title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: Using their technological brain, the gang slowly break down the security features in Sooraj's car and house. Using a spycam in Madhu's phone and a voice recorder designed as a bracelet. However, they realize that Suraj is a drug baron, who has 1 million in his house, which is equivalent to ₹ 71 crore. When the others decide to play safe by dropping the plan, Siddharth convinces them to stay on, and flee overseas after the heist to avoid Sooraj's wrath. They plan to enter the garage in Sooraj's house by using his Rolls-Royce and get his fingerprint to enter the locker room using a 3D printer. As per Siddharth's plan, Varsha is to spend the day shopping with Sooraj's wife and Madhu is to spend time with Sooraj, while the guys loot the money using Sooraj's car. They plan to hijack Sooraj's car while it is parked at the Hyatt Hotel car park, and use it to enter Sooraj's compound, knowing that they will not be seen as the car's windshield and windows are tinted.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: However, their plan changes when Sooraj drives to his private guesthouse instead of the Hyatt Hotel, to the surprise of Madhu and the others. Shocked, the guys follow the car to a suburban area. Madhu is inside with Sooraj and the guys have only one hour to complete the heist, instead of the two that they had planned for. Siddharth tells Kallis that Sooraj's car is advanced and can be hacked to do many things. He opens an app he had devised and has the car drive itself out of the guesthouse, with some help from Kallis. They then drive to Sooraj's house and safely enter the garage but finds out that to enter through the second security door in the garage, a pattern is required. Siddharth asks Madhu to find out Sooraj's phone pattern and the guys successfully enter the garage. With the 3D printed thumbprint, they enter the locker room, open the locker and steal the money. Madhu fakes a fainting and a nosebleed and the guys return the car to the guesthouse, just in time for Sooraj to rush an 'unconscious' Madhu to the hospital. When Sooraj goes in to bring out the doctors, Madhu escapes.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: Since it would be impossible to take the cash out of the country through an airport without raising suspicion, Siddharth tells that they are going to Thailand by road and the pairs set off on their bikes. However, they encounter Pratap doing vehicle checks at their hotel gate and Siddharth devises a plan quickly. Before the guys leave to confuse Pratap, the girls reveal that they have fallen in love with them. Happily, the guys rush off and tell Pratap that the girls are escaping in a white car. Following a car that the guys point out, Pratap assumes that they are going to the airport. He then assaults a security guard at the airport and breaches the airport security to apprehend the girls, and the guys escape. Siddharth and Kallis call Madhu and tell the girls that they have all the money and that the bags in the bikes are empty. They say that it is their plan of vengeance and that the cops will reach their location in a few minutes.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: The girls are left shocked and devastated, and tell themselves that they deserve this for cheating Siddharth and Kallis in the first place. However, when the police vehicle enters the hideout, Siddarth and Kallis get out of the car and say that they were just messing around and that the money really had been in the bags that the girls had. They say that because the girls didn't try to run away but stayed on feeling they deserved this for cheating Siddharth and Kallis, they think the girls have really started loving them and both couples reconcile and decide to settle down. In Chennai, Pratap is being questioned by the CBI for breaching airport security and for abandoning a high-profile match-fixing case that he had been working in Delhi (for which he had been checking vehicles) to go after two girls who are small-scale cheaters. It is revealed that Pratap was also a victim of Madhu's scams.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: In a scene mimicking a scene from Gautham Vasudev Menon's romantic film "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa", he had gifted her a rare, expensive necklace to Madhu — the same one that he had used to track her down when her handbag was stolen in the first place. Ashamed to declare that he was also a victim, Pratap hangs his head low and it is indicated that he might face a suspension for abandoning his match-fixing case. Back at Sooraj's house, Sooraj watches a CCTV footage of Siddharth and Kallis stealing the money but their face is hidden. The guys have used infrared flashlights on their caps, which have deceived the camera. Sooraj cannot complain to the cops as it is illegal money. As they are camping on their way to Thailand, Madhumita sees her name tattooed on Siddarth's forearm and she guiltily tells that it is not her real name, only to get deceived as Siddarth, who rubs the ink off and Varsha reveals herself as Thenmozhi and "Madhumita" asks Siddharth to guess her name and all four of them squabble on.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: Dulquer Salmaan agreed to collaborate with debutant director Desingh Periyasamy for a Tamil film in February 2017, and chose to make the film before another proposed Tamil film by director Ra. Karthik. Desingh revealed that the film would be a "romantic thriller", with Dulquer portraying a "happy-go-lucky" youngster in the film. The film was initially set to begin production in July 2017, but was delayed as the team looked for a suitable lead actress. Ritu Varma joined the team to play the lead actress during September 2017. Rakshan, a television anchor, was also selected to make his acting debut in the film. In November 2017, the film was titled "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal", which was inspired by a song by A. R. Rahman in Mani Ratnam's "Thiruda Thiruda" (1993). A film with the same name had been planned by Pandiarajan in 2002, but was later shelved.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: Production work began in Delhi on 15 November 2017, with Dulquer joining the shoot three days later, when an official launch ceremony was held. The shoot was however briefly disrupted by the smog in Delhi during the period. In early December, the second schedule began in Goa, with shoots occurring using the backdrop of the beaches. The third and final schedule of the film began in Chennai during late January 2018, and progressed for more than a month. By July 2018, it was revealed that the film was close to being completed, with only five days of shoot remaining.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: The soundtrack is composed by Masala Coffee. The background score of the film is composed by Harshavardhan Rameshwar. The first single track was released on 14 February 2020. The album was released on 21 February 2020.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: The film was released on 28 February 2020 along with its Telugu dubbed version title "Kanulu Kanulanu Dochayante."


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: The movie was available to be purchased for $1.99 on Simply South on 19 March 2020 for all countries except for India. The movie was released on Netflix on 29 March 2020 for all countries. The Satellite Rights were sold to Star Vijay which premiered on eve of Tamil New Year on 14 April 2020.


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: The film received highly positive reviews from critics and audiences. Writing for "Times of India", M Suganth gave 3.5 out of 5 and said that "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal is a winsome romantic thriller with charming leads and edge-of-the-seat moments. Desingh Periyasamy displays a flair for this material both in his writing and making." S Subhakeerthana of "The Indian Express" rated the 3.5 out of 5 and wrote that "The film rides on clever writing and performances. Some of the funniest moments of Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal are those that involve Dulquer Salmaan and Rakshan. It is a performance-driven film, and the script gives both the actors many moments to shine, tapping into their sharp comic timing."


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: "Sify" gave 3.5 out of 5 and wrote that "Desingh Periyasamy has delivered an enjoyable romantic entertainer with enough brainy moments that keeps you hooked till the end. Though the film is lengthy compared to the current 120 minutes trend, it manages to keep us engaged." Writing for "First Post", Sreedhar Pillai gave 3.25 stars out of five and said that "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal looks fresh, and is an enjoyable rom-com or more appropriately, a rip-roaring con ride, mainly owing to its smart writing." Anupama Subramanian for "Deccan Chronicle" wrote that, "Debutant director Desingh Periyasamy's Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal is a synthesis of a rom-com and a modern crime caper, without any pretence or preachiness. So it makes for a fun-filled ride.""Behindwoods" rated 2.75 out of 5 stars stating "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithal works majorly due to the twists and Dulquer's performance. An interesting Gautham Menon moment in the preclimax acts as an icing on the cake". The Hindu stated "Director Desingh Periyasamy does a commendable job of putting together a film that lets the script be hero, and keeps you guessing and entertained". The New Indian Express stated "This film also reminded me of a film like Catch Me If You Can, with a serious cop being in pursuit of some impish criminals who are a step ahead all the time". India Today rated 2 out of 5 stars stating "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal is interesting in a few places, thanks to the cat-and-mouse game between the lead characters. If you are willing to look past the superficial elements in the film, there's a nice story lying there on the side". Film Companion stated "It's how the film interprets Gautham Vasudev Menon's character — essentially GVM playing a GVM hero — that becomes a gift that keeps giving". Deccan Chronicle stated "Overall, Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal is a fine outing for a first-timer worth watching".Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion South wrote "I wish this had been a better movie, though. It needed to be shorter, tighter, far better staged. But most importantly, the twisty plotting needed to be much more convincing in taking us from A to G to K to C. But at a generic level (and sometimes, a bit more), it’s not bad at all." Rajinikanth called and appreciated Desingh Periyasamy. He also expressed his interest in doing a film with Desingh. Sowmya Rajendran from The News Minute Wrote that "Despite the lengthy runtime of 2 hours and 40 minutes, Kannum Kannum stays enjoyable for the most part. It may not blow your mind, but it’s good, harmless fun and god knows, the audience needs more of that"


