title: Tennessine

text: It has been calculated that the isotope Ts would have a half-life of about 18 milliseconds, and it may be possible to produce this isotope via the same berkelium–calcium reaction used in the discoveries of the known isotopes, Ts and Ts. The chance of this reaction producing Ts is estimated to be, at most, one-seventh the chance of producing Ts. Calculations using a quantum tunneling model predict the existence of several isotopes of tennessine up to Ts. The most stable of these is expected to be Ts with an alpha-decay half-life of 40 milliseconds. A liquid drop model study on the element's isotopes shows similar results; it suggests a general trend of increasing stability for isotopes heavier than Ts, with partial half-lives exceeding the age of the universe for the heaviest isotopes like Ts when beta decay is not considered. Lighter isotopes of tennessine may be produced in the Am+Ti reaction, which was considered as a contingency plan by the Dubna team in 2008 if Bk proved unavailable, and was considered again for study in 2017–2018 to investigate the properties of nuclear reactions with a titanium-50 beam, which becomes necessary to synthesize elements beyond oganesson.


title: Tennessine

text: Tennessine is expected to be a member of group 17 in the periodic table, below the five halogens; fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, each of which has seven valence electrons with a configuration of . For tennessine, being in the seventh period (row) of the periodic table, continuing the trend would predict a valence electron configuration of , and it would therefore be expected to behave similarly to the halogens in many respects that relate to this electronic state. However, going down group 17, the metallicity of the elements increases; for example, iodine already exhibits a metallic luster in the solid state, and astatine is expected to be a metal. As such, an extrapolation based on periodic trends would predict tennessine to be a rather volatile metal.


title: Tennessine

text: Calculations have confirmed the accuracy of this simple extrapolation, although experimental verification of this is currently impossible as the half-lives of the known tennessine isotopes are too short. Significant differences between tennessine and the previous halogens are likely to arise, largely due to spin–orbit interaction—the mutual interaction between the motion and spin of electrons. The spin–orbit interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster—at velocities comparable to the speed of light—than those in lighter atoms. In tennessine atoms, this lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels, stabilizing the corresponding electrons, although two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four. The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect; the effect that separates the 7p subshell into the more-stabilized and the less-stabilized parts is called subshell splitting. Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second (azimuthal) quantum number "l" from 1 to 1/2 and 3/2 for the more-stabilized and less-stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively. For many theoretical purposes, the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as .


title: Tennessine

text: Differences for other electron levels also exist. For example, the 6d electron levels (also split in two, with four being 6d and six being 6d) are both raised, so they are close in energy to the 7s ones, although no 6d electron chemistry has been predicted for tennessine. The difference between the 7p and 7p levels is abnormally high; 9.8 eV. Astatine's 6p subshell split is only 3.8 eV, and its 6p chemistry has already been called "limited". These effects cause tennessine's chemistry to differ from those of its upper neighbors (see below).


title: Tennessine

text: Tennessine's first ionization energy—the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom—is predicted to be 7.7 eV, lower than those of the halogens, again following the trend. Like its neighbors in the periodic table, tennessine is expected to have the lowest electron affinity—energy released when an electron is added to the atom—in its group; 2.6 or 1.8 eV. The electron of the hypothetical hydrogen-like tennessine atom—oxidized so it has only one electron, Ts—is predicted to move so quickly that its mass is 1.90 times that of a non-moving electron, a feature attributable to relativistic effects. For comparison, the figure for hydrogen-like astatine is 1.27 and the figure for hydrogen-like iodine is 1.08. Simple extrapolations of relativity laws indicate a contraction of atomic radius. Advanced calculations show that the radius of an tennessine atom that has formed one covalent bond would be 165 pm, while that of astatine would be 147 pm. With the seven outermost electrons removed, tennessine is finally smaller; 57 pm for tennessine and 61 pm for astatine.


title: Tennessine

text: The melting and boiling points of tennessine are not known; earlier papers predicted about 350–500 °C and 550 °C, respectively, or 350–550 °C and 610 °C, respectively. These values exceed those of astatine and the lighter halogens, following periodic trends. A later paper predicts the boiling point of tennessine to be 345 °C (that of astatine is estimated as 309 °C, 337 °C, or 370 °C, although experimental values of 230 °C and 411 °C have been reported). The density of tennessine is expected to be between 7.1 and 7.3 g/cm, continuing the trend of increasing density among the halogens; that of astatine is estimated to be between 6.2 and 6.5 g/cm.


title: Tennessine

text: The known isotopes of tennessine, Ts and Ts, are too short-lived to allow for chemical experimentation at present. Nevertheless, many chemical properties of tennessine have been calculated. Unlike the lighter group 17 elements, tennessine may not exhibit the chemical behavior common to the halogens. For example, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine routinely accept an electron to achieve the more stable electronic configuration of a noble gas, obtaining eight electrons (octet) in their valence shells instead of seven. This ability weakens as atomic weight increases going down the group; tennessine would be the least willing group 17 element to accept an electron. Of the oxidation states it is predicted to form, −1 is expected to be the least common. The standard reduction potential of the Ts/Ts couple is predicted to be −0.25 V; this value is negative, unlike for all the lighter halogens.


title: Tennessine

text: There is another opportunity for tennessine to complete its octet—by forming a covalent bond. Like the halogens, when two tennessine atoms meet they are expected to form a Ts–Ts bond to give a diatomic molecule. Such molecules are commonly bound via single sigma bonds between the atoms; these are different from pi bonds, which are divided into two parts, each shifted in a direction perpendicular to the line between the atoms, and opposite one another rather than being located directly between the atoms they bind. Sigma bonding has been calculated to show a great antibonding character in the At molecule and is not as favorable energetically. Tennessine is predicted to continue the trend; a strong pi character should be seen in the bonding of Ts. The molecule tennessine chloride (TsCl) is predicted to go further, being bonded with a single pi bond.


title: Tennessine

text: Aside from the unstable −1 state, three more oxidation states are predicted; +5, +3, and +1. The +1 state should be especially stable because of the destabilization of the three outermost 7p electrons, forming a stable, half-filled subshell configuration; astatine shows similar effects. The +3 state should be important, again due to the destabilized 7p electrons. The +5 state is predicted to be uncommon because the 7p electrons are oppositely stabilized. The +7 state has not been shown—even computationally—to be achievable. Because the 7s electrons are greatly stabilized, it has been hypothesized that tennessine effectively has only five valence electrons.


title: Tennessine

text: The simplest possible tennessine compound would be the monohydride, TsH. The bonding is expected to be provided by a 7p electron of tennessine and the 1s electron of hydrogen. The non-bonding nature of the 7p spinor is because tennessine is expected not to form purely sigma or pi bonds. Therefore, the destabilized (thus expanded) 7p spinor is responsible for bonding. This effect lengthens the TsH molecule by 17 picometers compared with the overall length of 195 pm. Since the tennessine p electron bonds are two-thirds sigma, the bond is only two-thirds as strong as it would be if tennessine featured no spin–orbit interactions. The molecule thus follows the trend for halogen hydrides, showing an increase in bond length and a decrease in dissociation energy compared to AtH. The molecules TlTs and NhTs may be viewed analogously, taking into account an opposite effect shown by the fact that the element's p electrons are stabilized. These two characteristics result in a relatively small dipole moment (product of difference between electric charges of atoms and displacement of the atoms) for TlTs; only 1.67 D, the positive value implying that the negative charge is on the tennessine atom. For NhTs, the strength of the effects are predicted to cause a transfer of the electron from the tennessine atom to the nihonium atom, with the dipole moment value being −1.80 D. The spin–orbit interaction increases the dissociation energy of the TsF molecule because it lowers the electronegativity of tennessine, causing the bond with the extremely electronegative fluorine atom to have a more ionic character. Tennessine monofluoride should feature the strongest bonding of all group 17 monofluorides.


title: Tennessine

text: VSEPR theory predicts a bent-T-shaped molecular geometry for the group 17 trifluorides. All known halogen trifluorides have this molecular geometry and have a structure of AXE—a central atom, denoted A, surrounded by three ligands, X, and two unshared electron pairs, E. If relativistic effects are ignored, TsF should follow its lighter congeners in having a bent-T-shaped molecular geometry. More sophisticated predictions show that this molecular geometry would not be energetically favored for TsF, predicting instead a trigonal planar molecular geometry (AXE). This shows that VSEPR theory may not be consistent for the superheavy elements. The TsF molecule is predicted to be significantly stabilized by spin–orbit interactions; a possible rationale may be the large difference in electronegativity between tennessine and fluorine, giving the bond a partially ionic character.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: Marilyn Burns (born Mary Lynn Ann Burns; May 7, 1949 – August 5, 2014) was an American actress. Burns was known for playing Sally Hardesty in "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" (1974), which established her as a scream queen and a catalyst of the final girl trope. She reprised the role with a cameo in "" (1995), and played Verna Carson in "Texas Chainsaw 3D" (2013), the latter being her last appearance in the "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" franchise. In 2009, she was inducted into the Horror Hall of Fame at the Phoenix Film Festival.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: While in college, Burns made her film debut as a tour guide in Robert Altman's experimental comedy film "Brewster McCloud" (1970). She played Linda Kasabian in the Emmy-nominated miniseries "Helter Skelter" (1976) and thereafter sporadically worked in acting, notably portraying Faye in Tobe Hooper's "Eaten Alive" (1977) and Dorothy Grim in "Future-Kill" (1985). Her final works include appearances in the slasher film "Butcher Boys" (2012), the independent feature "Sacrament" (2014) and the posthumously-released film "In a Madman's World" (2017).


