title: Wrangel Island

text: According to a 1936 article in "Time" magazine, Wrangel Island became the scene of a bizarre criminal story in the 1930s when it fell under the increasingly arbitrary rule of its appointed governor Konstantin Semenchuk. Semenchuk controlled the local populace and his own staff through open extortion and murder. He forbade the local Yupik Eskimos (recruited from Provideniya Bay in 1926) to hunt walrus, which put them in danger of starvation, while collecting food for himself. He was then implicated in the mysterious deaths of some of his opponents, including the local doctor. Allegedly, he ordered his subordinate, the sledge driver Stepan Startsev, to murder Dr. Nikolai Vulfson, who had attempted to stand up to Semenchuk, on 27 December 1934 (though there were also rumours that Startsev had fallen in love with Vulfson's wife, Dr. Gita Feldman, and killed him out of jealousy). The subsequent trial in May–June 1936, at the Supreme Court of the RSFSR, sentenced Semenchuk and Startsev to death for "banditry" and violation of Soviet law, and "the most publicised result of the trial was the joy of the liberated Eskimos". This trial had the result of launching the career of the prosecutor, Andrey Vyshinsky, who called the two defendants "human waste" and who would soon achieve great notoriety in the Moscow Trials.


title: Wrangel Island

text: In 1948, a small herd of domestic reindeer was introduced with the intention of establishing commercial herding to generate income for island residents.


title: Wrangel Island

text: Aside from the main settlement of Ushakovskoye near Rogers Bay, on the south-central coast, in the 1960s a new settlement named Zvyozdny was established some to the west in the Somnitelnaya Bay area, where ground runways reserved for military aviation were constructed (these were abandoned in the 1970s). Moreover, a military radar installation was built on the southeast coast at Cape Hawaii. Rock crystal mining had been carried out for a number of years in the center of the island near Khrustalnyi Creek. At the time, a small settlement, Perkatkun, had been established nearby to house the miners, but later on it was completely destroyed.


title: Wrangel Island

text: Resolution #189 of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was adopted on 23 March 1976, for the establishment of the state Nature Reserve "Wrangel Island" for the purpose of conserving the unique natural systems of Wrangel and Herald Islands and the surrounding waters out to . On 15 December 1997, the Russian Government's Decree No. 1623-r expanded the marine reserve out to . On 25 May 1999, the (regional) Governor of Chukotka issued Decree No. 91, which again expanded the protected water area to around Wrangel and Herald Islands.


title: Wrangel Island

text: By the 1980s, the reindeer-herding farm on Wrangel had been abolished and the settlement of Zvezdnyi was virtually abandoned. Hunting had already been stopped, except for a small quota of marine mammals for the needs of the local population. In 1992, the military radar installation at Cape Hawaii (on the southeast coast) was closed, and only the settlement of Ushakovskoe remained occupied.


title: Wrangel Island

text: According to some American activists and government officials, at least eight Arctic islands currently controlled by Russia, including Wrangel Island, are claimed or should be claimed by the United States. However, according to the United States Department of State no such claim exists. The USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement, which has yet to be approved by the Russian Duma, does not specifically address the status of these islands nor the maritime boundaries associated with them.


title: Wrangel Island

text: On 1 June 1990, US Secretary of State James Baker signed an executive agreement with Eduard Shevardnadze, the Soviet foreign minister. It specified that even though the treaty had not been ratified, the U.S. and the USSR agreed to abide by the terms of the treaty beginning 15 June 1990. The Senate ratified the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement in 1991, which was then signed by President George H. W. Bush.


title: Wrangel Island

text: In 2004, Wrangel Island and neighboring Herald Island, along with their surrounding waters, were added to UNESCO's World Heritage List.


title: Wrangel Island

text: In 2014, the Russian Navy announced plans to establish a base on the island. The bases on Wrangel Island and on Cape Schmidt on Russia's Arctic coast reportedly consist of two sets of 34 prefabricated modules.


title: Wrangel Island

text: In Jules Verne's novel "César Cascabel", the protagonists float past Wrangel Island on an iceberg. In Verne's description, a live volcano is located on the island: "Between the two capes on its southern coast, Cape Hawan and Cape Thomas, it is surmounted by a live volcano, which is marked on the recent maps." In Chukchi author Yuri Rytkheu's historical novel "A Dream in Polar Fog", set in the early 20th century, the Chukchi knew of Wrangel Island and referred to it as the "Invisible Land" or "Invisible Island".


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The International Harvester Scout is an off-road vehicle produced by International Harvester from 1961 to 1980. A precursor of more sophisticated SUVs to come, it was created as a competitor to the Jeep, and it initially featured a fold-down windshield. The Scout and second-generation Scout II were produced in Fort Wayne, Indiana, as two-door trucks with a removable hard top with options of a full-length roof, half-cab pickup, and/or soft top.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: International Harvester began building trucks and pickups in 1907. In 1953, International added a truck-based people carrier, the Travelall. During the late 1950s, International began to design a competitor for the two-door Jeep CJ 4x4. The 1961 model year Scout 80 made its debut in late 1960.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: ...the market potential for a four-wheel drive recreational vehicle was an unknown quantity in the early 1950s. The only such vehicle offered in the post-war period was the Willys Jeep, a version of the military jeep produced for World War II. It was a flat-sided bare-bones product, and American military personnel learned to appreciate its ability to maneuver over rough terrain. Sales volume was very low. In early 1958, we were directed to develop a concept proposal to enter this small market of that time. So help me, Mr. Reese, manager of engineering, said 'design something to replace the horse.' There was no product definition to use as a guide. It was even proposed to use the defunct Henry J body tooling. Compound body surfaces were considered too far out for this type of vehicle. The military jeep was thought to have the correct appearance. Our design sketches with the flat-side, no-contour look never excited the executive committee. The program began to die. One night while sitting at our kitchen table (full of frustration and desperation), I dashed off this rough sketch on a piece of scrap mat board. It had contoured sides and was designed for plastic tooling. The next morning it was shown to a committee member. He reviewed it with controlled enthusiasm, but revived interest in the program. We were off and running. Goodyear produced many plastic parts for WWII and had formed a large plastic engineering group. We entered a program with them, a scale model was vacuum formed to simulate body assembly. This model received executive approval for appearance. By July 1959, Goodyear completed their costing, and because of the high costs, the plastic program was cancelled. By this time, the contoured design met with executive approval and a decision was made to convert the body design to steel. Starting in late July 1959, a full-sized clay model was completed, and in November 1959, it was approved. Looking back, it was a remarkable program with fast-paced engineering and manufacturing developments. The total development time of 24 months was an heroic achievement considering the concept was unique and no in-house engine or manufacturing was available or even considered when the program started.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: "The first Scout was introduced in 1960. A concept for its replacement was initiated in 1964 and approved for production in mid-1965. The Scout II was introduced in 1971. The basic sheet metal remained unchanged until production stopped on October 21, 1980. During the 20-year period (1960–1980), 532,674 Scouts were produced. The Scout, introduced as a commercial utility pickup in 1960, set the stage for future four-wheel drive recreational vehicles of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Print slogans and marketing jingles during the 1970s signaled its appeal in the words, "International Scout: Anything less is just a car."