title: Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal

text: In an interview, Dulquer Salmaan told that Desingh Periyasamy planned for the sequel and also narrated the opening 15 minutes to the team.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: The New Zealand dollar (; sign: $, NZ$; code: NZD) is the official currency and legal tender of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, the Ross Dependency, Tokelau, and a British territory, the Pitcairn Islands. Within New Zealand, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign ($). "$NZ" or "NZ$" are sometimes used when necessary to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: Introduced in 1967, the dollar is subdivided into 100 cents. Altogether it has five coins and five banknotes with the smallest being the 10-cent coin; smaller denominations have been discontinued due to inflation and production costs.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: In the context of currency trading, the New Zealand dollar is sometimes informally called the "Kiwi" or "Kiwi dollar", since the flightless bird, the kiwi, is depicted on its one-dollar coin. It is the tenth most traded currency in the world, representing 2.1% of global foreign exchange market daily turnover in 2019.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: Prior to the introduction of the New Zealand dollar in 1967, the New Zealand pound was the currency of New Zealand, which had been distinct from the pound sterling since 1933. The pound used the £sd system, in which the pound was divided into 20 shillings and one shilling was divided into 12 pence, a system which by the 1950s was considered complicated and cumbersome.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: Switching to decimal currency had been proposed in New Zealand since the 1930s, although only in the 1950s did any plans come to fruition. In 1957, a committee was set up by the Government to investigate decimal currency. The idea fell on fertile ground, and in 1963, the Government decided to decimalise New Zealand currency. The Decimal Currency Act was passed in 1964, setting the date of transition to 10 July 1967. Words such as "fern", "kiwi" and "zeal" were proposed to avoid confusion with the word "dollar", which many people associate with the United States dollar. In the end, the word "dollar" was chosen anyway, and an anthropomorphic dollar note cartoon character called "Mr. Dollar" became the symbol of transition in a huge publicity campaign.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On Monday 10 July 1967 ("Decimal Currency Day"), the New Zealand dollar was introduced to replace the pound at a rate of two dollars to one pound (one dollar to ten shillings, ten cents to one shilling, cent to a penny). Some 27 million new banknotes were printed and 165 million new coins were minted for the changeover.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: The New Zealand dollar was initially pegged to both the British pound sterling and the United States dollar at NZ$1 = UK£ = US$1.40. On 21 November 1967 sterling was devalued from UK£1 = US$2.80 to US$2.40 (see Bretton Woods system), but the New Zealand dollar was devalued even more from NZ$1 = US$1.40 to US$1.12, to match the value of the Australian dollar.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: In 1971 the US devalued its dollar relative to gold, leading New Zealand on 23 December to peg its dollar at US$1.216 with a 4.5% fluctuation range, keeping the same gold value. From 9 July 1973 to 4 March 1985 the dollar's value was determined from a trade-weighted basket of currencies.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On 4 March 1985, the NZ$ was floated at the initial rate of US$0.4444. Since then the dollar's value has been determined by the financial markets, and has been in the range of about US$0.39 to 0.88.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: The dollar's post-float low was US$0.3922 on 22 November 2000, and it reached a post-float high on 9 July 2014 of US$0.8821. Much of this medium-term variation in the exchange rate has been attributed to differences in interest rates.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On 11 June 2007 the Reserve Bank sold an unknown worth of New Zealand dollars for nine billion USD in an attempt to drive down its value. This is the first intervention in the markets by the Bank since the float in 1985.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: Two suspected interventions followed, but they were not as successful as the first: the first appeared to be initially effective, with the dollar dropping to approximately US$0.7490 from near US$0.7620. However, within little more than a month it had risen to new post-float highs, reaching US$0.8103 on 23 July 2007.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: After reaching its post-float record high in early 2008, the value of the NZ$ plummeted throughout much of the 2nd half of 2008 and the first quarter of 2009 as a response to the global economic downturn and flight by investors away from "riskier" currencies such as the NZ$. The NZ$ bottomed out at approximately US$0.50 on 6 March 2009. However, it rebounded strongly as the year progressed, reaching the US$0.75 range by November 2009.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: By late 2012, the dollar was holding above 80 US cents, occasionally reaching 85¢, prompting calls from the Green Party for quantitative easing. Unions also called on the Government and the Reserve Bank to take action, but as of February 2013 both had declined.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: As of early June 2017, the NZD was trading at approximately US$0.71, and in early November 2019 it was valued as US$0.63 = NZ$1.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On the introduction of the dollar, coins came in denominations of 1c, 2c, 5c, 10c, 20c, and 50c. The 1c and 2c coins were bronze, the others were cupro-nickel. To ease transition, the 5c, 10c, and 20c were the same size as the sixpence, shilling and florin that they respectively replaced, and until 1970, the ten-cent coin bore the additional legend "One Shilling". The obverse designs of all the coins featured Arnold Machin's portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, with the legend ELIZABETH II NEW ZEALAND [date]. The reverse sides of coins introduced in 1967 did not follow the designs that were originally intended for them. Those modern art and sculpture themed designs were leaked to a newspaper and met a very negative public reaction. The final releases were given more conservative designs in line with public expectations.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: In 1986, New Zealand adopted Raphael Maklouf's new portrait of the Queen. The 1c and 2c coins were last minted for circulation in 1987, with collector coins being made for 1988. The coins were demonetised on 30 April 1990. The lack of 1c and 2c coins meant that cash transactions were normally rounded to the nearest 5c (10c from 2006), a process known as Swedish rounding.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On 11 February 1991, aluminium-bronze $1 and $2 coins were introduced to replace existing $1 and $2 notes. In 1999, Ian Rank-Broadley's portrait of the Queen was introduced and the legend rearranged to read "NEW ZEALAND ELIZABETH II".


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On 11 November 2004 the Reserve Bank announced that it proposed to take the 5c coin out of circulation and to make the 50c, 20c and 10c coins smaller and use plated steel to make them lighter. After a three-month public submission period that ended on 4 February 2005, the Reserve Bank announced on 31 March that it would go ahead with the proposed changes. The changeover period started on 31 July 2006, with the old coins usable until 31 October 2006. The old 50c, 20c, 10c and 5c pieces are now no longer legal tender, but are still redeemable at the Reserve Bank. Prior to the change over, these coins were similar, save for the legend and reverse artwork, to international (mainly Commonwealth) coins of the same British-derived sizes, which led to coins from other currencies, particularly older coins, being accepted by vending machines and many retailers.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On 23 March 2015, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand issued its first commemorative circulating coin to mark the centenary of the Gallipoli landings. The coin was also New Zealand's first colour circulating coin. One million coins, with a denomination of 50c, were minted.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: On 1 October 2018 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand issued its second commemorative circulating coin to mark the centenary of Armistice day. The coin was also New Zealand's second colour circulating coin. Two million coins, with a denomination of 50c, were minted.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: After the death of Queen Elizabeth II in September 2022, the Reserve Bank said it would exhaust its existing coin stocks before introducing new coins featuring King Charles III. Based on current stock levels, this would likely be several years away.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: In 1967, notes were introduced in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20 and $100, with all except the $5 replacing their pound predecessors. The original series of dollar notes featured on the obverse a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II wearing Queen Alexandra's Kokoshnik tiara, King George's VI festoon necklace, and Queen Mary's floret earrings, while the reverse featured native birds and plants. The notes were changed slightly in 1981 due to a change of printer (from De La Rue to Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co.)—the most noticeable difference being the portrait based upon a photograph by Peter Grugeon, in which Queen Elizabeth II is wearing Grand Duchess Vladimir's tiara and Queen Victoria's golden jubilee necklace. The $50 note was added in 1983 to fill the long gap between the $20 and the $100 notes. $1 and $2 notes were discontinued in 1991 after being replaced with coins.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: A new series of notes, known as Series 5 was introduced in 1992. The obverse of each note featured a notable New Zealander, while the reverse featured a native New Zealand bird and New Zealand scenery. The Queen remained on the $20 note. In 1999, series 6 polymer notes replaced the paper notes. The designs remained much the same, but were changed slightly to accommodate new security features, with the most obvious changes being the two transparent windows.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: In 2015–16, new Series 7 notes were issued, refreshing the note design and improving security features. As of 2021, Series 6 and 7 notes are currently legal tender.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: In September 2022, following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, the Reserve Bank said it would exhaust its existing stocks of $20 notes before introducing new notes featuring King Charles III.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, both Australia and New Zealand converted the mostly-fixed foreign exchange regimes to a moving peg against the US dollar. In September 1974, Australia moved to a peg against a basket of currencies called the trade weighted index (TWI) in an effort to reduce fluctuations associated with its peg to the US dollar. The peg to the TWI was changed to a moving peg in November 1976, causing the actual value of the peg to be periodically adjusted.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: Since the late 1990s, and certainly since the end of the Cold War the US dollar has had less and less overall influence over the value of both the NZ$ and A$ against other currencies.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: The New Zealand dollar contributes greatly to the total global exchange market—far in excess of New Zealand's relative share of population or global GDP.


title: New Zealand dollar

text: According to the Bank for International Settlements, the New Zealand dollar's share of global foreign exchange market daily turnover in 2016 was 2.1% (up from 1.6% in 2010) giving it a rank of 11th. Trading in the currency has climbed steadily since the same survey in 1998 when the NZD's ranking was 17th and the share of turnover was just 0.2%.


title: Moshing

text: Moshing (also known as slam dancing or simply slamming) is an extreme style of dancing in which participants push or slam into each other, typically performed to "aggressive" live music such as heavy metal and punk rock. Moshing usually happens in the center of the crowd, generally closer to the stage, in an area called the "mosh pit". It is intended to be energetic and full of body contact.


title: Moshing

text: The dance style originated in the hardcore punk scenes of California and Washington, D.C. around 1980. Through the 1980s it spread to other branches of punk rock as well as grunge and thrash metal, which exposed it to the mainstream. Since then, moshing has occasionally been performed to energetic music within a wide variety of genres, including alternative rock, EDM and hip hop, while remaining a staple in heavy metal shows.


title: Moshing

text: Variations of moshing exist, including "pogoing", "circle pits", and "wall of death". Dancing can be done alone as well as in groups.


title: Moshing

text: While moshing is seen as a form of positive fan feedback or expression of enjoyment, it has also drawn criticism over dangerous excesses in its violence. Injuries and even deaths have been reported in the crush of mosh pits.


title: Moshing

text: The term "mosh" came into use in the early 1980s American hardcore scene in Washington, D.C. Early on, the dance was frequently spelled "mash" in fanzines and record liner notes, but pronounced "mosh," as in the 1982 song "Total Mash" by the D.C.-based hardcore band Scream. H.R. of the band Bad Brains, regarded as a band that "put moshing on the map," used the term "mash" in lyrics and in concert stage banter to both incite and to describe the aggressive and often violent dancing of the scene. To "mash it up" was to go wild with the frenzy of the music. Due to his Jamaican-accented pronunciation of the word, fans heard this as "mosh" instead.


