title: Invisible Woman

text: Initially, her powers are limited to making herself invisible. However, before long Sue discovers she can make other things invisible as well as create force fields of invisible energy. After Susan is injured in battle with the Mole Man, her father escapes from prison and operates on her to save her life. Franklin makes amends with his children before returning to prison; however, the Super-Skrull finds a way to kidnap Dr. Storm, mimic his appearance, and then fight the Fantastic Four as the Invincible Man. In the process of defeating the Super-Skrull, Dr. Storm sacrifices his own life to protect the Fantastic Four from a Skrull booby trap.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Reed and Sue's relationship progresses, with the two of them deciding to get married. The wedding is the event of the century, with several of New York City's preeminent superheroes in attendance. Not long after that, Sue and the Fantastic Four encounter Galactus and the Silver Surfer. Sue later becomes pregnant with her first child. As a result, she takes time off as an active member of the team. Johnny's girlfriend, the Inhuman elementalist Crystal, joins the team, taking over Susan's roster spot.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Susan's cosmic ray irradiated blood cells serve as an obstacle for her in carrying the unborn child to term. Knowing this, Reed, Johnny, and Ben journey into the Negative Zone to acquire the Cosmic Control Rod from Annihilus. Effectively utilizing the device, the baby is safely delivered and is named Franklin, in memory of Susan and Johnny's father. Due to the genetically altered structure of his parents, Franklin is a mutant, possessing vast powers. Seeking to use the boy's talents for his own sadistic purposes, Annihilus triggers a premature full release of Franklin's latent abilities, which were already in the process of gradual emergence. Fearing that his son could release enough psionic energy to eliminate all life on Earth, Reed shuts down Franklin's mind. Angry with Reed for not seeking her input in the matter, Susan leaves the Fantastic Four and has a marital separation from Reed. Medusa of the Inhumans takes her roster spot. With the help of Namor, Susan reconciles with Reed and returns to the Fantastic Four accompanied by Franklin.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Susan eventually becomes pregnant for a second time. However, this second child is stillborn due to Susan having been exposed to radiation inside the Negative Zone. A depressed Susan is manipulated by Psycho-Man into becoming Malice. As Malice, Susan attacks her friends and family in the Fantastic Four, utilizing her abilities at power levels she had never displayed previously. Reed saves Susan by forcing her to hate him legitimately. Susan (off-panel) does something to Psycho-Man, causing him to let out a terrifying scream. After she rejoins her teammates, Susan states that Psycho-Man will never hurt anyone ever again. Susan is profoundly affected by the entire episode, and changes her code name from "Invisible Girl" to "Invisible Woman". Along with Reed, she briefly leaves the Fantastic Four and joins the Avengers. The two of them rejoin the Fantastic Four before long.


title: Invisible Woman

text: During the Infinity War, Susan faces off against Malice, who has reemerged in her subconscious. Susan absorbs Malice into her own consciousness. Subsequently, Susan's personality is influenced by Malice, causing her to become more aggressive in battle, even creating invisible razor-like force fields she uses to slice enemies. Her son Franklin, who has traveled forward and back in time, becomes the adult hero Psi-Lord, frees his mother, and absorbs the influence of Malice into himself. He eventually defeats Malice by projecting her into the mind of the Dark Raider, an insane alternate universe counterpart of Reed Richards who later dies in the Negative Zone.


title: Invisible Woman

text: After the apparent death of Reed, Susan becomes a capable leader. Susan keeps searching for Reed, feeling he is still alive, despite romantic advances from her old flame, Namor the Sub-Mariner. The Fantastic Four eventually rescue the time-displaced Reed, who finds himself temporarily losing confidence in his leadership skills, since Susan is also a capable leader.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Following their return to their Earth of origin, the Fantastic Four encounter Valeria von Doom. This new Marvel Girl came from an alternate future, where she was the child of Susan and Doctor Doom. Susan eventually comes to accept the young girl as a friend. During a conflict with , Franklin reveals that he used his abilities to save Susan's original stillborn child and place it in another alternate future. After the ordeal involving Abraxas, Marvel Girl is restored to a baby again inside Susan's womb. Susan again has a difficult birthing. Due to the help of Doctor Doom, Susan gives birth to a healthy baby girl, which Doom names Valeria, his price for helping Sue. Doom places a spell on the baby, which makes her his familiar spirit, to be used against the Fantastic Four. The Fantastic Four wrestle Valeria free from Doom's control and defeat him.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Zius, leader of a group of Galactus refugees, kidnaps Susan. His intent was to use her powers to hide planets from Galactus. Reed finds a way to fool Zius, by switching Susan and Johnny's powers. Susan assists in an adventure where Johnny becomes a herald of Galactus. Wielding a cosmic version of her powers, Johnny is able to see through people to the very cores of their personality.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Both Sue and Johnny gain a newfound respect for each other and how they deal with their powers. Soon, Reed tries to switch the powers back. The entire FF's powers are granted to four random civilians before being restored to their rightful wielders.


title: Invisible Woman

text: This parallels an earlier torture by Doom, where Sue was given an extremely painful version of Johnny's pyrokinetic ability.


title: Invisible Woman

text: During the 2006–07 storyline "Civil War", which takes place in the aftermath of an explosion in a residential neighborhood in Stamford, Connecticut, and prompting calls for the government to register people with superhuman abilities, Sue's brother Johnny is beaten up by locals angered by his celebrity superhero status. Although Sue is initially part of the pro-registration side supporting the Superhuman Registration Act, she defects after the Thor clone, created by her husband Mister Fantastic and Tony Stark, kills Bill Foster. Sue leaves the Baxter Building, informing Reed via a note that their children are in his care, as she intends to join Captain America's underground resistance force. Her final injunction to her husband is a heartfelt request: "Please fix this."


title: Invisible Woman

text: The Storm siblings narrowly escape a team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents bent on capturing them in "Civil War" #5. The two further elude detection by operating under fake husband and wife identities provided by Nick Fury, becoming members of Captain America's Secret Avengers. Before storming the Negative Zone prison, Sue visits Namor to plead for assistance. He refuses and indicates she is still attracted to him, an accusation she does not deny.


title: Invisible Woman

text: During the final battle depicted in "Civil War" #7, as Susan is nearly shot by Taskmaster, but Reed Richards jumps in front of her and takes the brunt of the attack, sustaining a major injury. Outraged, Susan beats Taskmaster into the ground. Following the end of the war, Susan helps with the clean-up of New York City. She and the other Secret Avengers are granted amnesty, and she returns home to Reed. Seeking to repair the damage done to their marriage as a result of the war, Sue and Reed take time off from the Fantastic Four, but ask Storm and the Black Panther to take their places in the meantime.


title: Invisible Woman

text: In the second issue of "World War Hulk", the Fantastic Four confront the Hulk. Reed has designed a machine that recreates the Sentry's aura. The Hulk, only momentarily calmed, discovers the ruse. Sue deploys her force fields to defend Reed against the Hulk, who shatters her protective fields with such force that she collapses, leaving Reed vulnerable. Reed suffers a vicious beating at the hands of the Hulk; Sue telephones the Sentry for help.


title: Invisible Woman

text: The Hulk transforms Madison Square Garden into a gladiatorial arena. Sue and the other defeated heroes are held captive in a lower level. The heroes are outfitted with the same obedience disks that were used to suppress the Hulk's powers and force him to fight his companions on Sakaar.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Some time after World War Hulk, but before Secret Invasion, the Richards family has hired a new nanny for their kids, Tabitha Deneuve. At the same time, a mysterious new group, calling themselves the New Defenders, commits robberies, and one of their members, Psionics, starts a relationship with Johnny. After a bad break-up, Johnny is kidnapped by the Defenders, along with Doctor Doom and Galactus, to power a massive machine that is designed to apparently save the people of the future 500 years from now, a plan orchestrated by Tabitha, who is revealed to be Susan Richards from 500 years in the future. Eventually, the present Fantastic Four are able to save both the present Earth and the future Earth by sending the future inhabitants to the Earth Trust's private duplicate Nu-Earth, but after freeing Doctor Doom, the future Sue goes to apologize to him and is electrocuted by Doom.


title: Invisible Woman

text: While Susan is on a lecture tour in Vancouver, British Columbia, a Skrull posing as Mister Fantastic ambushes her, applying pressure to her skull with an invisible force field and knocking her unconscious. Then, a Skrull infiltrates the Baxter Building disguised as Susan and opens a portal into the Negative Zone, forcing the top three floors of the building into the Negative Zone, and in turn trapping herself, Johnny, Ben, and the two Richards children there. The Skrull impersonating her is later revealed to be Johnny's ex-wife Lyja, who once infiltrated the Fantastic Four by impersonating Ben Grimm's love interest Alicia Masters. The real Susan Richards is recovered alive from a downed Skrull ship after the final battle of the invasion.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Reed started the Future Foundation for the benefit of the world and for science. When the Human Torch died, the Fantastic Four was dissolved and Sue's heroic exploits were moved entirely under the banner of the Future Foundation. It is later revealed that Johnny was revived and is still alive.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Sue and the rest of the Fantastic Four create a life raft that will save them from the coming death of the universe. However, right before the final incursion between their universe and the Ultimate Universe, Sue's part of the ship becomes separated. Reed and Black Panther plan to get her ship back, with Sue holding her part together with her force field. However, the death of the universe proves too much, even for her, and she, Ben, and her children die at the hands of Oblivion, with Reed screaming in agony at the death of his wife and children. Captain Marvel tells him they need to go, and they leave Sue's destroyed part of the ship behind.


title: Invisible Woman

text: When Molecule Man transfers his power to Reed, Reed used it to resurrect his family including Sue, and they began to rebuild the entire Multiverse.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Invisible Woman was later with Mister Fantastic and the Future Foundation when they were confronted by the Griever at the End of All Things.