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Scout 80s were built between 1960 and 1965. These models were identifiable by removable sliding side windows in 1960–1961 and even some very early 1962 models, a fold-down windshield, vacuum windshield wipers mounted to the top of the windshield, and an IH logo in the center of the grille and tailgate. The Scout 80 had the gasoline-powered 152 four-cylinder as its standard engine.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The first special package was the "Red Carpet" series, celebrating the 100,000th Scout manufactured by International, and only 3,000 were produced. This model had a red interior with a white exterior, full-length headliner, full floor mats, and a special medallion that was silver plated affixed to the door which read "Custom". This Scout was a step up from regular ones; it was marketed to attract more people, and was often advertised with women in mind. Each International dealer in the United States received one Red Carpet series Scout to be used in parades, in the showroom, and for promotional purposes.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: During the early 1960s, International experimented with a camper body permanently mounted to the Scout 80. The roof was raised to nearly double the original height (to allow standing upright inside), tented sleeping bunks folded out of the sides, and the rear of the body was extended significantly. The tailgate/liftgate system was replaced with one large ambulance-style swinging door. Plans included that the unit could be purchased as a stripped-down shell ($960 installed), or as a "deluxe" unit, which included a dinette set, stand-up galley, and a screened chemical toilet that retracted into the wall ($1850 installed). The May 1963 issue of "Mechanix Illustrated" contains a full-color advertisement for the Scout Camper on the inside cover, which features two artist's renderings of the unit and a form to fill out and send in for free literature. The camper showed up again in the May 1963 issue of "Popular Science," this time in an actual photo as part of a two-page article about pickup campers. Production of these units was low due to limited orders, and they are now rare.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: It is known that Scout 80s were built in 1965 and the new 800 was developed during 1966. However, some scouts built later in the year 1965 are considered a Scout 800 as indicated by the VIN tag and Line Setting Ticket (LST). An assumed 3000 of these 1965 1/2 Scouts exist which make them interesting to study how manufacturers will use what's left in the parts bin from the previous model to build the new model. Some notable parts used in the piecing together these new 800 models were the hood that retained the tie down loop that would hold down the folding windshield. The reason this is significant is because the new 800 windshield doesn't fold down. Also, the front grill was that of 80 but now used on the new 800. it featured a gold plated IH emblem on a black backing piece secured to a durable and stylish wire mesh grill. Axles is a major detail as well; the new 800 featured a stronger Dana 44. However, these early 800 models still got the weaker Dana 27 that was more prone to axle shafts breaking during heavy use off-road. Although the Dana 27 was still available if desired vs the Dana 44. The Dana 27 in Scouts was obsolete by 1968. By this time, these new 800 models were 4 wheel drive and standard equipment at that.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Scout 800 replaced the Scout 80 during 1965. The new 800 model was built from 1965 to 1968. These models had many improvements of comfort and design, including bucket seats, better instrumentation and heating systems, updated dashboard, optional rear seats, and optional 196 four-cylinder (from 1966), or 232 inline-six. Beginning in March 1967, a 266 ci V8 engine was also offered. Externally, changes were limited to an anodized aluminum grille with a rectangular "International" logo placed on the grille, the IH badge was moved to the hood, the door handles became the button type, and the tailgate no longer included the "hooks". The base engine was a naturally aspirated "Comanche" 152 four-cylinder with , of which a turbocharged version with (the 152-T) was also offered. In August 1966, the turbo version was complemented by the bigger 196 which used less fuel with exactly the same power. The 196 motor achieved 20 mpg. The turbo version was discontinued during early 1968. The fold-down windshield was still available, code 16536, but few were ordered because this was not advertised. The vacuum-powered wipers were moved to the bottom of the windshield frame with the fixed windshield.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Beginning in early 1966, International also offered the Scout 800 Sportop, which had an upgraded interior and a unique fiberglass top (also available as a convertible) with a slanted rear roof and a continental spare tire kit. The "Champagne Series" Scout was an upscale model offered in the Scout 80 and later Scout 800 models that featured a headliner, door panels, and carpet.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The 800A replaced the 800 during November 1968. Improvements included more creature-comfort options, a slightly different front-end treatment, drivetrain upgrades (heavier rear axle and quieter Dana 20 transfer case), and the options of a 196 four-cylinder, 232 six-cylinder, 266 V8, or 304 V8. The inline-six was only offered for a short period in early 1969. The 800A's grille was in three segments: the center grill and two matte-black headlight bezels. The Light Line of pickup trucks received bodywork similar to that of the Scout in late 1969.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The 800A could still be ordered with the Sportop (a slanted sporty top made of canvas or fiberglass), and later in Aristocrat and SR-2 packages. The Aristocrat was the final version of the original-bodied Scout. These trucks had a blue, vinyl interior, were painted blue and silver, and had a chrome roof rack; four-wheel drive was standard for most models.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The last of the 800 series was the 800B, available for less than eight months, from August 1970 until March 1971, before it was replaced with the Scout II. Other than minor cosmetic details (primarily chrome headlight bezels instead of matte black), it was identical to the 800A. It was only produced until the Scout II was in production.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The 800B was available with the Comanche package. This package included special paint and decals, chrome trim, sliding travel-top windows, and other "high dollar" options such as roof racks, chrome wheels, and upgraded interiors. Line tickets of the special-package Scouts (and some nonpackage units) were stamped. After the factory assembles the vehicle and the vehicle is shipped and sold, the line ticket identifies such things as the engine type, transmission type, drive line, paint codes, gear ratio, and standard and optional equipment, specific to that vehicle. This provides very valuable information when ordering parts later at a dealership. A variety of parts was used for these vehicles, so the expression "no two are quite the same" is not that fanciful. Late in 1970, the Sno-Star package appeared (only with the six-cylinder engine), developed especially for snow-plow usage.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Scout IIs were manufactured from April 1971 to 1980. The design was finalized much earlier, with a version nearly identical to the production model shown to management during December 1967.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Scout II is most identifiable by its different front grilles. The 1971–1972 Scout IIs shared the same grille, three horizontal bars between the headlights and chrome rings around the headlights. The 1973 Scout IIs had 14 vertical bars between the headlights, a split in the middle, seven bars on each side surrounded by chrome trim pieces and an "International" model plate low on the left side. The 1974–75 Scout II grilles were the same as 1973, with the addition of a vertical bar trim overlay. The 1975 had chrome and black, square trim rings around the headlights; 1976 had the same headlight trim rings as 1975, and a chrome center grille of 15 horizontal bars split into three sections was used in this year only. The 1977–79 Scout IIs used the same grille between the same headlight bezels the new chrome grille had two large horizontal bars with three vertical support lines and the "International" nameplate moved up to the center of the grille on the left side.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Scout II's could be ordered with the Traveltop, which was the full metal top, Roadster which was a half-cab variant seldom seen, or with a soft top.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: In 1980, the final year of production for the Scout, the grille was a very distinctive design, available with black or silver, a one-piece grille with square headlights, made of Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic. Both grille color options had imprinted chrome trim around the headlights and an "International" name mark located on the left side.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Starting with late 1974 Scout IIs, disc and power brakes were standard features. Early 1974 models had disc brakes as a rarely selected option. Very few 1971–1979 Scout II's were ordered in RWD-only configuration, most were 4WD.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Before International discontinued the Scout in 1980, International experimented with Scout-based minivans, station wagons, dune buggies, Hurst-built special editions (in similar fashion to the Oldsmobile Hurst/Olds and Hurst SC/Rambler), and even a small motorhome. These plans were scrapped due to the International Harvester strike of 1979-80, and a lack of funds for the company to expand the Scout product line, let alone continuing production of the Scout itself.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Terra and Traveler were produced from 1976 to 1980. Terras and Travelers had fiberglass tops; half-cab for the Terra or full top with hatchback-type liftgate on the Traveler. Most notably different, these models were extended by in the region between the door and the front of the rear wheel well.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The SSII (Super Scout II) was a stripped-down, off-road version introduced in February 1977. It was intended to compete directly with the Jeep CJ, and was built until 1979. This model included a soft top with soft doors, windshield-mounted mirrors, plastic door inserts, special plastic grille, and a roll bar, among other options. Several SSIIs were champions on the off-road racing circuit during the late 1970s.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Shawnee Scout was to be a trim type and special-feature package model produced by Hurst Performance. This model was built by dressing up a black SSII with special tomahawk and feather decals, special seats, a black targa-style top, hard tonneau bed cover, and of course a Hurst shifter. Only three Shawnee Scouts were produced.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: CVI: Custom Vehicles Incorporated (also associated with Good Times, Inc.) was a company located around the corner from the Ft. Wayne Scout Assembly Plant (Good Times was located in Arlington, Texas) that produced special models for IH dealers in 1979 and 1980. The special models were dressed-up Scouts with unique exterior decals and trim, center console coolers, and hood scoops. Some versions had plastic window louvers on the rear side glass, fender flares, and two different plastic tailgate inserts. Model names included the Midnitestar, Terrastar, Travelstar, Shadow, Raven, two Classic models, GMS (Green Machine Sport), GMS (Gold Medallion Scout), Hot Stuff, Trailstar, Sportstar, 5.6-Liter, and 3.2-Liter models.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: This was a special package available from the factory. The 1978–79 package order code on the line ticket was 10992. The package included special gold accent stripes, gold-spoke wheels with Goodyear Tracker A-Ts, SSII black grille insert, and Sport Steering wheel. Other options available: Choice of powertrain, seats, interior, radios, cruise control, tow packages, air conditioning, all available in exterior colors 1032 Dark Brown, 6027 Dark Blue, 001 Black, or 5013 Green. This was available on the Travel Top, Traveler, and Terra models.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: For the US Bicentennial in 1976, IH produced the Spirit of 76 and the Patriot models. The Spirit of 76 had a special blue soft top and blue/red side applique, and was only available on the Scout II. The Spirit also had blue interior, racing-type steering wheel, and 15x7-inch chrome rally wheels. IH data only show 384 Spirit models ever being built. Line ticket codes included:


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Patriot had a hard top and the same blue/red side applique, but was available in a Scout II, Terra, or Traveler. Sales figures on the Patriot only show one Terra, seven Travelers, and 50+ Scout IIs were manufactured. However, another undetermined number of Patriots were built without line ticket code designations (the applique was applied at the Truck Sales Processing Center), making how many were actually built difficult to determine. Nevertheless, both models can be considered extremely rare.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: From 1977 to 1980, IH contracted with Midas Van Conversion Co. of Elkhart, Indiana, to build special luxury models to be offered through its dealers. These vehicles had swivel bucket seats, shag carpet, color-keyed interiors, door panels, headliner, grille guards, dual sunroofs, overhead clocks, third seats, reading lights, tinted windows, fender flares, and special side appliques and paint designs. Models included the Family Cruiser (or just Cruiser), the Street Machine, and Off-Road Vehicle. Another company named Van American (Goshen, Indiana) offered similar versions to compete with Midas; however, these vehicles were only offered for a brief time, making them very rare now.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Probably one the rarest models ever produced by IH was the 1980 RS: the Special Limited Edition RS Scout. This version was only available on the Traveler in Tahitian Red (metallic). It had special extras inside and out, including polycast wheels with Tahitian Red (metallic) accent, luxurious plush all-velour russet interior including headliner and visors, special pin striping, wood-grain trim instrument panel and shift console, chrome bumpers, tinted glass, and more. Two other special versions offered in 1980 were the 844 and 434 Gold Star models. The 844 offered standard equipment plus a 345 V-8, HD clutch, T428 four-speed manual transmission, 2.72 rear axle ratio, AM radio, rear seat, hub caps, special black side applique and paint on lower body, and black carpet, while the 434 offered standard equipment plus 4–196 engine, T332 three-speed transmission, 3:73 rear axle ratio, black vinyl interior, AM radio, rear seat, hub caps, special black side applique and paint on lower body, and black carpet.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Monteverdi Safari was made by Monteverdi, the Swiss brand of luxury cars, who used Scout IIs to produce well-equipped luxurious off-road station wagons. Two models were made during the late 1970s, the Safari, which had most of the bodywork changed, and the Sahara, which featured more limited changes, i.e. new grille and a more luxurious interior. Both were available with IH's SV-345 engine or Chrysler's LA 318 (5.7 or 5.2 L). The Safari was also offered with Chrysler's 7.2 L "440 RB" engine, while the lower-priced Sahara retained the Scout's original bodywork and could be had with the Nissan SD33 diesel engine.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: International offered the Scout with a variety of engines over its years of production. The Scout 80 (1961–1965) had the gasoline-powered 152 four-cylinder as its standard engine. From 1965 to 1971 (Models 800, 800A, and 800B), engine options were the gasoline-powered 196 four-cylinder, AMC 232 six-cylinder, 266 V-8, and the 304 V-8. A turbocharged version of the 152 four-cylinder engine was offered from 1965 to 1967.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: The Scout II (made between 1971 and 1980) had the following engine options: the 196 4-cylinder, 232 6-cylinder (early production), 258 6-cylinder (later production), 304 V-8, and 345 V-8. International never installed a 392 V-8 or an AMC V-8 into a Scout. At the time, International did not manufacture a diesel engine small enough to be used in the Scout, and so starting in 1976 used the Nissan SD33 diesel engine as an option. This engine was replaced by the SD33T turbo diesel engine in 1980. A very small amount of Scouts left the factory in 1979 with the Nissan SD33T turbo diesel engine.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Dana 27 axles were used for the front and rear wheels in the 80 and 800 models until around 1968. Both front and rear differentials were offset to the passenger side for the purpose of lining up the driveshafts with the Dana 18 transfer case. With the transition to the 800A model, the rear axle was upgraded to a Dana 44, with a centered differential mated to the Dana 20 transfer case (which had replaced the Dana 18). Some Scouts from this transitional time are a mix of old and new designs, with the rear driveshaft running at an angle. The front axle was still a Dana 27 model, though if the buyer ordered the 3500-lb axle option, the front axle was upgraded to a hybrid unit built from a Dana 30 center section and 27 tubes. The V8 engine option included an automatic upgrade to the heavier-duty Dana 30 axle. The rear axle shafts changed from two pieces to one piece around 1968 or 1969. A Power-Lock limited-slip differential was provided as an option for both front and rear axles. Common gear ratios are 3.31, 3.73, or 4.27, though nearly any ratio was available by special order (in at least one instance, a Scout 800 was shipped with a 5.71).


title: International Harvester Scout

text: In Scout IIs, Dana 30 front axles and Dana 44 rear axles were standard until 1974, with front Dana 44 axles as a special order. After 1974, Dana 44 front and rear axles became standard on all Scout IIs. Available gear ratios were 2.72, 3.07, 3.31, 3.54, 3.73, 4.09, 4.27, and 4.54. Track-Lock limited-slip differentials were optional.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Axles originally had a tag bolted to their differential cover stamped with their gear ratio, but this tag often rusted off over time or was removed intentionally. The line ticket can be checked to identify the axle model, gear ratio, and whether it is equipped with a traction device, using an International parts code book.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Scout SSIIs were awarded honors for off-road racing during the late 1970s. In 1977, Jerry Boone, of Parker, Arizona, finished first among 4x4 production vehicles in the Baja 1000. Boone completed the run in 19 hours 58 minutes, crossing the finish line at Ensenada almost 2 hours ahead of his closest competitor: a Jeep CJ7. Only 9 of 21 vehicles that started the race finished the course. Boone ran even faster than Class IV modified 4x4 racers. Mr. Boone later revealed that they only had a month to prepare a stock SSII for the race and they were not sponsored by IH until after the race. Boone also won in 1978 at Riverside, California.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Sherman Balch, among many other accomplishments in off-road racing, won the off-road "world championship" in 1977 (the SCORE event in Riverside, California). Three other finishers along with Balch also drove Scouts. Balch also won the Baja 1000, the Mint 400, and three events in the fall of 1978 at Lake Geneva Raceway.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Sherman Balch and co-driver James Acker, driving a Scout SSII, later won virtually all major off-road races in 1982 offered on the West Coast/Mexico circuit by winning the Baja 250, the Baja 500, the Baja 1000, the Mint 400, and the Parker (Arizona) 400.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: When an IH vehicle was ordered, a factory plan or construction sheet was created (when the order was sent to the factory) with the new vehicle's VIN or ID number, and all the codes for standard equipment and options that the salesman used to create this vehicle for his customer or inventory. This sheet was used to assemble the vehicle from beginning to finish. After the factory assembled the vehicle and the vehicle was shipped and sold, the line [setting] ticket identified such things as the engine type, transmission type, drive line, paint codes, gear ratio, and standard and optional equipment specific to that vehicle. Different parts were used on the same model in the same year. A very small copy of the line ticket was attached to each vehicle during the building process at the factory. The location of the ticket varied: 1971–1976 Scout IIs had their copies mounted under their hoods, attached to the cowl cover panels. The 1977–1980 Scout IIs had their copies on the inside of the glove box doors, and 1969–1975 pickups and Travelalls had them attached to the back of the glove boxes; depressing the keeper tabs on each side of the box lets the box swing down to reveal the ticket. If lost, line tickets can be ordered through several Scout parts specialists, due to their diligence in maintaining these valuable resources.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: IH developed a concept prototype for the next version of the Scout in 1979 named the Scout III SSV, but due to the company's decision to discontinue the Scout product line, it was never put into production. The second prototype of the concept vehicle is displayed at the Auburn Cord Duesenberg Automobile Museum in Auburn, Indiana. It was a two-door with a sloped back window, built on a 100-in chassis with 162-hp V8.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: Many people call this THE 1981 Scout. The SSV meant Scout Supplemental Vehicle, meant to be a limited production supplement to the regular model to help promote it, much as the Corvette supplements the Chevrolet line. While the SSV may have appeared in 1981 if it had reached production, designs existed for a new model in 1981 to replace the Scout II. Clay models of this showed an evolution of the Scout II into a more rounded body somewhat resembling the Chevrolet S-10 Blazer. The demise of the Scout line ended the SSV; the company continues to this day, having changed its name to Navistar in 1985 after selling the farm machinery business along with the International Harvester name.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: In 2010, Case IH started production of a UTV side by side utility ATV named the Scout and Scout XL, also sold as New Holland Rustler. These UTVs were built by Club Car.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: In September 2021, a report by "Motor Trend" revealed that Volkswagen Group may look to revive the Scout nameplate as a potential competitor to the Jeep Wrangler, Toyota 4Runner, and the revived Ford Bronco. VW Group had acquired the Scout trademarks earlier in the year when its commercial truck business Traton acquired Navistar. As VW Group is unlikely to acquire the International Harvester trademarks from Case IH even for a licensing deal, a revived Scout would either be sold under the Volkswagen nameplate as a sub-brand similar to the aforementioned Bronco or as a standalone off-road themed brand similar to Jeep; both options would use VW's existing dealership network in the United States.


title: International Harvester Scout

text: These rumors were confirmed when in May 2022, Volkswagen announced their intention to produce electric pickups and SUVs built in the United States under the Scout brand name. The first prototype is expected in 2023 with production models by 2026.


title: Official language

text: An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, legislature, and/or administration).


title: Official language

text: 178 countries recognize an official language, 101 of them recognizing more than one. The government of Italy made Italian official only in 1999, and some nations (such as the United States, Mexico and Australia) have never declared de jure official languages at the national level. Other nations have declared non-indigenous official languages.


title: Official language

text: Many of the world's constitutions mention one or more official or national languages. Some countries use the official language designation to empower indigenous groups by giving them access to the government in their native languages. In countries that do not formally designate an official language, a "de facto" national language usually evolves. English is the most common official language, with recognized status in 51 countries. Arabic, French, and Spanish are also widely recognized.


title: Official language

text: An official language that is also an indigenous language is called "endoglossic", one that is not indigenous is "exoglossic". An instance is Nigeria which has three endoglossic official languages. By this, the country aims to protect the indigenous languages although at the same time recognising the English language as its lingua franca. In spatial terms, indigenous (endoglossic) languages are mostly employed in the function of official (state) languages in Eurasia, while mainly non-indigenous (exoglossic) imperial (European) languages fulfill this function in most of the "Rest of the World" (that is, in Africa, the Americas, Australia and Oceania). Ethiopia, Somalia, South Africa, North African countries, Greenland, Tanzania, Samoa and Paraguay are among the exceptions to this tendency.


title: Official language

text: Around 500 BC, when Darius the Great annexed Mesopotamia to the Persian Empire, he chose a form of the Aramaic language (the so-called Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic) as the vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. Aramaic script was widely employed from Egypt in the southwest to Bactria and Sogdiana in the northeast. Texts were dictated in the native dialects and written down in Aramaic, and then read out again in the native language at the places they were received.


title: Official language

text: The First Emperor of Qin standardized the written language of China after unifying the country in 221 BC. Classical Chinese would remain the standard written language for the next 2000 years. Standardization of the spoken language received less political attention, and Mandarin developed on an "ad hoc" basis from the dialects of the various imperial capitals until being officially standardized in the early twentieth century.


title: Official language

text: According to a dateless or anonymous chart by the American pro-English-only organization known as U.S. English, 178 countries have an official language at the national level. Among those, English is the most common with 67 nations giving it official status. French is second with 29 countries, Arabic is third with 26 countries and Spanish is fourth with 21 countries, Portuguese is the official language in 10 countries and German is official in 6.


title: Official language

text: Some countries—like Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States—have no official language recognized as such at a national level. On the other extreme, Bolivia officially recognizes 37 languages, the most of any country in the world. Second to Bolivia is India with 22 official languages. South Africa is the country with the third lead with 11 official languages that all have equal status; Bolivia gives primacy to Spanish, and India gives primacy to English and Hindi.