title: Moshing

text: By the mid-1980s, the term was appearing in print with its current spelling. By the time thrash metal band Anthrax used the term in their song "Caught in a Mosh", the word was already a mainstay of hardcore and thrash scenes. Scott Ian and Charlie Benante of Anthrax and S.O.D. have both been credited with the term originating from Vinnie Stigma of the New York hardcore band Agnostic Front. Through the mainstream success of bands like Anthrax, Stormtroopers of Death, and multiple thrash metal bands in the late 1980s the term came into the popular vernacular.


title: Moshing

text: The first dance identifiable as moshing may have originated in Orange County, California, during the first wave of American hardcore. Examples of this early moshing can be seen in the documentaries "Another State of Mind", "Urban Struggle", "The Decline of Western Civilization", and "American Hardcore", as well as footage from the shows of the era. Dave Wood, an avid concert-goer and roadie of The Weirdos, popularized moshing at a show at The Roxy in 1977. At the time, California hardcore punk bands such as Black Flag and Fear were becoming popular in Orange County. Jerry Roach's club, the Cuckoo's Nest in Costa Mesa was known as the "birthplace of slam dancing". Fear's 1981 musical performance on "Saturday Night Live" also helped to expose moshing to a much wider audience.


title: Moshing

text: By the end of the 1980s, the initial wave of American hardcore punk had waned and split into other subgenres. The Seattle-based grunge movement was among the many styles of music that directly evolved from hardcore. Through the mainstream success of several grunge bands, the word "mosh" entered the popular North American vocabulary and the dance spread to many other music genres. According to John Linnell of They Might Be Giants, "it didn’t matter what kind of music you were playing or what kind of band you were; everybody moshed to everything. It was just kind of the enforced rule of going to concerts."


title: Moshing

text: The pogo was the first form of moshing. According to The Filth and the Fury, it was invented by Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious in 1976.


title: Moshing

text: A circle pit is a form of moshing in which participants run in a circular motion around the edges of the pit, often leaving an open space in the centre.


title: Moshing

text: A wall of death is a form of moshing which sees the audience divide down the middle into two halves either side of the venue, before each side runs towards the other, slamming the two sides together. According to Noisecreep, the consensus is that it was invented by American hardcore punk band Sick of it All. However, the band's vocalist Lou Koller has stated that he merely revived the practice in 1996, as he often saw a similar act performed in the 1980s New York hardcore scene. Loudwire senior writer Graham Hartmann referred to it as "Perhaps the most bad ass and dangerous ritual you can experience in a mosh pit". Venues will often ask bands not to organize the Wall of Death themselves due to the inherent risk involved and liability.


title: Moshing

text: Hardcore dancing is a term that covers multiple style of moshing including windmilling two stepping, floorpunching, picking up pennies, axehandling, bucking, and wheelbarrowing. The practice began in New York City in the 1980s.


title: Moshing

text: Crowd killing is when a mosher moshes against the crowd around the sides of the pit. According to "Kerrang!" writer Amanda van Poznak it is generally looked down upon.


title: Moshing

text: Researchers from Cornell University studied the emergent behavior of crowds at mosh pits by analyzing online videos, finding similarities with models of 2-D gases in equilibrium. Simulating the crowds with computer models, they found out that a simulation dominated by flocking parameters produced highly ordered behavior, forming vortices like those seen in the videos.


title: Moshing

text: The American post-hardcore band Fugazi opposed slamdancing at their live shows. Members of Fugazi were reported to single out and confront specific members of the audience, politely asking them to stop hurting other audience members, or hauling them on stage to apologize on the microphone.


title: Moshing

text: Consolidated, an industrial dance group of the 1990s, stood against moshing. On their third album, "Play More Music", they included the song "The Men's Movement", which proclaimed the inappropriate nature of slamdancing. The song consisted of audio recordings during concerts from the audience and members of Consolidated, arguing about moshing.


title: Moshing

text: In the 1990s, the Smashing Pumpkins took a stance against moshing, following two incidents which resulted in fatalities. At a 1996 Pumpkins concert in Dublin, Ireland, 17-year-old Bernadette O'Brien was crushed by moshing crowd members and later died in the hospital, despite warnings from the band that people were getting hurt. At another concert, singer Billy Corgan said to the audience:


title: Moshing

text: Another fan died at a Smashing Pumpkins concert in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on September 24, 2007. The 20-year-old male was dragged out of the mosh pit, unconscious, to be pronounced dead at a hospital after first-aid specialists attempted to save him.


title: Moshing

text: Reel Big Fish's 1998 album "Why Do They Rock So Hard?" included their mosh-criticizing song "Thank You for Not Moshing", which contained lyrics that suggested that at least some individuals in the mosh pit were simply bullies who were finding conformity in the violence.


title: Moshing

text: Mike Portnoy, founder and ex-drummer of Dream Theater, and Avenged Sevenfold where he briefly filled in after the death of The Rev, criticized moshing in an interview published on his website:


title: Moshing

text: Sixteen-year-old Jessica Michalik was an Australian girl who died as a result of asphyxiation after being crushed in a mosh pit during the 2001 Big Day Out festival during a performance by nu metal band Limp Bizkit. At that same festival, post-hardcore band At The Drive-In ended their set early after only three songs due to the audience's moshing.


title: Moshing

text: Groove metal group Five Finger Death Punch had an incident when, during the song "White Knuckles" at a concert in Hartford, Connecticut, a young man received a compound fracture on his ankle in a mosh pit. Ivan Moody, the band's lead singer, stopped the show, leaped into the crowd with Zoltan Bathory, the band's rhythm guitarist, and carried the injured fan onto the stage, from where he was taken to the hospital. Moody has been quoted as saying: "I looked him square in the face and asked him if he was okay, or if there was anything I could do for him. He looked over at me, still in shock, and said 'You guys fucking rock!'"


title: Moshing

text: Moody stated "I've felt bad because of what has happened. I miss the old Pantera kids who would just throw each other. Just respect other people; come on." Bathory stated: "Because he broke his leg I threw down my guitar. We just finished when he broke his leg, and I came out and I stayed with him until the paramedics picked him up. These are my people and that's how it is."


title: Moshing

text: Joey DeMaio of American heavy metal band Manowar has been known to temporarily stop concerts upon seeing moshing and crowd surfing, claiming it is dangerous to other fans.


title: Moshing

text: Former Slipknot percussionist Chris Fehn spoke about the state of audience interaction following the onstage incident and subsequent legal issues involving Lamb of God’s Randy Blythe, who was eventually found not guilty of criminal wrongdoing in the death of a concertgoer, despite being held "morally responsible". Fehn briefly addressed the Blythe situation, stating "I think, especially in America, moshing has turned into a form of bullying. The big guy stands in the middle and just trucks any small kid that comes near him. They don’t mosh properly anymore. It sucks because that’s not what it’s about. Those guys need to be kicked out. A proper mosh pit is a great way to be as a group and dance, and just do your thing."


title: Saw IV

text: Saw IV is a 2007 horror film directed by Darren Lynn Bousman from a screenplay by Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan, and a story by Melton, Dunstan, and Thomas Fenton. It is the fourth installment in the "Saw" film series, the third directed by Bousman. The film stars Tobin Bell, Scott Patterson, Costas Mandylor, Betsy Russell, and Lyriq Bent. The plot follows Daniel Rigg, a police officer obsessed with rescuing the Jigsaw Killer's victims, who finds himself the focus of Jigsaw's latest series of tests, in which he must rescue his partners, Eric Matthews and Mark Hoffman, while learning to overcome his obsession. The film also explores John Kramer's legacy and his ability to manipulate people into continuing his work after his death, while providing more of his backstory and an additional explanation as to why he became Jigsaw.


title: Saw IV

text: "Saw IV" was the first film in the franchise to not be written by Leigh Whannell. It was released by Lionsgate Films in the United States on October 26, 2007, and received generally negative reviews from critics. Despite this, the film was a box office success, grossing $139 million worldwide. A sequel, titled "Saw V", was released in 2008.


title: Saw IV

text: An autopsy of the Jigsaw Killer reveals a wax-coated microcassette in his stomach. The tape shows Detective Hoffman promising that "the games have just begun." In a mausoleum, Trevor and Art are chained to a large device. Trevor's eyes have been sewn shut, and Art's mouth has been sewn shut, making communication between them impossible. When the device begins pulling them together, they panic, and Art murders Trevor to retrieve a key from his collar.


title: Saw IV

text: Meanwhile, the police discover the corpse of Detective Kerry. After cautioning Lieutenant Rigg for barging through an unsecured door, Hoffman is introduced to FBI Agents Strahm and Perez, who deduce that Amanda Young, Jigsaw's apprentice, would have needed assistance with Kerry's death, indicating that there is another apprentice.


title: Saw IV

text: That evening, Rigg and Hoffman are kidnapped. Rigg is told that Detective Matthews is in fact still alive, and is given ninety minutes to save him. He is then given his first test, where he finds Brenda is slowly being scalped. He rescues her, although he is warned not to, and Brenda later attempts to stab Rigg; Rigg subdues her and learns that Brenda was told that Rigg was there to arrest her for prostitution.


title: Saw IV

text: Rigg's next test is at a motel, where he is instructed to abduct the manager, Ivan, revealed to be a serial rapist. Angered by seeing videos of Ivan's exploits, Rigg forces Ivan into a prearranged trap, which dismembers him. Rigg's next test occurs in a school where Rigg attacked a man acquitted of abusing his family, though Rigg's career was saved by Hoffman. In one of the classrooms, Rigg discovers the husband and wife impaled on a pole, with the man dead and the woman clinging to life. Rigg tells the woman that she must remove the spikes herself before leaving, pulling a fire alarm as he does.