title: Invisible Woman

text: The Invisible Woman received her powers after cosmic radiation had triggered mutagenic changes in her body. Originally only able to turn herself invisible, Sue later discovered she could render other things invisible as well and project an invisible force field. It has been said on numerous occasions, including by the Fantastic Four's greatest opponent, Doctor Doom, that Susan Storm is the single-most powerful member of the quartet and she is one of the few beings able to rupture the shell of a Celestial.


title: Invisible Woman

text: As the Invisible Woman, Susan can render herself wholly or partially invisible at will. She can also render other people or objects fully or partially invisible too, affecting up to of volume. She achieves these feats by mentally bending all wavelengths of visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light to bend around herself or her target without causing any visible distortion effects. According to the "Women of Marvel: Celebrating Seven Decades Handbook", Sue's retinas don't function conventionally and instead of just registering objects using reflected light, the retinas in Sue's eyes also interpolate shapes based on reflected cosmic rays, which in the Marvel Universe are always present in the atmosphere, granted usually only in small concentrations. This anomaly apparently allows her to perceive invisible people and objects, though she does not see them in colour since the cosmic-ray reflections bypass her eyes' rods and cones; her vision may also be monochromatic when she herself is invisible since her eyes do not reflect light in that state, though she otherwise seems to possess a full range of vision while she is invisible. She can also sense people or objects made invisible by scientific means, and can restore them to a visible state at will.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Sue can also mentally generate a field of invisible psionic force (drawn from hyperspace), which she is able to manipulate for a variety of effects. For example, Sue can shape her fields into simple invisible constructs (e.g., barriers, clamps, columns, cones, cylinders, darts, discs, domes, platforms, rams, ramps, slides, spheres, etc.) or generate a nearly indestructible invisible force field around herself or her target. She can vary the texture and tensile strength of her field to some extent, rendering it rigid as steel or as soft and yielding as foam rubber; softer variants on the field enable her to cushion impacts more gently, and are less likely to result in psionic backlash against Susan herself (in some cases, sufficiently powerful assaults on her more rigid psionic fields can cause her mental or physical pain via psychic feedback). She is also able to make her shields opaque or translucent like milk glass to effectively block variations of light such as laser-beams, or make them semipermeable to filter oxygen from water though the latter is mentally taxing. She can generate solid force constructs as small as a marble or as large as in diameter, and her hollow projections such as domes can extend up to several miles in area.


title: Invisible Woman

text: By generating additional force behind her psionic constructs, Sue can turn them into offensive weapons, ranging from massive invisible battering rams to small projectiles such as spheres and darts. By forming one of her force fields within an object and expanding the field, Sue can cause her target to explode. She can also travel atop her animated constructs, enabling her to simulate a limited approximation of levitation or flight. She can manipulate the energy of her force fields around other objects to simulate telekinetic abilities as well. She is capable of generating and manipulating multiple psionic force fields simultaneously. This power is only limited by her concentration; once she stops concentrating on a psionic force field, it simply ceases to exist.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Sue's force fields can also counteract or interact with other forms of psychic energy. For instance, when battling against Psi-Lord, an adult version of her own son, her force fields shielded her mind from his telepathic abilities. Similarly, Jean Grey's psychokinetic abilities could not pass through her shields.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Susan is an excellent swimmer and a capable unarmed combatant, having been trained in judo by Mister Fantastic and received additional coaching from Iron Fist, the Thing, and She-Hulk.


title: Invisible Woman

text: George Marston of "Newsarama" referred to the Invisible Woman as one of the "best female superheroes of all time," writing, "Marvel's first superheroine (debuting 60 years ago this year in "Fantastic Four" #1 may not have the highest profile of the characters on this list, but Sue Storm set the pace for modern female heroes – and still occupies a fairly unique place in comic books. While it's true that early stories didn’t exactly serve Sue particularly well, she developed into the heart and soul of the Fantastic Four, serving as Marvel's first family's de facto – and literal – mother. And that may be one of the most crucial aspects of her character. While Sue Storm is powerful in her own right – many writers have said she's got the most raw power of anyone on the FF – she also represents an important aspect of womanhood that many female heroes have sacrificed or had used against them – motherhood. That Sue can serve as one of the most respected heroes in the Marvel Universe (and its first female hero) while simultaneously raising two children and shepherding the growth of many more through the Future Foundation can't be understated. Plus, it takes a pretty amazing woman to stand up to a blowhard like Reed Richards." Garrett Martin of "Paste" called the Invisible Woman one of the characters who "hold a special place within the Marvel Universe and the hearts of its fans," stating, "Of the original team, Sue Storm has grown the most, by far, since "Fantastic Four" #1. Not only was her official superhero name the Invisible Girl, even after getting married and having a child, but she was basically written like the typical early Marvel love interest, despite having powers. She was too demure, too squeamish and not always competent enough to feel like a true superhero. That’s changed so much that she’s basically the strongest member of the team today, emotionally, morally and in terms of her superpowers. That says a lot about how cultural perceptions of the role of women have shifted since 1961, and also about how Marvel, as a company, has never been afraid to reexamine its characters when the larger story demands it." Brett White of "CBR.com" described the Invisible Woman one of Marvel's "classic characters worthy of ongoing attention," saying, "Since debuting in 1961, Sue Storm has played a pivotal role in the Marvel Universe without ever having even a single limited series to her name, unlike her brother the Human Torch or the Thing, as both have had a few series, ongoing and mini, between them. As both Marvel Comics' literal first lady and the Marvel Universe's spiritual first lady, Sue Storm enjoys a level of prominence and importance that could prove to be fascinating material for a series. Turn Sue Storm into the Michelle Obama of the Marvel hero community. Make her inspiring and proactive; have her spearhead outreach opportunities to those in need, and have her go on diplomatic missions in hostile territories. Jonathan Hickman played with a lot of these ideas in his "Fantastic Four" run, and it's time someone continued those stories." "IGN" named the Invisible Woman one of the "greatest Avengers of all time," asserting, "Invisible Woman is much more closely associated with the Fantastic Four than the Avengers, but that's not to say she won't answer the call alongside the rest of Earth's Mightiest Heroes when necessary. Sue often tends to serve as the heart and soul of any team she serves on. Her power to manipulate invisible force fields arguably makes her the strongest of the FF. But despite that power she remains firmly grounded in the real world. She keeps her dysfunctional family in order, whether it's dragging her husband and daughter out of the lab or making her hotshot brother act his age. Sue is a matriarch who isn't at all afraid to kick some ass when the situation calls for it. And the Avengers' villains have come to realize that every bit as much as Doctor Doom or Galactus."


title: Invisible Woman

text: Gavia Baker-Whitelaw of "The Daily Dot" called the Invisible Woman one of the "best female superheroes of all time," asserting, "Sue Storm, aka the Invisible Woman, is an icon of the Marvel Universe. She rarely appears as a solo character. As a key member of the Fantastic Four, her superpowers include invisibility and the ability to create force fields. In some ways, her characterization plays into traditional gender roles. As Mr. Fantastic’s wife and Johnny Storm’s brother, she can be overshadowed by her male teammates. Her powers are often interpreted as passive because they’re more attuned to protection than aggressive combat. Several of her storylines involve unwanted romantic attention from characters like Dr. Doom. This all adds up to her being a rather divisive character. It would undoubtedly help if Marvel hired a female writer to explore her character for a new audience." Joshua Isaak of "Screen Rant" described the Invisible Woman as "Marvel's first major female superhero," stating, "Marvel's "Fantastic Four" is undoubtedly the series that defined the company - but unfortunately Stan Lee completely botched writing for Marvel's first major female superhero, Susan Storm. Today, the character is famous for being a scientific genius, astronaut, and the strongest member of the team (with her ability to use her powerful invisible force fields in a variety of offensive and defensive ways). But for the first few years of the "Fantastic Four," Sue was little more than a collection of 1960s stereotypes - the worst the decade had to offer. [...] Stan Lee found it necessary to constantly remind readers that Susan Storm was a woman (even though her superhero name remained Invisible "Girl" all the way until "Fantastic Four #280" in 1985!). Sue would create a version of her suit with a miniskirt, try on different looks in the mirror (""A girl is a girl"" reads the caption above Sue trying on a black wig), and even decide to do housecleaning while the men lounged about after a battle. Thankfully, this wouldn't last; Sue not only became a key player in superhero battles but would regularly call out Reed's arrogance and superiority whenever he would insult her for being too "emotional" (which was distressingly often). In many ways, Sue was progressive for the time - many female characters in comics were relegated to love interests and rarely participated in battles at all. But as revolutionary as he was, Stan Lee couldn't help but rely on outdated tropes while writing for Sue. Today, the Invisible Woman is a powerful and respected member of the Fantastic Four, and the early issues - however stereotypical - led to the Susan Storm known and loved by the Marvel faithful worldwide." Stephanie Williams of "Syfy" stated, "The core four members of the Fantastic Four are a package deal. It's challenging to think of one of them without the other. However, we're going to do just that. Each member is unique in their own right, especially Sue Storm. She's a character that has been around for almost 60 years, making her first leap onto the silver screen by way of Jessica Alba in the 2005 live-action "Fantastic Four". This year marks the 15th anniversary of that early-aughts attempt at the iconic foursome. While it’s not a movie that's high on many comic book movie lists, Jessica's Sue does a reasonably strong job encapsulating a character with such a long history on the page, especially if you just ignore the dye job. Sue can be as hot-headed as her brother, if not more. She is always looking for smoke and absolutely deserves better than what Mr. Stretch can offer. The MCU provides a chance to introduce her in ways that highlight this amazing individual separate from her teammates in Fantastic Four." Laura Kelly of "The Mary Sue" wrote, "None of the movies we’ve gotten could ever figure out what to do with Sue. Too many times, the focus would land on Reed Richards and his science experiments, or the comic relief of the Thing and the Human Torch. Sue was usually reduced to one character trait: girl. Admittedly, this was also a major problem in Sue Storm’s early comic book portrayal, and it was an uphill slog for her to get some real character development. And out of the four, Sue has ultimately gone through the most growth and has come out on the other side as probably the most powerful member of the team. [...] For an MCU remake, Sue Storm absolutely should be a scientist, but she needs to be a human being, too. First, Sue should not only be an active participant, but she should be Reed’s scientific equal. They should be working together on experiments and research and be actual contemporaries. In the comics, Sue is the glue that keeps the team together. Without her, the team would have fallen apart long ago. And that’s not an easy job. Sue has had to deal with Reed’s absent-mindedness (and dickishness), Johnny’s recklessness, and Ben’s temper, not to mention all the various infighting (physical and otherwise) that regularly breaks out. She’s had to be practical and grounded, but also sensitive and empathetic. That’s a lot of pressure on one person. Delving into that part of Sue’s psyche would make her a much more interesting, complex character."