title: Official language

text: The selection of an official language (or the lack thereof) is often contentious. An alternative to having a single official language is "official multilingualism", where a government recognizes multiple official languages. Under this system, all government services are available in all official languages. Each citizen may choose their preferred language when conducting business. Most countries are multilingual and many are officially multilingual. Taiwan, Canada, the Philippines, Belgium, Switzerland, and the European Union are examples of official multilingualism. This has been described as controversial and, in some other areas where it has been proposed, the idea has been rejected. It has also been described as necessary for the recognition of different groups or as an advantage for the country in presenting itself to outsiders.


title: Official language

text: Following "Chapter 1, Article 16" of the Constitution of Afghanistan, the Afghan government gives equal status to Pashto and Dari as official languages.


title: Official language

text: English is the "de facto" national language of Australia, while Australia has no official language, English is the first language of the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the "de facto" national language since European settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of Australians.


title: Official language

text: After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the then Head of the State Sheikh Mujibur Rahman adopted the policy of 'one state one language'. The "de facto" national language, Bengali, is the sole official language of Bangladesh according to the third article of the Constitution of Bangladesh. The government of Bangladesh introduced the Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 to ensure the mandatory use of Bengali in all government affairs.


title: Official language

text: Following the "Constitution Act, 1982" the (federal) Government of Canada gives equal status to English and French as official languages. The Province of New Brunswick is also officially bilingual, as is Yukon. Nunavut has four official languages: English, French, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun. The Northwest Territories has eleven official languages: Chipewyan/Dené, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłı̨chǫ (Dogrib). All provinces, however, offer some necessary services in both English and French.


title: Official language

text: The Province of Quebec with the Official Language Act (Quebec) and Charter of the French Language defines French, the language of the majority of the population, as the official language of the provincial government.


title: Official language

text: Ethiopia has five official languages (Amharic alone until 2020) Amharic, Oromo, Somali, Tigrinya, and Afar, but Amharic is the de-facto sole official language which is used by the government for issuing driving licenses, business licenses, passport, and foreign diplomacy with the addition that Court documents are in Amharic, and the constitution is written in Amharic.


title: Official language

text: According to the Finnish constitution, Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of the republic. Citizens have the right to communicate in either language with government agencies.


title: Official language

text: German is the official language of Germany. However, its minority languages include Sorbian (Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian), Romani, Danish and North Frisian, which are officially recognised. Migrant languages like Turkish, Russian and Spanish are widespread but are not officially recognised languages.


title: Official language

text: According to the Basic Law of Hong Kong and the Official Languages Ordinance, both Chinese and English are the official languages of Hong Kong with equal status. The variety of Chinese is not stipulated; however, Cantonese, being the language most commonly used by the majority of Hongkongers, forms the "de facto" standard. Similarly, Traditional Chinese characters are most commonly used in Hong Kong and form the "de facto" standard for written Chinese, however, there is an increasing presence of Simplified Chinese characters particularly in areas related to tourism. In government use, documents written using Traditional Chinese characters are authoritative over ones written with Simplified Chinese characters.


title: Official language

text: The Constitution of India (part 17) designates the official language of the Government of India as English as well as Standard Hindi written in the Devanagari script.


title: Official language

text: The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists has 22 languages, which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical language to Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Odia.


title: Official language

text: On 19 July 2018, the Knesset passed a basic law under the title , which defines Hebrew as "the State's language" and Arabic as a language with "a special status in the State" (article 4). The law further says that it should not be interpreted as compromising the status of the Arabic language in practice before the enactment of the basic law, namely, it preserves the status quo and changes the status of Hebrew and Arabic only nominally.


title: Official language

text: Before the enactment of the aforementioned basic law, the status of official language in Israel was determined by the 82nd paragraph of the "Palestine Order in Council" issued on 14 August 1922, for the British Mandate of Palestine, as amended in 1939:


title: Official language

text: All Ordinances, official notices and official forms of the Government and all official notices of local authorities and municipalities in areas to be prescribed by order of the High Commissioner, shall be published in English, Arabic, and Hebrew."


title: Official language

text: This law, like most other laws of the British Mandate, was adopted in the State of Israel, subject to certain amendments published by the provisional legislative branch on 19 May 1948. The amendment states that:


title: Official language

text: In most public schools, the main teaching language is Hebrew, English is taught as a second language, and most students learn a third language, usually Arabic but not necessarily. Other public schools have Arabic as their main teaching language, and they teach Hebrew as a second language and English as a third one. There are also bilingual schools which aim to teach both Hebrew and Arabic equally.


title: Official language

text: Some languages other than Hebrew and Arabic, such as English, Russian, Amharic, Yiddish and Ladino enjoy a somewhat special status but are not official languages. For instance, at least 5% of the broadcasting time of privately-owned TV channels must be translated into Russian (a similar privilege is granted to Arabic), warnings must be translated to several languages, and signs are mostly trilingual (Hebrew, Arabic and English), and the government supports Yiddish and Ladino culture (alongside Hebrew culture and Arabic culture).


title: Official language

text: The Official Language Law recognizes Latvian as the sole official language of Latvia, while Latgalian is protected as "a historic variant of Latvian" and Livonian is recognized as "the language of the indigenous (autochthon) population". Latvia also provides national minority education programmes in Russian, Polish, Hebrew, Ukrainian, Estonian, Lithuanian, and Belarusian. In 2012 there was a constitutional referendum on elevating Russian as a co-official language, but the proposal was rejected by nearly three-quarters of the voters.


title: Official language

text: The official language of Malaysia is the Malay language ("Bahasa Melayu"), also known as Bahasa Malaysia or just Bahasa for short. Bahasa Melayu is being protected under Article 152 of the Constitution of Malaysia.


title: Official language

text: Dutch is the official language of the Netherlands (a constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands). In the province of Friesland, Frisian is the official second language. While Dutch is therefore the official language of the Caribbean Netherlands (the islands Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius), it is not any of the three islands’ main spoken language: Papiamento is the most often spoken language on Bonaire, while English is on both Saba and Sint Eustatius. These languages can be used in official documents (but do not have the same status as Frisian). Low Saxon and Limburgish, languages acknowledged by the European Charter, are spoken in specific regions of the Netherlands.


title: Official language

text: New Zealand has three official languages. English is the "de facto" official language, accepted as such in all situations. The Māori language and New Zealand Sign Language both have restricted "de jure" official status under the "Māori Language Act 1987" and "New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006".


title: Official language

text: The official language of Nigeria is English, which was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country. British colonial rule ended in 1960.


title: Official language

text: Russian is the official language of the Russian Federation and in all federal subjects, however many minority languages have official status in the areas where they are indigenous. One type of federal subject in Russia,


title: Official language

text: republics, are allowed to adopt additional official languages alongside Russian in their constitutions. Republics are often based around particular native ethnic groups and are often areas where ethnic Russians and native Russian-language speakers are a minority.


title: Official language

text: South Africa has eleven official languages that are mostly indigenous. Due to limited funding, however, the government rarely produces documents in most languages. Accusations of mismanagement and corruption have been leveled against the Pan South African Language Board, established to promote multilingualism, develop the 11 official languages, and protect language rights in the country.


title: Official language

text: The four national languages of Switzerland are German, French, Italian and Romansh. At the federal level German, French and Italian are official languages, the official languages of individual cantons depend on the languages spoken in them.


title: Official language

text: Mandarin is the most common language used in government. After World War II the mainland Chinese-run government made Mandarin the official language, and it was used in the schools and government. Under the "National languages development act", political participation can be conducted in any national language, which is defined as a "natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan", which also includes Formosan languages, Hakka and Taiwanese Hokkien. According to Taiwan's Legislative Yuan, amendments were made to the Hakka Basic Act to make Hakka an official language of Taiwan.


title: Official language

text: According to the constitution of Timor-Leste, Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages of the country, and every official document must be published in both languages, Indonesian and English hold "working language" status in the country.


title: Official language

text: The official language of Ukraine is Ukrainian. The status of Russian as a regional language has caused significant political controversy.


title: Official language

text: The de facto official language of the United Kingdom is English. In Wales, the Welsh language, spoken by approximately 20% of the population, has "de jure" official status, alongside English.


title: Official language

text: English is the de facto national language of the United States. While there is no official language at the federal level, 32 of the 50 U.S. states and all five inhabited U.S. territories have designated English as one, or the only, official language, while courts have found that residents in the 50 states do not have a right to government services in their preferred language. Public debate in the last few decades has focused on whether Spanish should be recognized by the government, or whether all business should be done in English.


title: Official language

text: California allows people to take their driving test in the following 32 languages: Amharic, Arabic, Armenian, Chinese, Croatian, English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Hmong, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Laotian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Romanian, Russian, Samoan, Spanish, Tagalog/Filipino, Thai, Tongan, Turkish, and Vietnamese.


title: Official language

text: New York state provides voter-registration forms in the following five languages: Bengali, Chinese, English, Korean and Spanish. The same languages are also on ballot papers in certain parts of the state (namely, New York City).


title: Official language

text: The pro-English-only website U.S. English sees a multilingual government as one in which its "services actually encourage the growth of linguistic enclaves...[and] contributes to racial and ethnic conflicts". Opponents of an official language policy in the United States argue that it would hamper "the government's ability to reach out, communicate, and warn people in the event of a natural or man-made disaster such as a hurricane, pandemic, or...another terrorist attack". Professor of politics Alan Patten argues that disengagement (officially ignoring the issue) works well in religious issues but that it is not possible with language issues because it must offer public services in some language. Even if it makes a conscious effort not to establish an official language, a "de facto" official language, or the "national language", will nevertheless emerge. Indeed, two-thirds of Americans believe that English is the United States' official language.


