title: Marriageable age

text: In France, until the French Revolution, the marriageable age was 12 years for females and 14 for males. Revolutionary legislation in 1792 increased the age to 13 years for females and 15 for males. Under the Napoleonic Code in 1804, the marriageable age was set at 15 years old for females and 18 years old for males. In 2006, the marriageable age for females was increased to 18, the same as for males. In jurisdictions where the ages are not the same, the marriageable age for females is more commonly two or three years lower than that for males.


title: Marriageable age

text: In 17th century Poland, in the Warsaw parish of St John, the average age of women entering marriage was 20.1, and of men, 23.7. In the second half of the eighteenth century, women in the parish of Holy Cross married at 21.8, while men at 29.


title: Marriageable age

text: In medieval Eastern Europe, the Slavic traditions of patrilocality of early and universal marriage (usually of a bride aged 13–15 years, with menarche occurring on average at 14) lingered; the manorial system had yet to penetrate into Eastern Europe and had generally had less effect on clan systems there; and the bans on cross-cousin marriages had not been firmly enforced.


title: Marriageable age

text: In Russia, before 1830 the age of consent for marriage was 15 years old for males and 13 years old for females (though 15 years old was preferred for females, so much so that it was written into the Law Code of 1649). Teenage marriage was practiced for chastity. Both the female and the male teenager needed consent of their parents to marry because they were under 20 years old, the age of majority. In 1830, the age of consent for marriage was raised to 18 years old for males and 16 years old for females (though 18 years old was preferred for females). The average age of marriage for females was around 19 years old.


title: Marriageable age

text: Aztec family law generally followed customary law. Men got married between the ages of 20-22, and women generally got married at 15 to 18 years of age.


title: Marriageable age

text: Maya family law appears to have been based on customary law. Maya men and women usually got married at around the age of 20, though women sometimes got married at the age of 16 or 17.


title: Marriageable age

text: In the majority of countries, a right to marry at age 18 is enshrined along with all other rights and responsibilities of adulthood. However, most of these countries allow those younger than that age to marry, usually with parental consent or judicial authorization. These exceptions vary considerably by country. The United Nations Population Fund stated:


title: Marriageable age

text: In recent years, many countries in the EU have tightened their marriage laws, either banning marriage under 18 completely, or requiring judicial approval for such marriages. Countries which have reformed their marriage laws in recent years include Sweden (2014), Denmark (2017), Germany (2017), Luxembourg (2014), Spain (2015), Netherlands (2015), Finland (2019) and Ireland (2019). Many developing countries have also enacted similar laws in recent years: Honduras (2017), Ecuador (2015), Costa Rica (2017), Panama (2015), Trinidad & Tobago (2017), Malawi (2017).


title: Marriageable age

text: The minimum age requirements of 12 years old for females and 14 years old for males were written into English civil law. By default, these provisions became the minimum marriage ages in colonial America. This English common law inherited from the British remained in force in America unless a specific state law was enacted to replace them. In the United States, as in most developed countries, age restrictions have been revised upward so that they are now between 15 and 21 years of age.


title: Marriageable age

text: In Western countries, marriages of teenagers have become rare in recent years, with their frequency declining during the past few decades. For instance, in Finland, where in the early 21st century underage youth could obtain a special judicial authorization to marry, there were only 30–40 such marriages per year during that period (with most of the spouses being aged 17), while in the early 1990s, more than 100 such marriages were registered each year. Since 1 June 2019 Finland has banned marriages of anyone under 18 with no exemptions.


title: Marriageable age

text: The marriage age "as a right" is usually the same with the age of majority which is 18 years old in most countries. However, in some countries, the age of majority is under 18, while in others it is 19, 20 or 21. In Canada for example, the age of majority is 19 in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia,


title: Marriageable age

text: Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Yukon and Nunavut, and marriage under 19 in these provinces requires parental or court consent (see Marriage in Canada). In USA for example, the age of majority is 21 in Mississippi and 19 in Nebraska and requires parental consent. In many jurisdictions of North America, by marriage minors become legally emancipated.


title: Marriageable age

text: The marriageable age "as a right" is 18 in all European countries, with the exception of Andorra and Scotland where it is 16 (for both sexes). Existing "exceptions" to this general rule (usually requiring special judicial or parental consent) are discussed below. In both the European Union and the Council of Europe the marriageable age falls within the jurisdiction of individual member states. The Istanbul convention, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women and domestic violence, only requires countries which ratify it to prohibit forced marriage (Article 37) and to ensure that forced marriages can be easily voided without further victimization (Article 32), but does not make any reference to a minimum age of marriage.


title: Marriageable age

text: In ancient Israel, men twenty years old and older would become warriors and when they would get married, they would get one year leave of absence to be with their wife.


title: Marriageable age

text: Before the end of Second Temple Judaism, Rabbis set the age of marriage for every Israelite at 18 years old. Women were expected to marry by 20 years old and men were expected to marry by 24 years old.


title: Marriageable age

text: In late antiquity, males and females were expected to be married by 20 years old in teenage marriage. Rabbis estimated the age of maturity from about the beginning of the thirteenth year with women and about the beginning of the fourteenth year with men.


title: Marriageable age

text: On the practice of Levirate marriage, the Talmud advised against a large age gap between a man and his brother's widow. A younger woman marrying a significantly older man, however, is especially problematic: marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared, by the Sanhedrin, as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution.


title: Marriageable age

text: In Rabbinic Judaism, males cannot consent to marriage until they reach the age of 13 years and a day and have undergone puberty and females cannot consent to marriage until they reach the age of 12 years and a day and have undergone puberty. Males and females are considered minors until the age of twenty. After twenty, males are not considered adults if they show signs of impotence. If males show no signs of puberty or do show impotence, they automatically become adults by age 35 and can marry.


title: Marriageable age

text: The minimum age for marriage was 13 years old for males and 12 years old for females but formal betrothal could take place before that and often did. Talmud advises males to get married at 18 years old or between 16 years old and 24 years old.


title: Marriageable age

text: A "ketannah" (literally meaning "little [one]") was any girl between the age of 3 years and that of 12 years plus one day; she was subject to her father's authority, and he could arrange a marriage for her without her agreement. However, after reaching the age of maturity, she would have to agree to the marriage to be considered as married.


title: Marriageable age

text: Jewish people follow the law of the land that they live in. In modern Israel, the general age for marriage is 18 years old for males and females but with judicial consent 16 year old males and females can marry.


title: Marriageable age

text: Catholic canon law adopted Roman law, which set the minimum age of marriage at 12 years old for females and 14 years old for males. The Roman Catholic Church raised the minimum age of marriage to 14 years old for females and to 16 years old for males in 1917 and lowered the age of majority to 18 years old in 1983.


title: Marriageable age

text: Hanafi and Ja'fari schools of classical Islamic jurisprudence interpret the "age of marriage", in the Quran (24:59;65:4), as the beginning of puberty; that is 9–11 years old.


title: Marriageable age

text: 'Büchler and Schlater mention that the schools of Islamic jurisprudence (madhaahib) set the following marriageable ages for boys and girls:


title: Marriageable age

text: Marriages were traditionally contracted by the father or guardian of the bride and her intended husband.


title: Marriageable age

text: Shafiʽi, Hanbali, and Maliki schools of classical Islamic jurisprudence interpret the "age of marriage", in the Quran (24:59), as completion of puberty; that is 15-17. For Shafiʽi, Hanbali, and Maliki schools of Islamic jurisprudence, in Sunni Islam, the condition for marriage is physical (bulugh) maturity and mental (rushd) maturity.


title: Marriageable age

text: Büchler and Schlater mention that the schools of Islamic jurisprudence (madhaahib) set the following marriageable ages for boys and girls:


title: Marriageable age

text: Büchler and Schlater state that "marriageable age according to classical Islamic law coincides with the occurrence of puberty. The notion of puberty refers to signs of physical maturity such as the emission of semen or the onset of menstruation".


title: Marriageable age

text: In his Shafiʽi jurisprudential compilation "The Stocks of the Sojourner", Ahmad Ibn Naqib Al-Misri (died 1368 A.D.) writes:


title: Marriageable age

text: Marriages are traditionally contracted by the father or guardian of the bride and her intended husband.


title: Marriageable age

text: The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the Ottoman empire distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi minimum ages of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden.


title: Marriageable age

text: During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 15–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by a judge and the legal guardian of the child. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age.


title: Marriageable age

text: Many senior clerics in Saudi Arabia have opposed setting a minimum age for marriage, arguing that a girl reaches adulthood at puberty.


title: Marriageable age

text: However in 2019 Members of the Saudi Shoura Council in 2019 approved fresh regulations for child marriage that will see to outlaw marrying off 15-year-old children and force the need for court approval for those under 18. Chairman of the Human Rights Committee at the Shoura Council, Dr. Hadi Al-Yami, said that introduced controls were based on in-depth studies presented to the body. He pointed out that the regulation, vetted by the Islamic Affairs Committee at the Shoura Council, has raised the age of marriage to 18 and prohibited it for those under 15.


title: Marriageable age

text: The Dharmaśāstras state that females can marry only after they have reached puberty. However, there is no fixed age in Hinduism as the religion is not under any single institution. However, the Hindu Code Law which includes Hindus, Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists has fixed the legal age of marriage - 21 years for men and 18 years for women in India.


title: Marriageable age

text: In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the age of marriage is set at 15 for both boys and girls. It is forbidden to become engaged before the age of 15.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: In baseball, a perfect game is a game in which one or more pitchers complete a minimum of nine innings with no batter from the opposing team reaching any base. To achieve a perfect game, a team must not allow any opposing player to reach base by any means: no hits, walks, hit batsmen, uncaught third strikes, catcher's or fielder's interference, or fielding errors; in short, "27 up, 27 down" (for a nine-inning game).