title: Marilyn Burns

text: On August 5, 2014, Burns was found dead in her home at the age of 65. Her cause of death was not specified.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: Burns was born in Erie, Pennsylvania, and was raised in Houston, Texas where she resided for most of her life. While in the seventh grade, she appeared in a musical production of "A Midsummer Night's Dream". She attended the University of Texas at Austin, and graduated with a drama degree in 1971.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: In 1970, she made her first film appearance in Robert Altman's comedy film "Brewster McCloud" (1970). Burns was cast in "Lovin' Molly" (1974), but was replaced by Susan Sarandon. Burns stayed on as a stand-in for Sarandon and Blythe Danner. She also helped cast some of the extras in George Roy Hill's period drama "The Great Waldo Pepper" (1975).In 1974, Burns starred in Tobe Hooper's independent horror film "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre". She plays the character of Sally Hardesty, a teenager who travels with her brother and some friends to the cemetery where her grandfather is buried to investigate reports of grave vandalism, and then encounters a family of cannibals including the chainsaw-wielding Leatherface.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: Burns and Hooper had previously met during the production of "Lovin' Molly" the previous year. When a casting call was held, she auditioned and was given the lead role. The film was produced with a budget of $80,000–$140,000. Burns had performed several of her stunts herself, and she, along with other cast members, had sustained several injuries throughout production. In an article for "Texas Monthly" detailing the production of the film, John Bloom reported that Burns had "been poked, prodded, bound, dragged through rooms, jerked around, chased through cocklebur underbrush, jabbed with a stick, forced to skid on her knees in take after take, pounded on the head with a rubber hammer, coated with sticky stage blood, and endlessly pursued by Hansen with his chain saw and Neal with his constantly flicking switchblade."


title: Marilyn Burns

text: "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" was released to major critical and commercial success. The film grossed an excess of $30 million and became the 12th highest-grossing film of its year, and was the most successful independent feature until it was overtaken by "Halloween" in 1978. Writing for "The Cincinnati Enquirer", Donald B. Berrigan stated that Burns "deserves a special Academy Award for one of the most sustained and believable acting achievements in movie history." "Screen Rant" ranked Burns' performance first on their list of the "10 Greatest Female Performances in Horror Film History", writing that she "is so convincing in her work as the mentally broken Sally that the audience can’t help but be left shaken and deeply disturbed by the time the end credits roll." The acting of Burns has continued to earn praise from critics and audiences, and established her as a scream queen and a popular culture icon.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: In 1976, Burns had a role in the television miniseries "Helter Skelter" about the real-life trial of Charles Manson and his "family". In the series, she played Linda Kasabian, a member of the Manson family who was granted immunity in exchange for her testimony against the defendants. Recalling her memories of working on "Helter Skelter", Burns said: "It was a great experience, but nobody really wanted to touch it [due to the subject matter]. It was like, 'Who wants to be in that picture? Who's actually gonna do "that" picture?'" The miniseries was acclaimed and nominated for three Emmy Awards.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: Following her roles in "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" and "Helter Skelter", Burns sporadically worked in acting. She played Faye in the horror film "Eaten Alive" (1977), where she reunited with director Tobe Hooper, and subsequently starred in the films "Kiss Daddy Goodbye" (1981) and "Future-Kill" (1985).


title: Marilyn Burns

text: Burns briefly reprises the role of Sally Hardesty in "" (1995), which was directed by Kim Henkel. Her cameo was made in order to establish "an emotional connection between the Sally character and the Jenny character, a kind of perverse passing of the torch". She was set to reprise the role of Sally Hardesty once more in the 2003 remake film of the same name, where she would play an aged-up Sally, however this idea was ultimately scrapped. At the 2009 Phoenix Film Festival, Burns was inducted into the horror hall of fame.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: In 2012, Burns made a special appearance in the Kim Henkel-written feature "Butcher Boys", which is often deemed a "spiritual sequel" to "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre". In 2011, Burns was cast in the slasher film "Texas Chainsaw 3D" as Verna Carson; it was released on January 4, 2013, and marks her last appearance in "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre" franchise. Her final film roles include Beulah Standifier in 2014's "Sacrament", and Ms. Hill in the independent feature "In a Madman's World", which was released posthumously in 2017.


title: Marilyn Burns

text: On August 5, 2014, at the age of 65, Burns was found dead by her brother Bill at her home in Houston. Her cause of death was not specified.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: Reasonable Doubt is the debut studio album by American rapper Jay-Z. It was released on June 25, 1996, by Priority Records and Jay-Z's Roc-A-Fella Records. The album features production provided by DJ Premier, Ski, Knobody and Clark Kent, and also includes guest appearances from Memphis Bleek, Mary J. Blige, Jaz-O and The Notorious B.I.G., among others. The album features mafioso rap themes and gritty lyrics about the "hustler" lifestyle and material obsessions.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" debuted at number 23 on the US "Billboard" 200, on which it charted for 18 weeks. It was promoted with four singles; including "Ain't No Nigga" and "Can't Knock the Hustle". "Reasonable Doubt" was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and, as of 2006, has sold 1.5 million copies in the United States. A critical success, it has been ranked on several publications' lists of the greatest rap albums ever, while many hip hop fans have viewed it as Jay-Z's best work.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: In August 2019, "Reasonable Doubt" was released to digital and streaming platforms under Roc Nation's independent label, Equity Distribution.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: In 1989, aspiring rapper Jay-Z was recruited by mentor Jaz-O to appear on his song "Hawaiian Sophie". He appeared on two more Jaz-O songs in the next year, but after Jaz-O was dropped from his record label, Jay-Z dealt drugs to support himself. He continued to pursue a rap career and appeared on two songs from Original Flavor's 1993 album "Beyond Flavor". Jay-Z then caught Big Daddy Kane's attention and toured with him; they collaborated on Kane's 1994 posse cut "Show & Prove" along with Wu-Tang Clan's Ol' Dirty Bastard, Wu-Tang affiliate Shyheim, Sauce Money, and Scoob Lover.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: Despite the exposure he received from Kane, Jay-Z was still without a record deal. He began selling tapes from his car with help from friend Damon Dash. The success of his street-level marketing led to a deal with Payday Records, which released his first solo single, "In My Lifetime" and its B-side "I Can't Get wid Dat". In an unconventional move, Jay-Z then spurned the record contract he had long sought and left Payday Records to form his own label, Roc-A-Fella Records, with Damon Dash and Kareem "Biggs" Burke. Jay-Z later explained that he thought he could do a better job of marketing his records on his own:


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: Jay-Z rented a small, cheap office for Roc-A-Fella Records on John Street in one of the "dreariest parts of the busiest city in the world". Jay-Z and his compatriots thought of their low-rent headquarters as a "starting point" that would eventually lead them to Manhattan. In 1995 and early 1996, Jay-Z appeared on records by Big L and Mic Geronimo, further raising his profile. At this point, he was still considered an "underground" rapper with a "new jack" style.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" was recorded at D&D Studios and mixed at Platinum Island, however, its beats were formed elsewhere. "Can't Knock the Hustle" was produced by Knobody at his mother's home in 1994, while the vocals were recorded on tour at a studio in Tampa Florida named Progressive Music with Mary J. Blige. Ski produced "Feelin' It" and "Politics as Usual" while recording with Camp Lo. The recording sessions were often competitive; Ski and Clark Kent created similar beats for "Politics as Usual", but Ski submitted his to Jay-Z first causing his to appear on the album. "Brooklyn's Finest" was a competitive, though friendly battle between Jay-Z and The Notorious B.I.G. in which Jay-Z tried proving that he is of Biggie's caliber, while Biggie tried brushing his rhymes off as insignificant. Although the rappers had already met on the set for the "Dead Presidents" music video, they discovered that neither wrote down their rhymes while recording. The recording of "Brooklyn's Finest" spanned two months and moved from D&D Studios to Giant Studios where the Clark Kent-sung chorus was recorded.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" has Mafioso rap themes. David Drake from "Stylus Magazine" said the lyrics were characterized by "gritty realism". Writer dream hampton believed that although rappers had alluded to hustling before, Jay-Z "talks about what it can do to a person's inner peace, and what it can do to their mind". Jay-Z later said, "the studio was like a psychiatrist's couch for me" while recording "Reasonable Doubt". AllMusic's Steve Huey described him as "a street hustler from the projects who rapped about what he knew—and he was very, very good at it...detailing his experiences on the streets with disarming honesty". Huey summarizes the album's subject matter saying:


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: AllMusic's Jason Birchmeier writes that the album's production exhibits characteristics of "the pre-gangsta era, a foregone era when samples fueled the beats and turntablism supplied the hooks", which "sets "Reasonable Doubt" apart from Jay-Z's later work". "Can't Knock the Hustle" features a smooth beat. "Politics as Usual" has an R&B sound and a sample of "Hurry Up This Way Again" by the Stylistics. "Dead Presidents" samples Nas' voice from "The World Is Yours" in its chorus. According to IGN's Spence D., "Ski brings back the stripped down piano fill style lending the track a late night jazz vibe" on "Feelin' It", and "22 Two's" has a "mournful jazz inclined groove" that prominently features string instruments. "Coming of Age" contains a Clark Kent-produced beat that samples the melody and drums from "Inside You" by Eddie Henderson.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" was released by Roc-A-Fella on June 25, 1996, through a distribution deal with Priority. It was not an immediate success, reaching a peak position of 23 on the "Billboard" 200 chart while selling 420,000 copies in its first year of release. It spent 18 weeks on the chart, and 55 weeks on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, on which it reached number 3. the album was promoted with the release of four singles, none of which reached the Top 40; "Ain't No Nigga" was the highest-charting single at number 50, "Can't Knock the Hustle" and "Feelin' It" did not peak higher than 70, and "Dead Presidents" did not chart altogether. The album sold 43,000 copies in its first week.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: On February 7, 2002, "Reasonable Doubt" was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipments of a million copies in the US. It remains the lowest charting album of Jay-Z's career. According to "Respect" magazine, it had sold 1.5 million copies in the United States by 2006.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" was met with widespread acclaim from music critics. Charlie Braxton of "The Source" praised Jay-Z for evolving "from hip-hop sidekick to Mafia-style front man, blowing up the spot with vivid tales about the economic reality fueling what's left of contemporary ghetto politics". "Entertainment Weekly"s Dimitri Ehrlich commended him for rapping "with an irresistible confidence, a voice that exudes tough-guy authenticity", also noting the "unadorned but suitably militant" production. Tonya Pendleton of the "Los Angeles Daily News" stated that the album "hits you with rap's trends – Mary J. Blige riffs, Foxy Brown rhymes, Isley Brothers loops and more fashion info than Cindy Crawford", adding that "his sassy way with a lyric transcends the material" on the album.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" has often been considered by many fans to be Jay-Z's best record. He himself deemed it his best. According to Birchmeier, it differed from his subsequent albums by lacking "pop-crossover" songs and hits. Shaheem Reid of MTV explained, ""Reasonable Doubt" might not have the radio hits or club bangers of many of his other albums, but it may be Jay at his most lyrical—and certainly at his most honest, according to him". Huey said the lyrical appeal lied within Jay-Z's "effortless, unaffected cool" flow, and knack for "writing some of the most acrobatic rhymes heard in quite some time". According to Huey, this "helped "Reasonable Doubt" rank as one of the finest albums of New York's hip-hop renaissance of the '90s". Birchmeier, on the other hand, believed the superior quality of producers was more responsible for the album's reputation as a classic more so than Jay-Z. In a retrospective review for "MSN Music", Robert Christgau said the album was "designed for the hip-hop cognoscenti and street aesthetes who still swear he never topped it," finding it "richer than any outsider could have known, and benefiting from everything we've since learned about the minor crack baron who put his money where his mouth was. You can hear him marshalling a discipline known to few rappers and many crack barons, and that asceticism undercuts the intrinsic delight of his rhymes".


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: Since its initial reception, "Reasonable Doubt" has received further acclaim from music critics and writers. According to "Pitchfork"s Ryan Schreiber, it has often been "considered one of hip-hop's landmark albums", while Birchmeier said it was viewed like Nas' "Illmatic" (1994) as a classic hip hop album by a young rapper about their street and criminal experiences. "Reasonable Doubt" helped transfigure gangsta rap into Mafioso rap, popularizing the subgenre and the imagery of high class, expensive lifestyles and tastes in hip hop, including drinking Cristal, driving Lexus automobiles, and living out the plots of films such as "Scarface" and "Carlito's Way". In the opinion of Miles Marshall Lewis, "Reasonable Doubt" was a "seminal" work that "shocked the world ... a personal touchstone for fans then Jay's own age who were getting their own hustles on—hip hop's young, gifted, and black". Jay-Z said that recreating "Reasonable Doubt" would be challenging, as he was living a different lifestyle with a completely different state of mind when he wrote the album.


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: "Reasonable Doubt" was named one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time by "The Source" in 1998, "Vibe", who ranked it seventh on their 2002 list, MTV.com, who ranked it sixth on their 2005 list, and About.com's Henry Adaso; Adaso ranked it as the 14th greatest hip hop album, the second best rap record of 1996, and the fifth most "essential" hip hop album ever. "Blender" included "Reasonable Doubt" on the magazine's 2003 list of "500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die". That same year, "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 248 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, number 250 on the 2012 revision, and the album's rank shot up to number 67 on the 2020 reboot of the list. The magazine also named it the 17th best album of the 1990s. It was included in "Vibe"s "51 Albums Representing a Generation, a Sound and a Movement" (2004), and "Hip Hop Connection"s "The 100 Greatest Rap Albums 1995–2005".


title: Reasonable Doubt (album)

text: In 2006, Jay-Z performed the songs from "Reasonable Doubt" at the Radio City Music Hall to celebrate its tenth anniversary. The concert's band included The Roots' drummer Questlove, the Illadelphonics, a 50-piece orchestra dubbed The Hustla's Symphony and Just Blaze, the performance's disc jockey. On "Can't Knock the Hustle", Beyoncé replaced Mary J. Blige, who was preparing for her Breakthrough Tour at the time. Jay-Z rapped The Notorious B.I.G.'s verses on "Brooklyn's Finest", and Jaz-O's verse was left out of "Bring It On". Jay-Z added a verse to "22 Two's" in which he says variations of the words "for/four" 44 times over the beat of "Can I Kick It?" by A Tribe Called Quest. Other alterations include Jay-Z changing a lyrical mention of Cristal to Dom Pérignon and Jay-Z's band "spruc[ing] up tracks like 'Regrets' to add more energy". Celebrities such as Alicia Keys, Young Jeezy, Jadakiss, Chris Tucker, LeBron James and Carmelo Anthony attended the concert. 3,000 tickets were put on sale; all were sold within two minutes according to Roc-A-Fella Records' website.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: In nonideal fluid dynamics, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille law, Poiseuille law or Poiseuille equation, is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in an incompressible and Newtonian fluid in laminar flow flowing through a long cylindrical pipe of constant cross section.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: It can be successfully applied to air flow in lung alveoli, or the flow through a drinking straw or through a hypodermic needle. It was experimentally derived independently by Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille in 1838 and Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen, and published by Poiseuille in 1840–41 and 1846. The theoretical justification of the Poiseuille law was given by George Stokes in 1845.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The assumptions of the equation are that the fluid is incompressible and Newtonian; the flow is laminar through a pipe of constant circular cross-section that is substantially longer than its diameter; and there is no acceleration of fluid in the pipe. For velocities and pipe diameters above a threshold, actual fluid flow is not laminar but turbulent, leading to larger pressure drops than calculated by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Poiseuille's equation describes the pressure drop "due to" the viscosity of the fluid; other types of pressure drops may still occur in a fluid (see a demonstration here). For example, the pressure needed to drive a viscous fluid up against gravity would contain both that as needed in Poiseuille's law "plus" that as needed in Bernoulli's equation, such that any point in the flow would have a pressure greater than zero (otherwise no flow would happen).


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Another example is when blood flows into a narrower constriction, its speed will be greater than in a larger diameter (due to continuity of volumetric flow rate), and its pressure will be lower than in a larger diameter (due to Bernoulli's equation). However, the viscosity of blood will cause "additional" pressure drop along the direction of flow, which is proportional to length traveled (as per Poiseuille's law). Both effects contribute to the "actual" pressure drop.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The equation fails in the limit of low viscosity, wide and/or short pipe. Low viscosity or a wide pipe may result in turbulent flow, making it necessary to use more complex models, such as the Darcy–Weisbach equation. The ratio of length to radius of a pipe should be greater than one forty-eighth of the Reynolds number for the Hagen–Poiseuille law to be valid. If the pipe is too short, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation may result in unphysically high flow rates; the flow is bounded by Bernoulli's principle, under less restrictive conditions, by


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: because it is impossible to have negative (absolute) pressure (not to be confused with gauge pressure) in an incompressible flow.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Normally, Hagen–Poiseuille flow implies not just the relation for the pressure drop, above, but also the full solution for the laminar flow profile, which is parabolic. However, the result for the pressure drop can be extended to turbulent flow by inferring an effective turbulent viscosity in the case of turbulent flow, even though the flow profile in turbulent flow is strictly speaking not actually parabolic. In both cases, laminar or turbulent, the pressure drop is related to the stress at the wall, which determines the so-called friction factor. The wall stress can be determined phenomenologically by the Darcy–Weisbach equation in the field of hydraulics, given a relationship for the friction factor in terms of the Reynolds number. In the case of laminar flow, for a circular cross section:


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: where is the Reynolds number, is the fluid density, and is the mean flow velocity, which is half the maximal flow velocity in the case of laminar flow. It proves more useful to define the Reynolds number in terms of the mean flow velocity because this quantity remains well defined even in the case of turbulent flow, whereas the maximal flow velocity may not be, or in any case, it may be difficult to infer. In this form the law approximates the "Darcy friction factor", the "energy (head) loss factor", "friction loss factor" or "Darcy (friction) factor" in the laminar flow at very low velocities in cylindrical tube. The theoretical derivation of a slightly different form of the law was made independently by Wiedman in 1856 and Neumann and E. Hagenbach in 1858 (1859, 1860). Hagenbach was the first who called this law Poiseuille's law.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Poiseuille's law was later in 1891 extended to turbulent flow by L. R. Wilberforce, based on Hagenbach's work.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The Hagen–Poiseuille equation can be derived from the Navier–Stokes equations. The laminar flow through a pipe of uniform (circular) cross-section is known as Hagen–Poiseuille flow. The equations governing the Hagen–Poiseuille flow can be derived directly from the Navier–Stokes momentum equations in 3D cylindrical coordinates by making the following set of assumptions:


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Then the angular equation in the momentum equations and the continuity equation are identically satisfied. The radial momentum equation reduces to , i.e., the pressure is a function of the axial coordinate only. For brevity, use instead of formula_4. The axial momentum equation reduces to


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: where is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. In the above equation, the left-hand side is only a function of and the right-hand side term is only a function of , implying that both terms must be the same constant. Evaluating this constant is straightforward. If we take the length of the pipe to be and denote the pressure difference between the two ends of the pipe by (high pressure minus low pressure), then the constant is simply


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Since needs to be finite at , . The no slip boundary condition at the pipe wall requires that at (radius of the pipe), which yields . Thus we have finally the following parabolic velocity profile:


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The maximum velocity occurs at the pipe centerline (), . The average velocity can be obtained by integrating over the pipe cross section,


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The easily measurable quantity in experiments is the volumetric flow rate . Rearrangement of this gives the Hagen–Poiseuille equation


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Although more lengthy than directly using the Navier–Stokes equations, an alternative method of deriving the Hagen–Poiseuille equation is as follows.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Assume the liquid exhibits laminar flow. Laminar flow in a round pipe prescribes that there are a bunch of circular layers (lamina) of liquid, each having a velocity determined only by their radial distance from the center of the tube. Also assume the center is moving fastest while the liquid touching the walls of the tube is stationary (due to the no-slip condition).