title: Official language

text: Sometimes an official language definition can be motivated more by national identity than by linguistic concerns. Before the 1991 breakup, SFR Yugoslavia had four official languages—Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Albanian and Macedonian. Serbo-Croatian was used as a "lingua franca" for mutual understanding and was also the language of the military.


title: Official language

text: When Croatia declared independence (1991) it defined its official language as Croatian, and Serbia likewise defined its official language as Serbian. Bosnia-Herzegovina defined three official languages: Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. From the linguistic point of view, the different names refer to national varieties of the same language, which is known under the appellation of Serbo-Croatian. It is said by some that the Bosnian government chose to define three languages to reinforce ethnic differences and keep the country divided. The language used in Montenegro, traditionally considered a dialect of Serbian, became standardized as the Montenegrin language upon Montenegro's declaration (2006) of independence.


title: Steelo Brim

text: Sterling "Steelo" Brim (born June 5, 1988) is an American television personality, comedian, and actor. He is a co-host and producer of MTV's "Ridiculousness.


title: Steelo Brim

text: Brim was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. His mother, Tracy Brim, is a pastor, and his father, Frank Brim, is a Chicago Fire Department Battalion Chief. His father started a baseball team on the west side of Chicago through Garfield Park. Brim also has two brothers and a sister.


title: Steelo Brim

text: In 2001, Brim had a small role in the film "Hardball". At the age of 19, Brim moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the music industry. He worked in radio and A&R before he met Rob Dyrdek. Dyrdek invited him to be co-host of his new MTV show "Ridiculousness", along with Chanel West Coast. Brim holds the position of the creative producer of the show. Brim has also appeared in "Rob Dyrdek's Fantasy Factory" and "Wild Grinders".


title: Steelo Brim

text: Brim is the co-host of the podcast "Wine and Weed", with Chris Reinacher. More recently, he had a first look deal at MTV Entertainment Studios.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: Katherine Kelly Lang (born Katherine Kelly Wegeman; July 25, 1961) is an American actress. She is best known for playing Brooke Logan in the CBS soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful" of the CBS Daytime programming block.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: Lang was born in Hollywood, California, and graduated from Beverly Hills High School. She is the daughter of Olympic ski jumper Keith R. Wegeman and actress Judith Lang and the granddaughter of Oscar-winning cinematographer Charles Lang.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: Lang has been divorced twice. She is the mother of three children from her two marriages: her two sons Jeremy Skott Snider (born 1990), Julian Lang Snider (born 1992) from her ex-husband Skott Snider, and her daughter Zoe Katrina D'Andrea (born 1997) from her ex-husband Alex D'Andrea, and has a stepdaughter, Danyelle D'Andrea (born 1991).


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: On November 11, 2012, it was announced that Lang had filed for divorce, after 15 years of marriage citing "irreconcilable differences". The divorce was finalized in June 2014.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: In May 2018, she became a grandmother with the birth of her granddaughter, Zuma, via her daughter Zoe.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: Lang made her acting debut in the film "Skatetown, U.S.A." (1979), alongside Scott Baio, Maureen McCormick, and Patrick Swayze. That was followed by guest roles in numerous television series such as the short-lived "The Powers of Matthew Star" and "Masquerade" and the long-running "Riptide", "Magnum, P.I.", "Happy Days", "The Fall Guy", and the HBO comedy series "1st & Ten". Lang starred in the 1996 television film "Subliminal Seduction". In 1985, she appeared in four music videos: Alabama's "There's No Way" (where she played the love interest of Alabama lead singer Randy Owen) The Beach Boys' "Getcha Back" and its sequel "It's Gettin' Late" and The Medflys' "Compulsive" for a band from her childhood hometown, Carmel CA.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: In 1987, Lang was offered the role of blue-collar Brooke Logan on the CBS soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful" for the CBS Daytime programming block, and has been an integral part of the program ever since. Her love affair with Ridge Forrester (originally played by Ronn Moss, and since 2013 by Thorsten Kaye) has been a key story arc for 35 years, and a love triangle among Brooke, Ridge and Taylor (Originally played by Hunter Tylo and since December 2021 Krista Allen) stretched over more than thirty years starting with Taylor's entrance to the show in 1990. The show's 5,000th episode included only the four core characters: Brooke, Ridge, Stephanie and Eric. As of February 2015, Lang is one of only two actors to be on "The Bold and the Beautiful" throughout the series. The other is John McCook, who portrays Eric Forrester.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: In 1999, she appeared as Brooke in "The Young and the Restless", interacting with Eric Braeden (Victor), Peter Bergman (Jack), and Eileen Davidson (Ashley). Lang previously appeared on "The Young and the Restless" as Gretchen in 1981, and returned to the soap, for a brief stint, in July 2007. Her work as Brooke has been recognized with seven Soap Opera Digest Award nominations, beginning in 1991 and most recently in 2005.


title: Katherine Kelly Lang

text: In 2016, Lang made a special guest appearance as herself in the Australian soap opera "Neighbours" on 10 Peach. In January 2019, she returned to Australian television as a contestant on "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" for season 5. In October 2019 she made a guest appearance on the Greek soap opera "8 lexeis" for SKAI TV. She played Grace Heart, a reporter who traveled from New York, to Corfu, Greece, only that was not her true identity!


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Philippines campaign (, , ), also known as the Battle of the Philippines () or the Fall of the Philippines, was from December 8, 1941, to May 8, 1942, the invasion of the Philippines by the Empire of Japan and the defense of the islands by United States and the Philippine Armies during World War II.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Japanese launched the invasion by sea from Formosa, over north of the Philippines. The defending forces outnumbered the Japanese by a ratio of 3:2 but were a mixed force of non-combat-experienced regular, national guard, constabulary and newly created Commonwealth units. The Japanese used first-line troops at the outset of the campaign, and by concentrating their forces, they swiftly overran most of Luzon during the first month.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Japanese high command, believing that they had won the campaign, made a strategic decision to advance by a month their timetable of operations in Borneo and Indonesia and to withdraw their best division and the bulk of their airpower in early January 1942. That, coupled with the defenders' decision to withdraw into a defensive holding position in the Bataan Peninsula and also the defeat of three Japanese battalions at the "Battle of the Points" and "Battle of the Pockets", enabled the Americans and Filipinos to hold out for four more months. After the Japanese failure to penetrate the Bataan defensive perimeter in February the Japanese conducted a 40-day siege. The crucial large natural harbor and port facilities of Manila Bay were denied to the Japanese until May 1942. While the Dutch East Indies operations were unaffected, this heavily hindered the Japanese offensive operations in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, buying time for the U.S. Navy to make plans to engage the Japanese at Guadalcanal instead of much further east.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Japan's conquest of the Philippines is often considered the worst military defeat in US history. About 23,000 American military personnel and about 100,000 Filipino soldiers were killed or captured.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Japanese planned to occupy the Philippines as part of their plan for a "Greater East Asia War" in which their Southern Expeditionary Army Group seized sources of raw materials in Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies while the Combined Fleet neutralized the United States Pacific Fleet. Five years earlier, in 1936, Captain Ishikawa Shingo, a hard-liner in the Japanese navy, had toured the Philippines and other parts of the Southeast Asia, noting that these countries had raw materials Japan needed for its armed forces. This helped further increase their aspiration for colonizing the Philippines.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Southern Expeditionary Army was created on 6 November 1941, commanded by General Hisaichi Terauchi, who had previously been Minister of War. It was ordered to prepare for war in the event that negotiations with the United States did not succeed in peacefully meeting Japanese objectives. They also included the condition of America's acceptance of their position in the Pacific as a superior force, with the testament of their occupation of China, but they did not get what they wanted. Under Terauchi's command were four corps-equivalent armies, comprising ten divisions and three combined arms brigades, including the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army. Operations against the Philippines and Malaya were to be conducted simultaneously when Imperial General Headquarters ordered.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Terauchi assigned the Philippines invasion to the 14th Army, under the command of Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma. Air support of ground operations was provided by the 5th Air Group, under Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata, which was transferred to Formosa from Manchuria. The amphibious invasion was conducted by the Philippines Force under Vice Admiral Ibō Takahashi, using the Imperial Japanese Navy Third Fleet, supported by the land-based aircraft of 11th Air Fleet of Vice Admiral Nishizo Tsukahara.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The 14th Army had two first-line infantry divisions, the 16th (Susumu Morioka) and 48th Divisions (Yuitsu Tsuchihashi), to invade and conquer Luzon, and the 65th Brigade as a garrison force. The Formosa-based 48th Division, though without combat experience, was considered one of the Japanese Army's best units, was specially trained in amphibious operations, and was given the assignment of the main landing in Lingayen Gulf. The 16th Division, assigned to land at Lamon Bay, was picked as one of the best divisions still available in Japan itself and staged from the Ryukyus and Palau. The 14th Army also had the 4th and 7th Tank Regiments, five field artillery battalions, five anti-aircraft artillery battalions, four antitank companies, and a mortar battalion. An unusually strong group of combat engineer and bridging units was included in the 14th Army's support forces.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: For the invasion, the Third Fleet was augmented by two destroyer squadrons and a cruiser division of the Second Fleet, and the aircraft carrier "Ryūjō" from the 1st Air Fleet. The Philippines Force consisted of an aircraft carrier, five heavy cruisers, five light cruisers, 29 destroyers, two seaplane tenders, minesweepers and torpedo boats.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Combined army and navy air strength allocated to support the landings was 541 aircraft. The 11th Kōkūkantai (Air Fleet) consisted of the 21st and 23rd Kōkūsentai (Air Flotillas), a combined strength of 156 G4M "Betty" and G3M "Nell" bombers, 107 A6M Zero fighters, plus seaplanes and reconnaissance planes. Most of these were based at Takao, and approximately a third were sent to Indochina in the last week of November to support operations in Malaya. The "Ryujo" provided an additional 16 fighters and 18 torpedo planes, and the surface ships had 68 seaplanes for search and observation, totaling 412 naval aircraft. The army's 5th Kikōshidan (Air Group) consisted of two fighter regiments, two light bomber regiments, and a heavy bomber regiment, totaling 192 aircraft: 76 Ki-21 "Sally", Ki-48 "Lily", and Ki-30 "Ann" bombers; 36 Ki-27 "Nate" fighters, and 19 Ki-15 "Babs" and Ki-36 "Ida" observation planes.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: From mid-1941, following increased tension between Japan and several other powers, including the United States, Britain and the Netherlands, many countries in South East Asia and the Pacific began to prepare for the possibility of war.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: By December 1941, the combined defense forces in the Philippines were organized into the US Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), which eventually included the Philippine Army's 1st Regular Division, 2nd (Constabulary) Division, and 10 mobilized reserve divisions, and the United States Army's Philippine Department. General Douglas MacArthur was recalled from retirement by the U.S. War Department and named commander of USAFFE on July 26, 1941. MacArthur had retired in 1937 after two years as Military Advisor to the Philippine Commonwealth, and accepted control of the Philippine Army, tasked by the Filipino government with reforming an army made up primarily of reservists lacking equipment, training and organization.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: On July 31, 1941, the Philippine Department had 22,532 troops assigned, approximately half of them Filipino. MacArthur recommended the reassignment of department commander Major General George Grunert in October 1941 and took command himself. The main component of the department was the U.S. Army Philippine Division, a 10,500-man formation that consisted mostly of Philippine Scouts (PS) combat units. The Philippine Department had been reinforced between August and November 1941 by 8,500 troops of the U.S. Army Air Forces, and by three Army National Guard units, including its only armor, two battalions of M3 light tanks. These units, the 200th Coast Artillery Regiment (an antiaircraft unit), 192nd Tank Battalion, and 194th Tank Battalion, drew troops from New Mexico, Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky, Minnesota, Missouri, and California. After reinforcement, the department's strength as of November 30, 1941 was 31,095, including 11,988 Philippine Scouts.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: MacArthur organized USAFFE into four tactical commands. The "North Luzon Force", activated December 3, 1941 under Maj. Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright, defended the most likely sites for amphibious attacks and the central plains of Luzon. Wainwright's forces included the PA 11th, 21st and 31st Infantry Divisions, the U.S. 26th Cavalry Regiment (PS), a battalion of the 45th Infantry (PS), and the 1st Provisional Artillery Group of two batteries of 155 mm guns and one 2.95 inch (75 mm) mountain gun. The Philippine 71st Infantry Division served as a reserve and could be committed only on the authority of MacArthur.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The South Luzon Force, activated December 13, 1941 under Brig. Gen. George M. Parker Jr., controlled a zone east and south of Manila. Parker had the PA 41st and 51st Infantry Divisions and the 2nd Provisional Artillery Group of two batteries of the US 86th Field Artillery Regiment (PS).


