title: History of Hinduism

text: Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta grew only centuries later, during the era of the Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India, due to the efforts of Vidyaranya (14th c.), who created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his "digvijaya" ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."


title: History of Hinduism

text: Shankara's position was further established in the 19th an 20th century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition." Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality, Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Hindu and also Buddhist religious and secular learning had first reached Persia in an organised manner in the 6th century, when the Sassanid Emperor Khosrau I (531–579) deputed Borzuya the physician as his envoy, to invite Indian and Chinese scholars to the Academy of Gundishapur. Burzoe had translated the Sanskrit Panchatantra. His Pahlavi version was translated into Arabic by Ibn al-Moqaffa under the title of "Kalila and Dimna" or "The Fables of Bidpai".


title: History of Hinduism

text: Under the Abbasid caliphate, Baghdad had replaced Gundishapur as the most important centre of learning in the then vast Islamic Empire, wherein the traditions, as well as scholars of the latter, flourished. Hindu scholars were invited to the conferences on sciences and mathematics held in Baghdad.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Though Islam came to the Indian subcontinent in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started impacting Indian religions after the 10th century, and particularly after the 12th century with the establishment and then expansion of Islamic rule. Will Durant calls the Muslim conquest of India "probably the bloodiest story in history". During this period, Buddhism declined rapidly while Hinduism faced military-led and Sultanates-sponsored religious violence. There was a widespread practice of raids, seizure and enslavement of families of Hindus, who were then sold in Sultanate cities or exported to Central Asia. Some texts suggest a number of Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam. Starting with the 13th century, for a period of some 500 years, very few texts, from the numerous written by Muslim court historians, mention any "voluntary conversions of Hindus to Islam", suggesting the insignificance and perhaps rarity of such conversions. Typically enslaved Hindus converted to Islam to gain their freedom. There were occasional exceptions to religious violence against Hinduism. Akbar, for example, recognized Hinduism, banned enslavement of the families of Hindu war captives, protected Hindu temples, and abolished discriminatory Jizya (head taxes) against Hindus. However, many Muslim rulers of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, before and after Akbar, from the 12th to 18th centuries, destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims. As noted by Alain Daniélou:


title: History of Hinduism

text: Teachers such as Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya aligned the Bhakti movement with the textual tradition of Vedanta, which until the 11th century was only a peripheral school of thought, while rejecting and opposing the abstract notions of Advaita. Instead, they promoted emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.


title: History of Hinduism

text: According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' ("saddarsana") of mainstream Hindu philosophy." Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was inetentionally established during this period. Vidyaranya (14th c.), also known as Madhava and a follower of Shankara, created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his "digvijaya" ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror." In his "Savadarsanasamgraha" ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all "darsanas", presenting the other "darsanas" as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries ("mathas") to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.


title: History of Hinduism

text: "Eastern Ganga" and "Surya" were Hindu polities, which ruled much of present-day Odisha (historically known as Kalinga) from the 11th century until the mid-16th century CE. During the 13th and 14th centuries, when large parts of India were under the rule of Muslim powers, an independent Kalinga became a stronghold of Hindu religion, philosophy, art, and architecture. The Eastern Ganga rulers were great patrons of religion and the arts, and the temples they built are considered among the masterpieces of Hindu architecture.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The fall of Vijayanagara Empire to Muslim rulers had marked the end of Hindu imperial defences in the Deccan. But, taking advantage of an over-stretched Mughal Empire (1526–1857), Hinduism once again rose to political prestige, under the Maratha Empire, from 1674 to 1818.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Vijayanagar Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama dynasty, which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire, and the Pandyan Empire. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. According to one narrative, the empire's founders Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I were two brothers in the service of the Kampili chief. After Kampili fell to the Muslim invasion, they were taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. They were sent back to Kampili as the Delhi Sultan's vassals. After gaining power in the region, they approached Vidyaranya, who converted them back to the Hindu faith.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show. The kings used titles such as "Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya" (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and "Hindurayasuratrana" (lit. "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress. The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated "Varaha" (the boar, an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem. Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work, "Jambavati Kalyanam" by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha "Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani" ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented two groups, the "Vyasakuta" and "Dasakuta", the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the "Dasakuta" merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs ("Devaranamas" and "Kirthanas"). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha, the "guru" (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Father of Carnatic music) and Kanakadasa earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya. The king considered the saint his "Kuladevata" (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of "Kirthanas" in Telugu at Tirumala – Tirupati, in present-day Andhra Pradesh.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur Sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The official state religion of Mughal India was Islam, with the preference to the jurisprudence of the Hanafi Madhhab (Mazhab). Hinduism remained under strain during Babur and Humanyun's reigns. Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler of North India was comparatively non-repressive. Hinduism came to fore during the three-year rule of Hindu ruler Hemu Vikramaditya during 1553–1556 when he had defeated Akbar at Agra and Delhi and had taken up the reign from Delhi as a Hindu 'Vikramaditya' after his 'Rajyabhishake' or coronation at Purana Quila in Delhi. However, during Mughal history, at times, subjects had the freedom to practise any religion of their choice, though kafir able-bodied adult males with income were obliged to pay the jizya, which signified their status as dhimmis.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Akbar, the Mughal emperor Humayun's son and heir from his Sindhi queen Hameeda Banu Begum, had a broad vision of Indian and Islamic traditions. One of Emperor Akbar's most unusual ideas regarding religion was Din-i-Ilahi (Faith of God), which was an eclectic mix of Islam, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Jainism and Christianity. It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These actions, however, met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy, especially the Sufi Shaykh Alf Sani Ahmad Sirhindi. Akbar's abolition of poll-tax on non-Muslims, acceptance of ideas from other religious philosophies, toleration of public worship by all religions and his interest in other faiths showed an attitude of considerable religious tolerance, which, in the minds of his orthodox Muslim opponents, were tantamount to apostasy. Akbar's imperial expansion acquired many Hindu states, many of whom were Hindu Rajputs, through vassalage. The Rajput vassals maintained semi-autonomy in running religious affairs. Many Hindu Rajput vassals built monumental Hindu temples during the period, such as Chaturbhuj Temple and Lakshmi Temple at Orchha, by the Mughal vassal, the Hindu Rajput Orchha State.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Akbar's son, Jahangir, half Rajput, was also a religious moderate, his mother being Hindu. The influence of his two Hindu queens (the Maharani Maanbai and Maharani Jagat) kept religious moderation as a centre-piece of state policy which was extended under his son, Emperor Shah Jahan, who was by blood 75% Rajput and less than 25% Moghul.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Religious orthodoxy would only play an important role during the reign of Shah Jahan's son and successor, Aurangzeb, a devout Sunni Muslim. Aurangzeb was comparatively less tolerant of other faiths than his predecessors had been; and has been subject to controversy and criticism for his policies that abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism, citing his introduction of the jizya tax, doubling of custom duties on Hindus while abolishing it for Muslims, destruction of Hindu temples, forbidding construction and repairs of some non-Muslim temples, and the executions of Maratha ruler Sambhaji and the ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and his reign saw an increase in the number and importance of Islamic institutions and scholars. He led many military campaigns against the remaining non-Muslim powers of the Indian subcontinent – the Sikh states of Punjab, the last independent Hindu Rajputs and the Maratha rebels – as also against the Shia Muslim kingdoms of the Deccan. He also virtually stamped out, from his empire, open proselytisation of Hindus and Muslims by foreign Christian missionaries, who remained successfully active, however, in the adjoining regions: the present day Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa. The Hindus in Konkan were helped by Marathas, Hindus in Punjab, Kashmir and North India were helped by Sikhs and Hindus in Rajasthan and Central India were helped by Rajputs.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Hindu Marathas had resisted incursions into the region by the Muslim Mughal rulers of northern India. Under their ambitious leader Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the Maratha freed themselves from the Muslim sultans of Bijapur to the southeast and, becoming much more aggressive, began to frequently raid Mughal territory. The Marathas had spread and conquered much of central India by Shivaji's death in 1680. Subsequently, under the able leadership of Brahmin prime ministers (Peshwas), the Maratha Empire reached its zenith; Pune, the seat of Peshwas, flowered as a centre of Hindu learning and traditions. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar, present day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ) in the north, and Bengal in the east.


title: History of Hinduism

text: King Prithvi Narayan Shah, the last Gorkhali monarch, self-proclaimed the newly unified Kingdom of Nepal as Asal Hindustan ("Real Land of Hindus") due to North India being ruled by the Islamic Mughal rulers. The proclamation was done to enforce Hindu social code Dharmashastra over his reign and refer to his country as being inhabitable for Hindus. He also referred Northern India as "Mughlan" (Country of Mughals) and called the region infiltrated by Muslim foreigners.