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: A perfect game, by definition, is also a no-hitter, a win, and a shutout. A fielding error that does not allow a batter to reach base, such as a misplayed foul ball, does not spoil a perfect game. Games that last fewer than nine innings, regardless of cause, in which a team has no baserunners do not qualify as perfect games. Games in which a team reaches first base only in extra innings also do not qualify as perfect games.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: The first known use of the term "perfect game" was in ; its current definition was formalized in . In Major League Baseball (MLB), the feat has been achieved 23 times – 21 times since the modern era began in 1901, most recently by Félix Hernández of the Seattle Mariners on August 15, 2012. Although it is possible for several pitchers to combine for a perfect game (which has happened 19 times in MLB no-hitters), every MLB perfect game so far has been thrown by a single pitcher. Nippon Professional Baseball's 2007 Japan Series ended with a combined perfect game.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: The first known occurrence of the term "perfect game" in print was in 1908. I. E. Sanborn's report for the "Chicago Tribune" about Addie Joss's performance against the White Sox calls it "an absolutely perfect game, without run, without hit, and without letting an opponent reach first base by hook or crook, on hit, walk, or error, in nine innings". Several sources have claimed that the first recorded usage of "perfect game" was by Ernest J. Lanigan in his "Baseball Cyclopedia", made in reference to Charlie Robertson's 1922 perfect game. The "Chicago Tribune" came close to the term in describing Lee Richmond's game for Worcester in 1880: "Richmond was most effectively supported, every position on the home nine being played to perfection." Similarly, in writing up John Montgomery Ward's 1880 perfect game, the "New York Clipper" described the "perfect play" of Providence's defense.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: There has been one perfect game in the World Series, thrown by Don Larsen for the New York Yankees against the Brooklyn Dodgers on October 8, 1956. By coincidence, Larsen was in attendance when Yankee pitcher David Cone threw a perfect game in 1999 on the same day that Larsen and Yogi Berra (the catcher in the 1956 perfect game) were invited to do the ceremonial first pitch.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: Ron Hassey is the only catcher in MLB history to have caught more than one perfect game (his first was with pitcher Len Barker in 1981 and his second was with pitcher Dennis Martínez in 1991).


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: The most recent perfect game for MLB was on August 15, 2012, Félix Hernández of the Seattle Mariners against the Tampa Bay Rays. He struck out the side twice and struck out twelve total batters in a 1–0 victory.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: The most recent perfect game was thrown by Rōki Sasaki of the Chiba Lotte Marines in the Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) on April 10, 2022. He struck out 19 batters with 13 strikeouts in a row, which broke the NPB record for consecutive strikeouts and tied the record for total strikeouts in the same game.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: As of 2021, the Major League Baseball definition of a perfect game is largely a side effect of the decision made by the major leagues' Committee for Statistical Accuracy on September 4, 1991, to redefine a no-hitter as a game in which the pitcher or pitchers on one team throw a complete game of nine innings or more without surrendering a hit. That decision removed a number of games that had long appeared in the record books: those lasting fewer than nine innings, and those in which a team went hitless in regulation but then got a hit in extra innings. The definition of perfect game was made to parallel this new definition of the no-hitter, in effect substituting "baserunner" for "hit". As a result of the 1991 redefinition, for instance, Harvey Haddix does not receive credit for a perfect game or a no-hitter for his performance on May 26, 1959, when he threw 12 perfect innings against the Milwaukee Braves before a batter reached in the 13th.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: A rule change in effect for the 2020 through 2022 seasons awarded the offensive team a free runner on second base each half-inning during extra innings. This rule opened the possibility of a team scoring a run (batting in the free baserunner on a sacrifice fly, for example) without any player ever reaching first base. This would still have been recorded as a perfect game according to MLB's official record-keeper, the Elias Sports Bureau, since an automatic runner is not a batter who reached base safely.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: Another rule change effective for the same two seasons stipulated that games that are part of doubleheaders only last seven innings. Such a game in which one team did not reach first base would not have been credited as a perfect game (similar to weather-shortened games). However, if such a doubleheader game were to have at least two extra innings and one team still did not reach first base, then the game would have been credited as a perfect game. During those two seasons, no potential perfect games were affected. Both rule changes were expected to be reversed prior to the 2022 season; however, the extra innings rule did return while doubleheaders reverted back to a full nine-inning length.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: On April 11, 2021, University of North Texas softball pitcher Hope Trautwein threw a perfect game, facing 21 batters and striking out all 21. It was the first seven-inning perfect game with every out being a strikeout in NCAA Division I history.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: The only perfect game thrown in a Little League World Series championship was by Ángel Macías of the Monterrey, Mexico, team in 1957.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: In Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) the first perfect game was thrown by Hideo Fujimoto of the Giants on June 28, 1950, against the Nishi Nippon Pirates.


title: Perfect game (baseball)

text: On April 10, 2022, Chiba Lotte Marines pitcher Rōki Sasaki threw a perfect game in which he tied an existing NPB record by striking out 19 batters, and set a new record by striking out 13 consecutive batters. Sasaki compiled a game score of 106, surpassing the 105 for Kerry Wood's 20 strikeout game from the 1998 Major League Baseball season, which was the highest MLB game score since the end of the baseball color line.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles I (Charles Martin; ; ; 10 November 1433 – 5 January 1477), nicknamed the Bold (German: "der Kühne"; Dutch: "de Stoute"; ), was Duke of Burgundy from 1467 to 1477.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles's main objective was to be crowned king by turning the growing Burgundian State into a territorially continuous kingdom. He declared himself and his lands independent, bought Upper Alsace and conquered Zutphen, Guelders and Lorraine, uniting at last Burgundian northern and southern possessions. This caused the enmity of several European powers and triggered the Burgundian Wars.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles's early death at the Battle of Nancy at the hands of Swiss mercenaries fighting for René II, Duke of Lorraine, was of great consequence in European history. The Burgundian domains, long wedged between the Kingdom of France and the Habsburg Empire, were divided, but the precise disposition of the vast and disparate territorial possessions involved was disputed among the European powers for centuries.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles the Bold was born in Dijon, the son of Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal. Before the death of his father in 1467, he bore the title of Count of Charolais; afterwards, he assumed all of his father's titles, including that of "Grand Duke of the West". He was also made a Knight of the Golden Fleece just twenty days after his birth, invested by Charles I, Count of Nevers, and the seigneur de Croÿ.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles was brought up under the direction of Jean d'Auxy and early showed great application alike to academic studies and warlike exercises. His father's court was the most extravagant in Europe at the time, and a centre for the arts and commerce. While he was growing up, Charles witnessed his father's efforts to unite his far-flung and ethnically diverse dominions into a single state, and his own later efforts centered on continuing and securing his father's successes in this endeavor.


title: Charles the Bold

text: In 1440, at the age of seven, Charles was married to Catherine, daughter of King Charles VII of France and sister of the Dauphin (later King Louis XI). She was five years older than her husband, and she died in 1446 at the age of 18. They had no children.


title: Charles the Bold

text: In 1454, at the age of 21, Charles married a second time. He wanted to marry a daughter of his distant cousin Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York (a sister of Kings Edward IV and Richard III of England), but under terms of the Treaty of Arras of 1435, he was required to marry a French princess. His father chose Isabella of Bourbon, who was several years younger than him and was the daughter of Philip the Good's sister Agnes and a very distant cousin of Charles VII of France. She died in 1465 and their daughter, Mary, was Charles's only surviving child.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles was on friendly terms with his brother-in-law Louis, the Dauphin of France, who had been a refugee at the court of Burgundy from 1456 until he succeeded his father as king of France in 1461. But Louis began to pursue some of the same policies as his father, for example Louis's later repurchase of the towns on the Somme River that Louis's father had ceded in 1435 to Charles's father in the Treaty of Arras, which Charles viewed with chagrin. When his father's failing health enabled him to assume the reins of government (which Philip relinquished to him by an act of 12 April 1465), he initiated a policy of hostility toward Louis XI that led to the Burgundian Wars, and he became one of the principal leaders of the League of the Public Weal, an alliance of west European nobles opposed to policies of Louis XI that sought to centralize the royal authority within France.


title: Charles the Bold

text: For his third wife, Charles was offered the hand of Louis XI's daughter Anne. The wife he ultimately chose, however, was his second cousin Margaret of York (who was also, like himself, a great-grandchild of John of Gaunt). Upon the death of his father in 1467, Charles was no longer bound by the terms of the Treaty of Arras, and he decided to ally himself with Burgundy's old ally England. Louis did his best to prevent or delay the marriage with Margaret (he even sent French ships to waylay her as she sailed to Sluys), but in the summer of 1468, it was celebrated sumptuously at Bruges, and Charles was made a Knight of the Garter. The couple had no children, but Margaret devoted herself to her stepdaughter Mary. After Mary's death in 1482, she kept Mary's two infant children, Philip the Fair and Margaret of Austria, as long as she was allowed.


title: Charles the Bold

text: On 12 April 1465, Philip relinquished control of the government of his domains to Charles, who spent the next summer prosecuting the War of the Public Weal against Louis XI. Charles was left master of the field at the Battle of Montlhéry on 13 July 1465, but this neither prevented the king from re-entering Paris nor did it assure Charles of a decisive victory. He succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the Treaty of Conflans of 4 October 1465, by which the king restored to him certain towns on the Somme River, the counties of Boulogne and Guînes, and various other small territories. During the negotiations for the treaty, his wife Isabella died suddenly at Les Quesnoy on 25 September, making a political marriage suddenly possible. As part of the treaty, Louis promised him the hand of his infant daughter Anne, with the territories of Champagne and Ponthieu as a dowry, but no marriage ever took place. In the meanwhile, Charles obtained the surrender of Ponthieu.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles's concentration on the affairs of France was diverted by the Revolt of Liège against his father and the bishop of Liège (Louis of Bourbon) and a desire to punish the town of Dinant in the province of Namur. During the wars of the summer of 1465, Dinant celebrated a false rumour that Charles had been defeated at Montlhéry by burning him in effigy and chanting that he was the bastard child of his mother Isabella of Portugal and John of Heinsburg, the previous Bishop of Liège (d. 1455). On 25 August 1466, Charles marched into Dinant, determined to avenge this slur on the honour of his mother, and sacked the city, killing every man, woman and child within. After the death of Charles's father Philip the Good in 1467, the Bishopric of Liège renewed hostilities, but was defeated by Charles at the Battle of Brustem. Charles made a victorious entry into Liège, dismantled its walls and stripped the city of some of its privileges.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Alarmed by the early successes of the new Duke of Burgundy and anxious to settle various questions relating to the execution of the Treaty of Conflans, Louis XI requested a meeting with Charles and daringly placed himself in his hands in the town of Péronne in Picardy in October 1468. In the course of the negotiations, the duke was informed of a fresh revolt of the Bishopric of Liège secretly fomented by Louis as part of the Liège Wars. After deliberating for four days on the best way to deal with his adversary, who had foolishly placed himself at his mercy, Charles decided to respect the promise he had given to guarantee Louis's safety and to negotiate with him. At the same time, he forced Louis to assist him in quelling the revolt in Liège. The town was captured and many inhabitants were massacred. Louis chose not to intervene on behalf of his former allies.


title: Charles the Bold

text: At the expiry of the one year's truce that followed the Treaty of Péronne, the French king accused Charles of treason, cited him to appear before the parlement, and seized some of the towns on the Somme in 1471. The duke retaliated by invading France with a large army; he took possession of Nesle and massacred its inhabitants. He failed, however, in an attack on Beauvais and had to content himself with laying waste to the countryside as far as Rouen. He eventually withdrew without attaining any useful result.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles pursued domestic policies that assisted the growth of his military establishment. To this end, he relinquished at least some of the extravagance that had characterized the court of Burgundy under his father, if not the magnificence of ceremonial events. From the beginning of his reign, he employed himself in reorganizing his army and the administration of his territories. While retaining the principles of feudal recruiting, he endeavored to establish a system of rigid discipline among his troops that was strengthened by the employment of foreign mercenaries, particularly Englishmen and Italians, and the augmentation of his artillery. The economic power that Charles inherited from Philip led to an independent judicial system, a sophisticated administration, and the establishment of local estates.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles constantly sought to expand the territories under his control. In 1469, Archduke Sigismund of Austria sold him the county of Ferrette, the Landgraviate of Alsace, and some other towns, reserving to himself the right to repurchase.


title: Charles the Bold

text: In 1472–1473, Charles bought the reversion of the Duchy of Guelders (i.e. the right to succeed to it) from its duke Arnold, whom he had supported against the rebellion of his son. Not content with being "the Grand Duke of the West," he conceived the project of forming a kingdom of Burgundy or Arles with himself as independent sovereign and even persuaded the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III to assent to crown him a king at Trier. The ceremony, however, did not take place owing to the emperor's precipitate flight by night in September 1473, which was occasioned by his displeasure at the duke's ambitions and demeanor.


title: Charles the Bold

text: At the close of 1473, the Burgundian State went from Charolais in France to the edges of the Netherlands. This made Charles the Bold one of the wealthiest and most powerful nobles in Europe. Indeed, his landholdings and revenue base rivalled those of many of the royal families.


title: Charles the Bold

text: In the year 1474, Charles began to involve himself in the series of political struggles that ultimately brought about his downfall. He first came into conflict with the Archduke Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum. Then, he quarreled with the Swiss, who supported the free towns in the Upper Rhine in their revolt against the tyranny of the ducal governor Peter von Hagenbach (who was condemned by a special international tribunal and executed on 9 May 1474). Finally, he antagonized René II, Duke of Lorraine, with whom he disputed the succession in the Duchy of Lorraine, which bordered many of his territories. All of these enemies readily joined forces against their common adversary Charles.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles suffered a first rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman Ruprecht of the Palatinate, Archbishop of Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months (July 1474 – June 1475) besieging the little town of Neuss on the Rhine (the Siege of Neuss), but was compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial army to raise the siege. Moreover, the expedition he had persuaded his brother-in-law Edward IV of England to undertake against Louis XI was stopped by the Treaty of Picquigny of 29 August 1475. He was more successful in Lorraine, where he seized Nancy on 30 November 1475.


title: Charles the Bold

text: From Nancy he marched against the Swiss. He saw fit to hang or drown the garrison of Grandson after its capitulation. Grandson was a possession of Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont, a close ally of Charles, that had been captured recently by the forces of the Swiss Confederacy. Some days later, on 2 March 1476, Charles was attacked outside the village of Concise by the confederate army in the Battle of Grandson and suffered a defeat; he was compelled to flee with a handful of attendants and abandon his artillery along with an immense booty, including his silver bath and the crown jewel called The Three Brothers commissioned by his grandfather Duke John the Fearless.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles succeeded in raising a fresh army of 30,000 men that he used to fight the Battle of Morat on 22 June 1476. He was again defeated by the Swiss army, which was assisted by the cavalry of the Duke of Lorraine. On this occasion, unlike the debacle at Grandson, little booty was lost, but Charles did lose about one third of his entire army. The defeated soldiers were pushed into the nearby lake, where they were drowned or shot at while trying to swim to safety on the opposite shore. On 6 October, Charles lost Nancy, which the Duke of Lorraine was able to recover.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Making a last effort, Charles formed a new army and arrived in the dead of winter before the walls of Nancy. Having lost many of his troops through the severe cold, it was with only a few thousand men that he met the joint forces of the Lorrainers and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of the town.


title: Charles the Bold

text: After the battle, the Duke of Lorraine sent messengers to discover what happened to Charles. A day later, a page reported that he had seen Charles die. About a dozen bodies were found by the edge of a pool, many of them followers and close friends of Charles. Although all the bodies had been stripped naked, some were recognizable, among them Charles, whose body was in a worse condition a short distance away. One cheek had been chewed away by wolves and the other embedded in frozen slime. Removing the body from the frozen water required fetching instruments from Nancy.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles's body bore evidence of a blow above the ear from a halberd and spear wounds through the thighs and abdomen. Canvassing Charles's physician, chaplain, pages, and others, it was established that the corpse was Charles based on missing teeth, a scar matching a wound Charles had received in a battle at Montl'héry, a shoulder wound, his long finger nails, and a fistula on the groin.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles's battered body was initially buried in the ducal church in Nancy, by René II, Duke of Lorraine. Later in 1550, his great-grandson, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, ordered it to be moved to the Church of Our Lady in Bruges, next to that of his daughter Mary. In 1562, Emperor Charles V's son and heir, King Philip II of Spain, erected a mausoleum in early renaissance style over his tomb, which is still extant. Excavations in 1979 positively identified the remains of Mary, in a lead coffin, but those of Charles were never found.


title: Charles the Bold

text: The Burgundian possessions became part of the Habsburg empire on the marriage of daughter Mary to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Burgundian chroniclers described the personality of the duke as austere, virtuous but without pity, pious and chaste, and with a great sense of honour. His contemporaries named him "le Hardi" or "der Kühne" ("the Bold") or "le Guerrier" ("the Warrior") or "le Terrible" ("the Terrible"), among others, and the epithet that became his byname in history, "le Téméraire" ("the Reckless"), is already found in Thomas Basin, bishop of Lisieux, who wrote around 1484.


title: Charles the Bold

text: In the 15th century these bynames were used simply as qualifications of his character, and the duke being simply known as "Charles de Bourgogne".


title: Charles the Bold

text: The process of the epithet "le Téméraire" acquiring the nature of a byname was gradual. In the 17th century, the "Grand Dictionnaire Historique" of Louis Moreri mentions "Charles de Bourgogne, surnommé le Guerrier, le Hardi ou le Téméraire".


title: Charles the Bold

text: In a recent influential work, "Le Royaume inachevé des ducs de Bourgogne (XIVe–XVe siècles)" (translated into English as "The Illusion of the Burgundian State"), Élodie Lecuppre-Desjardin argues that the Burgundian state (or states) lacked a common sense of Burgundian identity. The early dukes considered themselves "children of France" and consolidated their Burgundian lands to strengthen their position within the Kingdom of France. Charles the Bold detached himself from France, but cultivated a government modeled on that of the latter. Moreover, he contributed to the lack of a common identity by failing in his role as a prince who should have inspired both love and fear


title: Charles the Bold

text: Notable Belgian historians like Cauchies and Dumont recognize that the work has merits, but criticize the overemphasis on events (perceived as failure) under Charles the Bold regarding the state building project of the Burgundian rulers. Jean-Marie Cauchies writes:


title: Charles the Bold

text: The red thread, reflected in the title by the word 'unfinished', is that of a failure, due essentially to a lack of political foresight. What can one think about it? Yes, Burgundy (ie. the Duchy), the "cradle" of the dynasty, was lost forever in 1477. No, the territorial connection between northern and southern possessions could not be formed under Duke Charles, a prince to whom we must recognize — and the author does — the concern and the ability to create plans... But, were it through fifteen years of tribulations, under the leadership of Mary and Maximilian and then of Maximilian alone, a consortium of territories nevertheless emerged which found its place in the West under the heirs, Philippe le Beau and Charles Quint. Failed "kingdom"? Certainly the dukes of Burgundy would have enjoyed wearing the crown — and it is not simply that of a space between the North Sea and the Rhine that Charles the Bold aspired to, but another much more prestigious and not as quixotic as one might have thought, in the Empire... But in Lorraine or Savoy either, there was no crown for dukes. Could this be a procession of losers? Why always this diatribe, focusing in this case on the fourth duke, when results were reaped, although they were not up to declared political ambitions?


title: Charles the Bold

text: Dumont also notes that the state building project did not stop with the death of Charles the Bold but continued until the early years of Charles of Habsburg. The role of Philip the Handsome in particular should not be forgotten.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Charles left his unmarried 19-year-old daughter Mary as his heir; clearly her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. Both King Louis of France and Frederick III, the Holy Roman Emperor, had unmarried eldest sons; Charles had already made some movements towards arranging a marriage between Mary and the Emperor's son, Maximilian, before his death.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Louis unwisely concentrated on seizing border territories militarily, in particular the Duchy of Burgundy (a French fiefdom). This naturally made negotiations for a marriage difficult. He later admitted to his councillor Philippe de Commynes that this had been his greatest mistake. In the meantime, the Habsburg Emperor moved faster and more purposefully, and secured the match for his son Maximilian with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. Maximilian idolized his father-in-law, even adopting Charles's motto "J'ay emprins". His centralization policies later are usually considered continuation of Charles's work.


title: Charles the Bold

text: Due to this marriage, much of the Burgundian territories passed to the Holy Roman Empire. Throughout the early modern Wars of Religion and down to 1945, the border between the Holy Roman Empire and the kingdom of France, and later between France and Germany (specifically, concerning Alsace, Lorraine and Flanders), was disputed.


title: Charles the Bold

text: He is a main character in Sir Walter Scott's 1823 novel "Quentin Durward". He is portrayed as intelligent, though brash. The timeline was manipulated by the author for dramatic purposes. He is a principal character in Scott's later novel "Anne of Geierstein".


title: Charles the Bold

text: He is an important background character in "The House of Niccolò" series of historical novels by Dorothy Dunnett.


title: Kristen Kish

text: Kristen Kish (born December 1, 1983) is a Korean-born American chef known for winning the of "Top Chef". She was formerly chef de cuisine at Menton in the Fort Point neighborhood of Boston. She is the host of "36 Hours" on Travel Channel and a co-host of "Fast Foodies" on TruTV as well as co-host of "".


title: Kristen Kish

text: Kristen Kish was born in Seoul, South Korea, and adopted by a family in Kentwood, Michigan, at the age of four months. She worked as a model in high school.


title: Kristen Kish

text: Kish became an instructor at Stir, a culinary demonstration kitchen in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2012, Kish was promoted to Stir's "chef de cuisine" by the owner, Barbara Lynch. She was the "chef de cuisine" at Barbara Lynch's Menton in Boston until March 2014. In 2017, she released a book of recipes co-authored with Meredith Erickson, "Kristen Kish Cooking: Recipes and Techniques". In May 2018, Kish became chef at her new restaurant Arlo Grey in Austin, Texas.


title: Kristen Kish

text: Kish competed in Bravo's "Top Chef" in 2012. She was invited to participate in the qualifying rounds alongside her close friend from culinary school Stephanie Cmar, being tasked with creating a signature soup that would be judged by Emeril Lagasse. Kish passed the challenge and moved on into the competition proper (Cmar, however, was not so fortunate). From there Kish won four elimination challenges, creating dishes as varied as French cuisine and onion rings, before being eliminated during "Restaurant Wars" (episode 11). She was able to win her way back into the main competition with five consecutive victories in "Last Chance Kitchen", ultimately making it to the finale with Brooke Williamson. Kish defeated Williamson and was crowned the Top Chef, becoming the first competitor to win after winning "Last Chance Kitchen" and the second female winner in the history of the Top Chef franchise.


title: Kristen Kish

text: In 2015 Kish co-hosted the pilot season of "36 Hours", a series on the Travel Channel with Kyle Martino, a TV analyst and former soccer player. The show, an adaptation of the "New York Times" travel column of the same name, follows Kish and Martino as they spend 36 hours eating, drinking, and exploring a given city.


title: Kristen Kish

text: Starting in 2021, Kish is one of three chefs featured on TruTV's cooking competition show "Fast Foodies", alongside Jeremy Ford (winner of "") and Justin Sutherland (winner of an "Iron Chef America" episode, participant on ""). In each episode, a celebrity presents their favorite fast-food item. The chefs then compete in two rounds. First, they try to duplicate the dish as exactly as possible. Second, they re-imagine the item in a haute-cuisine interpretation.


title: Kristen Kish

text: Kish serves as one of the co-presenters, alongside Alton Brown and Chairman Mark Dacascos, on "", the 2022 Netflix revival of the "Iron Chef" franchise. Kish provides running commentary with Brown on the competition and often serves as the show's floor reporter, coming down to the kitchen floor to check with chefs on what they are doing.


title: Kristen Kish

text: On March 28, 2014, Kish publicly came out after announcing the first anniversary of the relationship with her girlfriend at the time, Jacqueline Westbrook, over Instagram. On September 29, 2019, Kish announced her engagement to Bianca Dusic, who is the VP of Food & Beverage for Standard Hotels, in an Instagram post. They married on April 18, 2021.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Oberyn Nymeros Martell, nicknamed the Red Viper, is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of epic fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin and its television adaptation, "Game of Thrones", where he is portrayed by Chilean-American actor Pedro Pascal.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Introduced in 2000's "A Storm of Swords", Oberyn is the younger brother of Doran Martell, from the desert kingdom of Dorne. Unlike his sickly and pensive brother, Oberyn is notorious for both his dangerous and unpredictable nature and his affinity for poisons, for which he earned his nickname. He is subsequently sporadically mentioned in "A Feast for Crows" and "A Dance with Dragons". Since his brother is sickly, he travels to King's Landing in order to claim the Dornish seat on the small council, as well as to seek vengeance for his sister Elia Martell's death at the hands of Ser Gregor Clegane, whom he suspects acted directly on orders from Tywin Lannister.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Oberyn Martell is the younger brother of Prince Doran Martell, the ruler of the southern principality of Dorne. He is a hotheaded, forceful, and lustful man with a quick wit and a barbed tongue. He is a formidable fighter whose "legend was fearsome" and is nicknamed the "Red Viper" due to his preference for red clothing, as well as the rumor of his use of poisoned weapons in duels. Tywin Lannister described Oberyn as "always been half-mad"; Oberyn's brother Doran has described him as "ever the viper", "deadly, dangerous, unpredictable", and "no man dared tread on him", and Oberyn himself admitted being a "bloodthirsty man". Oberyn was also responsible for the crippling of Willas Tyrell, the heir of House Tyrell of Highgarden, during a joust, though Willas never blamed Oberyn for the accident and the two remained friends.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: When Oberyn was no more than sixteen years old, he was found in bed with the paramour of old Lord Edgar Yronwood, who challenged Oberyn in a duel. The fight was only limited to drawing first blood and finished after both men took cuts, but Oberyn soon recovered while Lord Yronwood died of a festered wound, and it was rumored that Oberyn used a poisoned blade. In order to make peace with House Yronwood, Doran sent his own son Quentyn Martell to Yronwood as a ward and had Oberyn sent away to Oldtown and then overseas to Lys in temporary exile. Afterward, Oberyn traveled the world, served in the famous sellsword company Second Sons before founding a company of his own, and briefly studied poisons and dark arts as a novice at the Citadel, managing to obtain six links of the maester's chain before quitting due to boredom. He is bisexual and has eight illegitimate daughters, collectively known as the "Sand Snakes". He was very close to his older sister Elia and consequently seeks revenge upon Ser Gregor Clegane for her death.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Oberyn Martell is not a point of view character in the novels, and his actions are witnessed directly and interpreted through the eyes of Tyrion Lannister in the third book, and is later mentioned via the viewpoints of his niece Arianne Martell and the Norvosi captain of his brother Doran's royal guard Areo Hotah in the fourth and fifth books.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Oberyn leads a Dornish envoy to King's Landing to claim the seat on the small council on Prince Doran's behalf and obtain justice for his sister Elia Martell's murderer, as was agreed with then acting Hand of the King, Tyrion Lannister, who is now relegated to the master of coins. When Tyrion is accused of murdering King Joffrey Baratheon, Oberyn volunteers to champion for Tyrion in the trial by combat, so he can fight and seek revenge from the rival champion, Ser Gregor Clegane, who is Elia's murderer. Though Oberyn manages to gain the upper hand in the duel and impale Clegane to the ground with his spear, Clegane manages to surprise him by foot sweeping him to the ground and bear-hugging him, then gouging his eyes and finally killing him by repeatedly smashing his unarmored face (Oberyn is wearing a light visorless halfhelm) with a mailed fist. However, it is later revealed that Oberyn has coated his spear in manticore venom to ensure that Clegane will die a slow and agonizing death.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: When news of Oberyn's death reaches Dorne, the oldest three Sand Snakes Obara, Nymeria and Tyene unsuccessfully attempt to pressure Prince Doran into declaring war against the Iron Throne. Doran's estranged daughter Arianne then conspires with her three cousins to instate Princess Myrcella as queen and create a war of succession against King Tommen and House Lannister, but their plan is foiled by Doran and they are all arrested by Areo Hotah. Doran later reveals to Arianne that Oberyn has actually been acting as Doran's enforcer all along to carry out his secret grand plan for House Lannister's downfall. The three Sand Snakes are later also told about the plan, released after swearing allegiance to Doran's strategy, and assigned individual missions to infiltrate the Iron Throne as sleeper agents.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Oberyn Martell is played by Chilean-American actor Pedro Pascal in the fourth season of the HBO television adaption.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Oberyn arrives in King's Landing with his paramour, Ellaria Sand, to attend Joffrey's wedding in his brother's stead, and his meeting with Tyrion makes it clear that he has actually come to take revenge against the Lannisters for their role in the deaths of his sister, nephew and niece. At the wedding, Joffrey dies after being poisoned, and Tywin initially suspects Oberyn of having a hand in the murder since Oberyn has a past with poison chemistry, while Oberyn denies involvement and accuses Tywin of ordering Gregor Clegane to rape and murder Elia. The two reach a settlement when Tywin promises Oberyn a meeting with Clegane in exchange for Oberyn serving as one of the three judges at Tyrion's trial. At the trial, Oberyn implies that he is not convinced of Tyrion's guilt, and openly questions Cersei's testimony and asks Shae why Tyrion would tell her about all of his plans to murder Joffrey if he was the perpetrator.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: When Tyrion demands a trial by combat and Gregor Clegane is chosen as Cersei's champion, Oberyn volunteers to fight for Tyrion, proclaiming that he will exact his vengeance, starting with Ser Gregor. Martell valiantly fights Clegane, his superior speed making up for Clegane's size, and manages to wound him in the shoulder and the leg, flooring him. Refusing to kill him immediately, Oberyn furiously demands that Clegane admit to raping and killing Elia and her children, and that the order came from Tywin himself. Distracted for a moment, Oberyn is floored by Clegane, who – in a manner self-admittedly paraphrasing the murder of Elia – knocks out his teeth, straddles him and slowly gouges out his eyes, admitting to the rape and murder of Elia before crushing his skull. Tyrion is subsequently sentenced to death, but Oberyn's objective of vengeance was not in vain, since his spear is revealed to have been laced with the deadly venom of the manticore, which later begins to kill Clegane. Qyburn is charged with reviving the dying knight and does, though Clegane is now reduced to a mute zombie of his former self. Years later, in a battle with his brother Sandor Clegane, Gregor Clegane attempts to use the same move that he used to kill Oberyn against his brother, however, The Hound stabs him in the head before he can finish and sacrifices himself to push The Mountain out the side of the crumbling building, with both of them falling to their deaths in the flames of a dragon.


title: Oberyn Martell

text: Pedro Pascal garnered positive reviews for his role as Martell in the television show. For his performance, Pascal was nominated for the NewNowNext Award for Best New Television Actor, and, as part of the ensemble cast, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Transactional Analysis (TA) is a psychoanalytic theory and method of therapy wherein social interactions (or “transactions”) are analyzed to determine the ego state of the communicator (whether parent-like, childlike, or adult-like) as a basis for understanding behavior. In transactional analysis, the communicator is taught to alter the ego state as a way to solve emotional problems. The method deviates from Freudian psychoanalysis which focuses on increasing awareness of the contents of subconsciously held ideas. Eric Berne developed the concept and paradigm of transactional analysis in the late 1950s.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Eric Berne presented Transactional Analysis to the world as a phenomenological approach, supplementing Freud's philosophical construct with observable data. His theory built on the science of Wilder Penfield and René Spitz along with the neo-psychoanalytic thought of people such as Paul Federn, Edoardo Weiss, and Erik Erikson. By moving to an interpersonal motivational theory, he placed it both in opposition to the psychoanalytic traditions of his day and within what would become the psychoanalytic traditions of the future. From Berne, transactional analysts have inherited a determination to create an accessible and user-friendly system, an understanding of script or life-plan, ego states, transactions, and a theory of groups.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Berne's theory was based on the ideas of Freud but with distinct differences. Freudian psychotherapists focused on client personalities. Berne believed that insight could be better discovered by analyzing a client's social transactions. Berne mapped interpersonal relationships to three ego-states of the individuals involved: the "Parent, Adult", and "Child" state. He then investigated communications between individuals based on the current state of each. He called these interpersonal interactions "transactions" and used the label "games" to refer to certain patterns of transactions which popped up repeatedly in everyday life in every human interaction.


title: Transactional analysis

text: The origins of transactional analysis can be traced to the first five of Berne's six articles on intuition, which he began writing in 1949. Even at this early juncture and while still working to become a psychoanalyst, his writings challenged Freudian concepts of the unconscious.


title: Transactional analysis

text: In 1956, after 15 years of psychoanalytic training, Berne was refused admission to the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute as a fully-fledged psychoanalyst. He interpreted the request for several more years of training as a rejection and decided to walk away from psychoanalysis.


title: Transactional analysis

text: A few months later, he wrote a third article, titled "Transactional Analysis: A New and Effective Method of Group Therapy", which was presented by invitation at the 1957 Western Regional Meeting of the American Group Psychotherapy Association of Los Angeles. With the publication of this paper in the 1958 issue of the "American Journal of Psychotherapy", Berne's new method of diagnosis and treatment, transactional analysis, became a permanent part of the psychotherapeutic literature. In addition to restating his concepts of ego states and structural analysis, the 1958 paper added the important new features of transactional analysis proper (i.e. the analysis of transactions), games, and scripts.


title: Transactional analysis

text: His seminar group from the 1950s developed the term "transactional analysis (TA)" to describe therapies based on his work.


title: Transactional analysis

text: By 1964, this expanded into the International Transactional Analysis Association. While still largely ignored by the psychoanalytic community, many therapists have put his ideas in practice.


title: Transactional analysis

text: In the early 1960s, he published both technical and popular accounts of his conclusions. His first full-length book on TA was published in 1961, titled "Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy". "Structures and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups" (1963) examined the same analysis in a broader context than one-on-one interaction.


title: Transactional analysis

text: TA (Transactional Analysis) is not only post-Freudian, but, according to its founder's wishes, consciously extra-Freudian. That is to say that, while it has its roots in psychoanalysis, since Berne was a psychoanalytically-trained psychiatrist, it was designed as a dissenting branch of psychoanalysis in that it put its emphasis on transactional rather than "psycho-" analysis.


title: Transactional analysis

text: With its focus on transactions, TA shifted the attention from internal psychological dynamics to the dynamics contained in people's interactions. Rather than believing that increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas was the therapeutic path, TA concentrated on the content of people's interactions with each other. Changing these interactions was TA's path to solving emotional problems.


title: Transactional analysis

text: TA also differs from Freudian analysis in explaining that an individual's final emotional state is the result of inner dialogue between different parts of the psyche, as opposed to the Freudian hypothesis that imagery is the overriding determinant of inner emotional state. (For example, depression may be due to ongoing critical verbal messages from the inner Parent to the inner Child.) Berne believed that it is relatively easy to identify these inner dialogues and that the ability to do so is parentally suppressed in early childhood.


title: Transactional analysis

text: In addition, Berne believed in making a commitment to "curing" his clients, rather than just understanding them. To that end he introduced one of the most important aspects of TA: the contract—an agreement entered into by both client and therapist to pursue specific changes that the client desires.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Revising Freud's concept of the human psyche as composed of the id, ego, and super-ego, Berne postulated in addition three "ego states"—the Parent, Adult, and Child states—which were largely shaped through childhood experiences. These three are all part of Freud's ego; none represent the id or the superego.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Unhealthy childhood experiences can lead to being pathologically fixated in the Child and Parent ego states, bringing discomfort to an individual and/or others in a variety of forms, including many types of mental illness.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Berne considered how individuals interact with one another, and how the ego states affect each set of transactions. Unproductive or counterproductive transactions were considered to be signs of ego state problems. Analyzing these transactions according to the person's individual developmental history would enable the person to "get better". Berne thought that virtually everyone has something problematic about their ego states and that negative behaviour would not be addressed by "treating" only the problematic individual.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Berne identified a typology of common counterproductive social interactions, identifying these as "games".


title: Transactional analysis

text: Berne presented his theories in two popular books on transactional analysis: "Games People Play" (1964) and "What Do You Say After You Say Hello?" (1975).


title: Transactional analysis

text: By the 1970s, because of TA's non-technical and non-threatening jargon and model of the human psyche, many of its terms and concepts were adopted by eclectic therapists as part of their individual approaches to psychotherapy. It also served well as a therapy model for groups of patients, or marital/family counselees, where interpersonal (rather than intrapersonal) disturbances were the focus of treatment.


title: Transactional analysis

text: TA's popularity in the U.S. waned in the 1970s. The more dedicated TA purists banded together in 1964 with Berne to form a research and professional accrediting body, the International Transactional Analysis Association, or ITAA.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Within the framework of transactional analysis, more recent transactional analysts have developed different and overlapping theories of transactional analysis: cognitive, behavioural, relational, redecision, integrative, constructivist, narrative, body-work, positive psychological, personality adaptational, self-reparenting, psychodynamic and neuroconstructivist.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Some transactional analysts highlight the many things they have in common with cognitive behavioral therapy: the use of contracts with clear goals, the attention to cognitive distortions (called "adult decontamination" or "child deconfusion"), the focus on the client's conscious attitudes and behaviours and the use of "strokes".


title: Transactional analysis

text: Cognitive-based transactional analysts use ego state identification to identify communication distortions and teach different functional options in the dynamics of communication.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Some make additional contracts for more profound work involving life plans or scripts or with unconscious processes, including those which manifest in the client-therapist relationship as transference and countertransference, and define themselves as psychodynamic or relational transactional analysts. Some highlight the study and promotion of subjective well-being and optimal human functioning rather than pathology and so identify with positive psychology. Some are increasingly influenced by current research in attachment, mother-infant interaction and by the implications of interpersonal neurobiology and non-linear dynamic systems.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Transactional analysis integrates the theories of psychology and psychotherapy because it has elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive ideas.


title: Transactional analysis

text: According to the International Transactional Analysis Association, TA "is a theory of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change."


title: Transactional analysis

text: Freedom from historical maladaptations embedded in the childhood script is required in order to become free of inappropriate, inauthentic and displaced emotions which are not a fair and honest reflection of here-and-now life (such as echoes of childhood suffering, pity-me and other mind games, compulsive behaviour and repetitive dysfunctional life patterns). The aim of change under TA is to move toward autonomy (freedom from childhood script), spontaneity, intimacy, problem "solving" as opposed to "avoidance" or "passivity", cure as an ideal rather than merely making progress and learning new choices.


title: Transactional analysis

text: At any given time, a person experiences and manifests his or her personality through a mixture of behaviours, thoughts, and feelings. Typically, according to TA, there are three ego-states that people consistently use:


title: Transactional analysis

text: Berne differentiated his Parent, Adult, and Child ego states from actual adults, parents, and children, by using capital letters when describing them. These ego states may or may not represent the relationships that they act out. For example, in the workplace, an adult supervisor may take on the Parent role, and scold an adult employee as though he were a Child. Or a child, using the Parent ego-state, could scold her actual parent as though the parent were a Child.


title: Transactional analysis

text: These subdivisions categorize individuals' patterns of behaviour, feelings, and ways of thinking, which can be functional (beneficial or "positive") or dysfunctional/counterproductive ("negative").


title: Transactional analysis

text: Berne states that there are four types of diagnosis of ego states. They are: "behavioural" diagnosis, "social" diagnosis, "historical" diagnosis, and "phenomenological" diagnosis. A complete diagnosis would include all four types. It has subsequently been demonstrated that there is a fifth type of diagnosis, namely "contextual", because the same behaviour will be diagnosed differently according to the context of the behaviour.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Ego states do not correspond directly to Sigmund Freud's ego, superego, and id, although there are obvious parallels: Superego/Parent; Ego/Adult; Id/Child. Ego states are consistent for each person, and (argue TA practitioners) are more observable than the components of Freud's model. In other words, the ego state from which someone is communicating is evident in their behavior, manner and expression.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Emotional blackmail is a term coined by psychotherapist Dr. Susan Forward, about controlling people in relationships and the theory that fear, obligation, and guilt (FOG) are the transactional dynamics at play between the controller and the person being controlled. Understanding these dynamics are useful to anyone trying to extricate from the controlling behavior of another person, and deal with their own compulsions to do things that are uncomfortable, undesirable, burdensome, or self-sacrificing for others.


title: Transactional analysis

text: There are different levels of demands—demands that are of little consequence, demands that involve important issues or personal integrity, demands that affect major life decisions, and/or demands that are dangerous or illegal.


title: Transactional analysis

text: A 1995 research article by the staff of "Consumer Reports", with Martin Seligman as consultant, assessed that psychotherapy conducted by a group of Transactional Analysts is more effective than that of groups of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, marriage counselors, and physicians; and that psychotherapy lasting more than six months is 40% more effective than that lasting less than six months.


title: Transactional analysis

text: A 2010 review found 50 studies on transactional analysis that concluded it had a positive effect, and 10 where no positive effect was found. No studies that concluded a negative effect were found.


title: Transactional analysis

text: When Will Hunting from the movie "Good Will Hunting" is being choked by Sean Maguire, you can see the spine of the book "I'm OK, You're OK" in the bookcase that Will is being pinned against.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Thomas Harris's successful popular work from the late 1960s, "I'm OK, You're OK", is largely based on transactional analysis. A fundamental divergence, however, between Harris and Berne is that Berne postulates that everyone starts life in the "I'm OK" position, whereas Harris believes that life starts out "I'm not OK, you're OK".


title: Transactional analysis

text: New Age author James Redfield has acknowledged Harris and Berne as important influences in his best-seller "The Celestine Prophecy" (1993). The protagonists in the novel survive by striving (and succeeding) in escaping from "control dramas" that resemble the games of TA.


title: Transactional analysis

text: The twelfth episode of the third season of "" is called "Games Ponies Play" as a homage to this work.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Singer/songwriter Warren Zevon mentions transactional analysis in his 1980 song "Gorilla, You're a Desperado" from the album "Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School".


title: Transactional analysis

text: Singer-songwriter Joe South's 1968 song, "Games People Play", was based directly on transactional-analytic concepts and Berne's book of the same name.


title: Transactional analysis

text: TA makes an appearance in Antonio Campos' 2016 biographical drama "Christine", a film covering the events that led TV journalist Christine Chubbuck to die by suicide on TV. She is brought to a transactional analysis therapy session by a colleague, where they introduce her to the "Yes, But..." technique.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Singer John Denver references transactional analysis in his autobiography. His wife at the time, Annie Denver, was getting into the movement. John says he tried it but found it wanting.


title: Transactional analysis

text: Eric Berne's "Games People Play" was featured prominently on an episode of "Mad Men". The book was seen in Season 4, Episode 11, titled "Chinese Wall". The approximate time period for this episode is September 1965. By late September 1965, "Games People Play" had been on the "New York Times" non-fiction bestseller list for nine weeks already.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Daniel Franzese (born May 9, 1978) is an American actor, comedian, and activist best known for his roles in director Larry Clark's "Bully" and as Damian in Tina Fey's 2004 feature film "Mean Girls". Franzese is the creator of several live comedy shows, including the 2011 rock opera "Jersey Shoresical: A Frickin' Rock Opera!" and his one-man stand-up performance "I've Never Really Made the Kind of Money to Become a Mess" in 2013.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: After coming out as gay in 2014, Franzese became more active in the fight for civil and human rights in the LGBTQ community; and through his portrayal of the HIV-positive character Eddie in the second season of the HBO series "Looking", and its subsequent series finale television film, "", he has become a well known AIDS activist in the United States. In 2015, he became an ambassador for the Elizabeth Taylor AIDS Foundation.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: In 2020, Franzese began hosting a weekly comedy and faith podcast, "Yass, Jesus!" with former Trinity Broadcast Network host Azariah Southworth.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Franzese was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, New York, the son of Denise, a cafeteria worker, and Ralph "R. J." Franzese, a lounge singer. Franzese attended Piper High School in Sunrise, Florida from 1992 to 1996. He is of Italian descent.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Daniel Franzese has appeared in numerous feature films, including "Bully", "Party Monster", "Mean Girls", "Bristol Boys" and "War of the Worlds". He has also guest starred on several television series, including "The Comeback", "", "Burn Notice", "Party Down", and the web series "Foodies". He had a main role in the 2010 film "I Spit on Your Grave".


title: Daniel Franzese

text: In 2015, he was cast as Eddie in the HBO series "Looking"; and in 2016 he landed the role of Vern Testaverde in ABC Family's "Recovery Road". In 2016 and early 2017, he portrayed Jackson Morrison in ABC's legal drama "Conviction".


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Franzese has written, directed and performed several live comedy productions, including his one-man Off-Broadway show, "I’ve Never Really Made the Kind of Money to Become a Mess", which premiered in New York in 2013 at The Players Theater, and his 2011 rock opera "JERSEY SHORESICAL: A FRICKIN ROCK OPERA!", which also premiered in New York at The Fringe Festival before its run in Los Angeles at the Hayworth Theatre. Franzese is also an emerging stand-up comedian, and has performed on stages across America at clubs like Stand Up Live in Phoenix and the Comedy Store in Hollywood.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Franzese has been a guest panelist on the Logo TV comedy game show "Gay for Play Starring RuPaul" and was the host of "Gay Skit Happens", a comedy sketch show, also on Logo TV.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Franzese's stand up comedy tour, "YASS You're Amazing!", found success at colleges, clubs and theaters. He has also headlined The Burbank Comedy Festival, The Ruby LA Queer Comedy Festival. In 2019, Franzese performed his hit New York comedy show "Danny Franzese and The House Of Glen Coco" at SF Sketchfest featuring his pick of the best and brightest in queer comedy.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: On October 12, 2007, Franzese curated his first art show called "Halloween", a multi-artist show which examined celebrity, vanity, money, and the titular holiday.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: On April 25, 2008, at the World of Wonder Storefront Gallery in Los Angeles, California, Franzese curated an art show called "depARTed". The show featured art inspired by famous personalities from Marilyn Monroe, Judy Garland, James Dean and Anna Nicole Smith to notable figures such as Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr., to artists such as Keith Haring and Isabella Blow. Artists included Ron English, Keyth Ryden (also known as KRK Ryden), and Jessicka.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Franzese's show," Crusaders and Haters", at Royal/T gallery showcased an assortment of work from artists from all over the world, depicting superheroes and villains in pop culture. The show opened July 17, 2009.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Controversy was sparked after Franzese posted a video about how he was in talks with Walsh University to host an event, but was later told that the university was no longer interested. Franzese alleged that he had been fired from the event for being homosexual and the university being Catholic. This caused LGBTQIA+ students on the university campus to speak about their (largely negative) experiences. Franzese outreached to the students to show support.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: After penning a coming out letter to his "Mean Girls" character Damian in 2014, in which the actor spoke of his admiration for the courage Damian displayed as an openly gay teenager and referring to him as an icon for gay youth, Franzese became an influential voice in the LGBTQ community. When he became an official ambassador for the Elizabeth Taylor AIDS Foundation, organizations such as GLAAD invited Franzese to host their 2015 gala in San Francisco. He also presented the GLAAD playbook on HIV and AIDS to MSNBC on behalf of the organization. His reputation as an activist grew after he was awarded the role of Eddie, an HIV-positive activist for a non-profit organization, in the HBO series "Looking". During his time on the series, Franzese used his celebrity to promote messages of acceptance and understanding for people living with HIV at special events, through media appearances, and a speeches at college campuses, including the University of Wisconsin in April 2016.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: Franzese is also an ambassador for LAMBDA Legal, which is dedicated to decreasing the stigma associated with people living with HIV, and changing current HIV-related laws.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: In September 2019, Franzese was an ambassador and the host for the AIDS Walk Atlanta & 5K Run, a fundraising and awareness campaign that raises funds to help prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and to provide critical social services and healthcare for people living with HIV. He was also the captain of his team for the event: Team Glen Coco.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: In addition to his advocacy on behalf of HIV patients, on March 22, 2019, Franzese partnered with Lonely Whale and Bacardi in their efforts to stop pollution of the oceans with discarded plastic. They generated #thefuturedoesntsuck campaign to persuade the Unicode Consortium to remove all single-use plastic straws, which endanger marine wildlife, from drink icons in its emoji catalog.


title: Daniel Franzese

text: In 2016, Franzese proposed to his boyfriend of two years, stylist Joseph Bradley Phillips, at a Starbucks in North Hollywood, California. They called off their engagement in July 2018.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The Taklimakan or Taklamakan Desert (; , Xiao'erjing: , ; ; also spelled Taklimakan and Teklimakan) is a desert in Southwestern Xinjiang in Northwest China. It is bounded by the Kunlun Mountains to the south, the Pamir Mountains to the west, the Tian Shan range to the north, and the Gobi Desert to the east.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: While most researchers agree on being the Persian word for "place", etymology of "Takla" is less clear. The word may be an Uyghur borrowing of the Persian , "to leave alone/out/behind, relinquish, abandon" + "makan". Another plausible explanation suggests it is derived from Turki "taqlar makan", describing "the place of ruins". Chinese scholars Wang Guowei and Huang Wenbi linked the name to the Tocharians, a historical people of the Tarim Basin, making the meaning of "Taklamakan" similar to "Tocharistan". According to Uyghur scholar Turdi Mettursun Kara, the name Taklamakan comes from the expression Terk-i Mekan. The name is first mentioned as Terk-i Makan (ترك مكان / trk mkan) in the book called Tevarih-i Muskiyun, which was written in 1867 in the Hotan Prefecture of Xinjiang.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The Taklamakan Desert has an area of , making it slightly smaller than Germany. The desert is part of the Tarim Basin, which is long and wide. It is crossed at its northern and at its southern edge by two branches of the Silk Road, by which travellers sought to avoid the arid wasteland.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: It is the world's second-largest shifting sand desert, with about 85% made up of shifting sand dunes, ranking 17th in size in a ranking of the world's largest deserts.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: Dunes range in height from up to as much as . The few breaks in this sea of sand are small patches of alluvial clay. Generally, the steeper sides of the dunes face away from the prevailing winds.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The People's Republic of China has constructed two cross-desert highways. The Tarim Desert Highway links the cities of Hotan (on the southern edge) and Luntai (on the northern edge) and the Bayingol to Ruoqiang road crosses the desert to the east.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: In recent years, the desert has expanded in some areas, its sands enveloping farms and villages as a result of desertification.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: Named areas in the desert include Ha-la-ma, A-lang-ha and Mai-k'o-tsa-k'o. The Mazartag mountains are located in the western part of the desert.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: Because it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, Taklamakan has a cold desert climate. Given its relative proximity with the cold to frigid air masses in Siberia, extreme temperatures are recorded in wintertime, sometimes well below , while in summer they can rise up to . During the 2008 Chinese winter storms episode, the Taklamakan was reported to be covered, for the first time in its recorded history, entirely with a thin layer of snow reaching , with a temperature of in some observatories.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: Its extreme inland position, virtually in the very heartland of Asia and thousands of kilometres from any open body of water, accounts for the somewhat wide diurnal temperature variation.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The Taklamakan Desert has very little water, therefore it is hazardous to cross. Merchant caravans on the Silk Road would stop for relief at the thriving oasis towns. It was in close proximity to many of the ancient civilizations—to the Northwest is the Amu Darya basin, to the southwest the Afghanistan mountain passes lead to Iran and India, to the east is China, and even to the north ancient towns such as Almaty can be found.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The key oasis towns, watered by rainfall from the mountains, were Kashgar, Miran, Niya, Yarkand, and Khotan (Hetian) to the south, Kuqa and Turpan in the north, and Loulan and Dunhuang in the east. Now, many, such as Miran and Gaochang, are ruined cities in sparsely inhabited areas in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The archaeological treasures found in its sand-buried ruins point to Tocharian, early Hellenistic, Indian, and Buddhist influences. Its treasures and dangers have been vividly described by Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin, Albert von Le Coq, and Paul Pelliot.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: Later, the Taklamakan was inhabited by Turkic peoples. Starting with the Han dynasty, the Chinese sporadically extended their control to the oasis cities of the Taklamakan Desert to control the important silk route trade across Central Asia. Periods of Chinese rule were interspersed with rule by Turkic, Mongol and Tibetan peoples. The present population consists largely of Turkic Uyghur people and ethnic Han people.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: This desert was explored by several scholars, including Xuanzang, a 7th-century Buddhist monk, and, in the 20th century, the archaeologist Aurel Stein.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: Atmospheric studies have shown that dust originating from the Taklamakan is blown over the Pacific, where it contributes to cloud formation over the Western United States. Further, the traveling dust redistributes minerals from the Taklamakan to the western U.S.A. via rainfall. Studies have shown that a specific class of mineral found in the dust, known as K-feldspar, triggers ice formation particularly well. K-feldspar is particularly susceptible to corrosion by acidic atmospheric pollution, such as nitrates and phosphates; exposure to these constituents reduces the ability of the dust to trigger water droplet formation.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The desert is the main setting for Chinese film series "Painted Skin" and "". The Chinese TV series "Candle in the Tomb" is mostly spent in this desert as they are searching for the ancient city of Jinjue (see Niya (Tarim Basin)).


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The issue No. 39 'Soft Places' of Neil Gaiman's "The Sandman" takes place in the desert, when Marco Polo gets lost in the desert.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: A portion of the Korean quasi-historical TV drama series "Queen Seondeok" takes place in the Taklamakan Desert. Sohwa escapes from Silla with baby Deokman and raises her in the desert. As a teenager, Deokman returns to Silla and uses the knowledge and experience gained from life among international traders in the Taklamakan trading centers to gain the throne of Silla.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The desert is showcased in the Japanese animation "Mobile Suit Gundam 00", set in the year 2307. On the series, the Taklamakan Desert is the setting of a large-scale military joint operation performed by all the world's blocks of power, and interdicted by the paramilitary organization Celestial Being.


title: Taklamakan Desert

text: The Japanese anime "Code Geass" depicts a fictionalized version of Taklamakan Desert within the Chinese Federation, one of three superstates in the series. It serves as the setting of a key battle between the Holy Britannian Empire and Japanese insurrectionists backed by the Chinese Federation. Later, the presence of an underground city is revealed, where members of the Geass Order are being used by Emperor Charles zi Britannia and his consort Marianne vi Britannia to bring about the Ragnarök Connection.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, in the United States, and part of the Boston metropolitan area. Brookline borders six of Boston's neighborhoods: Brighton, Allston, Fenway–Kenmore, Mission Hill, Jamaica Plain, and West Roxbury. The city of Newton lies to the west of Brookline. Brookline was first settled in 1638 as a hamlet in Boston, known as Muddy River; it was incorporated as a separate town in 1705.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: At the time of the 2020 United States Census, the population of the town was 63,191. It is the most populous municipality in Massachusetts to have a town (rather than city) form of government.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Once part of Algonquian territory, Brookline was first settled by European colonists in the early 17th century. The area was an outlying part of the colonial settlement of Boston and known as the hamlet of Muddy River. In 1705, it was incorporated as the independent town of Brookline. The northern and southern borders of the town were marked by two small rivers or brooks, which is the town's namesake. The northern border with Brighton (which was itself part of Cambridge until 1807) was Smelt Brook. (That name appears on maps starting at least as early as 1852, but sometime between 1888 and 1925 the brook was covered over.) The southern boundary, abutting Boston, was the Muddy River.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: The Town of Brighton was merged with Boston in 1874, and the Boston-Brookline border was redrawn to connect the new Back Bay neighborhood with Allston-Brighton. This merger created a narrow strip of land along the Charles River belonging to Boston, cutting Brookline off from the shoreline. It also put certain lands north of the Muddy River on the Boston side, including what are now Kenmore Square and Packard's Corner. The current northern border follows Commonwealth Avenue, and on the northeast, St. Mary's Street. When Frederick Law Olmsted designed the Emerald Necklace of parks and parkways for Boston in the 1890s, the Muddy River was integrated into the Riverway and Olmsted Park, creating parkland accessible by both Boston and Brookline residents.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Throughout its history, Brookline has resisted being annexed by Boston, in particular during the Boston–Brookline annexation debate of 1873. The neighboring towns of West Roxbury and Hyde Park connected Brookline to the rest of Norfolk County until they were annexed by Boston in 1874 and 1912, respectively, putting them in Suffolk County. Brookline is now separated from the remainder of Norfolk County.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline has long been regarded as a pleasant and verdant environment. In the 1841 edition of the "Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening", Andrew Jackson Downing described the area this way:


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline residents were among the first in the country to propose extending the vote to women. Benjamin F. Butler, in his 1882 campaign for Governor, advocated the idea.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Two branches of upper Boston Post Road, established in the 1670s, passed through Brookline. Brookline Village was the original center of retail activity. In 1810, the Boston and Worcester Turnpike, now Massachusetts Route 9, was laid out, starting on Huntington Avenue in Boston and passing through the village center on its way west.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Steam railroads came to Brookline in the middle of the 19th century. The Boston and Worcester Railroad was constructed in the early 1830s, and passed through Brookline near the Charles River. The rail line is still in active use, now paralleled by the Massachusetts Turnpike. The Highland branch of the Boston and Albany Railroad was built from Kenmore Square to Brookline Village in 1847, and was extended into Newton in 1852. In the late 1950s, this would become the Green Line D branch.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: The portion of Beacon Street west of Kenmore Square was laid out in 1850. Streetcar tracks were laid above ground on Beacon Street in 1888, from Coolidge Corner to Massachusetts Avenue in Boston, via Kenmore Square. In 1889, they were electrified and extended over the Brighton border at Cleveland Circle. They would eventually become the Green Line C branch.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Thanks to the Boston Elevated Railway system, this upgrade from horse-drawn carriage to electric trolleys occurred on many major streets all over the region, and made transportation into downtown Boston faster and cheaper. Much of Brookline was developed into a streetcar suburb, with large brick apartment buildings sprouting up along the new streetcar lines.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline was known as the hamlet of Muddy River and was considered part of Boston until the Town of Brookline was independently incorporated in 1705. (The Muddy River was used as the Brookline–Boston border at incorporation.) It is said that the name derives from a farm therein once owned by Judge Samuel Sewall. Originally the property of CPT John Hull and Judith Quincy Hull. Judge Sewall came into possession of this tract, which embraced more than 350 acres, through Hannah Quincy Hull (Sewall) who was the Hull's only daughter. John Hull in his youth lived in Muddy River Hamlet, in a little house which stood near the Sears Memorial Church. Hull removed to Boston, where he amassed a large fortune for those days. Judge Sewall probably never lived on his Brookline estate.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, Brookline has a total area of , all but (0.44%) of which is land.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: The northern part of Brookline, roughly north of the D-line tracks, is urban in character, as highly walkable and transit rich. The population density of this northern part of town is nearly , similar to the densest neighborhoods in nearby Cambridge, Somerville and Chelsea, Massachusetts (the densest cities in New England), and slightly lower than that of central Boston's residential districts (Back Bay, South End, Fenway, etc.). The overall density of Brookline, which also includes suburban districts and grand estates south of the D-line, is still higher than that of many of the largest cities in the United States, especially in the South and West. Brookline borders Newton (part of Middlesex County) to the west and Boston (part of Suffolk County) in all other directions; it is therefore non-contiguous with any other part of Norfolk County. Brookline became an exclave of Norfolk County in 1873, when the neighboring town of West Roxbury was annexed by Boston (and left Norfolk County to join Suffolk County). Brookline refused to be annexed by Boston after the Boston–Brookline annexation debate of 1873.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline separates the bulk of the city of Boston (except for a narrow neck or corridor near the Charles River) from its westernmost neighborhoods of Allston–Brighton, which had been the separate town of Brighton until annexed by Boston in 1873.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 58,732 people, 24,891 households, and 12,233 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 26,448 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 73.3% White, 3.4% Black or African American, 0.12% Native American, 15.6% Asian (6.7% Chinese, 2.6% Indian, 2.3% Korean, 1.8% Japanese), 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.01% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.0% of the population (0.9% Mexican, 0.8% Puerto Rican). (Source: 2010 Census Quickfacts)


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: There were 25,594 households, out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18, living with them, 38.4% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52.2% were non-families. 36.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.86.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: In the town, the population distribution was wide, with 16.6% under the age of 18, 11.7%, from 18 to 24, 37.3% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.1 males.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: The median income for a household in the town was $66,711, and the median income for a family was $92,993. Males had a median income of $56,861 versus $43,436 for females. The per capita income for the town was $44,327. About 4.5% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under the age of 18 and 7.5% of those ages 65 and older. The poverty rate of Brookline’s residents rate rose form 9.3% in 2000 to 13.1% in 2010.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Serving as a residential zone for nearby academic and medical institutes such as Harvard Medical School and Boston University, Brookline was reported as the town with the most doctoral degree holders (14.0% of the total population in 2012) in the United States.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline is governed by a representative (elected) town meeting, which is the legislative body of the town, and a five-person Select Board that serves as the executive branch of the town.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: In 2017, a Brookline Town Meeting voted to recognize Indigenous People's Day instead of Columbus Day.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: In 2019, Brookline banned the distribution of carry out plastic bags at grocery stores and other places of business.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: In 2021, Brookline became the first town in America to ban the sale of all tobacco products and electronic and vaping cigarettes to young people born after January 1, 2000. Flavored tobacco products have been banned also. Vendors and small business owners have filed a lawsuit against the town, citing a loss of business and an inability to hire new employees in the near future.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: The town is served by the Public Schools of Brookline. The student body at Brookline High School includes students from more than 76 countries. Many students attend Brookline High from surrounding neighborhoods in Boston, such as Mission Hill and Mattapan through the Metropolitan Council for Educational Opportunity (METCO) system.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: There are eight elementary schools in the Brookline Public School system: Baker School, Coolidge Corner School, Driscoll, Heath, Lawrence, Lincoln, Pierce, and Runkle. As of December 2006, there were 6,089 K–12 students enrolled in the Brookline public schools. The system includes one early learning center, eight grades K–8 schools, and one comprehensive high school. The Old Lincoln School is a surplus building used by the town to temporarily teach students in when another school building is being renovated. It was rented in 2009 as the venue for the play Sleep No More.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: As of the 2012-13 school year, the student body was 57.4% White, 18.1% Asian, 6.4% Black, 9.9% Hispanic, and 8.2% multi-race. Approximately 30% of students came from homes where English is not the first language.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Also, parts of the following are located in Brookline: Boston University including Wheelock College, Boston College, and Northeastern University's Parsons Field.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: Brookline is served by the C and D branches of the MBTA's Green Line trains, with inbound service to downtown Boston and outbound service to Newton. The B line runs along the town's northern border of Commonwealth Avenue in Allston.


title: Brookline, Massachusetts

text: The town of Brookline is protected full-time by the 158 paid, professional firefighters of the Brookline Fire Department (BFD). It currently operates out of five fire stations located throughout the town, under the command of a Deputy Chief per shift. The BFD also operates a fire apparatus fleet of four engines, two ladders, one quint, one cross-staffed rescue (special operations), two squads, one special operations unit, one haz-mat decon trailer, two maintenance units, as well as numerous other special, support, and reserve units. The Brookline Fire Department responds to approximately 8,500 emergency calls annually. The current Chief of Department is John F. Sullivan.


title: Ping pong show

text: A ping pong show is a form of stage entertainment that takes place in strip clubs. It is a type of sex show in which women use their pelvic muscles to either hold, eject, or blow objects from their vaginal cavity. Ping pong balls are the most iconic objects used. The show has been popular in Southeast Asia (particularly Bangkok, Thailand) for several decades, and is primarily performed for foreign tourists. The show is in many cases associated with sex tourism and human rights concerns have been raised regarding the performers.


title: Ping pong show

text: The show typically takes place on a stage or dance platform and often involves a single performer. Usually she performs while lying on her back, although some variations involve a standing performer. The performer is commonly dressed in only a bikini top or bra and has her pubic hair shaved. Items can be inserted into the vagina either on stage as part of the performance or beforehand in preparation. As an alternative to ejecting the items using the pelvic muscles, objects are sometimes pulled out by hand. The earliest versions of the show involved ping pong balls, but other diverse objects have since been used in the performance. They include eggs, bananas, long strings or ribbons, whistles, horns, pens, cigarettes, candles, darts, spinning tops, bottles, firecrackers, razor blades, eels and chopsticks. Another activity is the shooting of goldfish into a bowl, or stuffing a large frog inside to see how long she can keep it in. A male member of the audience may be brought onto the dance platform to hold a balloon while a dart is shot at it, or the performer may do a shoot around the table at balloons tied to each customer's chair. Another example of audience participation involves the performer filling her vagina with beer, expelling it into a glass and inviting an audience member to drink it.


title: Ping pong show

text: The popularity of ping pong shows in Thailand dates back to the mid 1970s and a show is featured in the 1976 sexploitation film "Emanuelle in Bangkok". The shows are officially prohibited under the obscenity legislation of Thai law, and in 2004 the government further limited what is permitted. Nevertheless, demand from foreign tourists and local police corruption usually results in the practice being implicitly condoned by Thai officials. There are instances of women performing at ping pong shows also working as prostitutes, but in many ping pong show bars performers do not sell sex to customers. Although prostitution in Thailand is not strictly illegal, publicly soliciting and creating a nuisance is.


title: Ping pong show

text: Locations like Patpong in Bangkok, Walking Street, Pattaya, Bangla Road in Phuket and Ta Pae Gate in Chiang Mai have numerous venues hosting ping-pong shows. Customers are brought in by employees working for the ping-pong shows. They approach tourists and passers-by in streets such as Bangkok's Khaosan Road during the late evening and ask them if they want to see a show. They are frequently shown pictures of the show in a booklet. The shows take place on the upper floors of bars and strip clubs in locations such as Bangkok's entertainment district Patpong, while bikini-clad women dance in the ground floor bars. An entry fee is usually charged, often equivalent to around , though typically nearer in Bangkok. In some cases, instead of a cover charge, the drinks are priced 3–4 times higher than usual and a purchase is required. Other possible charges can include show fees and exit charges. In addition, performers often go around asking for tips after they have finished their acts.