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The "Visayan–Mindanao Force" under Brig. Gen. William F. Sharp comprised the PA 61st, 81st, and 101st Infantry Divisions, reinforced after the start of the war by the newly inducted 73rd and 93rd Infantry Regiments. The 61st Division was located on Panay, the 81st on Cebu and Negros, and the 101st on Mindanao. In January a fourth division, the 102nd, was created on Mindanao from the field artillery regiments of the 61st and 81st Divisions acting as infantry (they had no artillery pieces), and the 103rd Infantry of the 101st Division. The 2nd Infantry of the Philippine Army's 1st Regular Division and the 2nd Battalion of the U.S. 43rd Infantry (Philippine Scouts) were also made a part of the Mindanao Force.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: USAFFE's "Reserve Force", under MacArthur's direct control, was composed of the Philippine Division, the 91st Division (PA), and headquarters units from the PA and Philippine Department, positioned just north of Manila. The 192nd and 194th Tank Battalions formed the separate Provisional Tank Group, also under MacArthur's direct command, at Clark Field/Fort Stotsenburg, where they were positioned as a mobile defense against any attempt by airborne units to seize the field.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Four U.S. Coast Artillery Corps regiments guarded the entrance to Manila Bay, including Corregidor Island. Across a narrow 3 kilometre (2 mi) strait of water from Bataan on Corregidor was Fort Mills, defended by batteries of the 59th and 60th Coast Artillery Regiments (the latter an anti-aircraft unit), and the 91st and 92nd Coast Artillery Regiments (Philippine Scouts) of the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays. The 59th CA acted as a supervisory unit for the batteries of all units positioned on Forts Hughes, Drum, Frank, and Wint. The majority of the forts had been built circa 1910–1915 and, except for Fort Drum and Battery Monja on Corregidor, were unprotected against air and high-angle artillery attack except by camouflage.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The USAFFE's aviation arm was the Far East Air Force (FEAF) of the U.S. Army Air Forces, commanded by Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton. Previously the Philippine Department Air Force and Air Force USAFFE, the air force was activated on November 16, 1941, and was the largest USAAF combat air organization outside the United States. Its primary combat power in December 1941 consisted of 91 serviceable P-40 Warhawk fighters and 34 B-17 Flying Fortress bombers, with further modern aircraft en route. Tactically the FEAF was part of the Reserve Force, so that it fell under MacArthur's direct command.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: As of November 30, 1941, the strength of US Army Troops in the Philippines, including Philippine units, was 31,095, consisting of 2,504 officers and


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: MacArthur's mobilization plans called for induction of the ten reserve divisions between September 1 and December 15, 1941. The timetable was met on September 1 with the induction of one regiment per division, but slowed as a lack of facilities and equipment hampered training. The second regiments of the divisions were not called up until November 1, and the third regiments were not organized until after hostilities began. Training was also seriously inhibited by language difficulties between the American cadres and the Filipino troops, and by the many differing dialects (estimated at 70) of the numerous ethnic groups comprising the army. By the outbreak of war, only two-thirds of the army had been mobilized, but additions to the force continued with the induction of the Constabulary and a portion of the regular army, until a force of approximately 130,000 men was reached.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The most crucial equipment shortfalls were in rifles and divisional light artillery. MacArthur requested 84,500 M1 Garand rifles to replace the World War I M1917 Enfields equipping the PA, of which there were adequate numbers, but the War Department denied the request because of production difficulties. The divisions had only 20% of their artillery requirements, and while plans had been approved to significantly reduce this gap, the arrangements came too late to be implemented before war isolated the Philippines.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: By contrast, the Philippine Division was adequately manned, equipped, and trained. MacArthur received immediate approval to modernize it by reorganizing it as a mobile "triangular" division. Increasing the authorized size of the Philippine Scouts was not politically viable (because of resentments within the less-well-paid Philippine Army), so MacArthur's plan also provided for freeing up Philippine Scouts to round out other units. The transfer of the American 34th Infantry from the 8th Infantry Division in the United States to the Philippine Division, accompanied by two field artillery battalions to create a pair of complete regimental combat teams, was actually underway when war broke out. The deployment ended with the troops still in the United States, where they were sent to defend Hawaii instead.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The United States Asiatic Fleet and 16th Naval District, based at Manila, provided the naval defenses for the Philippines. Commanded by Admiral Thomas C. Hart, the surface combatants of the Asiatic Fleet were the heavy cruiser , the light cruiser , and 13 World War I-era destroyers. Its primary striking power lay in the 23 modern submarines assigned to the Asiatic Fleet. Submarine Squadron (SUBRON) Two consisted of 6 Salmon class submarines, and SUBRON Five of 11 Porpoise and Sargo class submarines. In September 1941, naval patrol forces in the Philippines were augmented by the arrival of the six PT boats of Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three. Likewise, the China Yangtze Patrol gunboats also became part of the Philippine naval defenses: (sunk south of Java March 3, 1942), (lost May 2, 1942), (scuttled May 6, 1942 but salvaged by the Japanese), (sunk May 5, 1942), and (scuttled May 5, 1942). In December 1941, the naval forces were augmented by the schooner .


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The U.S. 4th Marine Regiment, stationed in Shanghai, China, since the late 1920s, had anticipated a withdrawal from China during the summer of 1941. As personnel were routinely transferred back to the United States or separated from the service, the regimental commander, Col. Samuel L. Howard, arranged unofficially for all replacements to be placed in the 1st Special Defense Battalion, based at Cavite. When the 4th Marines arrived in the Philippines on November 30, 1941, it incorporated the Marines at Cavite and Olongapo Naval Stations into its understrength ranks. An initial plan to divide the 4th into two regiments, mixing each with a battalion of Philippine Constabulary, was discarded after Howard showed reluctance, and the 4th was stationed on Corregidor to augment the defenses there, with details detached to Bataan to protect USAFFE headquarters.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Additionally the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, a paramilitary survey force, operated in Manila with the ship USC&GSS "Research".