title: Invisible Woman

text: In the WildStorm series "Planetary", written by Warren Ellis, the main adversaries of the eponymous team of superpowered investigators are an evil version of Marvel's Fantastic Four called The Four. The Sue Storm analogue is Kim Suskind, who has exactly the same powers as the original, except that she has to wear a pair of goggles in order to see while invisible. The daughter of a Nazi scientist and lover of The Four's leader, Randall Dowling, Suskind destroys her opponents by rapidly expanding a force field inside their heads.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Invisible Woman appeared in the "Robot Chicken" episode "Monstourage" voiced by Emmanuelle Chriqui. In the fight against Doctor Doom, she turned invisible only to be hit and dragged by a car. None of the other Fantastic Four members found out about this.


title: Invisible Woman

text: "Rugrats" introduced a parody character, Miss Invisible, in the episode ""Mega Diaper Babies""; Lil also creates a similar superheroine form in the same episode, calling herself "Dotted-Line Girl".


title: Invisible Woman

text: In "The Simpsons" episode "Treehouse of Horror XIV" segment titled "Stop the World, I want to Goof Off!", there is a moment where the family is turned into members of the Fantastic 4. Maggie is the Invisible Woman.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Pamela Anderson appears as the Invisible Girl in "Superhero Movie", in which she has an affair with Professor X.


title: Invisible Woman

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "Captain Universe / Invisible Woman" #1 was the 111th best selling comic book in November 2005.


title: Invisible Woman

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, the "Invisible Woman" trade paperback was the 73th best selling graphic novel in January 2020.


title: Invisible Woman

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "Invisible Woman" #1 was the 15th best selling comic book in July 2019.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Joe Grunenwald of "ComicsBeat" stated, "The artwork from De Iulis throughout the issue was exceptional. His work first came to my attention on the digital "Jessica Jones" series, even if it was a little ‘house style-y’ for me, so it’s nice to see him having evolved more or less past that into his own unique look with this series. I particularly appreciated the way his coloring represented Sue’s abilities. The opening sequence and the effect of the snow on a pair of invisible people was also something I’ve never seen done with Sue before from both a story and a visual standpoint. [...] I was enthusiastic about this book from the jump and it didn’t disappoint me. Sue Richards is such a rich character, and it’s great to see her have a chance to shine in the hands of a seasoned writer and an artist who’s really coming into his own. "Invisible Woman" #1 gets a BUY from me with no hesitation." Jesse Schedeen of "IGN" gave "Invisible Woman" #1 a grade of 6.5 out of 10, saying, "De Iulis' art packs a unique punch, at least. De Iulis' lines are sleek and sharply rendered, with expressive facial work helping to heighten the emotion in any given scene. The vibrant colors are the book's real standout element. Invisible Woman has a painterly aesthetic that makes it look unlike anything else Marvel is publishing. Whether this is truly the best look for an espionage-focused superhero comic is another question. As eye-catching as the art is, it also tends to be a little too clean and pretty to reflect the grungy surroundings in which Sue and friends are operating. "Invisible Woman" seems like an easy sell at first glance. It features the return of Mark Waid to a franchise he does better than almost anyone, along with a new take on an old heroine and a snazzy art style. Those element don't coalesce into an effective whole in issue #1, however. The story lags once it shifts to the presents, and the art is perhaps too pretty for the subject matter."


title: Invisible Woman

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "Invisible Woman" #2 was the 81st best selling comic book in August 2019.


title: Invisible Woman

text: Jamie Lovett of "Comicbook.com" gave "Invisible Woman" #2 a grade of 4 out of 5, stating, "The second issue of Invisible Woman does a better job of making a case for its own existence than the first. The themes are clearer, as Mark Waid shows the assumptions made about Invisible Woman as a wife and mother being incapable of carrying her weight in the field. Waid also does a great job of coming up with scenarios for Sue to use her powers in unconventional ways, and Mattia de Iulis draws it all with a soft line that fits the stories tone and pace without skimping on some great big action moments. A marked improvement over the debut issue."


title: Eve Torres

text: Eve Torres Gracie (born Eve Marie Torres on August 21, 1984) is an American actress, dancer, model, martial artist, and former professional wrestler. She is best known for her time with WWE, where she was the first ever three-time WWE Divas Champion.


title: Eve Torres

text: Torres began her career as a model and dancer. She danced for The Southern California Summer Pro League and went on to become a member of the National Basketball Association's Los Angeles Clippers Spirit Dance Team for the 2006–2007 season. She also appeared on several television shows, including "Show Me The Money", "Sunset Tan", and "Deal or No Deal".


title: Eve Torres

text: In 2007, she won the 2007 Diva Search, earning a contract with WWE. Torres first appeared on WWE programming as a backstage interviewer in 2008 and became a full-time wrestler in 2009. She won the WWE Divas Championship in April 2010. She held the championship on a further two occasions, becoming the first person to win it three times. Following her retirement from professional wrestling in 2013, Torres focused on her role as an instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered self-defense program at the Gracie Jiu-Jitsu Academy in Torrance, California, and continued to act, with roles in "Skiptrace" and "Supergirl".


title: Eve Torres

text: Torres was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and grew up in Denver, Colorado. Her father is Nicaraguan and her mother is of German and Swedish descent. She has a younger brother, Phil, who is a Explorer and biologist.


title: Eve Torres

text: Torres attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a full tuition scholarship. During college, she was one of the founding members of the Omega Phi Beta sorority chapter on her campus and held the vice-president position for several years. While in Omega Phi Beta, Torres was awarded for Academic Excellence at the Order of Omega Greek Awards. She graduated with honors and a grade point average above 3.5 in May 2006, with a degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering.


title: Eve Torres

text: While attending USC, Torres appeared in commercials and music videos. Torres was the co-captain of the USC Fly Girls dance squad and created much of their choreography. She also danced for The Southern California Summer Pro League, the only summer league for National Basketball Association (NBA) players, in Long Beach, California. After graduating from college, she began dancing and modeling full-time. After reaching the tryout finals in previous years, Torres became a member of the NBA's Los Angeles Clippers Spirit Dance Team for the 2006–07 season. She also appeared on the game show "Show Me The Money".


title: Eve Torres

text: In May 2007, Torres entered World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)'s "Diva Search". She was chosen by WWE officials as one of the eight finalists from a group of 50 women. On October 29, 2007, in Philadelphia, live on "Raw", she was crowned the 2007 WWE Diva Search winner, defeating finalist Brooke Gilbertsen and becoming a WWE Diva. Following her win, she began training for her wrestling debut in WWE's developmental territory, Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW).


title: Eve Torres

text: Videos promoting Eve's debut on "SmackDown!" began airing on January 11, 2008. The promo aired for three weeks before Eve made her official debut on the February 1, 2008 episode of "SmackDown" interviewing Batista. During early 2008, Eve participated in a contest to determine the top Diva on "SmackDown", participating in a bikini contest, an obstacle course, and an arm wrestling competition before being eliminated. Eve appeared at WrestleMania XXIV as a Lumberjill in the BunnyMania match between Maria and Ashley against Beth Phoenix and Melina. Eve spent the rest of the year competing in similar contests, including a dance-off and a bikini contest, before participating in the Halloween Costume Contest on October 26 at the Cyber Sunday pay-per-view, where she was dressed as Raphael from the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. On the 800th episode of "Raw" on November 3, 2008, Eve made her televised in-ring debut in a 16-Diva tag team match, which her team lost although she was never tagged in.


title: Eve Torres

text: Her first main storyline began in early 2009, when she began a scripted feud with Michelle McCool after McCool attacked her. On the February 6 episode of "SmackDown", Eve made her singles match debut in a losing effort against McCool via submission. Their feud continued for the next few months, with them competing against each other in singles and tag team matches. Eve then moved into a feud with Layla in mid-2009. After the pair competed in dance and arm wrestling competitions, Eve defeated Layla on the May 29 episode of "SmackDown" in a wrestling match. On the June 18 episode of "Superstars", Eve pinned Layla once again. After the match, they both shook hands.


title: Eve Torres

text: Around the same as her scripted rivalry with Layla, Eve became associated with Cryme Tyme (Shad and JTG), appearing in several backstage segments with them. She also began accompanying them to the ring as their manager during their storyline rivalry with The Hart Dynasty (David Hart Smith, Tyson Kidd, and Natalya). Eve and Cryme Tyme participated in multiple six-person mixed tag team matches against The Hart Dynasty, and Eve also faced Natalya in singles matches and tag team matches involving other Divas.<ref name="PWtorch-July24/09"></ref> Her final match on "SmackDown" was on October 9, when she was defeated in a singles match by McCool.