title: History of Hinduism

text: After the Gorkhali conquest of Kathmandu valley, King Prithvi Narayan Shah expelled the Christian Capuchin missionaries from Patan and revisioned Nepal as "Asal Hindustan" ("real land of Hindus"). The Hindu Tagadharis, a Nepalese Hindu socio-religious group, were given the privileged status in the Nepalese capital thereafter. Since then Hinduisation became the significant policy of the Kingdom of Nepal. Professor Harka Gurung speculates that the presence of Islamic Mughal rule and Christian British rule in India had compelled the foundation of Brahmin Orthodoxy in Nepal for the purpose building a haven for Hindus in the Kingdom of Nepal.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Portuguese missionaries had reached the Malabar Coast in the late 15th century, made contact with the St Thomas Christians in Kerala and sought to introduce the Latin Rite among them. Since the priests for St Thomas Christians were served by the Eastern Christian Churches, they were following Eastern Christian practices at that time. Throughout this period, foreign missionaries also made many new converts to Christianity. This led to the formation of the Latin Catholics in Kerala.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Christian Inquisition acting in the Indian city of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. St. Francis Xavier, in a 1545 letter to John III, requested for an Inquisition to be installed in Goa. It was installed eight years after the death of Francis Xavier in 1552. Established in 1560 and operating until 1774, this highly controversial institution was aimed primarily at Hindus and wayward new converts.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The Battle of Plassey would see the emergence of the British as a political power; their rule later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years, conquering all of the Hindu states on the Indian subcontinent, with the exception of the Kingdom of Nepal. While the Maratha Empire remained the preeminent power in India, making it the last remaining Hindu empire, until their defeat in the Third Anglo-Maratha War which left the East India Company in control of most of India; as noted by acting Governor-General Charles Metcalfe, after surveying and analyzing the conditions in India, in 1806 wrote: "India contains no more than two great powers, British and Mahratta." During this period, Northeastern India was divided into many kingdoms, most notable being the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture, later the kingdom became a princely state of the British. The Kingdom of Mysore was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War by the British East India Company, leading to the reinstatement of the Hindu Wadiyar dynasty in Mysore as a princely states. In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the mainly Hindu Rajput rulers of Rajputana from the Pindaris and the Marathas. The mainly Hindu Palaiyakkarar states emerged from the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, and were a bastion of Hindu resistance; and managed to weather invasions and survive till the advent of the British. From 1799 to 1849, the Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, emerged as the last major indigenous power in the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, alienating Hindu vassals and Wazirs, and leading to the conflict with the British East India Company, marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it the last area of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The entire subcontinent fell under British rule (partly indirectly, via princely states) following the Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: History of Hinduism

text: With the onset of the British Raj, the colonization of India by the British, there also started a Hindu Renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west. Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. Western orientalist searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas, and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis and the popular picture of 'mystical India'. This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by Hindu reform movements as the Brahmo Samaj, which was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground. This "Hindu modernism", with proponents like Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Rabindranath and Radhakrishnan, became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.


title: History of Hinduism

text: During the 19th century, Hinduism developed a large number of new religious movements, partly inspired by the European Romanticism, nationalism, scientific racism and esotericism (Theosophy) popular at the time (while conversely and contemporaneously, India had a similar effect on European culture with Orientalism, "Hindoo style" architecture, reception of Buddhism in the West and similar). According to Paul Hacker, "the ethcial values of Neo-Hinduism stem from Western philosophy and Christianity, although they are expressed in Hindu terms."


title: History of Hinduism

text: An important development during the British colonial period was the influence Hindu traditions began to form on Western thought and new religious movements. An early champion of Indian-inspired thought in the West was Arthur Schopenhauer who in the 1850s advocated ethics based on an "Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual self-conquest", as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism of the superficially this-worldly "Jewish" spirit. Helena Blavatsky moved to India in 1879, and her Theosophical Society, founded in New York in 1875, evolved into a peculiar mixture of Western occultism and Hindu mysticism over the last years of her life.


title: History of Hinduism

text: The sojourn of Vivekananda to the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893 had a lasting effect. Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission, a Hindu missionary organisation still active today.


title: History of Hinduism

text: In the early 20th century, Western occultists influenced by Hinduism include Maximiani Portaz – an advocate of "Aryan Paganism" – who styled herself "Savitri Devi" and Jakob Wilhelm Hauer, founder of the German Faith Movement. It was in this period, and until the 1920s, that the swastika became a ubiquitous symbol of good luck in the West before its association with the Nazi Party became dominant in the 1930s.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Hinduism-inspired elements in Theosophy were also inherited by the spin-off movements of Ariosophy and Anthroposophy and ultimately contributed to the renewed New Age boom of the 1960s to 1980s, the term "New Age" itself deriving from Blavatsky's 1888 "The Secret Doctrine".


title: History of Hinduism

text: Influential 20th-century Hindus were Ramana Maharshi, B.K.S. Iyengar, Paramahansa Yogananda, Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), Sri Chinmoy, Swami Rama and others who translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Hinduism is followed by around 1.1 billion people in India. Other significant populations are found in Nepal (21.5 million), Bangladesh (13.1 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion in Ninh Thuận Province.


title: History of Hinduism

text: In modern times Smarta-views have been highly influential in both the Indian and western understanding of Hinduism via Neo-Vedanta. Vivekananda was an advocate of Smarta-views, and Radhakrishnan was himself a Smarta-Brahman. According to iskcon.org,


title: History of Hinduism

text: Influential in spreading Hinduism to a western audience were Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (Hare Krishna movement), Sri Aurobindo, Meher Baba, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (Transcendental Meditation), Jiddu Krishnamurti, Sathya Sai Baba, Mother Meera, among others.


title: History of Hinduism

text: In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of the Hindutva ideology in the following decades; the establishment of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.


title: History of Hinduism

text: Besides India, the idea of Hindu nationalism and Hindutva can also be seen in the other areas with good population of Hindus, such as in Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In the modern world, the Hindu identity and nationalism is encouraged by many organisations as per their areas and territories. In India, Sangh Parivar is the umbrella organisation for most of the Hindu nationalist organisations, including that of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bharatiya Janata Party, Vishva Hindu Parishad, etc. The other nationalist organisations include Siva Senai (Sri Lanka), Nepal Shivsena, Rastriya Prajatantra Party, Hindu Prajatantrik Party, (Nepal) Bangabhumi (Bangladesh) and HINDRAF (Malaysia).


title: Lela Loren

text: Lela Loren is an American television and film actress. Known for her leading role as Angela Valdes on the Starz television series, "Power",


title: Lela Loren

text: Loren was born Maria Loren Avellaneda Sharp on May 7, 1980, in Sacramento, California. She has one sibling, an older brother, Daniel Sharp, who is the executive chef at a small restaurant in New York City. Her mother is of Mexican descent, received her college degree in her 40s, and became a teacher; her father, an American, was working as an economist at the time he married her mother. She spent her childhood in Sacramento, California, and later, in suburban Sacramento, although spending summers in an area of her mother's heritage, in Mexico. Loren has stated that, despite her mom being from Michoacán, Mexico, she did not learn Spanish until she was 10 years old, and that doing so helped her to communicate with relatives when she would return to the village from which her mother came. From early childhood, Loren had surrounded herself with an array of pets, and had intended a career in biology. Loren went to an all-girls' high school, where she was a member of a men's rowing team.


title: Lela Loren

text: Loren attended the Whitman College, in Walla Walla, Washington, where she majored in biology. She "begrudgingly fell in love" with acting after enrolling in a fine arts course "to get it out of the way", only to find herself moved to an entry level acting class when the arts class was full. It is reported that she did work on a commercial fishing boat in Alaska as a means to pay her college expenses. She graduated with a B.A. in theatre, in 2002. She also studied performing arts at the Ruskin School of Acting. From her upbringing and studies, Loren is fluent in English, Spanish, and Italian.


title: Lela Loren

text: Loren notes that it took three years for her to land her first acting audition, and that she "paid her dues with small roles"—in "The Shield", "Gang Related", and shows of the CSI franchise. Further television roles followed, including in "Cold Case" and "Ghost Whisperer". Loren began a leading role as Angela Valdes on the Starz television series, "Power".


title: Lela Loren

text: In 2019, Loren joined the second season of the Netflix science fiction series, "Altered Carbon", as a series regular, playing the character of Danica Harlan.


title: Lela Loren

text: In 2009, Loren played the lead role, Flora, at the American Conservatory Theater in José Rivera's "Boleros for the Disenchanted". She also starred as Antonia in a stage production of "My Antonia" at Pacific Resident Theatre.


title: All the Things She Said

text: "All the Things She Said" is a song recorded by Russian music duo t.A.T.u. for their second, and first English-language, studio album "200 km/h in the Wrong Lane" (2002), and released as the lead single from the album in Europe on 9 September 2002 by Universal. It was written by Sergio Galoyan, Trevor Horn, Martin Kierszenbaum, Valery Polienko and Elena Kiper, while production was by Horn. "All the Things She Said" is a translated and reworked version of their 2000 song "" (, , ), included on their debut album "200 Po Vstrechnoy" (2001). It was later included on their compilation albums "t.A.T.u. Remixes" (2003) and "The Best" (2006). Although its original story was based on a dream Kiper had at a dentist appointment, manager Ivan Shapovalov evoked the theme of lesbianism in both this and the English-language version. Lyrically, it focuses on two girls developing feelings for each other.