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: When two layers of liquid in contact with each other move at different speeds, there will be a shear force between them. This force is proportional to the area of contact , the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of flow , and a proportionality constant (viscosity) and is given by


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The negative sign is in there because we are concerned with the faster moving liquid (top in figure), which is being slowed by the slower liquid (bottom in figure). By Newton's third law of motion, the force on the slower liquid is equal and opposite (no negative sign) to the force on the faster liquid. This equation assumes that the area of contact is so large that we can ignore any effects from the edges and that the fluids behave as Newtonian fluids.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Assume that we are figuring out the force on the lamina with radius . From the equation above, we need to know the area of contact and the velocity gradient. Think of the lamina as a ring of radius , thickness , and length . The area of contact between the lamina and the faster one is simply the surface area of the cylinder: . We don't know the exact form for the velocity of the liquid within the tube yet, but we do know (from our assumption above) that it is dependent on the radius. Therefore, the velocity gradient is the change of the velocity with respect to the change in the radius at the intersection of these two laminae. That intersection is at a radius of . So, considering that this force will be positive with respect to the movement of the liquid (but the derivative of the velocity is negative), the final form of the equation becomes


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: where the vertical bar and subscript following the derivative indicates that it should be taken at a radius of .


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Next let's find the force of drag from the slower lamina. We need to calculate the same values that we did for the force from the faster lamina. In this case, the area of contact is at instead of . Also, we need to remember that this force opposes the direction of movement of the liquid and will therefore be negative (and that the derivative of the velocity is negative).


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: To find the solution for the flow of a laminar layer through a tube, we need to make one last assumption. There is no acceleration of liquid in the pipe, and by Newton's first law, there is no net force. If there is no net force then we can add all of the forces together to get zero


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: First, to get everything happening at the same point, use the first two terms of a Taylor series expansion of the velocity gradient:


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The expression is valid for all laminae. Grouping like terms and dropping the vertical bar since all derivatives are assumed to be at radius ,


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Finally, put this expression in the form of a differential equation, dropping the term quadratic in .


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The above equation is the same as the one obtained from the Navier–Stokes equations and the derivation from here on follows as before.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: When a "constant" pressure gradient is applied between two ends of a long pipe, the flow will not immediately obtain Poiseuille profile, rather it develops through time and reaches the Poiseuille profile at steady state. The Navier–Stokes equations reduce to


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: where is the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero and are the positive roots of this function and is the Bessel function of the first kind of order one. As , Poiseuille solution is recovered.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: If is the inner cylinder radii and is the outer cylinder radii, with "constant" applied pressure gradient between the two ends , the velocity distribution and the volume flux through the annular pipe are


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Flow through pipes with an oscillating pressure gradient finds applications in blood flow through large arteries. The imposed pressure gradient is given by


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Plane Poiseuille flow is flow created between two infinitely long parallel plates, separated by a distance with a constant pressure gradient is applied in the direction of flow. The flow is essentially unidirectional because of infinite length. The Navier–Stokes equations reduce to


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Joseph Boussinesq derived the velocity profile and volume flow rate in 1868 for rectangular channel and tubes of equilateral triangular cross-section and for elliptical cross-section. Joseph Proudman derived the same for isosceles triangles in 1914. Let be the constant pressure gradient acting in direction parallel to the motion.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The velocity and the volume flow rate of tube with equilateral triangular cross-section of side length are


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Here, when , Poiseuille flow for circular pipe is recovered and when , "plane Poiseuille" flow is recovered. More explicit solutions with cross-sections such as snail-shaped sections, sections having the shape of a notch circle following a semicircle, annular sections between homofocal ellipses, annular sections between non-concentric circles are also available, as reviewed by .


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The flow through arbitrary cross-section satisfies the condition that on the walls. The governing equation reduces to


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: For a compressible fluid in a tube the volumetric flow rate (but not the mass flow rate) and the axial velocity are not constant along the tube. The flow is usually expressed at outlet pressure. As fluid is compressed or expanded, work is done and the fluid is heated or cooled. This means that the flow rate depends on the heat transfer to and from the fluid. For an ideal gas in the isothermal case, where the temperature of the fluid is permitted to equilibrate with its surroundings, an approximate relation for the pressure drop can be derived. Using ideal gas equation of state for constant temperature process, the relation can be obtained. Over a short section of the pipe, the gas flowing through the pipe can be assumed to be incompressible so that Poiseuille law can be used locally,


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Here we assumed the local pressure gradient is not too great to have any compressibility effects. Though locally we ignored the effects of pressure variation due to density variation, over long distances these effects are taken into account. Since is independent of pressure, the above equation can be integrated over the length to give


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: This equation can be seen as Poiseuille's law with an extra correction factor expressing the average pressure relative to the outlet pressure.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: Electricity was originally understood to be a kind of fluid. This hydraulic analogy is still conceptually useful for understanding circuits. This analogy is also used to study the frequency response of fluid-mechanical networks using circuit tools, in which case the fluid network is termed a hydraulic circuit. Poiseuille's law corresponds to Ohm's law for electrical circuits, . Since the net force acting on the fluid is equal to , where , i.e. , then from Poiseuille's law, it follows that


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: For electrical circuits, let be the concentration of free charged particles (in m) and let be the charge of each particle (in coulombs). (For electrons, .) Then is the number of particles in the volume , and is their total charge. This is the charge that flows through the cross section per unit time, i.e. the current . Therefore, . Consequently, , and


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: But , where is the total charge in the volume of the tube. The volume of the tube is equal to , so the number of charged particles in this volume is equal to , and their total charge is . Since the voltage , it follows then


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: It follows that the resistance is proportional to the length of the resistor, which is true. However, it also follows that the resistance is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius , i.e. the resistance is inversely proportional to the second power of the cross section area of the resistor, which is different from the electrical formula. The electrical relation for the resistance is


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: where is the resistivity; i.e. the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross section area of the resistor. The reason why Poiseuille's law leads to a different formula for the resistance is the difference between the fluid flow and the electric current. Electron gas is inviscid, so its velocity does not depend on the distance to the walls of the conductor. The resistance is due to the interaction between the flowing electrons and the atoms of the conductor. Therefore, Poiseuille's law and the hydraulic analogy are useful only within certain limits when applied to electricity. Both Ohm's law and Poiseuille's law illustrate transport phenomena.


title: Hagen–Poiseuille equation

text: The Hagen–Poiseuille equation is useful in determining the vascular resistance and hence flow rate of intravenous (IV) fluids that may be achieved using various sizes of peripheral and central cannulas. The equation states that flow rate is proportional to the radius to the fourth power, meaning that a small increase in the internal diameter of the cannula yields a significant increase in flow rate of IV fluids. The radius of IV cannulas is typically measured in "gauge", which is to the radius. Peripheral IV cannulas are typically available as (from large to small) 14G, 16G, 18G, 20G, 22G, 26G. As an example, the flow of a 14G cannula is typically around that of a 16G, and that of a 20G. It also states that flow is inversely proportional to length, meaning that longer lines have lower flow rates. This is important to remember as in an emergency, many clinicians favor shorter, larger catheters compared to longer, narrower catheters. While of less clinical importance, an increased change in pressure () — such as by pressurizing the bag of fluid, squeezing the bag, or hanging the bag higher (relative to the level of the cannula) — can be used to speed up flow rate. It is also useful to understand that viscous fluids will flow slower (e.g. in blood transfusion).


title: Catechism

text: A catechism (; from , "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts. Catechisms are doctrinal manuals – often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorised – a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. According to Norman DeWitt, the early Christians appropriated this practice from the Epicureans, a school whose founder Epicurus had instructed to keep summaries of the teachings for easy learning. The term "catechumen" refers to the designated recipient of the catechetical work or instruction. In the Catholic Church, catechumens are those who are preparing to receive the Sacrament of Baptism. Traditionally, they would be placed separately during Holy Mass from those who had been baptized, and would be dismissed from the liturgical assembly before the Profession of Faith (Nicene Creed) and General Intercessions (Prayers of the Faithful).


title: Catechism

text: Catechisms are characteristic of Western Christianity but are also present in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In 1973, "The Common Catechism", the first joint catechism of Catholics and Protestants, was published by theologians of the major Western Christian traditions, as a result of extensive ecumenical dialogue.


title: Catechism

text: Before the Protestant Reformation, Christian catechesis took the form of instruction in and memorization of the Apostles' Creed, Lord's Prayer, and basic knowledge of the sacraments. However there were also more comprehensive documents that outlined of the Christian faith, such as the Catechetical Lectures of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, "The Morals" of St. Basil of Caesarea, and the Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Love by St. Augustine of Hippo. The earliest known catechism is the Didache, which was written between 60 and 85 AD.


