported almost solely by the "Otoko wa tsurai yo" films, and Nikkatsu declining even further.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Of the older generation of directors, Akira Kurosawa directed "Kagemusha" (1980), which won the Palme d'Or at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival, and "Ran" (1985). Seijun Suzuki made a comeback beginning with "Zigeunerweisen" in 1980. Shohei Imamura won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for "The Ballad of Narayama" (1983). Yoshishige Yoshida made "A Promise" (1986), his first film since 1973's "Coup d'État".


title: Cinema of Japan

text: New directors who appeared in the 1980s include actor Juzo Itami, who directed his first film, "The Funeral", in 1984, and achieved critical and box office success with "Tampopo" in 1985. Shinji Sōmai, an artistically inclined populist director who made films like the youth-focused "Typhoon Club", and the critically acclaimed Roman porno "Love Hotel" among others. Kiyoshi Kurosawa, who would generate international attention beginning in the mid-1990s, made his initial debut with pink films and genre horror.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: During the 1980s, anime rose in popularity, with new animated movies released every summer and winter, often based upon popular anime television series. Mamoru Oshii released his landmark "Angel's Egg" in 1985. Hayao Miyazaki adapted his manga series "Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind" into a feature film of the same name in 1984. Katsuhiro Otomo followed suit by adapting his own manga "Akira" into a feature film of the same name in 1988.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Mini theaters, a type of independent movie theater characterized by a smaller size and seating capacity in comparison to larger movie theaters, gained popularity during the 1980s. Mini theaters helped bring independent and arthouse films from other countries, as well as films produced in Japan by unknown Japanese filmmakers, to Japanese audiences.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Because of economic recessions, the number of movie theaters in Japan had been steadily decreasing since the 1960s. The 1990s saw the reversal of this trend and the introduction of the multiplex in Japan. At the same time, the popularity of mini theaters continued.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Takeshi Kitano emerged as a significant filmmaker with works such as "Sonatine" (1993), "Kids Return" (1996) and "Hana-bi" (1997), which was given the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. Shōhei Imamura again won the Golden Palm (shared with Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami), this time for "The Eel" (1997). He became the fifth two-time recipient, joining Alf Sjöberg, Francis Ford Coppola, Emir Kusturica and Bille August.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Kiyoshi Kurosawa gained international recognition following the release of "Cure" (1997). Takashi Miike launched a prolific career with titles such as "Audition" (1999), "Dead or Alive" (1999) and "The Bird People in China" (1998). Former documentary filmmaker Hirokazu Koreeda launched an acclaimed feature career with "Maborosi" (1996) and "After Life" (1999).


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Hayao Miyazaki directed two mammoth box office and critical successes, "Porco Rosso" (1992) – which beat "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" (1982) as the highest-grossing film in Japan – and "Princess Mononoke" (1997), which also claimed the top box office spot until "Titanic" (1997).