title: All the Things She Said

text: "All the Things She Said" received mixed reviews from music critics: while some commended the production and lyrical content, others called it a gimmick and suggestive. "All the Things She Said" reached number one in several countries around the world, including Australia, Austria, France, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. It also reached number 20 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, the first Russian act to have a top 40 single and the highest placing for a Russian act to date. Shapovalov commissioned the accompanying music video for the single, which shows the group behind a fence in school uniforms, trying to escape.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The music video caused considerable controversy in several nations because it represented lesbian girls. Several organisations protested against the video and sought to ban it, while some music stations removed the scenes featuring the girls kissing. The song has been performed many times, including on many TV shows, along with a megamix version with "Not Gonna Get Us" at the 2003 MTV Movie Awards. It was also the first Russian music video on YouTube to receive a Vevo Certified Award for reaching 100 million views in June 2016.


title: All the Things She Said

text: Yulia Volkova and Lena Katina auditioned in a children's group named Neposedy. However, Volkova was removed from the group a year later. Russian tabloids believed her removal was based on misbehavior and disrupting other members by stripping, smoking, drinking alcohol and swearing, but Neposedy denied this. Russian producers Ivan Shapovalov and Alexander Voitinskiy held an audition for two teenage girls, where Volkova and Katina auditioned and won the part. Despite knowing each other, both girls did not know the other was auditioning. For their Russian debut in 1999, Shapolavov named the duo Тату ("Tatu"). The name comes from the English word "Tattoo".


title: All the Things She Said

text: During their first sessions, Voitinskiy left the project. Shapovalov hired Elena Kiper to co-write and co-produce the music of Taty. Together, they wrote "". The duo, alongside several other Russian producers and songwriters, completed the group's first album "200 Po Vstrechnoy". The album was a large success in Europe, selling over one million units. Shapovalov persisted in trying to sign the group with an international label, visiting North America and meeting with several record companies. He eventually settled a deal with a Russian division of Universal Music Group and Interscope Records.


title: All the Things She Said

text: "All the Things She Said" was written by Sergio Galoyan, Trevor Horn, Martin Kierszenbaum, Valery Polienko and Elena Kiper, while production was by Horn. The song was mixed and recorded by Robert Orton at UMG Studios in Santa Monica, California.


title: All the Things She Said

text: According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, the song is composed in the key of F minor with a time signature in common time, and a moderate groove of 90 beats per minute. Both Volkova and Katina's vocal range is spread between F4 and D♭5. The composition is built on two main live instruments; piano and electric guitar. The first verse has Volkova and Katina "whisper their desires and then blow up the chorus with enough teen confusion and angst to fill up a week of Hollyoaks". Lyrically, the song discusses difficulty in teenagers allowing to express their sexuality. Katina commented "We're singing about love [...] Even all over the world teenagers, can find themselves in our song[s] 'cause we're singing about these problems, we're singing about teenagers, and I think everybody can understand that".


title: All the Things She Said

text: Based on both the English and Russian versions, the song was conceived when Kiper had a dentist appointment. She fell asleep while having surgery and dreamed about kissing another woman. She woke up saying "" () After discussing this with Shapovalov, he started to write the second phrase, "" (). Shapovalov decided to carry on the concept of lesbianism through the English version. Shapovalov had been accused by Russian media for taking the idea of Kiper and conveying it as his own, whilst Kiper stated that the idea was all thought by herself. "" was written by Sergio Galoyan, Kiper and Valeriy Polienko, whilst production was handled by the group's manager, Shapovalov. He also composed the track, and it was recorded by him at the Neformat Studios, Russia in the early 2000.


title: All the Things She Said

text: Two versions of the single were released: the original version that appears on "200 Po Vstrechnoy", with a more dance/electro composition; and the reworked, pop-rock version (used for "All The Things She Said") appearing on "200 km/h in the Wrong Lane" (2002).


title: All the Things She Said

text: After the completion of the song, the co-manager of the group, Boris Renski, decided to pull the release as he felt the final result would be a failure and not achieve success with the Russian public. Shapovalov persuaded Renski in allowing the continuation of the band, and offered to pay for the music video himself; Renski accepted the offer. The recording premiered on 19 December 2000 as the lead single from the album. It was released as a CD single which included the original version, four remix versions, and two enhanced videos (the visual and behind-the-scenes footage). A cassette tape was also issued in Russia, and featured the five tracks from the CD single. After the group signed a contract with Universal Music Russia in 2001, "" was re-distributed as a double A-side single with their song, "Nas Ne Dagonyat" (2001), in Poland. That same year, it was sent to radio stations in Germany and Europe. In January 2003, it appeared as a second B-side track on the physical release of "All The Things She Said".


title: All the Things She Said

text: Both the original and English-language version received mixed reviews. Writing for AllMusic, Drago Bonacich selected the track as one of the group's best work. Michael Osborn from MusicOMH discussed the girls' vocal abilities, and noted their vocal performance in both English and Russian were incomprehensible; he quoted, "But you try getting your tongue around ." Sean Bertiger from Popdirt.com preferred the Russian version over the English adaption, citing the band's vocals and emotions as factors to his opinion. Since its release, the song has achieved accolades and awards. In early 2001, Universal Music Group hosted a poll for the audience to vote on which song was the best from "200 Po Vstrechnoy"; as a result, "" came first place. That same year, "" won the 100 Pound Hit awarded by Hit FM Russia, with t.A.T.u. as well performing the track the same night. On 29 November 2005, Kiper was presented the Songwriting Award at the BMI Honors Top European Songwriters And Publishers; this was her first win at the ceremony, and went on winning the second time with "Not Gonna Get Us" (2002), t.A.T.u.'s second international single. Commercially, the single reached number one on the Russian Singles Chart, charting there for eighteen consecutive weeks. By January 2010, "" sold over 50,000 units and over 200,000 illegal copies.


title: All the Things She Said

text: "Cash Box" praised "Jim Kerr's impassioned vocal and the band's swirling, anthemic sound." "Billboard" said it is "of a piece with the band's other post-pop-breakthrough material".


title: All the Things She Said

text: Erlewine felt the song was a "gimmick" and "suggestive", but highlighted the song as an album standout. "PopMatters" called complaints about the song "ridiculous" and added that they do not care if they are "transgender, bisexual, lesbian or gay. In the end, it's about people and yourself feeling safe and better together". Bill Lamb from "About.com" had prospects for the song, feeling his view was "irrefutable". Rebecca Bary from "The New Zealand Herald" said "Think 'Baby One More Time' spliced with 'Dirrty' and you have the biggest one-hit wonder of the year." She continued, saying "When these obnoxious, school-uniformed Russian maybe-lesbians poured their squirrelly hearts out over a repetitive dance beat, you can't deny it worked.".


title: All the Things She Said

text: The song was ranked at number 452 in "Blender" magazine's The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born. The song was listed at number 8 on the "AOL"'s Top 100 Pop Songs of the Decade. Bill Lamb from "About.com" listed the song on his Top 100 Pop Songs of 2003 at number 31. He also listed it on his Top 10 Contemporary Girl Group Songs at number ten. Stephanie Theobald from "The Guardian" called it one of her favorite lesbian songs.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The song was ranked at the top spot on the Australian Top 50 Lesbian songs, which was voted by users. AfterEllen.com criticized the song for being at the top spot, exclaiming; "There are so many better songs than that – my mind is blown... I guess it's one of the easier ones to think of in this new generation of lesbians... I just hope they can open up their ears more and discover so many other amazing (really queer) musicians." Though notified as a Gay and Lesbian anthem, Mia Jones from AfterEllen.com did not add the song, because "she is still not a fan".


title: All the Things She Said

text: A high demand for imports of "All the Things She Said" in the UK caused it to debut at number 57 on the UK Singles Chart. It rose to number 44 and ascended to the top of the charts the following week after its official release, making t.A.T.u. the first Russian act to reach number one in the UK. The song spent four weeks at one on the UK Singles Chart and remained in the charts for 15 weeks, earning a platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), selling more than 600,000 copies. As of February 2018, the track has 529,000 combined sales to its name, including 6.7 streams since 2014. It also reached number one on the Irish Singles Chart for four consecutive weeks. The song peaked at number one in several European countries, including Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Romania, and Spain. The song spent four consecutive weeks at number one on the Italian Singles Chart and stayed in the charts for 16 weeks.