title: Catechism

text: The word "catechism" for a manual for this instruction appeared in the Late Middle Ages. The use of a question and answer format was popularized by Martin Luther in his 1529 Small Catechism. He wanted the catechumen to understand what he was learning, so the Decalogue, Lord's Prayer, and Apostles' Creed were broken up into small sections, with the question "What does this mean" following each portion. The format calls upon two parties to participate, a master and a student (traditionally termed a "scholar"), or a parent and a child. The Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647) is an example:


title: Catechism

text: A. The word of God which is contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments is the only rule to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy him.


title: Catechism

text: The catechism's question-and-answer format, with a view toward the instruction of children, was a form adopted by the various Protestant confessions almost from the beginning of the Reformation.


title: Catechism

text: Among the first projects of the Reformation was the production of catechisms self-consciously modelled after the older traditions of Cyril of Jerusalem and Augustine. These catechisms showed special admiration for Chrysostom's view of the family as a "little church", and placed strong responsibility on every father to teach his children, to prevent them from coming to baptism or the Lord's table ignorant of the doctrine under which they are expected to live as Christians.


title: Catechism

text: Luther's Large Catechism (1529) typifies the emphasis which the churches of the Augsburg Confession placed on the importance of knowledge and understanding of the articles of the Christian faith. Primarily intended as instruction to teachers, especially to parents, the catechism consists of a series of exhortations on the importance of each topic of the catechism. It is meant for those who have the capacity to understand, and is meant to be memorized and then repeatedly reviewed so that the Small Catechism could be taught with understanding. For example, the author stipulates in the preface:


title: Catechism

text: Luther's Small Catechism, in contrast, is written to accommodate the understanding of a child or an uneducated person. It begins:


title: Catechism

text: Calvin's 1545 preface to the Genevan catechism begins with an acknowledgement that the several traditions and cultures which were joined in the Reformed movement would produce their own form of instruction in each place. While Calvin argues that no effort should be expended on preventing this, he adds:


title: Catechism

text: The scandal of diverse instruction is that it produces diverse baptisms and diverse communions, and diverse faith. However, forms may vary without introducing substantial differences, according to the Reformed view of doctrine.


title: Catechism

text: John Calvin produced a catechism while at Geneva (1541), which underwent two major revisions (1545 and 1560). Calvin's aim in writing the catechism of 1545 was to set a basic pattern of doctrine, meant to be imitated by other catechists, which would not affirm local distinctions or dwell on controversial issues, but would serve as a pattern for what was expected to be taught by Christian fathers and other teachers of children in the church. The catechism is organized on the topics of faith, law, prayer and sacraments.


title: Catechism

text: After Protestantism entered into the Palatinate, in 1546 the controversy between Lutherans and Calvinists broke out, and especially while the region was under the elector Otto Heinrich (1556–1559), this conflict in Saxony, particularly in Heidelberg, became increasingly bitter and turned violent.


title: Catechism

text: When Frederick III, Elector Palatine, came into power in 1559 he put his authority behind the Calvinistic view on the Lord's Supper, which denied the local presence of the body of Jesus Christ in the elements of the sacrament. He turned Sapienz College into a school of divinity, and in 1562 he placed over it a pupil and friend of Luther's colleague, Philipp Melanchthon, named Zacharias Ursinus. In an attempt to resolve the religious disputes in his domain, Frederick called upon Ursinus and his colleague Caspar Olevianus (preacher to Frederick's court) to produce a catechism. The two collaborators referred to existing catechetical literature, and especially relied on the catechisms of Calvin and of John Lasco. To prepare the catechism, they adopted the method of sketching drafts independently, and then bringing together the work to combine their efforts. "The final preparation was the work of both theologians, with the constant co-operation of Frederick III. Ursinus has always been regarded as the principal author, as he was afterwards the chief defender and interpreter of the Catechism; still, it would appear that the nervous German style, the division into three parts (as distinguished from the five parts in the Catechism of Calvin and the previous draft of Ursinus), and the genial warmth and unction of the whole work, are chiefly due to Olevianus." (Schaff, in. Am. Presb. Rev. July 1863, p. 379). The structure of the Heidelberg Catechism is spelled out in the second question; and the three-part structure seen there is based on the belief that the single work of salvation brings forward the three persons of the Trinity in turn, to make God fully and intimately known by his work of salvation, referring to the Apostles' Creed as an epitome of Christian faith. Assurance of salvation is the unifying theme throughout this catechism: assurance obtained by the work of Christ, applied through the sacraments, and resulting in grateful obedience to the commandments and persistence in prayer.


title: Catechism

text: Together with the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), the Westminster Assembly also produced two catechisms, a Larger and a Shorter, which were intended for use in Christian families and in churches. These documents have served as the doctrinal standards, subordinate to the Bible, for Presbyterians and other Reformed churches around the world. The Shorter Catechism shows the Assembly's reliance upon the previous work of Calvin, Lasco, and the theologians of Heidelberg. It comprises two main sections summarizing what the Scriptures principally teach: the doctrine of God, and the duty required of men. Questions and answers cover the usual elements: faith, the Ten Commandments, the sacraments, and prayer.


title: Catechism

text: Oecolampadius composed the "Basel Catechism" in 1526, Leo Juda (1534) followed by Bullinger (1555) published catechisms in Zurich. The French Reformed used Calvin's Genevan catechism, as well as works published by Louis Cappel (1619), and Charles Drelincourt (1642).


title: Catechism

text: English Calvinistic Baptists typically adopted Reformed catechisms, modifying them to reflect their own convictions concerning the nature of the church and the sacrament of baptism. In 1680, the Baptist minister Hercules Collins published his own revision of the Heidelberg Catechism. Later, the General Assembly of 1677 adopted a catechism that was largely based on the Westminster Shorter Catechism. However, this catechism was not published until 1689, after the passing of the Act of Toleration 1689.


title: Catechism

text: While the Pentecostal movement has no one official catechism or confession, nevertheless Pentecostal authors have produced catechetical works. William Seymour, founder of the Azusa Street revival, included a catechism in the Doctrines and Disciplines of the Azusa Street Apostolic Faith Mission. Assemblies of God minister Warren D. Combs produced a catechism in the 1960s. In 2016 Henry Volk the host of the Theology in Perspective podcast authored a resource entitled, A Pentecostal Catechism.


title: Catechism

text: The Anglican Book of Common Prayer includes a catechism. In older editions it is a brief manual for the instruction of those preparing to be brought before the bishop for confirmation: the baptised first professes his baptism, and then rehearses the principal elements of the faith into which he has been baptised: the Apostles' Creed, Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the sacraments.


title: Catechism

text: in my Baptism; wherein I was made a member of Christ, the child of God, and an inheritor of the kingdom of heaven.


title: Catechism

text: The "N. or M." stands for the Latin, "nomen vel nomina", meaning "name or names". It is an accident of typography that "nomina" came to be represented by "m".


title: Catechism

text: The US-based Episcopal Church's 1979 prayer book has a considerably longer catechism intended as "an outline of instruction" and "a brief summary of the Church's teaching".


title: Catechism

text: Vernon Staley's "The Catholic religion : a manual of instruction for members of the Anglican Church" was published in 1908.


title: Catechism

text: "To Be A Christian: An Anglican Catechism" was published in 2020 by Anglican House Media Ministries (ACNA).


title: Catechism

text: Thomas Secker "Lectures on the Catechism of the Church of England" were published in 1769 (vol. I and vol. II)


title: Catechism

text: Stephen Wilkinson Dowell "A catechism on the services of the Church of England" was published in 1852


title: Catechism

text: Zacheus Isham "The Catechism of the Church: with Proofs from the New Testament: and Some Additional Questions and Answers" was published in 1694


title: Catechism

text: "The Probationer's Catechism" was authored by Methodist divine S. Olin Garrison for probationary members of the Methodist Episcopal Church seeking full membership in the connexion; it has been one of the most widely used catechisms in Methodist history. "A Catechism on the Christian Religion: The Doctrines of Christianity with Special Emphasis on Wesleyan Concepts" by Mel-Thomas and Helen Rothwell is another popular catechism used to explicate Wesleyan-Arminian theology. More recent publications are "A Catechism Prepared Especially for the Members of the Evangelical Wesleyan Church" (printed in the United States), "A Larger Catechism: For Members of the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church" (printed in the United States), and "A Catechism for the Use of the People Called Methodists" (printed in Great Britain).


title: Catechism

text: Besides the manuals of instruction that were published by the Protestants for use in their families and churches, there were other works produced by sectarian groups intended as a compact refutation of orthodoxy.


title: Catechism

text: For example, Socinians in Poland published the "Racovian Catechism" in 1605, using the question and answer format of a catechism for the orderly presentation of their arguments against the Trinity and the doctrine of Hell, as these were understood by the Reformed churches from which they were forced to separate.


title: Catechism

text: The Anabaptists have also produced catechisms of their own, to explain and defend their distinctives.


title: Catechism

text: The "Catechism of the Catholic Church" (see below) is the catechism that is in most widespread use among Catholics today. It is the official catechism of the Church.


title: Catechism

text: For Catholics, all the canonical books of the Bible (including the Deuterocanonical books), the tradition of the Church and the interpretation of these by the Magisterium (which may be outlined in a catechism, a compendium or a declaration) constitute the complete and best resource for fully attaining to God's revelation to mankind. Catholics believe that sacred scripture and sacred tradition preserved and interpreted by the Magisterium are both necessary for attaining to the fullest understanding of all of God's revelation.


title: Catechism

text: The term "catechist" is most frequently used in Catholicism, often to describe a "lay catechist" or layperson with catechetical training who engages in such teaching and evangelization. This can be in both parish church and mission contexts.