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: News reached the Philippines that an attack on Pearl Harbor was in progress at 2:20 am local time on December 8, 1941. FEAF interceptors had already conducted an air search for incoming aircraft reported shortly after midnight, but these had been Japanese scout planes reporting weather conditions. At 3:30 am, Brigadier General Richard Sutherland, chief of staff to General Douglas MacArthur, heard about the attack from a commercial radio broadcast. At 5:00 am FEAF commander Gen. Brereton reported to USAFFE headquarters where he attempted to see MacArthur without success. He recommended to MacArthur's chief of staff, Brig. Gen. Richard Sutherland, that FEAF launch bombing missions against Formosa in accordance with Rainbow 5 war plan directives from which an attack was likely to come. Brereton was further made aware of an attack against the at Davao Bay. Authorization was withheld, but shortly afterward, in response to a telegram from General George C. Marshall instructing MacArthur to implement Rainbow 5, Brereton was ordered to have a strike in readiness for later approval.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Through a series of disputed discussions and decisions, authorization for the first raid was not approved until 10:15 am local time for an attack just before sunset, with a follow-up raid at dawn the next day. In the meantime, Japanese plans to attack Clark and Iba Fields using land-based naval bombers and Zero fighters were delayed six hours by fog at its Formosa bases, so that only a small scale Japanese Army mission attacked targets in the northern tip of Luzon. At 08:00 am, Brereton received a phone call from Gen. Henry H. Arnold warning him not to allow his aircraft to be attacked while still on the ground. FEAF launched three squadron-sized fighter patrols and all of its serviceable bombers on Luzon between 08:00 and 08:30 am as a precautionary move. After MacArthur gave Brereton the authorization he sought at 10:15 am, the bombers were ordered to land and prepare for the afternoon raid on Formosa. All three pursuit squadrons began to run short on fuel and broke off their patrols at the same time.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The 20th Pursuit Squadron's Curtiss P-40B interceptors patrolled the area while the bombers landed at Clark Field between 10:30 and 10:45, then dispersed to their revetments for servicing. The 17th Pursuit Squadron, based at Nichols Field, also landed at Clark and had its aircraft refueled while its pilots ate lunch, then put its pilots on alert shortly after 11:00. All but two of the Clark Field B-17s were on the ground.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: At 11:27 am and 11:29 am, the radar post at Iba Field detected two incoming raids while the closest was still 130 miles out. It alerted FEAF headquarters and the command post at Clark Field, a warning that reached only the pursuit group commander, Major Orrin L. Grover, who apparently became confused by multiple and conflicting reports. The 3rd Pursuit Squadron took off from Iba at 11:45 with instructions to intercept the western force, which was thought to have Manila as its target, but dust problems during its takeoff resulted in the fragmentation of its flights. Two flights of the 21st Pursuit Squadron (PS) at Nichols Field, six P-40Es, took off at 11:45, led by 1st Lt. William Dyess. They started for Clark but were diverted to Manila Bay as a second line of defense if the 3rd PS failed to intercept its force. The 21st's third flight, taking off five minutes later, headed toward Clark, although engine problems with its brand-new P-40Es reduced its numbers by two. The 17th Pursuit Squadron took off at 12:15 pm from Clark, ordered to patrol Bataan and Manila Bay, while the 34th PS at Del Carmen never received its orders to protect Clark Field and did not launch. The 20th PS, dispersed at Clark, was ready to take off but did not receive orders from group headquarters. Instead a line chief saw the incoming formation of Japanese bombers and the section commander, 1st Lt. Joseph H. Moore, ordered the scramble himself.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Even though tracked by radar and with three U.S. pursuit squadrons in the air, when Japanese bombers of the 11th Kōkūkantai attacked Clark Field at 12:40 pm, they achieved tactical surprise. Two squadrons of B-17s were dispersed on the ground. Most of the P-40s of the 20th PS were preparing to taxi and were struck by the first wave of 27 Japanese twin-engine Mitsubishi G3M "Nell" bombers; only four of the 20th PS P-40Bs managed to take off as the bombs were falling.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: A second bomber attack (26 Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers) followed closely, then escorting Zero fighters strafed the field for 30 minutes, destroying 12 of the 17 American heavy bombers present and seriously damaging three others. Two damaged B-17s were made flyable and taken to Mindanao, where one of them was destroyed in a ground collision.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: A near-simultaneous attack on the auxiliary field at Iba to the northwest by 54 "Betty" bombers was also successful: all but four of the 3rd Pursuit Squadron's P-40s, short on fuel and caught in their landing pattern, were destroyed in combat or by lack of fuel. Twelve P-40s from the 20th (four), 21st (two), and 3rd (six) Squadrons attacked the strafers but with little success, losing at least four of their own.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Far East Air Force lost half its planes in the 45-minute attack, and was all but destroyed over the next few days, including a number of the surviving B-17s lost to takeoff crashes of other planes. The 24th Pursuit Group flew its last interception on December 10, losing 11 of the 40 or so P-40s it sent up, and the surviving P-35s of the 34th PS were destroyed on the ground at Del Carmen. That night FEAF combat strength had been reduced to 12 operable B-17s, 22 P-40s, and 8 P-35s. Fighter strength fluctuated daily until December 24, when USAFFE ordered all its forces into Bataan. Until then P-40s and P-35s were cobbled together from spare parts taken from wrecked airplanes, and still crated P-40Es were assembled at the Philippine Air Depot. Clark Field was abandoned as a bomber field on December 11 after being used as a staging base for a handful of B-17 missions. Between December 17 and 20, the 14 surviving B-17s were withdrawn to Australia. Every other aircraft of the FEAF was destroyed or captured.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: No formal investigation took place regarding this failure as it occurred in the aftermath of Pearl Harbor. After the war, Brereton and Sutherland in effect blamed each other for FEAF being surprised on the ground, and MacArthur released a statement that he had no knowledge of any recommendation to attack Formosa with B-17s. Walter D. Edmunds summarized the disaster: "in the Philippines the personnel of our armed forces almost without exception failed to assess accurately the weight, speed, and efficiency of the Japanese Air Force." He quoted Maj. Gen. Emmett O'Donnell Jr., then a major in charge of the B-17s sent to Mindanao, as concluding that the first day was a "disorganized business" and that no one was "really at fault" because no one was "geared for war."


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The 14th Army began its invasion with a landing on Batan Island (not to be confused with Bataan Peninsula), off the north coast of Luzon, on December 8, 1941, by selected naval infantry units. Landings on Camiguin Island and at Vigan, Aparri, and Gonzaga in northern Luzon followed two days later.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Two B-17s attacked the Japanese ships offloading at Gonzaga. Other B-17s with fighter escort attacked the landings at Vigan. In this last coordinated action of the Far East Air Force, U.S. planes damaged two Japanese transports ("Oigawa Maru" and "Takao Maru"), the cruiser , and the destroyer , and sank minesweeper "W-10".


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Early on the morning of December 12, the Japanese landed 2,500 men of the 16th Division at Legazpi on southern Luzon, from the nearest American and Philippine forces. The attack on Mindanao followed on December 19, using elements of the 16th Army temporarily attached to the invasion force to permit the 14th Army to use all its troops on Luzon.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Meanwhile, Admiral Thomas C. Hart withdrew most of his U.S. Asiatic Fleet from Philippine waters following Japanese air strikes that inflicted heavy damage on U.S. naval facilities at Cavite on December 10. Only submarines were left to contest Japanese naval superiority, and the commanders of these, conditioned by prewar doctrine that held the fleet submarine to be a scouting vessel more vulnerable to air and anti-submarine attack than it actually was, proved unequal to the task. Because of this poor doctrine for submarine warfare and the infamous failures of the Mark 14 torpedo that plagued the U.S. submarine fleet for the first two years of the Pacific War, not a single Japanese warship was sunk by the Asiatic Fleet during the Philippines campaign.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: In a book "A Different Kind of Victory: A Biography of Admiral Thomas C. Hart" (Naval Institute Press, 1981), James Leutze wrote:


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: "He had 27 subs submerged in Manila Bay... it was Washington, not the Asiatic Fleet Commander that directed the fleet to withdraw from Manila... Hart was directed by Washington to send US Navy surface forces and submarines southeast toward Australia... Douglas MacArthur and Henry Stimson (United States Secretary of War) feuding with Admiral Hart over lack of US Navy submarine action. MacArthur asked Admiral Hart: "What in the world is the matter with your submarines?"... MacArthur complained that Hart's inactivity allowed Japan's navy freedom of action... According to Stimson, MacArthur felt that Hart's ships and submarines were ineffectual, but because Admiral Hart had lost his courage. Admiral Hart's reaction to MacArthur's brickbats: "He (MacArthur) is inclined to cut my throat and perhaps the Navy in general.""