title: All the Things She Said

text: On 23 March 2003, the song debuted at number one on the Australian Singles Chart and stayed at number one for two non-consecutive weeks. The song remained in the chart for 11 weeks and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). "All the Things She Said" debuted at number 49 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and reached number one five weeks later. It was certified gold by Recorded Music NZ for shipments of 7,500 units. In the US, the song peaked at number 20 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. This is the group's only single to chart on the Hot 100, as well as being the highest-charting song by a Russian act in the US.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The song is well known for its controversial music video, which was directed by t.A.T.u's producer, writer and director Ivan Shapovalov, and was shot at the Khodynka Field in Moscow between 4 and 7 September 2000. Preparation for the visual consisted of both Volkova and Katina covering themselves in dark-tanning lotion and getting haircuts. Over 90 people were present on set, including extra actors, whilst some members had designed a large brick wall by painting abstract patterns and colors to it. According to Shapovalov, the wall itself cost approximately $3000 USD. After shooting the majority of the scenes in Khodynka Field, Shapovalov moved the wall and iron fence to Kutuzov Avenue, Moscow, in order to shoot frames of traffic until the camera changed its focus on the girls again. Shapovalov stated that he wanted the viewers to know that there was a "world behind the crowd of people". The video was broadcast in Russia and Europe in early December 2000 on MTV.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The music video opens with a panning view of a fence and people with umbrellas on the left, eventually zooming out on an audience looking through it in the rain. Both Volkova and Katina are then shown singing to the track in Catholic school uniforms. Throughout the majority of the visual, the girls are featured performing erratic behaviour, which includes them banging against a fence, yelling for help towards the audience, and occasionally laughing at them. While continuing to sing to each other during the second chorus, they subsequently start to kiss, and the audience slightly stares at their actions. Following this, several members of the public start to talk to each other, whilst a shot with the camera looking up Volkova's skirt and exposing her underwear is shown during the process.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The bridge section has the girls lying in water while snow starts to fall. At the last portion of the chorus, t.A.T.u. are portrayed pointing in different directions, until they both walk around corner and see a vast field, where the sun is breaking out of the clouds; they clasp hands and walk off into the distance. The people on the other side of the fence are left in an eerie green light with rain falling steadily; it is also revealed that they are the ones isolated behind the fence. The video's final scene shows the girls walking further in the distance. Several frames from "" did not appear in the visual for "All the Things She Said" due to lip-syncing issues. Like "All the Things She Said", the video generated controversy for having the duo kissing, with critics particularly believing that it prompted pedophilia and lesbianism. An editor from "The Age" commented that the impact of the video for "" was generally lukewarm.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The music video won the MTV Video Music Award among the Russian nominees of 2000, marking the group's first nomination and win at the ceremony. Despite this, it caused controversy in Russia similarly to the cultural impact of "All The Things She Said". This resulted in the clip being banned on MTV Russia due to depictions of lesbianism and support for gay rights; a censored version was edited by Shapovalov, omitting any sexual references. According to Jon Kutner, writing in his book "1000 UK Number One Hits", the idea of school girls behind an iron fence courted controversy nevertheless. A member of "The Advocate" labelled the girls in the videos as "underage porn-quality lolitas", and noted it garnered huge media coverage in Russia alongside commercial sales.


title: All the Things She Said

text: An official video for the remix version produced by HarDrum was included on the CD format of the single; it included unreleased footage that did not appear on the original version, featuring different angle shots of the girls, expressions from the public's faces and the band performing erratically. It also included various scenes of people on-set helping with the music video's production, and one holding the wired fence. In July and September 2015, the group uploaded two teaser videos of a remix version produced by Fly Dream in order to commemorate the single's 15th anniversary on 19 December that same year; by then, it still remained unreleased. On 7 August 2016, one year since the two trailers, t.A.T.u. uploaded an HD version of the video with new unreleased scenes and extended footage. Lasting five minutes and 37 seconds, it showed an extended cut of the girls arguing next to the brick wall and walking around the corner to find the vast Khodynka Field with a clearer cityscape in the distance by the fourth minute. The ending of the video portrays t.A.T.u. in the distance, similar to the original video.


title: All the Things She Said

text: "" was included on the group's 200 Po Vstrechnoy concert tour, where they performed in Russia and Ukraine; they extended the tour in 2002 and traveled to Germany, the Czech Republic, and Poland among others. Parts of "" were used during t.A.T.u.'s Truth Tour in St. Petersburg, where it served as the concert's closing number. The single was additionally included on the group's greatest hits compilation album "The Best" (2006), while the music video and HarDrum remix and video version were included on the former album and their 2003 "t.A.T.u. Remixes" album. Russian singer Elena Temnikova performed a version of the track with another female artist for a Russian television show while impersonating band member Volkova.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The video caused controversy in countries where it was played. In Canada, it was listed on MuchMusic's 50 Most Controversial Videos at number four. It was listed on FHM Music TV on their Most Sexy Videos at number five. Virgin Media included the song on their list of "Sexiest Music Videos Ever". Standard.co.uk listed the song at two on their top Sexiest Music Videos Ever. Clare Simpson from "WhatCulture!" listed the music video at number six on their 12 Raunchiest Music Videos ever. She said "I remember when this video came out and being totally fascinated by it – the rampant portrayal of lipstick lesbianism on the music television channels during the day time." In 2011, "MSN" called it the most controversial music video. "Urban Garden" Magazine listed the video on their Most Controversial Music Videos of All Time. The American magazine "FHM" ranked the video number thirty on their Sexiest Videos of All Time, saying "This video caused uproar across the world" and that the kissing scene was the highlight of the video. Ugo.com also ranked the video at thirty-eight on their Sexiest Videos of All Time. Fuse TV ranked the video at sixty-four on their "Top 100 Sexiest Music Videos of All Time".


title: All the Things She Said

text: After its worldwide release, the song received media attention worldwide. In the United Kingdom, ITV banned the video from its music show "", as producer Tammy Hoyle responded "We could not show the video on "CD:UK" because it is not really suitable for children." Meanwhile, fellow ITV personalities Richard and Judy campaigned to have the video banned from general British television, claiming it pandered to pedophiles with the use of school uniforms and young girls kissing. However, the campaign failed. The BBC denied that they banned the video from its weekly BBC One music show "Top of the Pops". MuchMusic had apparent thoughts of banning the music video from airing, but this decision was ultimately scrapped. According to the president of the show, Craig Halket said "We felt that it didn't oversexualize them and they looked of age, (they were 15 at the time) I can see the controversy. It's like many videos, including the Christina Aguilera video -- it pushes buttons."


title: All the Things She Said

text: The music video was the subject of much criticism throughout t.A.T.u.'s career. The AllMusic review for "200 km/h in the Wrong Lane" labelled the band as a tawdry gimmick. A writer from "The Daily Telegraph" expressed the video as "clichéd", while it titillating on a very base and adolescent level, only serves to cheapen the song's lyrical impact. The video is also a sign of how blurred the line between entertainment and exploitation has become.


title: All the Things She Said

text: Three years after the release of the single, Volkova announced her pregnancy. This led to accusations of the girls being "fake", in giving the impression that they were lesbians, although Julia and Lena have said in the past they are not "together" nor "in a relationship". Additionally, in 2014, Julia stated that she would "not support a gay son" despite promoting the image of a lesbian relationship.


title: All the Things She Said

text: In February 2011, US singer Katy Perry released her single "E.T." from her third studio album, "Teenage Dream" (2010). According to several music publications, the composition and rhythm bar of Perry's single was similar to the sound of ""; Matthew Cole from "Slant Magazine" disliked Perry's song for being "inscrutable" and explained that its backing track was reminiscent of t.A.T.u.'s song. Similarly, "The A.V. Club" editor Genevieve Koski felt "E.T." "bears more than a passing resemblance" of t.A.T.u.'s single, and a reporter from "Sound Magazine" posted a mash-up version of the songs to distinguish the comparisons; the website labelled it one of the most "annoyingly addictive" songs. In May 2011, Galoyan responded to the comparisons and criticized Perry's track, considering legal action against the singer, featured hip-hop artist Kanye West, and her labels Capitol Records and Universal Music Group, but not responding since his comments.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The song has appeared in multiple television events. It was WWE professional wrestler Victoria's theme song from 15 December 2002 (at WWE's Armageddon pay-per-view, where she debuted it) to May 2004 with the song starting from "Yes, I've lost my mind". Also, the song was played during the final scenes of the "Birds of Prey" series on the WB network, in the 2003 episode "Devil's Eyes". This theme was also featured as the opening song of the Chinese drama, Legend of the Heavenly Stones, as a Chinese language dub.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The song was parodied on the Australian sketch show "Comedy Inc.". The video was also parodied on "The Frank Skinner Show" with Skinner playing Volkova and Jennie McAlpine playing Katina. Leigh Francis parodied the video in the second series of his comedy program "Bo' Selecta!"