title: Catechism

text: A question and answer format catechism that was the standard catechetical text in Great Britain in the earlier part of the 20th century. Popularly called the "Penny Catechism", as the original version only cost one penny. Various editions of the "Penny Catechism" were issued through the century and changes were made to the text.


title: Catechism

text: The "Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum" also known as Enchiridion or Denzinger, is a compendium of all basic texts of Catholic dogma and morality since the apostles. Commissioned by Pope Pius IX, it has been in use since 1854, and has been updated periodically. It is a compendium of faith, like a catechism. By including all relevant teachings throughout history, it is at the same, more than a catechism. It is a search instrument for theologians, historians and anybody interested in Christian religion. The latest updates of the Enchiridion extend to the teachings of Pope John Paul II.


title: Catechism

text: The Archbishop of Baltimore Cardinal James Gibbons is quoted in earlier versions of the Enchiridion, that every theologian should have always two books at hand, the Holy Bible and this "Enchiridion".


title: Catechism

text: The Catechism for Filipino Catholics (CFC) is a contextualised and inculturated Filipino Catholic catechism prepared by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines and approved by the Holy See. The draft was produced by the Conference's "Episcopal Commission on Catechesis and Catholic Education," and is an update of the late 16th century "Doctrina Christiana en Lengua Espanola Y Tagala", which was a Hispano-Tagalog version of the earlier Hispano-Chinese "Doctrina" that was the first book printed in the Philippines using moveable type.


title: Catechism

text: The "Doctrina Cristiana" was written in Tagalog (both in a hispanised Latin script and the then-common indigenous Baybayin script), as well as Spanish. Amongst the contents of the "Doctrina" are the Spanish alphabet and phonics, basic prayers shown in both languages – in the case of the Tagalog, using archaic words and both scripts – and a brief catechism in question-and-answer format.


title: Catechism

text: The catechetical instructions of Saint Thomas Aquinas were used generally throughout the 13th and 14th centuries as manuals and textbooks for priests and teachers of religion. "The Explanations of St. Thomas," wrote Spirago, "are remarkable for their conciseness and their simplicity of language; they are especially noteworthy because the main parts of the catechetical course of instruction are brought into connection with one another so that they appear as one harmonious whole." The influence of these works is especially prominent in the "Roman Catechism" which the Council of Trent ordered written for parish priests and for all teachers of religion. Many of the explanatory passages in both works are almost identical.


title: Catechism

text: "Ignorantia Sacerdotum" are the first words and the better-known title of "De Informatione Simplicium", a catechetical manual drafted by Archbishop Pecham's provincial Council of Lambeth in 1281. It called for the memorisation of the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the two-fold injunction to "love the Lord thy God with all thy heart... and thy neighbour as thyself.".


title: Catechism

text: It also emphasised the Seven Virtues, the Seven Deadly Sins, the Seven Sacraments, and the Seven Works of Mercy.


title: Catechism

text: Tradivox (or the Catholic Catechism Index) is a multi-volume book series by Sophia Institute Press, which restores and reprints Catholic catechisms. Ongoing, it will consist of twenty cross-indexed hardcover volumes upon the series' completion. The project received several endorsements from prominent members of the Catholic clergy & public, including Cardinal Burke, Cardinal Müller, Cardinal Pell, Bishop Strickland, Bishop Schneider, & theologian Peter Kwasniewski. Schneider also provided a foreword in the hardcover edition of Vol. 1.


title: Catechism

text: Unlike the Catholic Church there is no teaching Magisterium in the Orthodox world. Most catechumens are instructed orally by a deacon or priest at the church. Also, there is more emphasis on being taught by simply being in church, and listening to the services. Most Orthodox would refer back to the original writings of the Church Fathers, including the Catechetical Lectures of St. Cyril of Jerusalem and The Ladder of Divine Ascent. New catechumens would generally be encouraged to read "The Orthodox Church" by Kallistos Ware to get an overview of the Christian faith from an Orthodox perspective before being given more advanced readings.


title: Catechism

text: In recent times, perhaps under influence from the West, a number of catechisms have emerged in the Eastern Orthodox Church such as the Philaret Catechism, which is entitled, "The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church," by Rev. George Mastrantonis, and the more modern "The Orthodox Faith" by Protopresbyter Thomas Hopko. However, presently such catechisms are not widely used.


title: Catechism

text: The Oriental Orthodox Churches rely heavily on the Didascalia Apostolorum. The Ethiopic version is known as the "Ethiopic Didascalia." It is included in the Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon, and is read from on Sundays. The faith of the Coptic Orthodox Church has historically been evidenced in the lives and sayings of the early desert monks, which was recorded in "The paradise of the holy fathers," and . Recently the Coptic church has used Fr. Tadros Malaty's books, along with Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria's many books, to help lay people better understand their Coptic faith. However, like the Eastern Orthodox church, the faith is mostly expounded in the lives of the saints


title: Catechism

text: Catechisms represent an obvious, practical method of passing on instruction, and as such examples can be found in many traditions. For example, Asiatic schools of esoteric learning also used a catechetical style of instruction, as this Zodiac catechism shows:


title: Catechism

text: A. Fused into one, O Master of my Life. The two are one. But both have disappeared and naught remains but the deep fire of my desire.


title: Catechism

text: In Zoroastrianism there is the "ČĪDAG ANDARZ Ī PŌRYŌTKĒŠĀN" also known as "Pand-nāmag ī Zardušt" (Book of the counsels of Zoroaster), which is a post-Sasanian compendium of apothegms intended to instruct every Zoroastrian male, upon his attaining the age of fifteen years, in fundamental religious and ethical principles, as well as in the daily duties incumbent upon him. In Robert Charles Zaehner's words, it "sums up succinctly the whole of Zoroastrian doctrine: it is what every boy and girl of fifteen must know before he or she is invested with the sacred girdle {kusti}."


title: Catechism

text: Judaism does not have a formal catechism. While there have been several attempts to formulate Jewish principles of faith, and some of these have achieved wide acceptance, none can be described as being in the form of a catechism. The most widely recited formulation, Yigdal, is in the form of a hymn based on Maimonides' 13 Articles of Faith.


title: Catechism

text: Bhaktivinoda Thakur's book "Jaiva Dharma" is an example of Gaudiya Vaishnava catechism. It follows the usual question-answer format.


title: Catechism

text: In the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism a small bit of catechism appears as the fourth section of the Khuddakapatha, as well as the forty-third and forty-fourth suttas of the Majjhima Nikaya. Henry Steel Olcott introduced his own form of Buddhist Catechism, appropriated from Christianity, to Ceylon when setting up his Buddhist education system during the late 19th century Buddhist revival on the island.


title: Catechism

text: Epicurean catechism may have originated from the practice of writing outlines of Epicurean doctrines for easy memorization. Epicurus' Letter to Herodotus is known as the "Little Epitome" which young students are instructed to memorize, and in antiquity they would move on to more advanced teachings with the "Large Epitome". The 40 Principal Doctrines also serve the role of a catechism. The philosopher Philodemus of Gadara instructed his students to keep an outline of the doctrines on wealth and economics, so that there are additional doctrines that advanced students may focus on.


title: Catechism

text: Islam teaches children and new Muslims the matters of faith, worship, and ethics in the form of a concise manual. They are popular in Turkish as "" (from the Arabic "Ilm ul-Hal", Situation Science). It is also advised for every Muslim to have a basic knowledge of such matters of religion. The first chapter is the book of cleanliness and first to be taught are subjects such as: which are clean, what is clean and what is not clean, what people need to be cleansed from, how they should clean, and which water should they use to clean.


title: Catechism

text: In the past, catechisms were written to rehearse the basic knowledge of a non-religious subject. Examples include numerous political catechisms published from the 18th to the 20th century in Europe as well as in North and South America. See also the "Catechism of the History of Newfoundland" (c1856), the "Coal Catechism" (1898), and "A Catechism of the Steam Engine" (1856).


title: Catechism

text: "Elementary catechism on the Constitution of the United States" Arthur J. Stansbury (1828), "Catechism of the Constitution of the United States" Lewis Cruger (1863) and "A Catechism of the Constitution of the United States of America" John V. Overall. Friedrich Engels' 1847 work "Principles of Communism" was written as a catechism: Engels subsequently decided that the format was not suited to the addition of historical material which he felt was necessary, and he and Karl Marx restructured the material and used it as the nucleus of "The Communist Manifesto".


title: Catechism

text: Some literary works have also taken the form of a catechism. The 17th episode of James Joyce's novel "Ulysses", known as "Ithaca", is written in the form of a catechism, as is Ted Hughes' poem "Examination at the Womb Door", from the collection "Crow". In Henry IV, Part 1: Act V, Scene I, Line 141 Falstaff refers to his monologue as a catechism, explaining his view of the virtue of honor.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Hjalmar Schacht (born Horace Greeley Hjalmar Schacht; 22 January 1877 – 3 June 1970, ) was a German economist, banker, centre-right politician, and co-founder in 1918 of the German Democratic Party. He served as the Currency Commissioner and President of the Reichsbank under the Weimar Republic. He was a fierce critic of his country's post-World War I reparations obligations.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: He served in Adolf Hitler's government as President of the Central Bank ("Reichsbank") 1933–1939 and as Minister of Economics (August 1934 – November 1937).