title: Eve Torres

text: On October 12, 2009, Eve was traded to the Raw brand. On the November 2 episode of "Raw", she competed in her first match after being traded: a battle royal which was won by Alicia Fox. She then entered into a storyline romance with Chris Masters in December 2009, becoming his valet, after Masters saved Eve from a confrontation with Chavo Guerrero. In a Christmas Edition of Raw, Eve kissed Chris Masters under the mistletoe after Masters defeated Carlito in a Single's match. Eve and Masters would continue their romantic storyline throughout early 2010 as the couple would share celebratory kisses and hugs after each match victory in the middle of the ring. In January 2010, the WWE Divas Championship was vacated and a tournament was set up to determine the new champion. Eve made it to the semi-finals, before being defeated by the eventual winner, Maryse. At WrestleMania XXVI Eve was on the losing team in a 10-Diva tag team match, but the following night on "Raw", she pinned Maryse in a rematch to earn the victory for her team.On the April 5 episode of "Raw", Eve won a "Dress to Impress" battle royal to become the number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship, and the following week on "Raw", she defeated Maryse to win the championship for the first time. She successfully defended the championship against Maryse at the Over the Limit pay-per-view in May. At the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view in June, Eve lost the championship in a fatal four-way match, when Alicia Fox pinned Maryse to win the championship. On the July 5 episode of "Raw", Eve invoked her rematch clause against Fox but was unsuccessful after Fox feigned an ankle injury. As a result, she received another rematch at the Money in the Bank pay per-view, but lost again to Fox. In mid-2010 she began acting as the valet for R-Truth, entering another romantic storyline. The pair would enter a storyline feud with Ted DiBiase and Maryse.


title: Eve Torres

text: At the Royal Rumble on January 30, 2011, the Raw General Manager added Eve to a two-on-one handicap match for the Divas Championship, turning it into a fatal four-way match. Eve pinned Layla to win the match and become a two-time Divas Champion. She retained the championship against Natalya in a Lumberjill match on the February 14 episode of "Raw", and against Nikki Bella on the March 7 episode. She held the championship until the April 11 episode of "Raw", when she lost it to Brie Bella.


title: Eve Torres

text: Eve then formed an alliance with Kelly Kelly, and after Kelly won the Divas Championship in June, Eve accompanied her to the ring during her matches. Eve and Kelly began feuding with The Divas of Doom (Beth Phoenix and Natalya), and after Phoenix won the Divas Championship from Kelly, Eve defeated Natalya to earn a title match against Phoenix. She faced Phoenix at the Vengeance pay-per-view, but was unsuccessful. On the October 31 episode of "Raw", Eve won a battle royal to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship. She received her championship match at the Survivor Series pay-per-view, but lost a Lumberjill match to Phoenix. She later described the match as her favorite.


title: Eve Torres

text: Eve moved into a storyline with Zack Ryder in December 2011, and the pair "won" a mixed tag team match against Natalya and Tyson Kidd on the December 26 episode of "Raw". On the January 9, 2012 episode of "Raw", Eve agreed to a date with Ryder beginning a storyline relationship. Eve quickly became involved in the storyline between Ryder, his ally John Cena, and Kane, who began targeting Ryder. After injuring Ryder, he turned his attention to Eve, and tried to attack her until he was stopped by Cena. On the February 6 episode of "Raw", Eve suffered a legimiately broken nose when Beth Phoenix clotheslined her during a match. The following week, Cena saved Eve from being kidnapped by Kane, and Eve kissed him in thanks. On the February 20 episode of "Raw", Eve became a villain after she confessed backstage to The Bella Twins that she had never liked Zack Ryder and didn't care about the injury he had suffered the previous week. She stated that she was using him for publicity and planned to take advantage of John Cena the same way. Cena overheard her revelation and scorned her as she begged for forgiveness. Eve justified her actions by stating that she had no problem using men to achieve her goals and that she was "a woman in a man's world." She wrestled her first match as a villain on the March 2 episode of "SmackDown", defeating Natalya. Ryder returned on the March 5 episode of "Raw", confronting Eve over her recent actions, but she managed to seduce him into forgiving her and the two shared a long backstage kiss.


title: Eve Torres

text: At WrestleMania XXVIII, Eve and Beth Phoenix lost to Kelly Kelly and "Extra" correspondent Maria Menounos in a tag team match. Later that night, she accompanied Ryder to the ring for the Team Johnny vs. Team Teddy matchup where she distracted Ryder, costing him and Team Teddy the match. After the match she publicly humiliated him by kicking him in the groin, sending him to his knees in agony.


title: Eve Torres

text: As a result, John Laurinaitis gave her a position of authority by appointing her as the Executive Administrator of Raw and SmackDown. Eve found the role to be a power trip and enjoyed abusing her position by bullying and humiliating people on numerous occasions. One such occasion was on the April 30 episode of "Raw", when Eve fired the Bella Twins with cruel glee. She also publicly humiliated The Big Show in the middle of the ring by making him apologise for mocking John Laurinaitis, and threatened his job if he didn't comply. However, it was former SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long who Eve seemed to take the most pleasure in bullying. After finding himself working for Laurinaitis after his team's loss at Wrestlemania, Long was told that he would now be working under Eve and would report to her, a situation she clearly enjoyed. As Eve's subordinate, the next few weeks were hell for Long. She took great pleasure in humiliating him by forcing him to do menial, degrading tasks; such as making him wear an apron and name tag at all times, like a maid. As well as stand guard by a door dressed as a Queen's soldier. She also enjoyed ordering him to get her coffee and would throw the coffee all over him if it wasn't to her satisfaction. Long was also forced by Eve to rub oil on Antonio Cesaro for a photoshoot, this was particularly humiliating for Teddy as it was in front of his ex love interest (and Cesaro's current girlfriend) the evil Aksana, who seemed to find Long's predicament extremely entertaining.


title: Eve Torres

text: Despite her new authority figure role, she continued to participate in matches throughout mid-2012. Eve's power trip eventually ended in June 2012 at No Way Out when John Laurinaitis was fired, therefore her role as Executive Administrator ended. On the August 10 episode of "SmackDown", Eve asked SmackDown General Manager Booker T if she could be his assistant, but Kaitlyn was given the job instead. Eve threatened Booker T that she would tell the Board of Directors about his discriminatory hiring practices and was given a match against Kaitlyn the following week. Eve won the match and the job.<ref name="WWE Smackdown 8/17/12 Results"></ref>


title: Eve Torres

text: In August, she began a storyline where she appeared friendly and nice, diminishing her villainous characteristics. As part of this apparent personality change, she shook hands with her rival Kaitlyn following a match and teamed with her and Layla on the September 10 episode of "Raw". At the Night of Champions pay-per-view, Kaitlyn was attacked and injured by a masked figure; as a result, Eve replaced Kaitlyn in a match against Divas Champion Layla, which she won. Her victory made her the first woman to hold the Divas Championship on three occasions. After Kaitlyn revealed her attacker was blonde, Eve accused Beth Phoenix, and attacked her on the September 24 episode of "Raw". The following week, Eve suspended Phoenix, pending an investigation into Kaitlyn's attack. On the October 8 episode of "Raw", Eve defeated Kaitlyn via submission to retain the Divas Championship, and following the match, Eve reverted to her heel persona and attempted to re-injure Kaitlyn, but was stopped by Layla. The following week, she defeated Layla to retain the championship. After the reveal that Kaitlyn was attacked by Aksana, under Eve's orders, the three-way feud led to a match at the Hell in a Cell pay-per-view, where Eve retained the Divas Championship against Layla and Kaitlyn in a triple threat match. Eve continued to feud with the duo, facing them in tag team matches with multiple partners and defeating Kaitlyn at Survivor Series to retain the championship. At , Eve stopped Kaitlyn from winning a number one contender's match, and defeated winner Naomi to retain the title. Kaitlyn won a non-title match against Eve, and won the subsequent title match by disqualification on December 18, however Eve retained the championship. The rematch occurred on the January 7, 2013 episode of "Raw", in which Eve successfully defended the championship after losing by countout. The following week, on the special "20th Anniversary" episode of "Raw", Eve lost the Divas Championship to Kaitlyn. She quit immediately following the loss in storyline. In reality, Torres had asked for her release in December 2012 to plan her upcoming wedding and focus on her role as an instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self-defense program.


title: Eve Torres

text: On December 9, 2013, Torres appeared at the Slammy Award, presenting the Diva of the Year award to The Bella Twins.


title: Eve Torres

text: Torres appeared on the June 19, 2017 episode of "Table for 3" on WWE Network alongside Kelly Kelly and Maryse.


title: Eve Torres

text: In August 2008, Torres, along with fellow WWE Divas Maria and Candice Michelle, appeared on an episode of "Sunset Tan". On October 2, 2008, Torres and Maria appeared on a special episode of "". Torres appeared on the November 3, 2009 episode of "Deal or No Deal" with Maria and Dolph Ziggler. On July 1, 2012, Torres, Kelly, and Michelle McCool appeared on "Extreme Weight Loss". In 2012, she was part of NBC's celebrity reality competition series called "Stars Earn Stripes"; she won the competition on September 3, earning over $100,000 for her charity, the United Service Organizations. On September 7, 2012, Torres appeared on G4's "Attack of the Show" for an interview.


title: Eve Torres

text: Torres, along with Maryse and Michelle McCool, appeared in the January 2009 issue of "Muscle & Fitness" magazine.