title: Saw IV

text: Strahm and Perez arrive on the scene, where it is learned that all of the victims were defended by Art, who is also the lawyer of Jill Tuck, Jigsaw's ex-wife. After a photographer is accidentally killed on the scene, Perez finds Billy, Jigsaw's puppet, in the office. She is told that Strahm will "soon take the life of an innocent man" and that her "next step is critical". Ignoring past clues that she is in danger, Perez continues with the investigation before Billy explodes; she is rushed to the hospital in critical condition. Furious, Strahm interrogates Jill, who recounts Jigsaw's backstory. She was once pregnant with a boy to be named Gideon, but suffered a miscarriage when Cecil Adams robbed the clinic at which she was employed and he slammed a door into her stomach. She and her husband grew apart and divorced. After learning that he had cancer and only a short while to live, Jigsaw placed Cecil in a trap which collapsed prematurely; Cecil then lunged at Jigsaw, but fell into a mesh of barbed wire. Strahm makes connections from Jill's story to the Gideon Meat Factory, the scene of Rigg's final test.


title: Saw IV

text: Strahm arrives but finds himself lost, accidentally trailing Jeff Denlon. Rigg, meanwhile, approaches his final test. In the next room are Art, Matthews, and Hoffman; it was revealed earlier that if the door was opened before Rigg's time was up, Matthews' head would be crushed between two ice blocks and Hoffman would be electrocuted by a complex device. Rigg charges through the door with one second to spare; despite Matthews' attempts to stop Rigg by shooting him, he is killed. Rigg shoots Art while, in another room, Strahm faces off with Jeff, who brandishes a gun, unaware that Jeff is frantically searching for his daughter. Strahm kills Jeff while Hoffman, who was never in any danger and is Jigsaw's other apprentice, rises and seals an injured Rigg and a bewildered Strahm in the factory.


title: Saw IV

text: For "Saw IV", there was a hunt for a director before it was officially stated that Darren Lynn Bousman, who had originally passed on it, would again direct the fourth installment, with creators and executive producers James Wan and Leigh Whannell also returning. Principal photography took from April 16, 2007 to May 3, 2007. The filming location was Toronto, Ontario; the same place where both "Saw II" and "Saw III" were filmed. The post-production period began on 19 May.


title: Saw IV

text: As Whannell was uninterested in writing any more "Saw" films, Twisted Pictures sought new writers and ideas for the fourth "Saw" film, making it the first film to not be written by him. An executive discovered Marcus Dunstan and Patrick Melton and read their script "The Midnight Man". The executive thought that the duo's script could serve as a prequel to the first film, detailing a traumatic event in John Kramer's early life. However, producers Mark Burg and Oren Koules didn't want to do a prequel and dropped the idea, but the script led Dunstan and Melton to be hired to write the next three "Saw" films. Thomas Fenton also joined Dunstan and Melton as writer to the film, though Marek Posival was attached to write as well at one point.


title: Saw IV

text: Stepping into the franchise was tricky for Dunstan and Melton given the serialized nature of the "Saw" films, but they counted with Bousman and the crew to watch over them, pitching a trilogy which would start with "Saw IV" and conclude in "Saw VI". The duo didn't have any trouble in bringing Jigsaw back into the story despite his death in the last film, as the character had been dying since the original film, feeling that the film wouldn't feel like a "Saw" entry without the character on it. Once the duo was hired and showed "Saw III", they begged the crew to spare Eric Matthews, who was originally depicted to be killed in the third film, but at their insistence the producers had his death scene removed from that film so they could bring him back in the fourth film. In earlier drafts, "Saw IV" was going to take place simultaneously as the original "Saw" and it would have included a scene of Agent Peter Strahm finding and entering the bathroom, moments after Adam Stanheight was left in there to die by Jigsaw. Adam would have attempted to shoot him out of panic, prompting the agent to kill him in self-defense. This was eventually changed to the film taking place simultaneously with "Saw III" instead. Like in previous entries, a lot of rewrites took place during the writing process, leading many unused ideas for the film to later be recycled for "Saw V".


title: Saw IV

text: In an interview with Bousman, he stated that the last work on "Saw IV" would happen in August to be able to have prints made. At Comic Con Intermeational 2007, it was revealed by Bousman and Burg that the MPAA had given the film an NC-17 rating. They would have to figure out whether or not to cut the film to achieve an R rating or release it as an NC-17 film, the former of which they accomplished. The British Board of Film Classification classified the film at 18, as did the Irish Film Classification Office.


title: Saw IV

text: The film grossed $63,300,095 in the United States and an additional $71,228,814 internationally, bringing the theatrical total to $134,528,909. It is Lionsgate's sixth highest-grossing film in the United States and Canada.


title: Saw IV

text: Critical reception to "Saw IV" was negative. Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 20% based on 81 reviews, with an average score of 3.8/10. The site's consensus states: “"Saw IV" is more disturbing than compelling, with material already seen in the prior installments.” On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 36 out of 100, based on 16 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Saw IV

text: Scott Schueller from the "Los Angeles Times" called it “a film as edgy as a rubber knife” and said that “if the terrible craft of Bousman's film doesn’t turn your stomach, the borderline pornographic violence will. It’s disconcerting to imagine anyone enjoying the vile filth splashing the screen.” Frank Scheck from "The Hollywood Reporter" said “the famously inventive torture sequences here seem depleted of imagination”, but added that “it hasn’t yet jumped the shark like such predecessors as the "Nightmare on Elm Street" and "Friday the 13th" movies eventually did.” Peter Hartlaub from "The San Francisco Chronicle" called it “the "Syriana" of slasher films, so complicated and circuitous that your only hope of understanding everything is to eat lots of fish the night before and then watch each of the previous films, in order, right before you enter the theater.” James Berardinelli wrote that “"Saw IV" functions as a drawn-out, tedious epilogue to a series that began with an energetic bang three years ago with "Saw", then progressively lost momentum, coherence, and intelligence with each successive annual installment.”


title: Saw IV

text: A less negative review came from Jamie Russell from the BBC, who called it "deeply unsettling; just like a horror movie should be." Linda Cook from "Quad-City Times" gave it a positive review and said "The twists and turns are deadly, the 'lessons' are taught once again, and we have the perfect setup for "Saw V"."


title: Saw IV

text: The Unrated Director's Cut was released on January 22, 2008, in America and March 3, 2008, in the UK, on DVD and Blu-ray. An "Extreme Edition" was released in the United Kingdom only, before the release of "Saw V" in October 2008, and features a 95-minute running time of the film. This version of the film matches the unrated version released in the United States (since the BBFC have to classify every film by law, the term 'unrated' is not permitted on UK home video releases).


title: Saw IV

text: The soundtrack was released on October 23, 2007, by WEA/Warner Bros. Records. The film's theme song "I.V." was written by Yoshiki and performed by the rock group X Japan.


title: Robert Glenister

text: Robert Lewis Glenister (born 11 March 1960 in Watford, Hertfordshire) is an English actor. The son of the television director John Glenister and the older brother of actor Philip Glenister, his roles include con man Ash "Three Socks" Morgan in the BBC television series "Hustle" (2004–2012) and Nicholas Blake in the spy drama "Spooks" (2006–2010).


title: Robert Glenister

text: Glenister had a regular role in the BBC sitcom "Sink or Swim", which ran from 1980 until 1982. He has also appeared in shows such as "Soldier Soldier", "Only Fools and Horses" (as Myles the millionaire garden centre owner and chairman of the SWANS committee), "A Touch of Frost" and "Inspector George Gently", as well as several films.


title: Robert Glenister

text: He had a starring role in the BBC drama "Hustle" as Ash Morgan, a high-level con-man who has to convincingly play various roles or characters to pull off a con and lure a 'mark'. He is the only actor who has appeared in every episode of the series. He has also had regular starring roles in the BBC drama "Spooks" and appeared in "Spartacus". He appeared as an Irish-American mob boss in Ben Affleck's crime drama "Live by Night", which was released in December 2016. He has been cast twice in "Doctor Who", playing Salateen in "The Caves of Androzani" (1984) (opposite his "Sink or Swim" co-star Peter Davison) and Thomas Edison in "Nikola Tesla's Night of Terror" (2020).


title: Robert Glenister

text: In June 2022 he appeared as Detective Inspector Salisbury in "Sherwood", a BBC serial written by James Graham.


title: Robert Glenister

text: Glenister married actor Amanda Redman in 1984; the couple had one child together, daughter Emily, before they divorced in 1992. He later married BBC Radio producer and director Celia de Wolff, with whom he has one child, son Tom.


title: Robert Glenister

text: In April 2019, it was reported that lawyers acting for a company owned by Glenister – Big Bad Wolff – had lost an appeal in a long-running battle with HM Revenue and Customs regarding liability for National Insurance contributions. Glenister subsequently said that he would have to sell or remortgage his house as a result of the ruling, since he now faced a bill of £147,000 plus interest.


title: Rough Riders

text: The Rough Riders was a nickname given to the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, one of three such regiments raised in 1898 for the Spanish–American War and the only one to see combat. The United States Army was small, understaffed, and disorganized in comparison to its status during the American Civil War roughly thirty years prior. Following the sinking of , President William McKinley needed to muster a strong ground force swiftly, which he did by calling for 125,000 volunteers to assist in the war. The U.S. had gone to war in opposition to Spanish colonial policies in Cuba, which was then torn by a rebellion. The regiment was also nicknamed "Wood's Weary Walkers" for its first commander, Colonel Leonard Wood. This reflected their dissatisfaction that despite being cavalry, they ended up fighting in Cuba as infantry, since their horses were not sent there with them.


title: Rough Riders

text: Wood's second in command was former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, a strong advocate for the Cuban War of Independence. When Wood was promoted to become commander of the 2nd Cavalry Brigade, the regiment became known as "Roosevelt's Rough Riders." That term was borrowed from Buffalo Bill, who called his traveling Western show "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World."