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: While Schacht was for a time feted for his role in the German "economic miracle", he opposed elements of Hitler's policy of German re-armament insofar as it violated the Treaty of Versailles and (in his view) disrupted the German economy. His views in this regard led Schacht to clash with Hitler and most notably with Hermann Göring. He resigned as President of the Reichsbank in January 1939. He remained as a Minister-without-portfolio, and received the same salary, until he left the government in January 1943.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In 1944, Schacht was arrested by the Gestapo following the assassination attempt on Hitler on 20 July 1944 because he allegedly had contact with the assassins. Subsequently, he was interned in the concentration camps Ravensbrück and later at Flossenbürg. In the final days of the war, he was one of the 139 special and clan prisoners who were transported by the SS from Dachau to South Tyrol. This location is within the area named by Himmler the "Alpine Fortress", and it is speculated that the purpose of the prisoner transport was with the intent of holding hostages. They were freed in Niederdorf, South Tyrol, in Italy, on 30 April 1945.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht was tried at Nuremberg, but was fully acquitted despite Soviet objections; later on, a German denazification tribunal sentenced him to eight years' hard labor, which was also overturned on appeal.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In 1955, he founded a private banking house in Düsseldorf. He also advised developing countries on economic development.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht was born in Tingleff, Prussia, German Empire (now in Denmark) to William Leonhard Ludwig Maximillian Schacht and Baroness Constanze Justine Sophie von Eggers, a native of Denmark. His parents, who had spent years in the United States, originally decided on the name Horace Greeley Schacht, in honor of the American journalist Horace Greeley. However, they yielded to the insistence of the Schacht family grandmother, who firmly believed the child's given name should be Danish. After completing his "Abitur" at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums, Schacht studied medicine, philology, political science, and finance at the Universities of Munich, Leipzig, Berlin, Paris and Kiel before earning a doctorate at Kiel in 1899 – his thesis was on mercantilism.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: He joined the Dresdner Bank in 1903. In 1905, while on a business trip to the United States with board members of the Dresdner Bank, Schacht met the famous American banker J. P. Morgan, as well as U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt. He became deputy director of the Dresdner Bank from 1908 to 1915. He was then a board member of the for the next seven years, until 1922, and after its merger with the Darmstädter und Nationalbank (Danatbank), a board member of the Danatbank.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: During the First World War, Schacht was assigned to the staff of General Karl von Lumm (1864–1930), the Banking Commissioner for German-occupied Belgium, to organize the financing of Germany's purchases in Belgium. He was summarily dismissed by General von Lumm when it was discovered that he had used his previous employer, the Dresdner Bank, to channel the note remittances for nearly 500 million francs of Belgian national bonds destined to pay for the requisitions.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: After Schacht's dismissal from public service, he had another brief stint at the Dresdner Bank, and then various positions at other banks. In 1923, Schacht applied and was rejected for the position of head of the Reichsbank, largely as a result of his dismissal from Lumm's service.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: During the German Revolution of 1918–1919 Schacht became a "Vernunftrepublikaner" who had reservations over the parliamentary democratic system of the new Weimar Republic but supported it anyways for pragmatic reasons. He helped found the left-liberal German Democratic Party (DDP), which took a leading role in the governing Weimar Coalition. However, Schacht later became an ally of Gustav Stresemann, the leader of the center-right German People's Party (DVP).


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Despite the blemish on his record from his service with von Lumm, in November 1923, Schacht became currency commissioner for the Weimar Republic and participated in the introduction of the Rentenmark, a new currency the value of which was based on a mortgage on all of the properties in Germany. Germany entered into a brief period where it had two separate currencies: the Reichsmark managed by Rudolf Havenstein, President of the Reichsbank, and the newly created Rentenmark managed by Schacht.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: After his economic policies helped battle German hyperinflation and stabilize the German Reichsmark (Helferich Plan), Schacht was appointed president of the Reichsbank at the requests of president Friedrich Ebert and Chancellor Gustav Stresemann.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In 1926, Schacht provided funds for the formation of IG Farben. He collaborated with other prominent economists to form the 1929 Young Plan to modify the way that war reparations were paid after Germany's economy was destabilizing under the Dawes Plan. In December 1929, he caused the fall of the Finance Minister Rudolf Hilferding by imposing upon the government his conditions for obtaining a loan. After modifications by Hermann Müller's government to the Young Plan during the Second Conference of The Hague (January 1930), he resigned as Reichsbank president on 7 March 1930. During 1930, Schacht campaigned against the war reparations requirement in the United States.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht became a friend of the Governor of the Bank of England, Montagu Norman, both men belonging to the Anglo-German Fellowship and the Bank for International Settlements. Norman was so close to the Schacht family that he was godfather to one of Schacht's grandchildren .


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: By 1926, Schacht had left the shrinking DDP and began increasingly lending his support to the Nazi Party (NSDAP). He became disillusioned with Stresemann's policies after he believed that closer relations with the United States were failing to provide economic benefits, and after his efforts to negotiate a rapprochement with the United Kingdom by pegging the Reichsmark to the pound sterling failed. Beginning in 1929 he increasingly criticized German foreign and financial policy since 1924 and demanded the restoration of Germany's former eastern territories and overseas colonies. Schacht became closer to the Nazis between 1930 and 1932.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Though never a member of the NSDAP, Schacht helped to raise funds for the party after meeting with Adolf Hitler. Close for a short time to Heinrich Brüning's government, Schacht shifted to the right by entering the Harzburg Front in October 1931.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht's disillusionment with the existing Weimar government did not indicate a particular shift in his overall philosophy, but rather arose primarily out of two issues:


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht believed that if the German government was ever to commence a wholesale reindustrialization and rearmament in spite of the restrictions imposed by Germany's treaty obligations, it would have to be during a period lacking clear international consensus among the Great Powers.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: After the November 1932 elections, in which the NSDAP saw its vote share fall by four percentage points, Schacht and Wilhelm Keppler organized a petition of industrial and financial leaders, the "Industrielleneingabe" (Industrial petition), requesting president Paul Von Hindenburg to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor. After Hitler took power in January 1933, Schacht won re-appointment as Reichsbank president on 17 March.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In August 1934 Hitler appointed Schacht as Germany's "Reichsminister" of Economics. Schacht supported public-works programs, most notably the construction of "autobahnen" (highways) to attempt to alleviate unemployment – policies which had been instituted in Germany by Kurt von Schleicher's government in late 1932, and had in turn influenced Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the United States. He also introduced the "New Plan", Germany's attempt to achieve economic "autarky", in September 1934. Germany had accrued a massive foreign currency deficit during the Great Depression, which continued into the early years of Nazi rule. Schacht negotiated several trade agreements with countries in South America and southeastern Europe, under which Germany would continue to receive raw materials, but would pay in Reichsmarks. This ensured that the deficit would not get any worse, while allowing the German government to deal with the gap which had already developed. Schacht also found an innovative solution to the problem of the government deficit by using mefo bills.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht also was made a member of the Academy for German Law. He was appointed General Plenipotentiary for the War Economy in May 1935 by provision of the Reich Defense Law of 21 May 1935 and was awarded honorary membership in the NSDAP and the Golden Party Badge in January 1937.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht disagreed with what he called "unlawful activities" against Germany's Jewish minority and in August 1935 made a speech denouncing Julius Streicher and Streicher's writing in the Nazi newspaper "Der Stürmer".


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: During the economic crisis of 1935–36, Schacht, together with the Price Commissioner Dr. Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, helped lead the "free-market" faction in the German government. They urged Hitler to reduce military spending, turn away from autarkic and protectionist policies, and reduce state control in the economy. Schacht and Goerdeler were opposed by a faction centering on Hermann Göring.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Göring was appointed "Plenipotentiary for the Four Year Plan" on 18 October 1936, with broad powers that conflicted with Schacht's authority. Schacht objected to continued high military spending, which he believed would cause inflation, thus coming into conflict with Hitler and Göring.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In 1937 Schacht met with Chinese Finance Minister Dr. H. H. Kung. Schacht told him that "German-Chinese friendship stemmed in good part from the hard struggle of both for independence". Kung said, "China considers Germany its best friend ... I hope and wish that Germany will participate in supporting the further development of China, the opening up of its sources of raw materials, the upbuilding of its industries and means of transportation."


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In November 1937 he resigned as "Reichsminister" of Economics and General Plenipotentiary at both his and Göring's request. He had grown increasingly dissatisfied with Göring's near-total ignorance of economics, and was also concerned that Germany was coming close to bankruptcy. Hitler, however, knew that Schacht's departure would raise eyebrows outside Germany, and insisted that he remain in the cabinet as minister without portfolio. He remained President of the Reichsbank until Hitler dismissed him in January 1939. He remained as a "Reichsminister" without Portfolio, and received the same salary, until he was fully dismissed in January 1943.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Following the Kristallnacht of November 1938, Schacht publicly declared his repugnance at the events, and suggested to Hitler that he should use other means if he wanted to be rid of the Jews. He put forward a plan in which Jewish property in Germany would be held in trust, and used as security for loans raised abroad, which would also be guaranteed by the German government. Funds would be made available for Jewish emigrants, in order to overcome the objections of countries that were hesitant to accept penniless Jews. Hitler accepted the suggestion, and authorised him to negotiate with his London contacts. Schacht, in his book "The Magic of Money" (1967), wrote that Montagu Norman and Lord Bearstead, a prominent Jew, had reacted favourably, but Chaim Weizmann, leading spokesman for the British Zionist Federation, opposed the plan.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: A component of the plan was that emigrating Jews would have taken items such as machinery with them on leaving the country, as a means of boosting German exports. The similar Haavara Agreement allowing German Jews to emigrate to Mandatory Palestine under similar terms had been signed in 1933.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht was said to be in contact with the German resistance to Nazism as early as 1934, though at that time he still believed the Nazi regime would follow his policies. By 1938, he was disillusioned, and was an active participant in the plans for a coup d'état against Hitler if he started a war against Czechoslovakia. Goerdeler, his colleague in 1935–36, was the civilian leader of resistance to Hitler. Schacht talked frequently with Hans Gisevius, another resistance figure; when resistance organizer Theodor Strünck's house (a frequent meeting place) was bombed out, Schacht allowed Strünck and his wife to live in a villa he owned. However, Schacht had remained in the government and, after 1941, Schacht took no active part in any resistance.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Still, at Schacht's denazification trial (subsequent to his acquittal at the Nuremberg trials) it was declared by a judge that "None of the civilians in the resistance did more or could have done more than Schacht actually did."