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Several new anime directors rose to widespread recognition, bringing with them notions of anime as not only entertainment, but modern art. Mamoru Oshii released the internationally acclaimed philosophical science fiction action film "Ghost in the Shell" in 1996. Satoshi Kon directed the award-winning psychological thriller "Perfect Blue". Hideaki Anno also gained considerable recognition with "The End of Evangelion" in 1997.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In the beginning of 21st century, the number of movies being shown in Japan steadily increased, with about 821 films released in 2006. Movies based on Japanese television series were especially popular during this period. Anime films now accounted for 60 percent of Japanese film production. The 1990s and 2000s are considered to be "Japanese Cinema's Second Golden Age", due to the immense popularity of anime, both within Japan and overseas.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Although not a commercial success, "All About Lily Chou-Chou" directed by Shunji Iwai was honored at the Berlin, the Yokohama and the Shanghai Film Festivals in 2001. Takeshi Kitano appeared in "Battle Royale" and directed and starred in "Dolls" and "Zatoichi". Several horror films, "Kairo", "Dark Water", "Yogen", the "Grudge" series and "One Missed Call" met with commercial success. In 2004, "", directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, was released to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Godzilla. In 2005, director Seijun Suzuki made his 56th film, "Princess Raccoon". Hirokazu Koreeda claimed film festival awards around the world with two of his films "Distance" and "Nobody Knows". Female film director Naomi Kawase's film "The Mourning Forest" won the Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007. Yoji Yamada, director of the Otoko wa Tsurai yo series, made a trilogy of acclaimed revisionist samurai films, 2002's "Twilight Samurai", followed by "The Hidden Blade" in 2004 and "Love and Honor" in 2006. In 2008, "Departures" won the Academy Award for best foreign language film.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In anime, Hayao Miyazaki directed "Spirited Away" in 2001, breaking Japanese box office records and winning several awards—including the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2003—followed by "Howl's Moving Castle" and "Ponyo" in 2004 and 2008 respectively. In 2004, Mamoru Oshii released the anime movie "" which received critical praise around the world. His 2008 film "The Sky Crawlers" was met with similarly positive international reception. Satoshi Kon also released three quieter, but nonetheless highly successful films: "Millennium Actress", "Tokyo Godfathers", and "Paprika". Katsuhiro Otomo released "Steamboy", his first animated project since the 1995 short film compilation "Memories", in 2004. In collaboration with Studio 4C, American director Michael Arias released "Tekkon Kinkreet" in 2008, to international acclaim. After several years of directing primarily lower-key live-action films, Hideaki Anno formed his own production studio and revisited his still-popular "Evangelion" franchise with the "Rebuild of Evangelion" tetralogy, a new series of films providing an alternate retelling of the original story.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Since February 2000, the Japan Film Commission Promotion Council was established. On November 16, 2001, the Japanese Foundation for the Promotion of the Arts laws were presented to the House of Representatives. These laws were intended to promote the production of media arts, including film scenery, and stipulate that the government – on both the national and local levels – must lend aid in order to preserve film media. The laws were passed on November 30 and came into effect on December 7. In 2003, at a gathering for the Agency of Cultural Affairs, twelve policies were proposed in a written report to allow public-made films to be promoted and shown at the Film Center of the National Museum of Modern Art.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: Four films have so far received international recognition by being selected to compete in major film festivals: "Caterpillar" by Kōji Wakamatsu was in competition for the Golden Bear at the 60th Berlin International Film Festival and won the Silver Bear for Best Actress, "Outrage" by Takeshi Kitano was In Competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, "Himizu" by Sion Sono was in competition for the Golden Lion at the 68th Venice International Film Festival.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 2011, Takashi Miike's "" was In Competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, the first 3D film ever to screen In Competition at Cannes. The film was co-produced by British independent producer Jeremy Thomas, who had successfully broken Japanese titles such as Nagisa Oshima's "Merry Christmas, Mr Lawrence" and " Taboo", Takeshi Kitano's "Brother", and Miike's "13 Assassins" onto the international stage as producer.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In 2018, Hirokazu Kore-eda won the Palme d'Or for his movie "Shoplifters" at the 71st Cannes Film Festival, a festival that also featured Ryūsuke Hamaguchi's "Asako I & II" in competition.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: In October 2020, a Japanese anime film "" based on the "" manga series broke all box-office records in the country, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time in Japan, the highest-grossing Japanese film of all time and the highest-grossing film of 2020.


title: Cinema of Japan

text: The 2021 drama-road film Drive My Car won Best Foreign Language Film at the 79th Golden Globe Awards and received the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film at the 94th Academy Awards.


title: Kira Kosarin

text: Kira Nicole Kosarin (born October 7, 1997) is an American actress and singer, known for her role as Phoebe Thunderman on the Nickelodeon series "The Thundermans". On April 10, 2019, she independently released her debut album, "Off Brand", later signing with Republic Records in 2022.


title: Kira Kosarin

text: Kosarin did dance and gymnastics in her early years. She studied ballet at Boca Ballet Theatre and attended middle school at Pine Crest School. Her parents were Broadway performers, her mother as an actress and her father as a music director, conductor and record producer, so she grew up acting, singing and dancing. After attending an "acting on camera" workshop, she decided to move to Los Angeles, California, in 2011 to pursue a career in acting.


title: Kira Kosarin

text: Kosarin made her television debut in an episode of the Disney Channel sitcom "Shake It Up". Then, in 2013, she rose to fame when she began portraying the role of Phoebe Thunderman in the Nickelodeon comedy "The Thundermans". In 2015, Kosarin was nominated for a Kids' Choice Award in the Favorite TV Actress category, but the award went to Laura Marano. She was again nominated for the 2016 Kids' Choice Award for Favorite TV Actress and again did not win, though she and her castmates won the award for Favorite TV Show for "The Thundermans". Her Nickelodeon television film, "One Crazy Cruise" (originally titled "Tripwrecked"), was filmed in fall 2014 in Vancouver, British Columbia, and premiered on June 19, 2015. In April 2019, it was announced that Kosarin would appear in the second season of the Hulu horror series "Light as a Feather", in which she portrayed the role of Nadia.