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The main attack began early on the morning of December 22 as 43,110 men of the 48th Division and one regiment of the 16th Division, supported by artillery and approximately 90 tanks, landed at three points along the east coast of Lingayen Gulf. A few B-17s flying from Australia attacked the invasion fleet, and U.S. submarines harassed it from the adjacent waters, but to little effect.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: General Wainwright's poorly trained and equipped 11th Division (PA) and 71st Division (PA) could neither repel the landings nor pin the enemy on the beaches. The remaining Japanese units of the divisions landed farther south along the gulf. The 26th Cavalry (PS) of the well-trained and better-equipped Philippine Scouts, advancing to meet them, put up a strong fight at Rosario, but was forced to withdraw after taking heavy casualties with no hope of sufficient reinforcements. By nightfall, December 23, the Japanese had moved ten miles (16 km) into the interior.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The next day, 7,000 men of the 16th Division hit the beaches at three locations along the shore of Lamon Bay in southern Luzon, where they found General Parker's forces dispersed, and without artillery protecting the eastern coast, unable to offer serious resistance. They immediately consolidated their positions and began the drive north toward Manila where they would link up with the forces advancing south toward the capital for the final victory.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The U.S. Philippine Division moved into the field in reaction to reports of airborne drops near Clark Field, and when this proved false, were deployed to cover the withdrawal of troops into Bataan and to resist Japanese advances in the Subic Bay area.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: On December 24, MacArthur invoked the prewar plan WPO-3 (War Plan Orange 3), which called for use of five delaying positions in central Luzon while forces withdrew into Bataan. This was carried out in part by the 26th Cavalry Regiment. He relieved General Parker of his command of South Luzon Force and had him begin preparing defensive positions on Bataan, using units as they arrived; both the military headquarters and the Philippine's government were moved there. Nine days of feverish movement of supplies into Bataan, primarily by barge from Manila, began in an attempt to feed an anticipated force of 43,000 troops for six months. (Ultimately 80,000 troops and 26,000 refugees flooded Bataan.) Nevertheless, substantial forces remained in other areas for several months.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: On December 26, Manila was declared an open city by MacArthur. However, the United States military was still using the city for logistical purposes while the city was declared open and the Japanese army ignored the declaration and bombed the city.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Units of both defense forces were maneuvered to hold open the escape routes into Bataan, in particular San Fernando, the steel bridges at Calumpit over the deep Pampanga River at the north end of Manila Bay, and Plaridel north of Manila. The South Luzon Force, despite its inexperience and equivocating orders to withdraw and hold, successfully executed "leapfrogging" retrograde techniques and crossed the bridges by January 1. Japanese air commanders rejected appeals by the 48th Division to bomb the bridges to trap the retreating forces, which were subsequently demolished by Philippine Scout engineers on January 1.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The Japanese realized the full extent of MacArthur's plan on December 30 and ordered the 48th Division to press forward and seal off Bataan. In a series of actions between January 2 and 4, the 11th and 21st Divisions of the Philippine Army, the 26th Cavalry (PS) and the American M3 Stuart tanks of the Provisional Tank Group held open the road from San Fernando to Dinalupihan at the neck of the peninsula for the retreating forces of the South Luzon Force, then made good their own escape. Despite 50% losses in the 194th Tank Battalion during the retreat, the Stuarts and a supporting battery of 75mm SPM halftracks repeatedly stopped Japanese thrusts and were the final units to enter Bataan.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: On December 30, the American 31st Infantry moved to the vicinity of Dalton Pass to cover the flanks of troops withdrawing from central and southern Luzon, while other units of the Philippine Division organized positions at Bataan. The 31st Infantry then moved to a defensive position on the west side of the Olongapo-Manila road, near Layac Junction—at the neck of Bataan Peninsula—on January 5, 1942. The junction was given up on January 6, but the withdrawal to Bataan was successful.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: From January 7 to 14, 1942, the Japanese concentrated on reconnaissance and preparations for an attack on the Main Battle Line from Abucay to Mount Natib to Mauban. At the same time, in a critical mistake, they also relieved the 48th Division, responsible for much of the success of Japanese operations, with the much less-capable 65th Brigade, intended as a garrison force. The Japanese 5th Air group was withdrawn from operations on January 5 in preparation for movement with the 48th Division to the Netherlands East Indies. U.S. and Filipino forces repelled night attacks near Abucay, and elements of the U.S. Philippine Division counterattacked on January 16. This failed, and the division withdrew to the Reserve Battle Line from Casa Pilar to Bagac in the center of the peninsula on January 26.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The 14th Army renewed its attacks on January 23 with an attempted amphibious landing behind the lines by a battalion of the 16th Division, then with general attacks beginning January 27 along the battle line. The amphibious landing was disrupted by a PT boat and contained in brutally dense jungle by ad hoc units made up of U.S. Army Air Corps troops, naval personnel, and Philippine Constabulary. The pocket was then slowly forced back to the cliffs, with high casualties on both sides. Landings to reinforce the surviving pocket on January 26 and February 2 were severely disrupted by air attacks from the few remaining FEAF P-40s, then trapped and eventually annihilated on February 13.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: A penetration in the I Corps line was stopped and broken up into several pockets. General Homma on February 8 ordered the suspension of offensive operations in order to reorganize his forces. This could not be carried out immediately, because the 16th Division remained engaged trying to extricate a pocketed battalion of its 20th Infantry. With further losses, the remnants of the battalion, 378 officers and men, were extricated on February 15. On February 22, the 14th Army line withdrew a few miles to the north and USAFFE forces re-occupied the abandoned positions. The result of the "Battle of the Points" and "Battle of the Pockets" was total destruction of all three battalions of the Japanese 20th Infantry and a clear USAFFE victory.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: For several weeks, the Japanese, deterred by heavy losses and reduced to a single brigade, conducted siege operations while waiting refitting and reinforcement. Both armies engaged in patrols and limited local attacks. Because of the worsening Allied position in the Asia-Pacific region, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to relocate to Australia, as Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area. (MacArthur's famous speech regarding the Philippines, in which he said "I came out of Bataan and I shall return" was made at Terowie


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: , South Australia on March 20.) Wainwright officially assumed control of what was now termed United States Forces in the Philippines (USFIP) on March 23. During this period, elements of the U.S. Philippine Division were shifted to assist in the defense of other sectors.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Beginning March 28, a new wave of Japanese air and artillery attacks hit Allied forces who were severely weakened by malnutrition, sickness and prolonged fighting. On April 3, the Japanese began to break through along Mount Samat, estimating that the offensive would require a month to end the campaign. The U.S. Philippine Division, no longer operating as a coordinated unit and exhausted by five days of nearly continuous combat, was unable to counterattack effectively against heavy Japanese assaults. On April 8, the U.S. 57th Infantry Regiment (PS) and the 31st Division (PA) were overrun near the Alangan River. The U.S. 45th Infantry Regiment (PS), under orders to reach Mariveles and evacuate to Corregidor, finally surrendered on April 10, 1942. Only 300 men of the U.S. 31st Infantry successfully reached Corregidor.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Corregidor (which included Fort Mills) was a U.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps position defending the entrance to Manila Bay, part of the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays. It was armed by both older seacoast disappearing gun batteries of the 59th and 91st Coast Artillery Regiments (the latter a Philippine Scouts unit), an offshore mine field of approximately 35 groups of controlled mines, and an anti-aircraft unit, the 60th CA (AA). The latter was posted on the higher elevations of Corregidor and was able to respond successfully to the Japanese air attacks, downing many fighters and bombers. The older stationary batteries with fixed mortars and immense cannons, for defense from attack by sea, were easily put out of commission by Japanese bombers. The American soldiers and Filipino Scouts defended the small fortress until they had little left to wage a defense.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Early in 1942, the Japanese air command installed oxygen in its bombers to fly higher than the range of the Corregidor anti-aircraft batteries, and after that time, heavier bombardment began.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: In December 1941, Philippines President Manuel L. Quezon, General MacArthur, other high-ranking military officers and diplomats and families escaped the bombardment of Manila and were housed in Corregidor's Malinta Tunnel. Prior to their arrival, Malinta's laterals had served as high command headquarters, hospital and storage of food and arms. In March 1942, several U.S. Navy submarines arrived on the north side of Corregidor. The Navy brought in mail, orders, and weaponry. They took away with them the high American and Filipino government officers, gold and silver and other important records. Those who were unable to escape by submarine were eventually military POWs of Japan or placed in civilian concentration camps in Manila and other locations.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Corregidor was defended by 11,000 personnel, comprising the units mentioned above that were stationed on Corregidor, the U.S. 4th Marine Regiment, and U.S. Navy personnel deployed as infantry. Some were able to get to Corregidor from the Bataan Peninsula when the Japanese overwhelmed the units there. The Japanese began their final assault on Corregidor with an artillery barrage on May 1. On the night of May 5–6, two battalions of the Japanese 61st Infantry Regiment landed at the northeast end of the island. Despite strong resistance, the Japanese established a beachhead that was soon reinforced by tanks and artillery. The defenders were quickly pushed back toward the stronghold of Malinta Hill.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: Late on May 6, Wainwright asked Homma for terms of surrender. Homma insisted that surrender include all Allied forces in the Philippines. Believing that the lives of all those on Corregidor would be endangered, Wainwright accepted. On May 8, he sent a message to Sharp, ordering him to surrender the Visayan-Mindanao Force. Sharp complied, but many individuals carried on the fight as guerrillas. Few unit commanders were so hard pressed as to be forced to surrender and none had any desire to surrender. Sharp's decision to surrender involved many factors. Major Larry S. Schmidt, in a 1982 master's degree thesis, said Sharp's decision was based on two reasons: that the Japanese were capable of executing the 10,000 survivors of Corregidor, and that Sharp now knew his forces would not be reinforced by the United States, as had been previously thought.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The defeat was the beginning of three and a half years of harsh treatment for the Allied survivors, including atrocities like the Bataan Death March and the misery of Japanese prison camps, and the "hell ships" on which American and Allied men were sent to Japan to be used as slave labor in mines and factories. Thousands were crowded into the holds of Japanese ships without water, food, or sufficient ventilation. The Japanese did not mark "POW" on the decks of these vessels, and some were attacked and sunk by Allied aircraft and submarines. For example, on September 7, 1944 was sunk by with losses of 668 POWs; only 82 POWs survived. Although the campaign was a victory to the Japanese, it took longer than anticipated to defeat the Filipinos and Americans. This required forces that would have been used to attack Borneo and Java to be diverted to the battle in the Philippines, and also slowed the advance on New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: During the occupation of the Philippines, Americans and Filipino guerrillas fought against the occupying forces. The Allied and Philippine Commonwealth forces began the campaign to recapture the Philippines in 1944, with landings on the island of Leyte.


title: Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

text: The defense of the Philippines was the longest resistance to the Japanese Imperial Army in the initial stages of World War II. After the Battle of Abucay the Japanese started to withdraw from Bataan, and resumed their attack in April, allowing MacArthur 40 days to prepare Australia as an operational base, the initial resistance in the Philippines allowed Australia crucial time to organize for its defense. Philippine-American resistance against the Japanese up to the fall of Bataan on April 9, 1942, lasted 105 days (3 months and 2 days).