title: Rough Riders

text: The original plan called for the regiment to be composed of frontiersmen from the Indian Territory, the New Mexico Territory, the Arizona Territory, and the Oklahoma Territory. However, after Roosevelt joined the ranks, it attracted an odd mixture of Ivy League athletes, glee club singers, Texas Rangers, and Native Americans. All accepted into the regiment had to be skilled horsemen and eager to see combat. The Rough Riders would receive more publicity than any other Army unit in that war, and they are best remembered for their conduct during the Battle of San Juan Hill, though it is seldom mentioned how heavily they outnumbered Spanish soldiers who opposed them. Several days after the Battle of San Juan Hill, the Spanish fleet sailed from Cuba, and in only a few weeks an armistice ending the fighting was signed. Despite the brevity of their service, the Rough Riders became legendary, thanks in large part to Roosevelt's writing his own history of the regiment and the silent film reenactments made years later.


title: Rough Riders

text: The volunteers were gathered in four areas: Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. They were gathered mainly from the southwest because the hot climate region that the men were used to was similar to that of Cuba where they would be fighting. "The difficulty in organizing was not in selecting, but in rejecting men." The allowed limit set for the volunteer cavalry men was promptly met. With news trickling down of Spanish aggression and the sinking of the USS "Maine", men flocked from every corner of the regions to display their patriotism. They gathered a diverse bunch of men consisting of cowboys, gold or mining prospectors, hunters, gamblers, Native Americans, and college boys—all of whom were able-bodied and capable on horseback and in shooting. Half the unit would come from New Mexico according to Roosevelt. Among these men were also police officers and military veterans who wished to see action again, most of whom had already retired. Thirty years removed from any armed conflict, men who had served in the regular army during campaigns against Native Americans or during the Civil War sought out to serve as higher-ranking officers, since they already had the knowledge and experience to lead and train the men. The unit thus would not be without experience. Leonard Wood, an Army doctor who served as the medical adviser for both the President and Secretary of War, was appointed colonel of The Rough Riders, with Roosevelt serving as lieutenant colonel. One particularly famous spot where volunteers were gathered was in San Antonio, Texas, at the Menger Hotel Bar. The bar is still open and serves as a tribute to the Rough Riders, containing much of their and Theodore Roosevelt's uniforms and memories.


title: Rough Riders

text: Before training began, Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt used his political influence as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to ensure that his volunteer regiment would be properly equipped to serve as any regular Army unit. The Rough Riders were armed with Model 1896 Carbines in caliber .30 US (i.e., .30-40 Krag). "They succeeded in getting their cartridges, Colt Single Action Army revolvers, clothing, shelter-tents, and horse gear ... and in getting the regiment armed with the Springfield Krag carbine used by the regular cavalry." The Rough Riders also used Bowie knives. A last-minute gift from a wealthy donor were a pair of modern tripod mounted, gas-operated M1895 Colt–Browning machine guns in 7mm Mauser caliber.


title: Rough Riders

text: In contrast, the uniforms of the regiment were designed to set the unit apart: "The Rough Rider uniform was a slouch hat, blue flannel shirt, brown trousers, leggings, and boots, with handkerchiefs knotted loosely around their necks. They looked exactly as a body of cowboy cavalry should look." This "rough and tumble" appearance contributed to earning them the title of "The Rough Riders."


title: Rough Riders

text: Training was very standard, even for a cavalry unit. They worked on basic military drills, protocol, and habits involving conduct, obedience, and etiquette. The men proved eager to learn what was necessary and the training went smoothly. It was decided that the men would not be trained to use the saber as cavalry often did, as they had no experience with it. Instead, they used their carbines and revolvers as primary and secondary weapons. Although the men, for the most part, were already experienced horsemen, the officers refined their techniques in riding, shooting from horseback, and practicing in formations and in skirmishes. Along with these practices, the high-ranking men heavily studied books filled with tactics and drills to better themselves in leading the others. During times which physical drills could not be run, either because of confinement on board the train, ship, or during times where space was inadequate, there were some books that were read further as to leave no time wasted in preparation for war. The competent training that the volunteer men received prepared them best as possible for their duty. While training methods were standard, mass mobilization of troops from many different regions led to a very high death rate due to disease, especially typhoid fever. The total number of deaths attributed to disease and "other causes" during the Spanish–American War was 5,083. A significant number of these deaths actually occurred at training areas in the southeastern United States.


title: Rough Riders

text: On May 29, 1898, 1060 Rough Riders and 1258 of their horses and mules made their way to the Southern Pacific railroad to travel to Tampa, Florida where they would set off for Cuba. The lot awaited orders for departure from Major General William Rufus Shafter. Under heavy prompting from Washington D.C., General Shafter gave the order to dispatch the troops early before sufficient traveling storage was available. Due to this problem, only eight of the 12 companies of The Rough Riders were permitted to leave Tampa to engage in the war, and many of the horses and mules were left behind. Aside from Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt's first-hand mention of deep, heartfelt sorrow from the men left behind, this situation resulted in a premature weakening of the men. Approximately one-fourth of them who received training had already been lost, most dying of malaria and yellow fever. This sent the remaining troops into Cuba with a significant loss in men and morale.


title: Rough Riders

text: Upon arrival on Cuban shores on June 23, 1898, the men promptly unloaded themselves and the small amount of equipment they carried with them. Camp was set up nearby and the men were to remain there until further orders had been given to advance. Further supplies were unloaded from the ships over the next day including the very few horses that were allowed on the journey. "The great shortcoming throughout the campaign was the utterly inadequate transportation. If they had been allowed to take our mule-train, they could have kept the whole cavalry division supplied," Roosevelt later wrote. Each man was only able to carry a few days worth of food which had to last them longer and fuel their bodies for rigorous tasks. Even after only 75 percent of the total number of cavalrymen was allowed to embark into Cuba, they were still without most of the horses they had so heavily been trained and accustomed to using. They were not trained as infantry and were not conditioned to doing heavy marching, especially long-distance in hot, humid, and dense jungle conditions. This ultimately served as a severe disadvantage to the men who had yet to see combat.


title: Rough Riders

text: Within another day of camp being established, men were sent forward into the jungle for reconnaissance purposes, and before too long they returned with news of a Spanish outpost, Las Guasimas. By afternoon, The Rough Riders were given the command to begin marching towards Las Guasimas, to eliminate opposition and secure the area which stood in the path of further military advance. Upon arrival at their relative destination, the men slept through the night in a crude encampment nearby the Spanish outpost they would attack early the next morning. The American side included the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, under Leonard Wood, the 1st U.S. Regular Cavalry, and the 10th U.S. Regular Cavalry (this consisted of Afro-American soldiers, then called Buffalo soldiers). Supported by artillery, the American forces numbered 964 men, supported by 800 men from Castillo.


title: Rough Riders

text: The Spanish held an advantage over the Americans by knowing their way through the complicated trails in the area of combat. They predicted where the Americans would be traveling on foot and exactly what positions to fire on. They also were able to utilize the land and cover in such a way that they were difficult to spot. Along with this, their guns used smokeless powder which did not give away their immediate position upon firing as other gunpowders would have. This increased the difficulty of finding the opposition for the U.S. soldiers. In some locations, the jungle was too thick to see very far. Rough Riders on both left and right sides of the trail moved forward and eventually forced the Spaniards back to their second line of trenches. Continuing to advance, the Rough Riders eventually forced the Spanish to withdraw completely from their final positions. Rough Riders from A Troop on the far-right linked up with their regular counterparts and helped them seize the Spanish positions on the long finger-like hill to the right of the right road, with both Rough Riders and Regulars meeting at the base of the hill. By this time it was approximately 9:30 a.m. Reinforcements from the regular 9th Cavalry arrived 30 minutes after the fight.


title: Rough Riders

text: General Young, who was in command of the regulars and cavalry, began the attack in the early morning. Using long-range, large-caliber Hotchkiss guns, he fired at the opposition, who were reportedly concealed along trenches, roads, bridges, and jungle cover. Colonel Wood's men, accompanied by Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt, were not yet in the same vicinity as the other men at the start of the battle. They had a more difficult path to travel around the time the battle began, and at first they had to make their way up a very steep hill. "Many of the men, footsore and weary from their march of the preceding day, found the pace up this hill too hard, and either dropped their bundles or fell out of line, with the result that we went into action with less than five hundred men." Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt became aware that there were countless opportunities for any man to fall out of formation and resign from battle without notice as the jungle was often too thick in places to see through. This was yet another event that left the group with fewer men than they had at the start.


title: Rough Riders

text: Regardless, The Rough Riders pushed forward toward the outpost along with the regulars. Using careful observation, the officers were able to locate where the opposition was hidden in the brush and entrenchments and they were able to target their men properly to overcome them. Toward the end of the battle, Edward Marshall, a newspaper writer, was inspired by the men around him in the heat of battle to pick up a rifle and begin fighting alongside them. When he suffered a gunshot wound in the spine from one of the Spaniards, another soldier mistook him as Colonel Wood from afar and ran back from the front line to report his death. Due to this misconception, Roosevelt temporarily took command as colonel and gathered the troops together with his leadership charisma. The battle lasted an hour and a half from beginning to end with The Rough Riders suffering eight dead and 31 wounded, including Captain Allyn K. Capron Jr. Roosevelt came across Colonel Wood in full health after the battle finished and stepped down from his position to lieutenant-colonel.


title: Rough Riders

text: The United States had full control of this Spanish outpost on the road to Santiago by the end of the battle. General Shafter had the men hold position for six days while additional supplies were brought ashore. During this time, The Rough Riders ate, slept, cared for the wounded, and buried the dead from both sides. During the six-day encampment, some men died from fever. Among those stricken by illness was General Joseph Wheeler. Brigadier General Samuel Sumner assumed command of the cavalry and Wood took the second brigade as brigadier general. This left Roosevelt as colonel of The Rough Riders.


title: Rough Riders

text: The order was given for the men to march the eight miles (13 km) along the road to Santiago from the outpost they had been holding. Originally, Colonel Roosevelt had no specific orders for himself and his men. They were simply to march to the base of San Juan Heights, defended by over 1,000 Spanish soldiers, and keep the enemy occupied. This way the Spanish would be forced to hold their ground while being bombarded by American artillery. The main attack would be carried out by Brigadier General Henry Lawton's division against the Spanish stronghold El Caney a few miles away. The Rough Riders were to meet up with them mid-battle.


title: Rough Riders

text: San Juan Hill and another hill were separated by a small valley and pond with the river near the foot of both. Together, this geography formed San Juan Heights. The battle of San Juan Heights began with an artillery barrage on the Spanish position. When the Spanish returned fire, the Rough Riders had to move promptly to avoid shells as they were occupying the same space as the friendly artillery. Colonel Roosevelt and his men made their way to the foot of what was dubbed Kettle Hill for the old sugar refinement cauldrons which lay along it. There they took cover along the riverbank and tall grass to avoid sniper and artillery fire, but they were left vulnerable and pinned down. The Spanish rifles were able to discharge eight rounds in the 20 seconds it took for the United States rifles to reload.


title: Rough Riders

text: Theodore Roosevelt, deeply dissatisfied with General Shafter's lack of reconnaissance and failure to issue specific orders, became uneasy with the idea of his men being left sitting in the line of fire. He sent messengers to seek out one of the generals and coax orders from them to advance from their position. Finally, the Rough Riders received orders to assist the regulars in their assault on the hill's front. Roosevelt, riding on horseback, got his men onto their feet and into position to begin making their way up the hill. He later claimed that he wished to fight on foot as he did at Las Guasimas, but that would have made it too difficult to move up and down the hill to supervise his men effectively. He also recognized that he could see his men better from the elevated horseback, and they could see him better as well. Roosevelt chided his own men to not leave him alone in a charge up the hill, and drawing his sidearm, promised nearby black soldiers separated from their own units that he would fire at them if they turned back, warning them he kept his promises. His Rough Riders chanted (likely in jest): "Oh he always does, he always does!" The soldiers, laughing, fell in with the volunteers to prepare for the assault.


title: Rough Riders

text: As the troops of the various units began slowly creeping up the hill, firing their rifles at the opposition as they climbed, Roosevelt went to the captain of the platoons in the back and had a word with him. He stated that it was his opinion that they could not effectively take the hill due to an insufficient ability to effectively return fire, and that the solution was to charge it full-on. The captain reiterated his colonel's orders to hold position. Roosevelt, recognizing the absence of the other colonel, declared himself the ranking officer and ordered a charge up Kettle Hill. The captain stood hesitant, and Colonel Roosevelt rode off on his horse, Texas, leading his own men uphill while waving his hat in the air and cheering. The Rough Riders followed him with enthusiasm and obedience without hesitation. By then, the other men from the different units on the hill became stirred by this event and began bolting up the hill alongside their countrymen. The 'charge' was actually a series of short rushes by mixed groups of regulars and Rough Riders. Within 20 minutes, Kettle Hill was taken, though casualties were heavy. The rest of San Juan Heights was taken within the following hour.


title: Rough Riders

text: The Rough Riders' charge on Kettle Hill was facilitated by a hail of high caliber covering fire from three Gatling Guns commanded by Lt. John H. Parker, which fired some 18,000 .30 Army rounds into the Spanish trenches atop the crest of both hills. Col. Roosevelt noted that the hammering sound of the Gatling guns visibly raised the spirits of his men:


title: Rough Riders

text: "There suddenly smote on our ears a peculiar drumming sound. One or two of the men cried out, 'The Spanish machine guns!' but, after listening a moment, I leaped to my feet and called, 'It's the Gatlings, men! Our Gatlings!' Immediately the troopers began to cheer lustily, for the sound was most inspiring."


title: Rough Riders

text: Trooper Jesse D. Langdon of the 1st Volunteer Infantry, who accompanied Col. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders in their assault on Kettle Hill, reported:


title: Rough Riders

text: "We were exposed to the Spanish fire, but there was very little because just before we started, why, the Gatling guns opened up at the bottom of the hill, and everybody yelled, 'The Gatlings! The Gatlings!' and away we went. The Gatlings just enfiladed the top of those trenches. We'd never have been able to take Kettle Hill if it hadn't been for Parker's Gatling guns."


title: Rough Riders

text: A Spanish counterattack on Kettle Hill by some 600 infantry was quickly devastated by one of Lt. Parker's Gatling guns recently emplaced on the summit of San Juan Hill, which killed all but 40 of the attackers before they had closed to within of the Americans on Kettle Hill. Col. Roosevelt was so impressed by the actions of Lt. Parker and his men that he placed his regiment's two 7mm Colt–Browning machine guns and the volunteers manning them under Parker, who immediately emplaced them—along with 10,000 rounds of captured 7mm Mauser ammunition—at tactical firing points in the American line.


title: Rough Riders

text: Colonel Roosevelt gave a large share of the credit for the successful charge to Lt. Parker and his Gatling Gun Detachment: "I think Parker deserved rather more credit than any other one man in the entire campaign ... he had the rare good judgment and foresight to see the possibilities of the machine-guns..He then, by his own exertions, got it to the front and proved that it could do invaluable work on the field of battle, as much in attack as in defense."


title: Rough Riders

text: America's conflict with Spain was later described as a "splendid little war" and for Theodore Roosevelt it certainly was. His combat experience consisted of one week's campaign with one day of hard fighting. "The charge itself was great fun", he declared, and "Oh, but we had a bully fight." His actions during the battle earned a recommendation for the Congressional Medal of Honor, but politics intervened and the request was denied. The rejection crushed Roosevelt, yet notoriety from the charge up San Juan Hill was instrumental in propelling him to the governorship of New York in 1899. The following year Roosevelt was selected to fill the vice presidential spot in President McKinley's successful run for a second term. With McKinley's assassination in September 1901, Roosevelt became president.


title: Rough Riders

text: In the confusion surrounding their departure from Tampa, half the members of the Rough Riders were left behind along with most of the horses. The volunteers made the charge up San Juan Hill on foot. They were joined in the attack by the 10th (Negro) Cavalry. Though the 10th never received the glory for the charge that the Rough Riders did, one of their commanders—Captain "Black Jack" Pershing (who later commanded American troops in World War I)—was awarded the Silver Star.


title: Rough Riders

text: The Rough Riders played a key role in the outcome of the Spanish–American War by assisting the American forces in forming a constricting ring around the city of Santiago de Cuba. The ultimate goal of the Americans in capturing the San Juan Heights (also known as Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill) was to attain a strategic position from which to move downhill and attack Santiago, a strong point for the Spanish military. The Spanish had a fleet of cruisers in port. The United States drove the Spanish cruisers out of their port by taking areas around Santiago and subsequently moving in on the city from multiple directions. Two days after the battle on San Juan Heights, the US navy destroyed Spain's Caribbean cruiser fleet at Santiago Bay. This took a tremendous toll on the Spanish military due to their widespread empire and heavy reliance upon naval capabilities.


title: Rough Riders

text: The primary objective of the American Fifth Army Corps' invasion of Cuba was the capture of the city of Santiago de Cuba. U.S. forces had driven back the Spaniards' first line of defense at the Battle of Las Guasimas, after which General Arsenio Linares pulled his troops back to the main line of defense against Santiago along San Juan Heights. In the charge at the Battle of San Juan Hill U.S. forces captured the Spanish position. At the Battle of El Caney the same day, U.S. forces took the fortified Spanish position and were then able to extend the U.S. flank on San Juan Hill. The destruction of the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba allowed U.S. forces to safely besiege the city.


title: Rough Riders

text: However, the sinking of the Spanish cruisers did not mean the end of the war. Battles continued in and around Santiago. On July 16, after both governments agreed to the terms of capitulation ("surrender" was avoided), in which Toral surrendered his garrison and all troops in the Division of Santiago, an additional 9,000 soldiers. The Spanish also ceded Guantanamo City and San Luis. The Spanish troops marched out of Santiago on July 17. By July 17, 1898, the Spanish forces in Santiago surrendered to General Shafter and the United States military. Various battles in the region continued on and the United States was continuously victorious. On August 12, 1898, the Spanish Government surrendered to the United States and agreed to an armistice that relinquished their control of Cuba. The armistice also gained the United States the territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This large acquisition of land elevated the United States to the level of an imperial power. The Spanish–American War also began a trend of United States intervention in foreign affairs which has lasted to the present day.


title: Rough Riders

text: On August 14, the Rough Riders landed at Montauk Point on Long Island, New York. There, they met up with the other four companies that had been left behind in Tampa. Colonel Roosevelt made note of how very many of the men who were left behind felt guilty for not serving in Cuba with the others. However, he also stated that "those who stayed had done their duty precisely as did those who went, for the question of glory was not to be considered in comparison to the faithful performance of whatever was ordered." During the first portion of the month that the men stayed in Montauk, they received hospital care. Many of the men were stricken with malarial fever (described at the time as "Cuban fever") and died in Cuba, while some were brought back to the United States on board the ship in makeshift quarantine. "One of the distressing features of the Malaria which had been ravaging the troops was that it was recurrent and persistent. Some of the men died after reaching home, and many were very sick." Aside from malaria, there were cases of yellow fever, dysentery, and other illnesses. Many of the men suffered from general exhaustion and were in poor condition upon returning home, some 20 pounds lighter. Everyone received fresh food and most were nourished back to their normal health.


title: Rough Riders

text: The rest of the month in Montauk, New York was spent in celebration of victory among the troops. The regiment was presented with three different mascots that represented the Rough Riders: a mountain lion by the name of Josephine that was brought to Tampa by some troops from Arizona, a war eagle named in Colonel Roosevelt's honor brought in by some New Mexican troops, and lastly a small dog by the name of Cuba who had been brought along on the journey overseas. Accompanying the presented mascots was a young boy who had stowed away on the ship before it embarked to Cuba. He was discovered with a rifle and boxes of ammunition and was, of course, sent ashore before departure from the United States. He was taken in by the regiment that was left behind, given a small Rough Riders uniform, and made an honorary member. The men also made sure to honor their colonel in return for his stellar leadership and service. They presented him with a small bronze statue of Remington's "Bronco Buster" which portrayed a cowboy riding a violently bucking horse. "There could have been no more appropriate gift from such a regiment ... most of them looked upon the bronze with the critical eyes of professionals. I doubt if there was any regiment in the world which contained so large a number of men able to ride the wildest and most dangerous horses." After the turning over of their gift, each and every man in the regiment walked by and shook Colonel Roosevelt's hand and bid him a good-bye.


title: Rough Riders

text: On the morning of September 15, 1898, the regimental property including all equipment, firearms and horses were turned back over to the United States government. The soldiers said one last good-bye to each other and the United States First Volunteer Cavalry, Roosevelt's Rough Riders, was disbanded. Before they returned to their homes across the country, Colonel Roosevelt gave them a short speech commending their efforts, expressing his profound pride, and reminding them that although heroes, they would have to integrate back into normal society and work as hard as everyone else. Many of the men were unable to regain the jobs they had before leaving to join the war. Some, due to illness or injury, were unable to work. A number of wealthier supporters donated money to help the needy veterans, though many were too proud to accept.


title: Rough Riders

text: A first reunion of the Rough Riders was held in the Plaza Hotel in Las Vegas, New Mexico in 1899. Roosevelt, then Governor of New York, attended this event. Of the contributions of the New Mexicans and Southwesterners to the Rough Riders, Roosevelt said;


title: Rough Riders

text: Roosevelt would go on to be a strong proponent for Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona's statehood during his time in the Oval Office, even making it a plank of the 1900 Republican party platform.


title: Rough Riders

text: In 1948, 50 years after the Rough Riders disbandment, the U.S. Post office issued a commemorative stamp in their honor and memory. The stamp depicts Captain William Owen "Bucky" O'Neill, who was killed in action while leading troop A at the Battle of San Juan Hill, July 1, 1898. The Rough Riders continued to have annual reunions in Las Vegas until 1967, when the sole veteran to attend was Jesse Langdon. He died in 1975.


title: Rough Riders

text: The last three surviving veterans of the regiment were Frank C. Brito, Jesse Langdon, and Ralph Waldo Taylor.


title: Rough Riders

text: Brito was from Las Cruces, New Mexico. His father was a Yaqui Indian stagecoach operator. Brito was 21 when he enlisted with his brother in May 1898. He never made it to Cuba, having been a member of H Troop, one of the four left behind in Tampa. He later became a mining engineer and lawman. He died on 22 April 1973, at the age of 96.


title: Rough Riders

text: Langdon, born in 1881 in what is now North Dakota, "hoboed" his way to Washington, D.C., and called on Roosevelt at the Navy Department, reminding him that his father, a veterinarian, had treated Roosevelt's cattle at his Dakota ranch during his ranching days. Roosevelt arranged a railroad ticket for him to San Antonio, where Langdon enlisted in the Rough Riders at age 16. He was the penultimate surviving member of the regiment and the only one to attend the final two reunions, in 1967 and 1968. He died on 29 June 1975, at the age of 94, 26 months after Brito.


title: Rough Riders

text: Taylor was just 16 years old in 1898 when he lied about his age to enlist in the New York National Guard, serving in Company K of the 71st Infantry Regiment. He died on 15 May 1987, at the age of 105.


title: Rough Riders

text: Just after the United States entered the war against the Central Powers, the U.S. Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise up to four divisions similar to the "Rough Riders". In his book Foes of Our Own Household (1917), Theodore Roosevelt explains that he had authorization from Congress to raise four divisions to fight in France, similar to his earlier Rough Riders, the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and to the British Army 25th (Frontiersmen) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers. He had selected 18 officers (including Seth Bullock, Frederick Russell Burnham, James Rudolph Garfield, John M. Parker, and Henry L. Stimson) and directed them to actively recruit volunteer troops shortly after the United States entered the war. With the help of John Hays Hammond, the New York-based Rocky Mountain Club enlisted Major Burnham to raise the troops in the Western states and to coordinate recruitment efforts.[1] Wilson ultimately rejected Roosevelt's plan, refused to make use of the volunteers, and Roosevelt disbanded the unit.


title: Rough Riders

text: Outside the volunteer division, one of Roosevelt's most trusted officers from the Rough Riders, Brigadier General John Campbell Greenway, served in the 101st Infantry Regiment. Greenway, a colonel at the time, was especially praised for his heroic conduct in battle and was cited for bravery at Cambrai. France awarded him the Croix de Guerre, the Legion of Honor, and the Ordre de l'Étoile Noire for commanding the 101st Infantry Regiment during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. He also received a Distinguished Service Cross.


title: Rough Riders

text: Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders were popularly portrayed in Wild West shows such as "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World" and in minstrel shows such as William H. West's "Big Minstrel Jubilee". Roosevelt himself had a hand in popularizing the legends of the Rough Riders, recruiting Mason Mitchell, a fellow Rough Rider with theatrical talent, to perform for the Republican State Committee of New York. More than anyone else, William Frederick Cody, better known as Buffalo Bill, can be credited with helping to create and preserve the dramatic myth of the Rough Riders and the American Old West. His extravaganzas glamorized it into an appealing show for eastern American audiences and helped permanently preserve the legends. The 'cult' of the cowboy was born, for Roosevelt, the vigorous, unbridled life of the Western cowboy was the perfect antidote to the softness of comfortable city living.


title: Rough Riders

text: In 1997, the miniseries "Rough Riders" aired on TNT over two consecutive nights. The series was directed by John Milius and centered primarily around the Battle of San Juan Hill.


title: Rough Riders

text: In the comedy-drama television series "M*A*S*H", Colonel Sherman Potter claims to have ridden with Theodore Roosevelt at the age of 15.


title: Rough Riders

text: In the Western television series "The Virginian", Trampas and Steve and the Virginian (ultimately) join the Rough Riders and fight in Cuba.


title: Elective monarchy

text: An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically, it was common for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Many, if not most, kingdoms were officially elective historically, though the candidates were typically only from the family of the deceased monarch. Eventually, however, most elected monarchies introduced hereditary succession, guaranteeing that the title and office stayed within the royal family and specifying, more or less precisely, the order of succession.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Today, almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the Ecclesia of the "Demos", the assembly of all free Athenian citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In the ancient Roman Kingdom the kings were elected by the Roman assemblies. Once the Roman kings were overthrown, there remained an absolute prohibition for royal establishment in the Roman constitution, a prohibition which formally remained in place during imperial times, both classical Roman and Byzantine. In practice, however, Imperial Rome was a monarchy. During the Principate (27 BCE to 284 CE), which was the foundational stage of Roman imperialism, Roman monarchs would often take care to disguise their "de facto" position with the "de jure" apparatus of republicanism. This was particularly the case for Augustus, the first Emperor, who established the Principate. Whilst given many titles (including "Augustus", i.e. "majestic") he described himself as "princeps senatus", or merely "first among senators". The illusion of being elected from the Senate continued when Tiberius succeeded to the purple. Over time the principle weakened as republican government passed into distant history, and the Empire became functionally an absolute monarchy. The office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective (albeit with the election procedure never strictly defined, but generally understood to be a matter for the Senate). For instance, whilst the first five Emperors were all descended from Julius Caesar, in each case their position was proclaimed, not inherited as of right. Claudius, the fourth Emperor, in particular stands out, being "elected" to office once the Praetorian Guard had made it clear he was their candidate.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Accordingly, heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. And whilst the later, more overtly authoritarian Dominate period further stripped the republican veneer from the constitution, Emperors succeeded by a mixture of proclamation by the Legions or Senate as much as by blood (though sons did succeed fathers).


title: Elective monarchy

text: In order to bypass the prohibition on heredity and ensure dynastic continuity, many reigning Byzantine emperors had their heirs crowned co-emperor so that the throne could not be considered vacant at their own death and thus the need for succession by election would not arise.


title: Elective monarchy

text: John of England was chosen as King of England by a council of nobles and royal advisors at the death of his brother, Richard I, in 1199 because the heir by strict primogeniture, Arthur of Brittany, was a child at that time. This affirmed the principle of elective monarchy.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In 14th, 15th, late 17th and early 18th century England, the Parliament effectively asserted that Monarchy in England was elective in principle – at least as between various contenders with some dynastic claim for the throne. Henry IV of England was chosen by Parliament in 1399 to replace Richard II. Richard was childless, and the Earl of March, the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led a revolt against Richard. Parliament also confirmed depositions during the Wars of the Roses, as well as Henry VIII's settlements of the crown. During the Exclusion Crisis, King Charles II strongly opposed any such idea.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Following the Glorious Revolution parliament enacted the Act of Succession, whose effect was to disinherit the Stuarts and replace them by the Hanoverians, whose dynastic claim was far more remote. William III and Mary II, were chosen by Parliament to replace James II. (Mary was James' daughter, William was James' nephew, and William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's younger sister Anne.) Parliament passed laws in the late 17th and early 18th centuries which explicitly excluded Catholics (and thus the male descendants of James II) from the order of succession. The Succession to the Crown Act 2013, replaced male-preference primogeniture with absolute primogeniture and ended disqualification of a person who married a Roman Catholic from succession.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In Scotland, the Declaration of Arbroath of 1320 asserted the rights of the nobles to choose a King if required, which implied elective monarchy. Tanistry was also the system of royal succession until King Malcolm II in the early 11th century introduced direct inheritance. The Isle of Man also used tanistry.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In Ireland, from the beginning of recorded history until the mid-16th/early 17th century, succession was determined by an elective system based on patrilineal relationship known as tanistry.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In the Dutch Republic of the 17th and 18th centuries there was the office of the Stadtholder, whose powers fell short of those of a monarch, and which was elective. Each of the seven Dutch provinces could separately elect its own Stadtholder, and it did not have to be the same person in all of them. In theory anyone could be elected Stadtholder, though in practice it was restricted to members of the House of Orange. There was no obligation to elect a Stadtholder at all, and the leaders of the Dutch Republican faction, such as Oldenbarnevelt and De Witt, repeatedly tried to abolish the office of Stadtholder or leave it vacant – which it was for several decades of Dutch history. Conversely, the House of Orange and its adherents tried to increase the powers of the Stadtholder to approximate those of a monarch, to make it officially hereditary (which it became in the later part of the 18th century) and finally to transform it into a full-fledged monarchy – as it was in 1815.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The Gallic tribes were each ruled by a "rix", which can be translated as king, who were elected for terms of one year or longer. Candidates were drawn from relatives of past kings.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The Frankish kingdom was at least partly elective. Merovingian kings were elected, while Carolingian kings were elected at times. In the 10th century Western Frankish royal elections switched between different lineages before settling on the Capetians. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as successor. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II.


title: Elective monarchy

text: After declaring the throne vacant, the French Chamber of Deputies voted 229–33 to declare Louis-Philippe of France as King of the French during the July Revolution of 1830, creating an elective monarchy. France briefly had again a kind of elective monarchy when Napoleon III was first elected President of France and then transformed himself into an Emperor – which, him being the nephew of the Emperor Napoleon I, was not entirely a surprise.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The Holy Roman Empire, beginning with its predecessor Eastern Francia, is perhaps the best-known example of an elective monarchy. However, from 1440 to 1740, a Habsburg was always elected emperor, the throne becoming unofficially hereditary. During that period, the emperor was elected from within the House of Habsburg by a small council of nobles called prince-electors. The secular electoral seats were hereditary. However, spiritual electors (and other prince-(arch)bishops) were usually elected by the cathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch (prince) of a territory of imperial immediacy (which usually comprised a part of their diocesan territory). Thus the prince-bishoprics were elective monarchies too. The same holds true for prince-abbacies, whose princess-abbesses or prince-abbots were elected by a college of clerics and imperially appointed as princely rulers in a pertaining territory.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Since medieval times, the King of Bohemia was elected by the Estates of Lands of the Bohemian Crown. Since 1526, when Ferdinand I assumed the Bohemian Crown, it was always held by the Habsburg branch who later became Holy Roman Emperor and who expected this situation to go on indefinitely. In 1618 the Bohemians chose to exercise in practice their legal right to choose a King at their discretion, and bestowed the Bohemian Crown on Frederick V, Elector Palatine – "The Winter King". However, the Habsburgs regarded this as an act of rebellion, imposed their rule over Bohemia in the Battle of the White Mountain and in the aftermath abolished the Bohemian Elective Monarchy and made exclusive Habsburg rule the de jure as well as de facto situation. The attempt to make Frederick V King of Bohemia is regarded as a catalyst for the Thirty Years War.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Hungary was an elective monarchy until 1687. This elective right carried on for another two more decades in the Principality of Transylvania which "de jure" continued to belong to the Lands of the Hungarian Crown but had split from Hungary when the childless King Louis II died after the Battle of Mohács.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Visigothic Hispania elected the king from the relatives of past kings, in accordance with the Germanic traditions.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The Kingship of Aragon was initially elected by the "rich men" barons. Later this right was limited to the Cortes confirming the succession of the heir.


title: Elective monarchy

text: During the 19th century, more precisely between 1870 and 1873, an attempt of such a system took place in Spain. After the Glorious Revolution and Isabella II's subsequent deposition in 1868 a new parliament was constituted through direct male suffrage. It was then decided that a democratically elected monarch was needed in Spain. The debates regarding Isabella I's succession took place until October 1869, when Amadeo I was finally chosen. Nevertheless, his reign lasted until 11 October 1873, when he abdicated citing his inability to solve the problems Spain was going through, after which the parliament proclaimed a republic.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Portugal's monarchy contained the remnants of the elective principle in requiring reciprocal oaths, the assent of the Cortes and acclamation before acceding to the throne. The Cortes affirmed the crown as elective when it elevated King John in 1385. In Portugal, on 6 April 1385 in the aftermath of 1383–1385 Crisis, the Council of the Kingdom elected John I, then Master of the Order of Aviz, as King of Portugal. His half-brother Ferdinand I had died without a male heir in October 1383, and different factions made strenuous efforts to secure the throne for Princess Beatrice, Ferdinand's only daughter and Queen consort of Castile and León, or for either of her uncles Infante John, Duke of Valencia de Campos and Infante Denis, Lord of Cifuentes. The Council elected instead the younger (and illegitimate) son of Peter I, thus avoiding a jure uxoris Castilian king.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingship was partially elected and partially hereditary. During the height of the kingdom in the mid-12th century there was a royal family and a relatively clear line of succession. Nevertheless, the king was elected, or at least recognized, by the Haute Cour. Here the king was considered a "primus inter pares" (first among equals), and in his absence his duties were performed by his seneschal.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The tradition of electing the country's ruler, which occurred when there was no clear heir to the throne, dates to the very beginning of Polish statehood. The election privilege, exercised during the gatherings known as "wiec", was usually limited to the most powerful nobles (magnates) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In Poland, after the death of the last Piast in 1370, Polish kings were initially elected by a small council; gradually, this privilege was granted to all members of the "szlachta" (Polish nobility). Kings of Poland and Grand Dukes of Lithuania during the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) were elected by gatherings of crowds of nobles at a field in Wola, today a district in Warsaw. Since in Poland, all sons of a noble were nobles, and not only the eldest, every one of an estimated 500,000 nobles could potentially have participated in such elections in person – by far the most extensive franchise of any European country at the time. During the election period, the function of the king was performed by an interrex (usually in the person of the primate of Poland). This unique Polish election was termed the free election ("wolna elekcja"). Although the elective principle was already established in Polish political culture in the late Middle Ages, the rules changed significantly in the 1570s, and the principles developed in that period lasted until the Partitions of Poland. There have been thirteen royal elections in Poland–Lithuania from 1573 to 1764. Roșu (2017) marked the 1575/1576 Polish–Lithuanian royal election as the most significant for several reasons. First, 'the citizens of the commonwealth were forced to "de facto" depose their first elected king – thus applying the right of disobedience they had inscribed in their public records only two years before.' Second, it resulted in two candidates being proclaimed the winner, and in subsequent events the nobility was able to confirm their majority choice for Stephen Báthory and have it recognised, while avoiding war with Maximilian II of Habsburg.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Scandinavian kingship, according to the Germanic tradition, was elected upon the death of the previous king. The selection was not always limited to the heirs of the previous king (e.g. in Sweden when the royal house was changing between the houses of Eric and Sverker between generations). Originally, kings were supposed to be elected from among the descendants of a previous king, which was connected to descent from gods. There could also be joint rule between multiple kings. Disputed succession was common because of a large number of sons sired by kings. However when single rule appeared in the 9th century, civil wars grew in frequency throughout the region. Later, Christianisation led to the promulgation of primogeniture in Norway in 1163 and Denmark in 1170, but the elective idea still persisted in the requirement to be certified by a local assembly and subsequently the magnates would still elect the new king, albeit while the incumbent king was still alive. This demonstrated the enduring power of the nobles.


title: Elective monarchy

text: Originally, the Kings of Sweden were elected by all free men at the Mora Thing. Elective monarchy continued until 1544, when the Riksdag of the Estates designated the heirs of King Gustav Vasa as the heirs to the throne. The Danish monarchy was also officially elective, although the eldest son of the reigning monarch was usually elected. This continued until 1660, when a hereditary and absolute monarchy was instituted by Frederick III. Though the monarchy of Norway was originally hereditary, it too became elective in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Candidates had to be of royal blood, but the kingship was elected by a council of noblemen, rather than automatically passing to the eldest son. In 1905 Prince Carl was elected King of Norway, after the male population in the 1905 Norwegian monarchy referendum decided Norway should still be a monarchy.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The Scandinavian kingdoms were united under the Danish crown by Margaret I of Denmark in 1389, but many of her successors had the united kingdoms split up as Sweden elected a different king than Denmark and Norway upon succession. The election was usually contested through a Danish invasion of Sweden until Christian II of Denmark after his reconquest of Sweden had many of those voting against him executed in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520), which ended much of the support for the Danish king on the Swedish throne.


title: Elective monarchy

text: In 1810, the Swedish Riksdag elected the French Marshall and Prince of Pontecorvo Jean Bernadotte to be the new Crown Prince, since it was apparent that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with the childless King Charles XIII. Bernadotte eventually ascended the throne as Charles XIV John of Sweden and founded the still current House of Bernadotte. In this case the elective aspect in the choice of Monarch was especially prominent, since Bernadotte had been a French commoner with no previous connection to Sweden and not the most remote of dynastic claims to the Swedish throne – his being chosen derived solely from urgent political and military considerations of the crisis time of the Napoleonic Wars.


title: Elective monarchy

text: The Sovereign Military Order of Malta, formerly known as the Knights Hospitaller or the "Knights of Malta", remains a sovereign subject of international law since it was exiled to Rome from Malta during the French occupation of Malta under the First French Republic. The Order is ruled by the Prince and Grand Master, who is elected for life by the Council Complete of State. The Prince and Grand Master holds the rank of Prince, bestowed by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1607 and holds the precedence of a cardinal of the Church since 1630. The Council that elects the prince includes members of the Sovereign Council and other high-ranking office-holders and representatives of the Order's worldwide entities. The Sovereign Council, including the Grand Commander, the Grand Chancellor, the Grand Hospitaller, and the Receiver of the Common Treasure, aid the prince in governing the order.