title: All the Things She Said

text: In an interview with "The Independent", Yulia claimed that the song had helped people to be honest about their sexual orientations. She said "People used to call us and say 'Thank you. That helped us to come out, [...] You helped us to feel like people.'" She then said "It was our teenage years, [...] You have to try everything. It felt at the time like it was real love – it felt like there was nothing more serious... Now when you look back at it, of course, it's ridiculous."


title: All the Things She Said

text: On 12 November 2012, the song was covered by the French alternative rock band Halflives and featured Mercedes from the Canadian rock band Courage My Love via YouTube.


title: All the Things She Said

text: The song has also been covered by virtual artist and League of Legends character, Seraphine and released on 25 September 2020. The cover was part of the Riot Games music initiative, following the success of the virtual band K/DA and hip hop group True Damage.


title: All the Things She Said

text: t.A.T.u. performed the song on many television shows in the United States. They first appeared on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", where the girls created confusion, because they kissed each other without first having been granted permission to do so. They performed the single on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", at AOL, on "Mad TV", the "Carson Daly Show", "Total Request Live" and the 2003 MTV Movie Awards.


title: Loom

text: A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.


title: Loom

text: The word "loom" derives from the Old English "geloma", formed from "ge-" (perfective prefix) and "loma", a root of unknown origin; the whole word "geloma" meant a utensil, tool, or machine of any kind. In 1404 "lome" was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth.


title: Loom

text: Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i.e. "that which is thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e. "that which is woven".


title: Loom

text: The major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses or shafts (as few as two, four is common, sixteen not unheard of), shuttle, reed and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations. These are the principal motions.


title: Loom

text: There are two secondary motions, because with each weaving operation the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a tertiary motion, the filling stop motion. This will brake the loom if the weft thread breaks. An automatic loom requires 0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate.


title: Loom

text: The back strap loom is a simple loom that has its roots in ancient civilizations. Andean textiles, still made today with the back strap loom, originated thousands of years ago with the same back strap loom process. It consists of two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object and the other to the weaver, usually by means of a strap around the back. The weaver leans back and uses their body weight to tension the loom. On traditional looms, the two main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set. To open the shed controlled by the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles. The other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver.


title: Loom

text: Both simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom. Width is limited to how far the weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle. Warp faced textiles, often decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world. They produce such things as belts, ponchos, bags, hatbands and carrying cloths. Supplementary weft patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions. Balanced weaves are also possible on the backstrap loom. Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a rigid heddle.


title: Loom

text: The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period. The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the Starčevo culture in modern Serbia and Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland. This loom was used in Ancient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe thereafter. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights. When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size constraint.


title: Loom

text: A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a "figure harness" is used to control each warp thread separately. A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness. The earliest confirmed drawloom fabrics come from the State of Chu and date c. 400 BC. Most scholars attribute the invention of the drawloom to the ancient Chinese, although some speculate an independent invention from ancient Syria since drawloom fabrics found in Dura-Europas are thought to date before 256 AD. The draw loom for patterned weaving was invented in ancient China during the Han Dynasty. Chinese weavers and artisans used foot-powered multi-harness looms and jacquard looms for silk weaving and embroidery; both of which were cottage industries with imperial workshops. The Chinese-invented drawloom enhanced and sped up the production of silk and play a significant role in Chinese silk weaving. The loom was later introduced to Persia, India, and Europe.


title: Loom

text: A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving. In a wooden vertical-shaft loom, the heddles are fixed in place in the shaft. The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle, and through a space between the heddles (the shed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads — the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place. This was invented in the 13th century. It can have a Jacquard machine attached to it. Handloom weavers commonly use three types of looms: pit looms, stand looms, and frame looms.


title: Loom

text: Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan. If cloth needed to be wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child). John Kay (1704–1779) patented the flying shuttle in 1733. The weaver held a picking stick that was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed. With a flick of the wrist, one cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with considerable force, speed and efficiency. A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle was propelled back. A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle could weave much wider fabric than an arm's length at much greater speeds than had been achieved with the hand thrown shuttle.


title: Loom

text: The "flying shuttle" was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution. The whole picking motion no longer relied on manual skill and it was just a matter of time before it could be powered.


title: Loom

text: Looms used for weaving traditional tapestry are classified as "haute-lisse" looms, where the warp is suspended vertically between two rolls. In "basse-lisse" looms, however, the warp extends horizontally between the two rolls.


title: Loom

text: Several other types of hand looms exist, including the simple frame loom, pit loom, free-standing loom, and the pegged loom. Each of these can be constructed, and provide work and income in developing economies.


title: Loom

text: The earliest evidence of a horizontal loom is found on a pottery dish in ancient Egypt, dated to 4400 BC. It was a frame loom, equipped with foot pedals to lift the warp threads, leaving the weaver's hands free to pass and beat the weft thread.


title: Loom

text: Very small looms known as darning looms are made to facilitate darning, which is a form of weaving worked on top of an existing fabric in order to mend or decorate it. These looms, small enough to be held in one hand, may have a fixed heddle or movable heddles. They are capable of being used to form patterns. Popular in the early 20th century, darning looms are regaining popularity as crafting and mending come back into fashion. One well-known brand was the Speedweve, made by the E & A Chesstok company in Manchester, UK.


title: Loom

text: Edmund Cartwright built and patented a power loom in 1785, and it was this that was adopted by the nascent cotton industry in England. The silk loom made by Jacques Vaucanson in 1745 operated on the same principles but was not developed further. The invention of the flying shuttle by John Kay was critical to the development of a commercially successful power loom. Cartwright's loom was impractical but the ideas behind it were developed by numerous inventors in the Manchester area of England where, by 1818, there were 32 factories containing 5,732 looms.


title: Loom

text: Horrocks loom was viable, but it was the Roberts Loom in 1830 that marked the turning point. Incremental changes to the three motions continued to be made. The problems of sizing, stop-motions, consistent take-up, and a temple to maintain the width remained. In 1841, Kenworthy and Bullough produced the Lancashire Loom which was self-acting or semi-automatic. This enables a youngster to run six looms at the same time. Thus, for simple calicos, the power loom became more economical to run than the hand loom – with complex patterning that used a dobby or Jacquard head, jobs were still put out to handloom weavers until the 1870s. Incremental changes were made such as the Dickinson Loom, culminating in the Keighley-born inventor Northrop, who was working for the Draper Corporation in Hopedale producing the fully automatic Northrop Loom. This loom recharged the shuttle when the pirn was empty. The Draper E and X models became the leading products from 1909. They were challenged by synthetic fibres such as rayon.


title: Loom

text: By 1942, faster, more efficient, and shuttleless Sulzer and rapier looms had been introduced. Modern industrial looms can weave at 2,000 weft insertions per minute.


title: Loom

text: Different types of looms are most often defined by the way that the weft, or pick, is inserted into the warp. Many advances in weft insertion have been made in order to make manufactured cloth more cost effective. There are five main types of weft insertion and they are as follows:


title: Loom

text: A dobby loom is a type of floor loom that controls the whole warp threads using a dobby head. Dobby is a corruption of "draw boy" which refers to the weaver's helpers who used to control the warp thread by pulling on draw threads. A dobby loom is an alternative to a treadle loom, where multiple harnesses (shafts) were controlled by foot treadles – one for each harness.


title: Loom

text: The Jacquard loom is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, which simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such as brocade, damask and matelasse. The loom is controlled by punched cards with punched holes, each row of which corresponds to one row of the design. Multiple rows of holes are punched on each card and the many cards that compose the design of the textile are strung together in order. It is based on earlier inventions by the Frenchmen Basile Bouchon (1725), Jean Baptiste Falcon (1728) and Jacques Vaucanson (1740). To call it a loom is a misnomer, a Jacquard head could be attached to a power loom or a hand loom, the head controlling which warp thread was raised during shedding. Multiple shuttles could be used to control the colour of the weft during picking. The Jacquard loom is the predecessor to the computer punched card readers of the 19th and 20th centuries.


title: Loom

text: A circular loom is used to create a seamless tube of fabric for products such as hosiery, sacks, clothing, fabric hose (such as fire hose) and the like. Circular looms can be small jigs used for circular knitting or large high-speed machines for modern garments. Modern circular looms use up to ten shuttles driven from below in a circular motion by electromagnets for the weft yarns, and cams to control the warp threads. The warps rise and fall with each shuttle passage, unlike the common practice of lifting all of them at once.


title: Loom

text: The loom is a symbol of cosmic creation and the structure upon which individual destiny is woven. This symbolism is encapsulated in the classical myth of Arachne who was changed into a spider by the goddess Athena, who was jealous of her skill at the godlike craft of weaving. In Maya civilization the goddess Ixchel taught the first woman how to weave at the beginning of time.