title: Kira Kosarin

text: On February 24, 2018, Kosarin announced her debut single, "Spy", which was released on March 16, 2018. On January 11, 2019, Kosarin released her next single, "Vinyl", which was accompanied by a music video. This was followed by three subsequent singles, "Love Me Like You Hate Me", "47 Hours" and "Take This Outside". Her debut album, "Off Brand", was released on April 10, 2019. In July 2019, Kosarin was set to embark on a headline tour across the United Kingdom to promote the release of "Off Brand", but this was later cancelled due to "scheduling conflicts". On November 8, 2019, Kosarin released her next single, "Simple", a collaboration with American DJ Carneyval. Kosarin also has a YouTube channel where she posts music covers and songs. On July 15, 2020, she independently released an extended play, "Songbird". In March 2022, it was announced that Kosarin had been signed to Republic Records. She released her debut major-label single, "Mood Ring", on March 11, 2022.


title: Shura Baryshnikov

text: Aleksandra Lange "Shura" Baryshnikov (born March 5, 1981) is an American dancer, choreographer, dance educator, and actress.


title: Shura Baryshnikov

text: Aleksandra Lange Baryshnikov is the daughter of ballet dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov and actress Jessica Lange. She is of Finnish descent through her maternal grandmother. She has five half-siblings; three on her father's side, including actress Anna Baryshnikov, and two on her mother's side. Baryshnikov trained in classical ballet as a child, and grew up accompanying her mother to different filming locations. In high school Baryshnikov competed in diving, ran track, rode horses, and played field hockey. She went on to attend Marlboro College in Vermont, where she majored in American studies and also studied theatre and contemporary dance. While at Marlboro she was a member of the student a cappella group Five-O'Clock Bells.


title: Shura Baryshnikov

text: Baryshnikov is the head of Movement at the Brown University / Trinity Repertory Company MFA Program in Acting and Directing as well as a teaching associate in the Department of Theatre Arts and Performance Studies at Brown University, teaching contact improvisation, movement, and dance. She has worked as a choreographer and movement consultant for Trinity Repertory Company, The Wilbury Theatre Group, and Elemental Theatre Collective. As a freelance dancer, she has performed in works by Heidi Henderson, Ali Kenner-Brodsky and Betsy Miller. She has also danced with Aerplaye Dance, American Dance Legacy Initiative, Festival Ballet Providence, Bridge Rep of Boston, Elemental Theatre Collective and Lostwax Multimedia Dance. She is on the faculty at Festival Ballet Providence School and has taught movement at Earthdance in Plainfield, Massachusetts, and at Salve Regina University, Connecticut College, Dean College, Rhode Island College, and MIT. She is also a dance teacher at the Moses Brown School. She trained in Viewpoints improvisational techniques with the SITI Company under Anne Bogart. She is a member of Actors' Equity Association. Baryshnikov is the co-founder, along with Danielle Davidson, of the Doppelganger Dance Collective.


title: Shura Baryshnikov

text: She starred in a production of Oscar Wilde's "Salome" at Boston's Bridge Repertory Theater and was a cast member in Trinity Rep's production of the musical "Oklahoma!" She played Orlando in Gamm Theatre's 2018 production of As You Like It.


title: Shura Baryshnikov

text: Her performance work has been presented by the RISD Museum, Providence Fringe Festival, the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, and in the Moving Arts Lab at Earthdance.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Samuel Finley Breese Morse (April 27, 1791 – April 2, 1872) was an American inventor and painter. After having established his reputation as a portrait painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of Morse code and helped to develop the commercial use of telegraphy.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Samuel F. B. Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, the first child of the pastor Jedidiah Morse (1761–1826), who was also a geographer, and his wife Elizabeth Ann Finley Breese (1766–1828). His father was a great preacher of the Calvinist faith and supporter of the Federalist Party. He thought it helped preserve Puritan traditions (strict observance of Sabbath, among other things), and believed in the Federalist support of an alliance with Britain and a strong central government. Morse strongly believed in education within a Federalist framework, alongside the instillation of Calvinist virtues, morals, and prayers for his first son. His first ancestor in America was Anthony Morse, of Marlborough, in Wiltshire, who had emigrated to America in 1635, and settled in Newbury, Massachusetts.


title: Samuel Morse

text: After attending Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, Samuel Morse went on to Yale College to study religious philosophy, mathematics, and science. While at Yale, he attended lectures on electricity from Benjamin Silliman and Jeremiah Day and was a member of the Society of Brothers in Unity. He supported himself by painting. In 1810, he graduated from Yale with Phi Beta Kappa honors.


title: Samuel Morse

text: Morse married Lucretia Pickering Walker on September 29, 1818, in Concord, New Hampshire. She died on February 7, 1825, of a heart attack shortly after the birth of their third child. (Susan b. 1819, Charles b. 1823, James b. 1825). He married his second wife, Sarah Elizabeth Griswold on August 10, 1848, in Utica, New York and had four children (Samuel b. 1849, Cornelia b. 1851, William b. 1853, Edward b. 1857).