title: Eve Torres

text: On April 30, 2012, it was announced that Torres would be featured in the WWE Studios and Kare Production Project "Les reines du ring" (English: Queens of the Ring), alongside fellow wrestlers The Miz and CM Punk. In mid-2013, Torres filmed a role for the film "", which was released in 2015. She later earned a role in "Matador" as Reyna Flores, a journalist reporting on the leading character's career. The show was cancelled after a single season. In 2016, Torres appeared in the film "Skiptrace" as a Russian assassin. The same year, she appeared in an episode of the "Supergirl" television series as Maxima.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used for treating viral infections. Most antivirals target specific viruses, while a broad-spectrum antiviral is effective against a wide range of viruses. Unlike most antibiotics, antiviral drugs do not destroy their target pathogen; instead they inhibit its development.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Antiviral drugs are one class of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes antibiotic (also termed antibacterial), antifungal and antiparasitic drugs, or antiviral drugs based on monoclonal antibodies. Most antivirals are considered relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to treat infections. They should be distinguished from viricides, which are not medication but deactivate or destroy virus particles, either inside or outside the body. Natural viricides are produced by some plants such as eucalyptus and Australian tea trees.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Most of the antiviral drugs now available are designed to help deal with HIV, herpes viruses, the hepatitis B and C viruses, and influenza A and B viruses.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Viruses use the host's cells to replicate and this makes it difficult to find targets for the drug that would interfere with the virus without also harming the host organism's cells. Moreover, the major difficulty in developing vaccines and anti-viral drugs is due to viral variation.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The emergence of antivirals is the product of a greatly expanded knowledge of the genetic and molecular function of organisms, allowing biomedical researchers to understand the structure and function of viruses, major advances in the techniques for finding new drugs, and the pressure placed on the medical profession to deal with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).


title: Antiviral drug

text: The first experimental antivirals were developed in the 1960s, mostly to deal with herpes viruses, and were found using traditional trial-and-error drug discovery methods. Researchers grew cultures of cells and infected them with the target virus. They then introduced into the cultures chemicals which they thought might inhibit viral activity and observed whether the level of virus in the cultures rose or fell. Chemicals that seemed to have an effect were selected for closer study.


title: Antiviral drug

text: This was a very time-consuming, hit-or-miss procedure, and in the absence of a good knowledge of how the target virus worked, it was not efficient in discovering effective antivirals which had few side effects. Only in the 1980s, when the full genetic sequences of viruses began to be unraveled, did researchers begin to learn how viruses worked in detail, and exactly what chemicals were needed to thwart their reproductive cycle.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The general idea behind modern antiviral drug design is to identify viral proteins, or parts of proteins, that can be disabled. These "targets" should generally be as unlike any proteins or parts of proteins in humans as possible, to reduce the likelihood of side effects. The targets should also be common across many strains of a virus, or even among different species of virus in the same family, so a single drug will have broad effectiveness. For example, a researcher might target a critical enzyme synthesized by the virus, but not by the patient, that is common across strains, and see what can be done to interfere with its operation.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Once targets are identified, candidate drugs can be selected, either from drugs already known to have appropriate effects or by actually designing the candidate at the molecular level with a computer-aided design program.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The target proteins can be manufactured in the lab for testing with candidate treatments by inserting the gene that synthesizes the target protein into bacteria or other kinds of cells. The cells are then cultured for mass production of the protein, which can then be exposed to various treatment candidates and evaluated with "rapid screening" technologies.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Viruses consist of a genome and sometimes a few enzymes stored in a capsule made of protein (called a capsid), and sometimes covered with a lipid layer (sometimes called an 'envelope'). Viruses cannot reproduce on their own and instead propagate by subjugating a host cell to produce copies of themselves, thus producing the next generation.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Researchers working on such "rational drug design" strategies for developing antivirals have tried to attack viruses at every stage of their life cycles. Some species of mushrooms have been found to contain multiple antiviral chemicals with similar synergistic effects.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Compounds isolated from fruiting bodies and filtrates of various mushrooms have broad-spectrum antiviral activities, but successful production and availability of such compounds as frontline antiviral is a long way away. Viral life cycles vary in their precise details depending on the type of virus, but they all share a general pattern:


title: Antiviral drug

text: One anti-viral strategy is to interfere with the ability of a virus to infiltrate a target cell. The virus must go through a sequence of steps to do this, beginning with binding to a specific "receptor" molecule on the surface of the host cell and ending with the virus "uncoating" inside the cell and releasing its contents. Viruses that have a lipid envelope must also fuse their envelope with the target cell, or with a vesicle that transports them into the cell before they can uncoat.


title: Antiviral drug

text: This strategy of designing drugs can be very expensive, and since the process of generating anti-idiotypic antibodies is partly trial and error, it can be a relatively slow process until an adequate molecule is produced.


title: Antiviral drug

text: A very early stage of viral infection is viral entry, when the virus attaches to and enters the host cell. A number of "entry-inhibiting" or "entry-blocking" drugs are being developed to fight HIV. HIV most heavily targets a specific type of lymphocyte known as "helper T cells", and identifies these target cells through T-cell surface receptors designated "CD4" and "CCR5". Attempts to interfere with the binding of HIV with the CD4 receptor have failed to stop HIV from infecting helper T cells, but research continues on trying to interfere with the binding of HIV to the CCR5 receptor in hopes that it will be more effective.


title: Antiviral drug

text: HIV infects a cell through fusion with the cell membrane, which requires two different cellular molecular participants, CD4 and a chemokine receptor (differing depending on the cell type). Approaches to blocking this virus/cell fusion have shown some promise in preventing entry of the virus into a cell. At least one of these entry inhibitors—a biomimetic peptide called Enfuvirtide, or the brand name Fuzeon—has received FDA approval and has been in use for some time. Potentially, one of the benefits from the use of an effective entry-blocking or entry-inhibiting agent is that it potentially may not only prevent the spread of the virus within an infected individual but also the spread from an infected to an uninfected individual.


title: Antiviral drug

text: One possible advantage of the therapeutic approach of blocking viral entry (as opposed to the currently dominant approach of viral enzyme inhibition) is that it may prove more difficult for the virus to develop resistance to this therapy than for the virus to mutate or evolve its enzymatic protocols.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Amantadine and rimantadine have been introduced to combat influenza. These agents act on penetration and uncoating.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Pleconaril works against rhinoviruses, which cause the common cold, by blocking a pocket on the surface of the virus that controls the uncoating process. This pocket is similar in most strains of rhinoviruses and enteroviruses, which can cause diarrhea, meningitis, conjunctivitis, and encephalitis.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Some scientists are making the case that a vaccine against rhinoviruses, the predominant cause of the common cold, is achievable.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Vaccines that combine dozens of varieties of rhinovirus at once are effective in stimulating antiviral antibodies in mice and monkeys, researchers have reported in Nature Communications in 2016.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Rhinoviruses are the most common cause of the common cold; other viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus and adenoviruses can cause them too. Rhinoviruses also exacerbate asthma attacks. Although rhinoviruses come in many varieties, they do not drift to the same degree that influenza viruses do. A mixture of 50 inactivated rhinovirus types should be able to stimulate neutralizing antibodies against all of them to some degree.


title: Antiviral drug

text: A second approach is to target the processes that synthesize virus components after a virus invades a cell.


title: Antiviral drug

text: One way of doing this is to develop nucleotide or nucleoside analogues that look like the building blocks of RNA or DNA, but deactivate the enzymes that synthesize the RNA or DNA once the analogue is incorporated. This approach is more commonly associated with the inhibition of reverse transcriptase (RNA to DNA) than with "normal" transcriptase (DNA to RNA).


title: Antiviral drug

text: The first successful antiviral, aciclovir, is a nucleoside analogue, and is effective against herpesvirus infections. The first antiviral drug to be approved for treating HIV, zidovudine (AZT), is also a nucleoside analogue.


title: Antiviral drug

text: An improved knowledge of the action of reverse transcriptase has led to better nucleoside analogues to treat HIV infections. One of these drugs, lamivudine, has been approved to treat hepatitis B, which uses reverse transcriptase as part of its replication process. Researchers have gone further and developed inhibitors that do not look like nucleosides, but can still block reverse transcriptase.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Another target being considered for HIV antivirals include RNase H—which is a component of reverse transcriptase that splits the synthesized DNA from the original viral RNA.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Another target is integrase, which integrate the synthesized DNA into the host cell genome. Examples of integrase inhibitors include raltegravir, elvitegravir, and dolutegravir.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Once a virus genome becomes operational in a host cell, it then generates messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules that direct the synthesis of viral proteins. Production of mRNA is initiated by proteins known as transcription factors. Several antivirals are now being designed to block attachment of transcription factors to viral DNA.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Genomics has not only helped find targets for many antivirals, it has provided the basis for an entirely new type of drug, based on "antisense" molecules. These are segments of DNA or RNA that are designed as complementary molecule to critical sections of viral genomes, and the binding of these antisense segments to these target sections blocks the operation of those genomes. A phosphorothioate antisense drug named fomivirsen has been introduced, used to treat opportunistic eye infections in AIDS patients caused by cytomegalovirus, and other antisense antivirals are in development. An antisense structural type that has proven especially valuable in research is morpholino antisense.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Yet another antiviral technique inspired by genomics is a set of drugs based on ribozymes, which are enzymes that will cut apart viral RNA or DNA at selected sites. In their natural course, ribozymes are used as part of the viral manufacturing sequence, but these synthetic ribozymes are designed to cut RNA and DNA at sites that will disable them.


title: Antiviral drug

text: A ribozyme antiviral to deal with hepatitis C has been suggested, and ribozyme antivirals are being developed to deal with HIV. An interesting variation of this idea is the use of genetically modified cells that can produce custom-tailored ribozymes. This is part of a broader effort to create genetically modified cells that can be injected into a host to attack pathogens by generating specialized proteins that block viral replication at various phases of the viral life cycle.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Interference with post translational modifications or with targeting of viral proteins in the cell is also possible.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Some viruses include an enzyme known as a protease that cuts viral protein chains apart so they can be assembled into their final configuration. HIV includes a protease, and so considerable research has been performed to find "protease inhibitors" to attack HIV at that phase of its life cycle. Protease inhibitors became available in the 1990s and have proven effective, though they can have unusual side effects, for example causing fat to build up in unusual places. Improved protease inhibitors are now in development.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Protease inhibitors have also been seen in nature. A protease inhibitor was isolated from the Shiitake mushroom ("Lentinus edodes"). The presence of this may explain the Shiitake mushroom's noted antiviral activity "in vitro".


title: Antiviral drug

text: Most viruses produce long dsRNA helices during transcription and replication. In contrast, uninfected mammalian cells generally produce dsRNA helices of fewer than 24 base pairs during transcription. DRACO (double-stranded RNA activated caspase oligomerizer) is a group of experimental antiviral drugs initially developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In cell culture, DRACO was reported to have broad-spectrum efficacy against many infectious viruses, including dengue flavivirus, Amapari and Tacaribe arenavirus, Guama bunyavirus, H1N1 influenza and rhinovirus, and was additionally found effective against influenza "in vivo" in weanling mice. It was reported to induce rapid apoptosis selectively in virus-infected mammalian cells, while leaving uninfected cells unharmed. DRACO effects cell death via one of the last steps in the apoptosis pathway in which complexes containing intracellular apoptosis signalling molecules simultaneously bind multiple procaspases. The procaspases transactivate via cleavage, activate additional caspases in the cascade, and cleave a variety of cellular proteins, thereby killing the cell.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The final stage in the life cycle of a virus is the release of completed viruses from the host cell, and this step has also been targeted by antiviral drug developers. Two drugs named zanamivir (Relenza) and oseltamivir (Tamiflu) that have been recently introduced to treat influenza prevent the release of viral particles by blocking a molecule named neuraminidase that is found on the surface of flu viruses, and also seems to be constant across a wide range of flu strains.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Rather than attacking viruses directly, a second category of tactics for fighting viruses involves encouraging the body's immune system to attack them. Some antivirals of this sort do not focus on a specific pathogen, instead stimulating the immune system to attack a range of pathogens.


title: Antiviral drug

text: One of the best-known of this class of drugs are interferons, which inhibit viral synthesis in infected cells. One form of human interferon named "interferon alpha" is well-established as part of the standard treatment for hepatitis B and C, and other interferons are also being investigated as treatments for various diseases.


title: Antiviral drug

text: A more specific approach is to synthesize antibodies, protein molecules that can bind to a pathogen and mark it for attack by other elements of the immune system. Once researchers identify a particular target on the pathogen, they can synthesize quantities of identical "monoclonal" antibodies to link up that target. A monoclonal drug is now being sold to help fight respiratory syncytial virus in babies, and antibodies purified from infected individuals are also used as a treatment for hepatitis B.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Antiviral resistance can be defined by a decreased susceptibility to a drug caused by changes in viral genotypes. In cases of antiviral resistance, drugs have either diminished or no effectiveness against their target virus. The issue inevitably remains a major obstacle to antiviral therapy as it has developed to almost all specific and effective antimicrobials, including antiviral agents.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) inclusively recommends anyone six months and older to get a yearly vaccination to protect them from influenza A viruses (H1N1) and (H3N2) and up to two influenza B viruses (depending on the vaccination). Comprehensive protection starts by ensuring vaccinations are current and complete. However, vaccines are preventative and are not generally used once a patient has been infected with a virus. Additionally, the availability of these vaccines can be limited based on financial or locational reasons which can prevent the effectiveness of herd immunity, making effective antivirals a necessity.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The three FDA-approved neuraminidase antiviral flu drugs available in the United States, recommended by the CDC, include: oseltamivir (Tamiflu), zanamivir (Relenza), and peramivir (Rapivab). Influenza antiviral resistance often results from changes occurring in neuraminidase and hemagglutinin proteins on the viral surface. Currently, neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs) are the most frequently prescribed antivirals because they are effective against both influenza A and B. However, antiviral resistance is known to develop if mutations to the neuraminidase proteins prevent NAI binding. This was seen in the H257Y mutation, which was responsible for oseltamivir resistance to H1N1 strains in 2009. The inability of NA inhibitors to bind to the virus allowed this strain of virus with the resistance mutation to spread due to natural selection. Furthermore, a study published in 2009 in Nature Biotechnology emphasized the urgent need for augmentation of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) stockpiles with additional antiviral drugs including zanamivir (Relenza). This finding was based on a performance evaluation of these drugs supposing the 2009 H1N1 'Swine Flu' neuraminidase (NA) were to acquire the Tamiflu-resistance (His274Tyr) mutation which is currently widespread in seasonal H1N1 strains.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The genetic makeup of viruses is constantly changing, which can cause a virus to become resistant to currently available treatments. Viruses can become resistant through spontaneous or intermittent mechanisms throughout the course of an antiviral treatment. Immunocompromised patients, more often than immunocompetent patients, hospitalized with pneumonia are at the highest risk of developing oseltamivir resistance during treatment. Subsequent to exposure to someone else with the flu, those who received oseltamivir for "post-exposure prophylaxis" are also at higher risk of resistance.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The mechanisms for antiviral resistance development depend on the type of virus in question. RNA viruses such as hepatitis C and influenza A have high error rates during genome replication because RNA polymerases lack proofreading activity. RNA viruses also have small genome sizes that are typically less than 30 kb, which allow them to sustain a high frequency of mutations. DNA viruses, such as HPV and herpesvirus, hijack host cell replication machinery, which gives them proofreading capabilities during replication. DNA viruses are therefore less error prone, are generally less diverse, and are more slowly evolving than RNA viruses. In both cases, the likelihood of mutations is exacerbated by the speed with which viruses reproduce, which provides more opportunities for mutations to occur in successive replications. Billions of viruses are produced every day during the course of an infection, with each replication giving another chance for mutations that encode for resistance to occur.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Multiple strains of one virus can be present in the body at one time, and some of these strains may contain mutations that cause antiviral resistance. This effect, called the quasispecies model, results in immense variation in any given sample of virus, and gives the opportunity for natural selection to favor viral strains with the highest fitness every time the virus is spread to a new host. Also, recombination, the joining of two different viral variants, and reassortment, the swapping of viral gene segments among viruses in the same cell, play a role in resistance, especially in influenza.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Antiviral resistance has been reported in antivirals for herpes, HIV, hepatitis B and C, and influenza, but antiviral resistance is a possibility for all viruses. Mechanisms of antiviral resistance vary between virus types.


title: Antiviral drug

text: National and international surveillance is performed by the CDC to determine effectiveness of the current FDA-approved antiviral flu drugs. Public health officials use this information to make current recommendations about the use of flu antiviral medications. WHO further recommends in-depth epidemiological investigations to control potential transmission of the resistant virus and prevent future progression. As novel treatments and detection techniques to antiviral resistance are enhanced so can the establishment of strategies to combat the inevitable emergence of antiviral resistance.


title: Antiviral drug

text: If a virus is not fully wiped out during a regimen of antivirals, treatment creates a bottleneck in the viral population that selects for resistance, and there is a chance that a resistant strain may repopulate the host. Viral treatment mechanisms must therefore account for the selection of resistant viruses.


title: Antiviral drug

text: The most commonly used method for treating resistant viruses is combination therapy, which uses multiple antivirals in one treatment regimen. This is thought to decrease the likelihood that one mutation could cause antiviral resistance, as the antivirals in the cocktail target different stages of the viral life cycle. This is frequently used in retroviruses like HIV, but a number of studies have demonstrated its effectiveness against influenza A, as well. Viruses can also be screened for resistance to drugs before treatment is started. This minimizes exposure to unnecessary antivirals and ensures that an effective medication is being used. This may improve patient outcomes and could help detect new resistance mutations during routine scanning for known mutants. However, this has not been consistently implemented in treatment facilities at this time.


title: Antiviral drug

text: While most antivirals treat viral infection, vaccines are a preemptive first line of defense against pathogens. Vaccination involves the introduction (i.e. via injection) of a small amount of typically inactivated or attenuated antigenic material to stimulate an individual's immune system. The immune system responds by developing white blood cells to specifically combat the introduced pathogen, resulting in adaptive immunity. Vaccination in a population results in herd immunity and greatly improved population health, with significant reductions in viral infection and disease.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Vaccination policy in the United States consists of public and private vaccination requirements. For instance, public schools require students to receive vaccinations (termed "vaccination schedule") for viruses and bacteria such as diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (DTaP), measles, mumps, rubella (MMR), varicella (chickenpox), hepatitis B, rotavirus, polio, and more. Private institutions might require annual influenza vaccination. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has estimated that routine immunization of newborns prevents about 42,000 deaths and 20 million cases of disease each year, saving about $13.6 billion.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Despite their successes, in the United States there exists plenty of stigma surrounding vaccines that cause people to be incompletely vaccinated. These "gaps" in vaccination result in unnecessary infection, death, and costs. There are two major reasons for incomplete vaccination:


title: Antiviral drug

text: Although the American Academy of Pediatrics endorses universal immunization, they note that physicians should respect parents' refusal to vaccinate their children after sufficient advising and provided the child does not face a significant risk of infection. Parents can also cite religious reasons to avoid public school vaccination mandates, but this reduces herd immunity and increases risk of viral infection.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Vaccines boosts the body's immune system to better attack viruses in the "complete particle" stage, outside of the organism's cells. Traditional approaches to vaccine development include an attenuated (a live weakened) or inactivated (killed) version of the virus. Attenuated pathogens, in very rare cases, can revert to a pathogenic form. Inactivated vaccines have no possibility of introducing the disease they are given against; on the other hand, the immune response may not always occur or it may be short lived, requiring several doses. Recently, "subunit" vaccines have been devised containing only the antigenic parts of the pathogen. This makes the vaccine "more precise" but without guarantee that immunological memory will be formed in the correct manner.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Vaccines are very effective on stable viruses but are of limited use in treating a patient who has already been infected. They are also difficult to successfully deploy against rapidly mutating viruses, such as influenza (the vaccine for which is updated every year) and HIV. Antiviral drugs are particularly useful in these cases.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Following the HPTN 052 study and PARTNER study, there is significant evidence to demonstrate that antiretroviral drugs inhibit transmission when the HIV virus in the person living with HIV has been undetectable for 6 months or longer.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Guidelines regarding viral diagnoses and treatments change frequently and limit quality care. Even when physicians diagnose older patients with influenza, use of antiviral treatment can be low. Provider knowledge of antiviral therapies can improve patient care, especially in geriatric medicine. Furthermore, in local health departments (LHDs) with access to antivirals, guidelines may be unclear, causing delays in treatment. With time-sensitive therapies, delays could lead to lack of treatment.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Overall, national guidelines, regarding infection control and management, standardize care and improve healthcare worker and patient safety. Guidelines, such as those provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) during the 2009 flu pandemic caused by the H1N1 virus, recommend, among other things, antiviral treatment regimens, clinical assessment algorithms for coordination of care, and antiviral chemoprophylaxis guidelines for exposed persons. Roles of pharmacists and pharmacies have also expanded to meet the needs of public during public health emergencies.


title: Antiviral drug

text: Public Health Emergency Preparedness initiatives are managed by the CDC via the Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response. Funds aim to support communities in preparing for public health emergencies, including pandemic influenza. Also managed by the CDC, the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) consists of bulk quantities of medicines and supplies for use during such emergencies. Antiviral stockpiles prepare for shortages of antiviral medications in cases of public health emergencies. During the H1N1 pandemic in 2009–2010, guidelines for SNS use by local health departments was unclear, revealing gaps in antiviral planning. For example, local health departments that received antivirals from the SNS did not have transparent guidance on the use of the treatments. The gap made it difficult to create plans and policies for their use and future availabilities, causing delays in treatment.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog is a logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a declarative programming language: the program logic is expressed in terms of relations, represented as facts and rules. A computation is initiated by running a "query" over these relations.


title: Prolog

text: The language was developed and implemented in Marseille, France, in 1972 by Alain Colmerauer with Philippe Roussel, based on Robert Kowalski's procedural interpretation of Horn clauses at University of Edinburgh.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog was one of the first logic programming languages and remains the most popular such language today, with several free and commercial implementations available. The language has been used for theorem proving, expert systems, term rewriting, type systems, and automated planning, as well as its original intended field of use, natural language processing. Modern Prolog environments support the creation of graphical user interfaces, as well as administrative and networked applications.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog is well-suited for specific tasks that benefit from rule-based logical queries such as searching databases, voice control systems, and filling templates.


title: Prolog

text: In Prolog, program logic is expressed in terms of relations, and a computation is initiated by running a "query" over these relations. Relations and queries are constructed using Prolog's single data type, the "term". Relations are defined by "clauses". Given a query, the Prolog engine attempts to find a resolution refutation of the negated query. If the negated query can be refuted, i.e., an instantiation for all free variables is found that makes the union of clauses and the singleton set consisting of the negated query false, it follows that the original query, with the found instantiation applied, is a logical consequence of the program. This makes Prolog (and other logic programming languages) particularly useful for database, symbolic mathematics, and language parsing applications. Because Prolog allows impure predicates, checking the truth value of certain special predicates may have some deliberate side effect, such as printing a value to the screen. Because of this, the programmer is permitted to use some amount of conventional imperative programming when the logical paradigm is inconvenient. It has a purely logical subset, called "pure Prolog", as well as a number of extralogical features.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog's single data type is the "term". Terms are either "atoms", "numbers", "variables" or "compound terms".


title: Prolog

text: Prolog programs describe relations, defined by means of clauses. Pure Prolog is restricted to Horn clauses. There are two types of clauses: facts and rules. A rule is of the form


title: Prolog

text: and is read as "Head is true if Body is true". A rule's body consists of calls to predicates, which are called the rule's goals. The built-in logical operator codice_15 (meaning an arity 2 operator with name codice_16) denotes conjunction of goals, and codice_17 denotes disjunction. Conjunctions and disjunctions can only appear in the body, not in the head of a rule.


title: Prolog

text: Due to the relational nature of many built-in predicates, they can typically be used in several directions. For example, codice_19 can be used to determine the length of a list (codice_20, given a list codice_21) as well as to generate a list skeleton of a given length (codice_22), and also to generate both list skeletons and their lengths together (codice_23). Similarly, codice_24 can be used both to append two lists (codice_25 given lists codice_26 and codice_27) as well as to split a given list into parts (codice_28, given a list codice_21). For this reason, a comparatively small set of library predicates suffices for many Prolog programs.


title: Prolog

text: As a general purpose language, Prolog also provides various built-in predicates to perform routine activities like input/output, using graphics and otherwise communicating with the operating system. These predicates are not given a relational meaning and are only useful for the side-effects they exhibit on the system. For example, the predicate codice_30 displays a term on the screen.


title: Prolog

text: Execution of a Prolog program is initiated by the user's posting of a single goal, called the query. Logically, the Prolog engine tries to find a resolution refutation of the negated query. The resolution method used by Prolog is called SLD resolution. If the negated query can be refuted, it follows that the query, with the appropriate variable bindings in place, is a logical consequence of the program. In that case, all generated variable bindings are reported to the user, and the query is said to have succeeded. Operationally, Prolog's execution strategy can be thought of as a generalization of function calls in other languages, one difference being that multiple clause heads can match a given call. In that case, the system creates a choice-point, unifies the goal with the clause head of the first alternative, and continues with the goals of that first alternative. If any goal fails in the course of executing the program, all variable bindings that were made since the most recent choice-point was created are undone, and execution continues with the next alternative of that choice-point. This execution strategy is called chronological backtracking. For example:


title: Prolog

text: This is obtained as follows: Initially, the only matching clause-head for the query codice_31 is the first one, so proving the query is equivalent to proving the body of that clause with the appropriate variable bindings in place, i.e., the conjunction codice_32. The next goal to be proved is the leftmost one of this conjunction, i.e., codice_33. Two clause heads match this goal. The system creates a choice-point and tries the first alternative, whose body is codice_34. This goal can be proved using the fact codice_35, so the binding codice_36 is generated, and the next goal to be proved is the second part of the above conjunction: codice_37. Again, this can be proved by the corresponding fact. Since all goals could be proved, the query succeeds. Since the query contained no variables, no bindings are reported to the user. A query with variables, like:


title: Prolog

text: Notice that with the code as stated above, the query codice_38 also succeeds. One would insert additional goals to describe the relevant restrictions, if desired.


title: Prolog

text: The built-in Prolog predicate codice_39 provides negation as failure, which allows for non-monotonic reasoning. The goal codice_40 in the rule


title: Prolog

text: is evaluated as follows: Prolog attempts to prove codice_41. If a proof for that goal can be found, the original goal (i.e., codice_40) fails. If no proof can be found, the original goal succeeds. Therefore, the codice_39 prefix operator is called the "not provable" operator, since the query codice_44 succeeds if Goal is not provable. This kind of negation is sound if its argument is "ground" (i.e. contains no variables). Soundness is lost if the argument contains variables and the proof procedure is complete. In particular, the query codice_45 now cannot be used to enumerate all things that are legal.


title: Prolog

text: In Prolog, loading code is referred to as "consulting". Prolog can be used interactively by entering queries at the Prolog prompt codice_46. If there is no solution, Prolog writes codice_47. If a solution exists then it is printed. If there are multiple solutions to the query, then these can be requested by entering a semi-colon codice_48. There are guidelines on good programming practice to improve code efficiency, readability and maintainability.


title: Prolog

text: Any computation can be expressed declaratively as a sequence of state transitions. As an example, an optimizing compiler with three optimization passes could be implemented as a relation between an initial program and its optimized form:


title: Prolog

text: A design pattern is a general reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem in software design. Some design patterns in Prolog are skeletons, techniques, cliches, program schemata, logic description schemata, and higher order programming.


title: Prolog

text: A higher-order predicate is a predicate that takes one or more other predicates as arguments. Although support for higher-order programming takes Prolog outside the domain of first-order logic, which does not allow quantification over predicates, ISO Prolog now has some built-in higher-order predicates such as codice_49, codice_50, codice_51, codice_52, codice_53, and codice_54. Furthermore, since arbitrary Prolog goals can be constructed and evaluated at run-time, it is easy to write higher-order predicates like codice_55, which applies an arbitrary predicate to each member of a given list, and codice_56, which filters elements that satisfy a given predicate, also allowing for currying.


title: Prolog

text: To convert solutions from temporal representation (answer substitutions on backtracking) to spatial representation (terms), Prolog has various all-solutions predicates that collect all answer substitutions of a given query in a list. This can be used for list comprehension. For example, perfect numbers equal the sum of their proper divisors:


title: Prolog

text: As another example, the predicate codice_57 applies a predicate codice_58 to all corresponding positions in a pair of lists:


title: Prolog

text: When codice_58 is a predicate that for all codice_60, codice_61 unifies codice_62 with a single unique value, codice_63 is equivalent to applying the map function in functional programming as codice_64.


title: Prolog

text: For programming in the large, Prolog provides a module system. The module system is standardised by ISO. However, not all Prolog compilers support modules, and there are compatibility problems between the module systems of the major Prolog compilers. Consequently, modules written on one Prolog compiler will not necessarily work on others.


title: Prolog

text: There is a special notation called definite clause grammars (DCGs). A rule defined via codice_65 instead of codice_66 is expanded by the preprocessor (codice_67, a facility analogous to macros in other languages) according to a few straightforward rewriting rules, resulting in ordinary Prolog clauses. Most notably, the rewriting equips the predicate with two additional arguments, which can be used to implicitly thread state around, analogous to monads in other languages. DCGs are often used to write parsers or list generators, as they also provide a convenient interface to difference lists.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog is a homoiconic language and provides many facilities for reflection. Its implicit execution strategy makes it possible to write a concise meta-circular evaluator (also called "meta-interpreter") for pure Prolog code:


title: Prolog

text: where codice_68 represents an empty conjunction, and codice_69 unifies with clauses in the database of the form codice_70.


title: Prolog

text: Since Prolog programs are themselves sequences of Prolog terms (codice_66 is an infix operator) that are easily read and inspected using built-in mechanisms (like codice_72), it is possible to write customized interpreters that augment Prolog with domain-specific features. For example, Sterling and Shapiro present a meta-interpreter that performs reasoning with uncertainty, reproduced here with slight modifications:


title: Prolog

text: and clauses represented as codice_73. Given those, it can be called as codice_74 to execute codice_75 and obtain a measure of certainty about the result.


title: Prolog

text: Pure Prolog is based on a subset of first-order predicate logic, Horn clauses, which is Turing-complete. Turing completeness of Prolog can be shown by using it to simulate a Turing machine:


title: Prolog

text: This machine performs incrementation by one of a number in unary encoding: It loops over any number of "1" cells and appends an additional "1" at the end. Example query and result:


title: Prolog

text: This illustrates how any computation can be expressed declaratively as a sequence of state transitions, implemented in Prolog as a relation between successive states of interest.


title: Prolog

text: The ISO Prolog standard consists of two parts. ISO/IEC 13211-1, published in 1995, aims to standardize the existing practices of the many implementations of the core elements of Prolog. It has clarified aspects of the language that were previously ambiguous and leads to portable programs. There are three corrigenda: Cor.1:2007, Cor.2:2012, and Cor.3:2017. ISO/IEC 13211-2, published in 2000, adds support for modules to the standard. The standard is maintained by the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG17 working group. ANSI X3J17 is the US Technical Advisory Group for the standard.


title: Prolog

text: For efficiency, Prolog code is typically compiled to abstract machine code, often influenced by the register-based Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) instruction set. Some implementations employ abstract interpretation to derive type and mode information of predicates at compile time, or compile to real machine code for high performance. Devising efficient implementation methods for Prolog code is a field of active research in the logic programming community, and various other execution methods are employed in some implementations. These include clause binarization and stack-based virtual machines.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog systems typically implement a well-known optimization method called tail call optimization (TCO) for deterministic predicates exhibiting tail recursion or, more generally, tail calls: A clause's stack frame is discarded before performing a call in a tail position. Therefore, deterministic tail-recursive predicates are executed with constant stack space, like loops in other languages.


title: Prolog

text: Finding clauses that are unifiable with a term in a query is linear in the number of clauses. Term indexing uses a data structure that enables sub-linear-time lookups. Indexing only affects program performance, it does not affect semantics. Most Prologs only use indexing on the first term, as indexing on all terms is expensive, but techniques based on "field-encoded words" or "superimposed codewords" provide fast indexing across the full query and head.


title: Prolog

text: Some Prolog systems, such as WIN-PROLOG and SWI-Prolog, now implement hashing to help handle large datasets more efficiently. This tends to yield very large performance gains when working with large corpora such as WordNet.


title: Prolog

text: Some Prolog systems, (B-Prolog, XSB, SWI-Prolog, YAP, and Ciao), implement a memoization method called "tabling", which frees the user from manually storing intermediate results. Tabling is a space–time tradeoff; execution time can be reduced by using more memory to store intermediate results:


title: Prolog

text: Subgoals encountered in a query evaluation are maintained in a table, along with answers to these subgoals. If a subgoal is re-encountered, the evaluation reuses information from the table rather than re-performing resolution against program clauses.


title: Prolog

text: Tabling can be extended in various directions. It can support recursive predicates through SLG-resolution or linear tabling. In a multi-threaded Prolog system tabling results could be kept private to a thread or shared among all threads. And in incremental tabling, tabling might react to changes.


title: Prolog

text: During the Fifth Generation Computer Systems project, there were attempts to implement Prolog in hardware with the aim of achieving faster execution with dedicated architectures. Furthermore, Prolog has a number of properties that may allow speed-up through parallel execution. A more recent approach has been to compile restricted Prolog programs to a field programmable gate array. However, rapid progress in general-purpose hardware has consistently overtaken more specialised architectures.


title: Prolog

text: Sega implemented Prolog for use with the Sega AI Computer, released for the Japanese market in 1986. Prolog was used for reading natural language inputs, in the Japanese language, via a touch pad.


title: Prolog

text: Although Prolog is widely used in research and education, Prolog and other logic programming languages have not had a significant impact on the computer industry in general. Most applications are small by industrial standards, with few exceeding 100,000 lines of code. Programming in the large is considered to be complicated because not all Prolog compilers support modules, and there are compatibility problems between the module systems of the major Prolog compilers. Portability of Prolog code across implementations has also been a problem, but developments since 2007 have meant: "the portability within the family of Edinburgh/Quintus derived Prolog implementations is good enough to allow for maintaining portable real-world applications."


title: Prolog

text: Software developed in Prolog has been criticised for having a high performance penalty compared to conventional programming languages. In particular, Prolog's non-deterministic evaluation strategy can be problematic when programming deterministic computations, or when even using "don't care non-determinism" (where a single choice is made instead of backtracking over all possibilities). Cuts and other language constructs may have to be used to achieve desirable performance, destroying one of Prolog's main attractions, the ability to run programs "backwards and forwards".


title: Prolog

text: Prolog is not purely declarative: because of constructs like the cut operator, a procedural reading of a Prolog program is needed to understand it. The order of clauses in a Prolog program is significant, as the execution strategy of the language depends on it. Other logic programming languages, such as Datalog, are truly declarative but restrict the language. As a result, many practical Prolog programs are written to conform to Prolog's depth-first search order, rather than as purely declarative logic programs.


title: Prolog

text: Various implementations have been developed from Prolog to extend logic programming capabilities in numerous directions. These include types, modes, constraint logic programming (CLP), object-oriented logic programming (OOLP), concurrency, linear logic (LLP), functional and higher-order logic programming capabilities, plus interoperability with knowledge bases:


title: Prolog

text: Prolog is an untyped language. Attempts to introduce types date back to the 1980s, and as of 2008 there are still attempts to extend Prolog with types. Type information is useful not only for type safety but also for reasoning about Prolog programs.<ref name="cite doi|10.1007/BF01213601"></ref>


title: Prolog

text: The syntax of Prolog does not specify which arguments of a predicate are inputs and which are outputs. However, this information is significant and it is recommended that it be included in the comments. Modes provide valuable information when reasoning about Prolog programs and can also be used to accelerate execution.


title: Prolog

text: Constraint logic programming extends Prolog to include concepts from constraint satisfaction. A constraint logic program allows constraints in the body of clauses, such as: codice_76 It is suited to large-scale combinatorial optimisation problems and is thus useful for applications in industrial settings, such as automated time-tabling and production scheduling. Most Prolog systems ship with at least one constraint solver for finite domains, and often also with solvers for other domains like rational numbers.


title: Prolog

text: Flora-2 is an object-oriented knowledge representation and reasoning system based on F-logic and incorporates HiLog, Transaction logic, and defeasible reasoning.


title: Prolog

text: Logtalk is an object-oriented logic programming language that can use most Prolog implementations as a back-end compiler. As a multi-paradigm language, it includes support for both prototypes and classes.


title: Prolog

text: Oblog is a small, portable, object-oriented extension to Prolog by Margaret McDougall of EdCAAD, University of Edinburgh.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog++ was developed by Logic Programming Associates and first released in 1989 for MS-DOS PCs. Support for other platforms was added, and a second version was released in 1995. A book about Prolog++ by Chris Moss was published by Addison-Wesley in 1994.


title: Prolog

text: Visual Prolog is a multi-paradigm language with interfaces, classes, implementations and object expressions.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog systems that provide a graphics library are SWI-Prolog, Visual Prolog, WIN-PROLOG, and B-Prolog.


title: Prolog

text: Prolog-MPI is an open-source SWI-Prolog extension for distributed computing over the Message Passing Interface. Also there are various concurrent Prolog programming languages.


title: Prolog

text: Some Prolog implementations, notably Visual Prolog, SWI-Prolog and Ciao, support server-side web programming with support for web protocols, HTML and XML. There are also extensions to support semantic web formats such as RDF and OWL. Prolog has also been suggested as a client-side language. In addition Visual Prolog supports JSON-RPC and Websockets.


title: Prolog

text: Cedar is a free and basic Prolog interpreter. From version 4 and above Cedar has a FCA (Flash Cedar App) support. This provides a new platform to programming in Prolog through ActionScript.


title: Prolog

text: The name "Prolog" was chosen by Philippe Roussel as an abbreviation for "" (French for "programming in logic"). It was created around 1972 by Alain Colmerauer with Philippe Roussel, based on Robert Kowalski's procedural interpretation of Horn clauses. It was motivated in part by the desire to reconcile the use of logic as a declarative knowledge representation language with the procedural representation of knowledge that was popular in North America in the late 1960s and early 1970s. According to Robert Kowalski, the first Prolog system was developed in 1972 by Colmerauer and Phillipe Roussel. The first implementation of Prolog was an interpreter written in Fortran by Gerard Battani and Henri Meloni. David H. D. Warren took this interpreter to University of Edinburgh, and there implemented an alternative front-end, which came to define the “Edinburgh Prolog” syntax used by most modern implementations. Warren also implemented the first compiler for Prolog, creating the influential DEC-10 Prolog in collaboration with Fernando Pereira. Warren later generalised the ideas behind DEC-10 Prolog, to create the Warren Abstract Machine.


title: Prolog

text: European AI researchers favored Prolog while Americans favored Lisp, reportedly causing many nationalistic debates on the merits of the languages. Much of the modern development of Prolog came from the impetus of the Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS), which developed a variant of Prolog named "Kernel Language" for its first operating system.