title: New York (magazine)

text: New York is an American biweekly magazine concerned with life, culture, politics, and style generally, and with a particular emphasis on New York City. Founded by Milton Glaser and Clay Felker in 1968 as a competitor to "The New Yorker", it was brasher and less polite, and established itself as a cradle of New Journalism. Over time, it became more national in scope, publishing many noteworthy articles on American culture by writers such as Tom Wolfe, Jimmy Breslin, Nora Ephron, John Heilemann, Frank Rich, and Rebecca Traister.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In its 21st-century incarnation under editor-in-chief Adam Moss, "The nation's best and most-imitated city magazine is often not about the city—at least not in the overcrowded, traffic-clogged, five-boroughs sense", wrote then-"Washington Post" media critic Howard Kurtz, as the magazine increasingly published political and cultural stories of national significance.


title: New York (magazine)

text: Since its redesign and relaunch in 2004, the magazine has won more National Magazine Awards than any other publication, including the 2013 award for Magazine of the Year. It was one of the first dual-audience "lifestyle magazines", and its format and style have been emulated by some other American regional city publications.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2009, its paid and verified circulation was 408,622, with 95.8% of that coming from subscriptions. Its websites—"NYmag.com", "Vulture", the "Cut," and "Grub Street"—received visits from more than 14 million users per month.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2018, New York Media, the parent company of "New York" magazine, instituted a paywall for all its online sites, followed by layoffs in early 2019. On September 24, 2019, Vox Media announced that it had purchased "New York" magazine and its parent company, New York Media.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "New York" began life in 1963 as the Sunday-magazine supplement of the "New York Herald Tribune" newspaper. Edited first by Sheldon Zalaznick and then by Clay Felker, the magazine showcased the work of several talented Tribune contributors, including Tom Wolfe, Barbara Goldsmith, and Jimmy Breslin. Soon after the "Tribune" went out of business in 1966–67, Felker and his partner, Milton Glaser, purchased the rights with money loaned to them by Wall Street bankers led by Armand G. Erpf (who became the magazine's first chairman and who Felker attributed as the financial architect of the magazine) and C. Gerald Goldsmith (Barbara Goldsmith's husband at the time), and reincarnated the magazine as a stand-alone glossy. Joining them was managing editor Jack Nessel, Felker's number-two at the "Herald Tribune." "New York"s first issue was dated April 8, 1968. Among the by-lines were many familiar names from the magazine's earlier incarnation, including Breslin, Wolfe (who wrote "You and Your Big Mouth: How the Honks and Wonks Reveal the Phonetic Truth about Status" in the inaugural issue), and George Goodman, a financial writer who wrote as "Adam Smith".


title: New York (magazine)

text: Within a year, Felker had assembled a team of contributors who would come to define the magazine's voice. Breslin became a regular, as did Gloria Steinem, who wrote the city-politics column, and Gail Sheehy. (Sheehy would eventually marry Felker, in 1984.) Harold Clurman was hired as the theater critic. Judith Crist wrote movie reviews. Alan Rich covered the classical-music scene. Barbara Goldsmith was a Founding Editor of "New York" magazine and the author of the widely imitated series, "The Creative Environment", in which she interviewed such subjects as Marcel Breuer, I. M. Pei, George Balanchine, and Pablo Picasso about their creative process. Gael Greene, writing under the rubric "The Insatiable Critic", reviewed restaurants, cultivating a baroque writing style that leaned heavily on sexual metaphor. Woody Allen contributed a few stories for the magazine in its early years. The magazine's regional focus and innovative illustrations inspired numerous imitators across the country. The office for the magazine was on the top floor of the old Tammany Hall clubhouse at 207 East 32nd Street, which Glaser owned.


title: New York (magazine)

text: Wolfe, a regular contributor to the magazine, wrote a story in 1970 that captured the spirit of the magazine (if not the age): "Radical Chic: That Party at Lenny's". The article described a benefit party for the Black Panthers, held in Leonard Bernstein's apartment, in a collision of high culture and low that paralleled "New York" magazine's ethos. In 1972, "New York", after a lot of convincing by Gloria Steinem, also launched "Ms." magazine, which began as a special issue. "New West", a sister magazine on "New York" model that covered California life, was also published for a few years in the 1970s.


title: New York (magazine)

text: As the 1970s progressed, Felker continued to broaden the magazine's editorial vision beyond Manhattan, covering Richard Nixon and the Watergate scandal closely. In 1976, journalist Nik Cohn contributed a story called "Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night," about a young man in a working-class Brooklyn neighborhood who, once a week, went to a local disco called Odyssey 2001; the story was a sensation and served as the basis for the film "Saturday Night Fever". Twenty years later, Cohn admitted that he'd done no more than drive by Odyssey's door, and that he'd made the rest up. It was a recurring problem of what Wolfe, in 1972, had labeled "The New Journalism."


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 1976, the Australian media baron Rupert Murdoch bought the magazine in a hostile takeover, forcing Felker and Glaser out. A succession of editors followed, including Joe Armstrong and John Berendt.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 1980, Murdoch hired Edward Kosner, who had worked at "Newsweek". Murdoch also bought "Cue", a listings magazine founded by Mort Glankoff that had covered the city since 1932, and folded it into "New York", simultaneously creating a useful going-out guide and eliminating a competitor. Kosner's magazine tended toward a mix of newsmagazine-style stories, trend pieces, and pure "service" features—long articles on shopping and other consumer subjects—as well as close coverage of the glitzy 1980s New York City scene epitomized by financiers Donald Trump and Saul Steinberg. The magazine was profitable for most of the 1980s. The term "the Brat Pack" was coined for a 1985 story in the magazine.


title: New York (magazine)

text: Murdoch got out of the magazine business in 1991 by selling his holdings to K-III Communications, a partnership controlled by financier Henry Kravis.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 1993, budget pressure from K-III frustrated Kosner, and he left for "Esquire" magazine. After several months' search, during which the magazine was run by managing editor Peter Herbst, K-III hired Kurt Andersen, the co-creator of "Spy", a humor monthly of the late 1980s and early 1990s. Andersen quickly replaced several staff members, bringing in many emerging and established writers (including Jim Cramer, Walter Kirn, Michael Tomasky, and Jacob Weisberg) and editors (including Michael Hirschorn, Kim France, Dany Levy, and Maer Roshan), and generally making the magazine faster-paced, younger in outlook, and more knowing in tone.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In August 1996, Bill Reilly fired Andersen from his editorship, citing the publication's financial results. According to Andersen, he was fired for refusing to kill a story about a rivalry between investment bankers Felix Rohatyn and Steven Rattner that had upset Henry Kravis, a member of the firm's ownership group. His replacement was Caroline Miller, who came from "Seventeen", another K-III title.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2002 and 2003, Michael Wolff, the media critic hired by Miller in 1998, won two National Magazine Awards for his column. At the end of 2003, "New York" was sold again, to financier Bruce Wasserstein, for $55 million.


title: New York (magazine)

text: Wasserstein replaced Miller with Adam Moss, known for editing the short-lived New York weekly of the late 1980s "7 Days" and "The New York Times Magazine".


title: New York (magazine)

text: In late 2004 the magazine was relaunched, most notably with two new sections: "The Strategist", devoted mostly to utility, and "The Culture Pages", covering the city's arts scene. Moss also rehired Kurt Andersen as a columnist. In early 2006, the company began an aggressive digital expansion with the relaunch of the magazine's website, previously nymetro.com, as nymag.com.


title: New York (magazine)

text: Since 2004, the magazine has won twenty four National Magazine Awards, more than any other magazine over this time period, including Magazine of the Year in 2013, General Excellence in Print four times, and General Excellence Online three times. During this same period it has been a finalist an additional 48 times in categories that included Profile Writing, Reviews and Criticism, Commentary, Public Service, Magazine Section, Leisure Interests, Personal Service, Single-Topic Issue, Photography, Photojournalism, Photo Portfolio, and Design. In 2007, when the magazine for the first time dominated the awards, much of the coverage the next day noted that "The New Yorker" took home no awards that night, despite receiving nine nominations, and also noted that "New York" was the first magazine to win for both its print and Internet editions in the same year.


title: New York (magazine)

text: The February 25, 2008 issue featured a series of nude photographs of Lindsay Lohan. Shot by Bert Stern, the series replicated several poses from Stern's widely reproduced final photos of Marilyn Monroe, shot shortly before the actress's fatal drug overdose. That week, the magazine's website received over 60 million hits and with traffic 2000 percent higher than usual.