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: After the attempt on Hitler's life on 20 July 1944, Schacht was arrested on 23 July. He was sent to Ravensbrück, then to Flossenbürg, and finally to Dachau. In late April 1945 he and about 140 other prominent inmates of Dachau were transferred to Tyrol by the SS, which left them there. They were liberated by the Fifth U.S. Army on 5 May 1945 in Niederdorf, South Tyrol, Dolomites, Italy.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht had supported Hitler's gaining power, and had been an important official of the Nazi regime. Thus he was arrested by the Allies in 1945. He was put on trial at Nuremberg for "conspiracy" and "crimes against peace" (planning and waging wars of aggression), but not war crimes or crimes against humanity.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht pleaded not guilty to these charges. He cited in his defense that he had lost all official power before the war even began, that he had been in contact with Resistance leaders like Hans Gisevius throughout the war, and that he had been arrested and imprisoned in a concentration camp himself.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: His defenders argued that he was just a patriot, trying to make the German economy strong. Furthermore, Schacht was not a member of the NSDAP and shared very little of their ideology. The British judges favored acquittal, while the Soviet judges wanted to convict. The British prevailed and Schacht was acquitted. However, at a West German denazification trial, Schacht was sentenced to eight years hard labor. He was freed on appeal in 1948.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In 1950, Juan Yarur Lolas, the Palestinian-born founder of the Banco de Crédito e Inversiones and president of the Arab colony in Santiago, Chile, tried to hire Schacht as a "financial adviser" in conjunction with the German-Chilean community. However, the plan fell through when it became news. He served as a hired consultant for Aristotle Onassis, a Greek businessman, during the 1950s. He also advised the Indonesian government in 1951 following the invitation of economic minister Sumitro Djojohadikusumo.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: In 1953, Schacht started a bank, "Deutsche Außenhandelsbank Schacht & Co.", which he led until 1963. He also gave advice on economics and finance to heads of state of developing countries, in particular the Non-Aligned countries; however, some of his suggestions were opposed, one of which was in the Philippines by the former Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas head Miguel Cuaderno, who firmly rebuffed Schacht, stating that his monetary schemes were hardly appropriate for an economy needing capital investment in basic industry and infrastructure.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Indirectly resulting from his founding of the bank, Schacht was the plaintiff in a foundational case in German law on the "general right of personality". A magazine published an article criticizing Schacht, containing several incorrect statements. Schacht first requested that the magazine publish a correction, and when the magazine refused, sued the publisher for violation of his personality rights. The district court found the publisher both civilly and criminally liable; on appeal, the appellate court reversed the criminal conviction, but found that the publisher had violated Schacht's general right of personality.


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Schacht wrote 26 books during his lifetime, of which at least four have been translated into English:


title: Hjalmar Schacht

text: Hjalmar Schacht has been portrayed by the following actors in film, television and theater productions;


title: Peter Murphy (musician)

text: Peter John Joseph Murphy (born 11 July 1957) is an English singer, songwriter, and musician. He is the vocalist for the post-punk goth rock band Bauhaus. After Bauhaus initially disbanded, Murphy formed Dali's Car with Japan's bassist Mick Karn and released one album, "The Waking Hour" (1984). He later went on to release a number of solo albums, including "Should the World Fail to Fall Apart" (1986) and "Love Hysteria" (1988). In 1990, he achieved mainstream success with his hit single "Cuts You Up", which topped the American Modern Rock Tracks for 7 weeks. His album "Deep" also reached No. 44 on the "Billboard" 200. In 1992, Murphy released "Holy Smoke", which reached No. 108 on the Billboard 200 chart along with lead single "The Sweetest Drop", which peaked at No. 2 on the American Modern Rock Tracks chart. In 2002, Murphy released "Dust" with Turkish-Canadian composer and producer Mercan Dede, which utilizes traditional Turkish instrumentation and songwriting, abandoning Murphy's previous pop and rock incarnations, and juxtaposing elements from progressive rock, trance, classical music, and Middle Eastern music, coupled with Dede's trademark atmospheric electronics. In 2014, he released "Lion", produced by Killing Joke's Youth, which reached No. 173 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Peter Murphy (musician)

text: Thin with prominent cheekbones, a baritone voice, and a penchant for gloomy poetics, he is often called the "Godfather of Goth".


title: Peter Murphy (musician)

text: Peter John Joseph Murphy was born on 11 July 1957 in Northampton, Northamptonshire. He was the seventh child of a large rural working-class family. He has one elder brother, Daniel, and a twin brother, Christopher. Murphy is of Irish descent. He was raised in Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, where he had a strict Catholic upbringing. He described having a happy childhood with a close family which had a "great emphasis on Catholicism in a very sincere, deep, profound way. Always aware of the mysteries of life, mortality, Heaven, Hell, angels, saints and purgatory: all these images. What is allowed and what is not allowed." Murphy's first interest in music was inspired by his mother, who would frequently hum songs. As a teenager, he was introverted, but became attracted to artistic pursuits.


title: Peter Murphy (musician)

text: He was a school friend of Daniel Ash. Murphy described his association with Ash: "The first moment I saw him, literally, I really loved him. It was not sexual, I was attracted to him in a fateful sense. Something told me that this guy was important. I remember being enamoured by him. I felt very close to him. Extremely. It was almost like a bonding that was immediate and whole. I think I recognised a lot of my own faults in him. I felt there was someone who could understand me. I saw him as the mirror of myself. He was always the person who would be positive and practical and not be lazy and always wanted to be in a band. And so I would have done anything for him in that sense because I wanted to be around him." Their musical tastes were shared by their fondness of the glam movement and its artists such as David Bowie and T-Rex. When Ash received his first electric guitar, he would bring Murphy during the lunch hour to hear him play it. Ash was interested in being in a band and told Murphy that he could be in one too, because of his looks. Despite this comment, Murphy was not interested. According to Ash, "Pete didn't think about it at all, it wasn't on his mind as such." When he was sixteen, they separated after leaving school with Murphy working at a local family printing business and Ash going to art college. Murphy's main interest in the job was due to financial reasons for his parents. He would spend 5 years with the business, at first as a bookbinder and then as a printer. While he enjoyed the work, Murphy was feeling somewhat frustrated. When he came into contact with Ash after two years, Ash suggested that he should apply to art college. Due to his introversion, he subsequently eschewed an opportunity to attend art college, opting instead to work as a printer's assistant while working on painting, writing and singing on the side. Murphy also felt that his ideas were not "really formed" to attend art college. Also, his parents and his working class upbringing imprinted a view that "this creative thing is a bit of a luxury. What about bringing in the bread?"


title: Peter Murphy (musician)

text: While still working at the printing firm, Murphy maintained an interest in music. He explained: "I was very interested in figures like Bowie, Bolan and Iggy. I related to their psyches more than their music." He continue to followed their post-glam work. He loved Iggy Pop's albums such as "The Idiot" and "Lust for Life". He went to see artists and bands such as David Bowie (during his Thin White Duke tour) and Judas Priest. He then went to a local pub and saw Ash's latest band at the time, "Jackplug and The Sockets". The band consists of Ash on guitar, David J on bass and Kevin Haskins on drums and played mainly cover songs from the Rolling Stones. After the concert, Ash recognized Murphy and continue to mentioned to him that "You must be in a band". However, nothing came about it. After some months later, Ash's latest band split up which caused him to become depressed. However, Ash was still determined to form another band. He needed a singer and remembered his old friend from the pub with his old band, months ago. Ash explained how he approached Murphy for this offer: "I didn't ring him up or anything. I just arrived at his door and he was just arriving back home from work on his little motorcycle. I got out the car, knocked on the door and was surprised to see me. I just played him this tape (a demo of Jackplug songs) and I asked him if he wanted to get something going." Murphy finally accepted Ash's offer and explained about his decision: "I thought, Yes, I don't mind. Yes. If you're doing it, I'll do it because you fascinate me." After Murphy accepted Ash's offer, they got together over a weekend in a mobile classroom at the Northampton's Teacher Training College and used that room as a rehearsal room. Ash explained this meeting: "Just Pete and myself went in. I drove him from Wellingborough to Northampton. He didn't have any lyrics or anything, he didn't know if he could sing or anything as such, but he had a newspaper and I just put loads of echo on the mike to give him confidence, make him sound good and I just started playing a riff - anything that came into head and he just started singing from the newspaper. As soon as I heard him sing I knew within five minutes - I honestly thought it was just a matter of time. He had the voice, the charisma, the good looks - the whole thing."


title: Peter Murphy (musician)

text: Daniel Ash convinced Murphy to join Bauhaus, one of the establishing acts of the goth movement. Their use of spacey recording effects and theatrical aesthetics was evocative of glam rock; they became an influential group in the early days of gothic rock. In 1983, Bauhaus appeared during the opening sequences of the horror film "The Hunger", performing one of their most popular songs, "Bela Lugosi's Dead". The camera focused almost exclusively on Murphy during most of the scene, panning only briefly to the stars David Bowie and Catherine Deneuve. Bauhaus reformed in 1998 for a tour, and later reunited again in late 2019 for three reunion shows.