title: New York (magazine)

text: The magazine is especially known for its food writing (its restaurant critic Adam Platt won a James Beard Award in 2009, and its Underground Gourmet critics Rob Patronite and Robin Raisfeld have won two National Magazine Awards); and for its political coverage, especially John Heilemann's reporting on the 2008 presidential election, which led to his (and Mark Halperin's) best-selling book "Game Change", and for coverage of the first two years of the Obama administration; "The New Republic" praised its "hugely impressive political coverage" during this period.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "New York" has been widely recognized for its design during this period, with back-to-back design wins at the National Magazine Awards and Magazine of the Year wins from the Society of Publication Designers (SPD) in 2006 and 2007. The 2008 Eliot Spitzer "Brain" cover was named Cover of the Year by the American Society of Magazine Editors (ASME) and "Advertising Age" and 2009's "Bernie Madoff, Monster" was named Best News & Business Cover by ASME. "New York" won back-to-back ASME Cover of the Year awards in 2012 and 2013, for "Is She Just Too Old for This?" and "The City and the Storm" respectively. Design director Chris Dixon and photography director Jody Quon were named "Design Team of the Year" by Adweek in 2008.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2009, after Bruce Wasserstein's death, the magazine's ownership passed to his family. Many obituaries noted Wasserstein's revival of the magazine. "While previous owners had required constant features in the magazine about the best place to get a croissant or a beret," wrote David Carr of "The New York Times", "it was clear that Wasserstein wanted a publication that was the best place to learn about the complicated apparatus that is modern New York. In enabling as much, Mr. Wasserstein recaptured the original intent of the magazine's founder, Clay Felker."


title: New York (magazine)

text: On March 1, 2011, it was announced that Frank Rich would leave "The New York Times" to become an essayist and editor-at-large for "New York". Rich began his relationship with the magazine starting in June 2011.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "New York"s "Encyclopedia of 9/11", published on the tenth anniversary of the attacks, was widely praised, with Gizmodo calling it "heartbreaking, locked in the past, and entirely current"; the issue won a National Magazine Award for Single-Topic Issue.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "New York"s offices in lower Manhattan were without electricity in the week following Hurricane Sandy, so the editorial staff published an issue from the midtown office of Wasserstein & Company, the firm that owns New York Media. The issue's cover, shot by photographer Iwan Baan from a helicopter and showing Manhattan half in darkness, almost immediately became an iconic image of the storm, and was named the magazine cover of the year by Time. The photograph on the cover was published as a poster by the Museum of Modern Art, with proceeds benefiting Hurricane Sandy relief efforts.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2013, "New York" magazine took the top honor at the National Magazine Awards again receiving magazine of the year for its print and digital coverage.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In December 2013, the magazine announced plans to move to a biweekly format in March 2014, reducing from 42 annual issues to 29. Jared Hohlt became top editor of the printed magazine in 2014.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In April 2016, the magazine announced the launch of Select All, a new vertical dedicated to technology and innovation. In 2019, Select All was shuttered and folded into the broadened "Intelligencer" news site.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In December 2018, "New York"s fashion and beauty destination site "the Cut", carried a piece titled "Is Priyanka Chopra and Nick Jonas' Love for Real?", that drew severe backlash from readers for accusing Priyanka Chopra of trapping Nick Jonas into a fraudulent relationship and being a "global scam artist". The publication removed the piece the following morning and issued an apology.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In January 2019, Moss announced that he was retiring from the editorship. David Haskell (editor), one of his chief deputies, succeeded him as editor on April 1, 2019. That same spring, the magazine laid off staff members and temps.


title: New York (magazine)

text: On September 24, 2019, Vox Media announced that it had purchased "New York" magazine, and its parent company, New York Media.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In May 2020, Vox Media announced it was merging the real estate site "Curbed" into "New York" magazine.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "New York" magazine was once known for its competitions and unique crossword puzzles. For the first year of the magazine's existence, the composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim contributed an extremely complex cryptic crossword to every third issue. In the style of British crosswords (as they are sometimes called), the cryptic crosswords feature clues that include a straight definition and a wordplay definition. Richard Maltby, Jr. took over thereafter. Since 1980, the magazine has also run an American-style crossword. For the first 30 years the puzzle was always by Maura Jacobson, but beginning in the summer of 2010, Cathy Allis Millhauser's byline began appearing in alternate weeks, and the magazine announced her as permanent co-constructor in September 2010. Jacobson retired in April 2011, having created 1,400 puzzles for the magazine, including 30 years when she wrote a puzzle every single week without missing an issue. The cryptic crosswords were eventually dropped.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In the remaining two weeks out of every three, Sondheim's friend Mary Ann Madden edited an extremely popular witty literary competition calling for readers to send in humorous poetry or other bits of wordplay on a theme that changed with each installment. (A typical entry, in a competition calling for humorous epitaphs, supplied this one for Geronimo: "Requiescat in Apache.") Altogether, Madden ran 973 installments of the competition, retiring in 2000. Hundreds, sometimes thousands, of entries were received each week, and winners included David Mamet, Herb Sargent, and Dan Greenburg. David Halberstam once claimed that he had submitted entries 137 times without winning. Sondheim, Woody Allen, and Nora Ephron were fans.


title: New York (magazine)

text: The Competition's demise, when Madden retired, was greatly lamented among its fans. In August 2000, the magazine published a letter from an Irish contestant, John O'Byrne, who wrote: "How I'll miss the fractured definitions, awful puns, conversation stoppers, one-letter misprints, ludicrous proverbs, openings of bad novels, near misses, et al. (what a nice guy Al is!)." Many entrants have since migrated to "The Washington Post"s similar "Style Invitational" feature. Three volumes of Competition winners were published, titled "Thank You for the Giant Sea Tortoise", "Son of Giant Sea Tortoise", and "Maybe He's Dead: And Other Hilarious Results of New York Magazine Competitions".


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2006, "New York"s website, NYMag.com, underwent a year-long relaunch, transforming from a magazine companion to an up-to-the-minute news and service destination. In 2008, parent company New York Media purchased the online restaurant and menu resource MenuPages, which serves eight markets across the U.S., as a complement to its own online restaurant listings and to gain a foothold in seven additional cities. In 2011, MenuPages was sold to Seamless. As of July 2010, digital revenue accounted for fully one third of company advertising revenue.


title: New York (magazine)

text: The website includes several branded destination sites: "Daily Intelligencer" (up-to-date news), the "Cut" (women's issues), "Grub Street" (food and restaurants), and "Vulture" (pop culture). David Carr noted in an August 2010 column, "In a way, "New York" magazine is fast becoming a digital enterprise with a magazine attached."


title: New York (magazine)

text: The "Cut" launched on the "New York" website in 2008 to replace previous fashion week blog "Show & Talk". The "Cut" was relaunched in 2012 as a standalone website, shifting in focus from fashion to women's issues more generally. Stella Bugbee became Editor-in-Chief in 2017. On August 21, 2017, "New York" announced the redesign and re-organization of the "Cut" website." "The new site was designed for an enhanced mobile-first experience and to better reflect the topics covered. In January 2018, the "Cut" published Moira Donegan's essay revealing her as the creator of the controversial "Shitty Media Men" list, a viral but short-lived anonymous spreadsheet crowdsourcing unconfirmed reports of sexual misconduct by men in journalism. The "Cut" also includes the pop science section "Science of Us", which was previously a standalone site.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "Grub Street", covering food and restaurants, was expanded in 2009 to five additional cities served by former nymag.com sister site MenuPages.com. In 2013 it was announced that "Grub Street" would close its city blogs outside New York, and bring a more national focus to GrubStreet.com.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2018, "Vulture" acquired the comedy news blog "Splitsider", folding the operation into the "Vulture" website.


title: New York (magazine)

text: In 2016, "New York" launched the "Strategist", an expansion of a column from the print version of "New York" Magazine that aimed to help readers navigate shopping from the "New York" perspective. The site joined other product review sites focusing on providing free product reviews to readers, generating affiliate commissions when readers would purchase a product they recommended. The early editorial team included editors David Haskell and Alexis Swerdloff. Popular recurring franchises include celebrity shopping "What I Can't Live Without" series, "Strategist-Approved" gift guides, and beauty reviews by influencer Rio Viera-Newton. The "Strategist" does not publish branded content, but it earns revenue through affiliate advertising, including the Amazon Associates Program. In 2018, the "Strategist" experimented with a holiday pop-up retail experience called I Found It at the Strategist. In 2021, the "Strategist" experimented with on-site shopping, which allowed users to purchase select products without leaving the website.


title: New York (magazine)

text: Michael Hirschorn's Ish Entertainment developed a TV pilot for Bravo inspired by the magazine's popular weekly Approval Matrix feature, which has appeared in the magazine since November 2004.


title: New York (magazine)

text: "New York"s art critic Jerry Saltz is a judge on Bravo's fine art reality competition series "Work of Art: The Next Great Artist". Additionally, Grub Street Senior Editor Alan Sytsma appeared as a guest on judge on three episodes of the third season of "Top Chef Masters".


title: Virtual memory

text: In computing, virtual memory, or virtual storage is a memory management technique that provides an "idealized abstraction of the storage resources that are actually available on a given machine" which "creates the illusion to users of a very large (main) memory".


title: Virtual memory

text: The computer's operating system, using a combination of hardware and software, maps memory addresses used by a program, called "virtual addresses", into "physical addresses" in computer memory. Main storage, as seen by a process or task, appears as a contiguous address space or collection of contiguous segments. The operating system manages virtual address spaces and the assignment of real memory to virtual memory. Address translation hardware in the CPU, often referred to as a memory management unit (MMU), automatically translates virtual addresses to physical addresses. Software within the operating system may extend these capabilities, utilizing, e.g., disk storage, to provide a virtual address space that can exceed the capacity of real memory and thus reference more memory than is physically present in the computer.


title: Virtual memory

text: The primary benefits of virtual memory include freeing applications from having to manage a shared memory space, ability to share memory used by libraries between processes, increased security due to memory isolation, and being able to conceptually use more memory than might be physically available, using the technique of paging or segmentation.


title: Virtual memory

text: Virtual memory makes application programming easier by hiding fragmentation of physical memory; by delegating to the kernel the burden of managing the memory hierarchy (eliminating the need for the program to handle overlays explicitly); and, when each process is run in its own dedicated address space, by obviating the need to relocate program code or to access memory with relative addressing.


title: Virtual memory

text: Virtual memory is an integral part of a modern computer architecture; implementations usually require hardware support, typically in the form of a memory management unit built into the CPU. While not necessary, emulators and virtual machines can employ hardware support to increase performance of their virtual memory implementations. Older operating systems, such as those for the mainframes of the 1960s, and those for personal computers of the early to mid-1980s (e.g., DOS), generally have no virtual memory functionality, though notable exceptions for mainframes of the 1960s include:


title: Virtual memory

text: During the 1960s and early '70s, computer memory was very expensive. The introduction of virtual memory provided an ability for software systems with large memory demands to run on computers with less real memory. The savings from this provided a strong incentive to switch to virtual memory for all systems. The additional capability of providing virtual address spaces added another level of security and reliability, thus making virtual memory even more attractive to the marketplace.


title: Virtual memory

text: Most modern operating systems that support virtual memory also run each process in its own dedicated address space. Each program thus appears to have sole access to the virtual memory. However, some older operating systems (such as OS/VS1 and OS/VS2 SVS) and even modern ones (such as IBM i) are single address space operating systems that run all processes in a single address space composed of virtualized memory.


title: Virtual memory

text: Embedded systems and other special-purpose computer systems that require very fast and/or very consistent response times may opt not to use virtual memory due to decreased determinism; virtual memory systems trigger unpredictable traps that may produce unwanted and unpredictable delays in response to input, especially if the trap requires that data be read into main memory from secondary memory. The hardware to translate virtual addresses to physical addresses typically requires a significant chip area to implement, and not all chips used in embedded systems include that hardware, which is another reason some of those systems don't use virtual memory.


title: Virtual memory

text: In the 1950s, all larger programs had to contain logic for managing primary and secondary storage, such as overlaying. Virtual memory was therefore introduced not only to extend primary memory, but to make such an extension as easy as possible for programmers to use. To allow for multiprogramming and multitasking, many early systems divided memory between multiple programs without virtual memory, such as early models of the PDP-10 via registers.


title: Virtual memory

text: A claim that the concept of virtual memory was first developed by German physicist Fritz-Rudolf Güntsch at the Technische Universität Berlin in 1956 in his doctoral thesis, "Logical Design of a Digital Computer with Multiple Asynchronous Rotating Drums and Automatic High Speed Memory Operation" does not stand up to careful scrutiny. The computer proposed by Güntsch (but never built) had an address space of 10 words which mapped exactly on to the 10 words of the drums, "i.e." the addresses were real addresses and there was no form of indirect mapping, a key feature of virtual memory. What Güntsch did invent was a form of cache memory, since his high-speed memory was intended to contain a copy of some blocks of code or data taken from the drums. Indeed, he wrote (as quoted in translation): "The programmer need not respect the existence of the primary memory (he need not even know that it exists), for there is only one sort of addresses ("sic") by which one can program as if there were only one storage." This is exactly the situation in computers with cache memory, one of the earliest commercial examples of which was the IBM System/360 Model 85. In the Model 85 all addresses were real addresses referring to the main core store. A semiconductor cache store, invisible to the user, held the contents of parts of the main store in use by the currently executing program. This is exactly analogous to Güntsch's system, designed as a means to improve performance, rather than to solve the problems involved in multi-programming.


title: Virtual memory

text: The first true virtual memory system was that implemented at the University of Manchester to create a one-level storage system as part of the Atlas Computer. It used a paging mechanism to map the virtual addresses available to the programmer on to the real memory that consisted of 16,384 words of primary core memory with an additional 98,304 words of secondary drum memory. The first Atlas was commissioned in 1962 but working prototypes of paging had been developed by 1959. In 1961, the Burroughs Corporation independently released the first commercial computer with virtual memory, the B5000, with segmentation rather than paging.


title: Virtual memory

text: IBM developed the concept of hypervisors in their CP-40 and CP-67, and in 1972 provided it for the S/370 as Virtual Machine Facility/370. IBM introduced the Start Interpretive Execution (SIE) instruction as part of 370-XA on the 3081, and VM/XA versions of VM to exploit it.


title: Virtual memory

text: Before virtual memory could be implemented in mainstream operating systems, many problems had to be addressed. Dynamic address translation required expensive and difficult-to-build specialized hardware; initial implementations slowed down access to memory slightly. There were worries that new system-wide algorithms utilizing secondary storage would be less effective than previously used application-specific algorithms. By 1969, the debate over virtual memory for commercial computers was over; an IBM research team led by David Sayre showed that their virtual memory overlay system consistently worked better than the best manually controlled systems. Throughout the 1970s, the IBM 370 series running their virtual-storage based operating systems provided a means for business users to migrate multiple older systems into fewer, more powerful, mainframes that had improved price/performance. The first minicomputer to introduce virtual memory was the Norwegian NORD-1; during the 1970s, other minicomputers implemented virtual memory, notably VAX models running VMS.


title: Virtual memory

text: Virtual memory was introduced to the x86 architecture with the protected mode of the Intel 80286 processor, but its segment swapping technique scaled poorly to larger segment sizes. The Intel 80386 introduced paging support underneath the existing segmentation layer, enabling the page fault exception to chain with other exceptions without double fault. However, loading segment descriptors was an expensive operation, causing operating system designers to rely strictly on paging rather than a combination of paging and segmentation.


title: Virtual memory

text: Nearly all current implementations of virtual memory divide a virtual address space into pages, blocks of contiguous virtual memory addresses. Pages on contemporary systems are usually at least 4 kilobytes in size; systems with large virtual address ranges or amounts of real memory generally use larger page sizes.


title: Virtual memory

text: Page tables are used to translate the virtual addresses seen by the application into physical addresses used by the hardware to process instructions; such hardware that handles this specific translation is often known as the memory management unit. Each entry in the page table holds a flag indicating whether the corresponding page is in real memory or not. If it is in real memory, the page table entry will contain the real memory address at which the page is stored. When a reference is made to a page by the hardware, if the page table entry for the page indicates that it is not currently in real memory, the hardware raises a page fault exception, invoking the paging supervisor component of the operating system.


title: Virtual memory

text: Systems can have one page table for the whole system, separate page tables for each application and segment, a tree of page tables for large segments or some combination of these. If there is only one page table, different applications running at the same time use different parts of a single range of virtual addresses. If there are multiple page or segment tables, there are multiple virtual address spaces and concurrent applications with separate page tables redirect to different real addresses.


title: Virtual memory

text: Some earlier systems with smaller real memory sizes, such as the SDS 940, used "page registers" instead of page tables in memory for address translation.


title: Virtual memory

text: This part of the operating system creates and manages page tables and lists of free page frames. In order to ensure that there will be enough free page frames to quickly resolve page faults, the system may periodically steal allocated page frames, using a page replacement algorithm, e.g., a Least recently used (LRU) algorithm. Stolen page frames that have been modified are written back to auxiliary storage before they are added to the free queue. On some systems the paging supervisor is also responsible for managing translation registers that are not automatically loaded from page tables.


title: Virtual memory

text: Typically, a page fault that cannot be resolved results in an abnormal termination of the application. However, some systems allow the application to have exception handlers for such errors. The paging supervisor may handle a page fault exception in several different ways, depending on the details:


title: Virtual memory

text: In most cases, there will be an update to the page table, possibly followed by purging the Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB), and the system restarts the instruction that causes the exception.


title: Virtual memory

text: If the free page frame queue is empty then the paging supervisor must free a page frame using the same page replacement algorithm for page stealing.


title: Virtual memory

text: Operating systems have memory areas that are "pinned" (never swapped to secondary storage). Other terms used are "locked", "fixed", or "wired" pages. For example, interrupt mechanisms rely on an array of pointers to their handlers, such as I/O completion and page fault. If the pages containing these pointers or the code that they invoke were pageable, interrupt-handling would become far more complex and time-consuming, particularly in the case of page fault interruptions. Hence, some part of the page table structures is not pageable.


title: Virtual memory

text: Some pages may be pinned for short periods of time, others may be pinned for long periods of time, and still others may need to be permanently pinned. For example: