title: Neodymium

text: In 2020, physics researchers at Radboud University and Uppsala University announced they had observed a behavior known as "self-induced spin glass" in the atomic structure of neodymium. One of the researchers explained, "…we are specialists in scanning tunneling microscopy. It allows us to see the structure of individual atoms, and we can resolve the north and south poles of the atoms. With this advancement in high-precision imaging, we were able to discover the behavior in neodymium, because we could resolve the incredibly small changes in the magnetic structure." Neodymium behaves in a complex magnetic way that had not been seen before in a periodic table element.


title: Neodymium

text: Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of neodymium oxide (NdO) in the glass melt. Usually in daylight or incandescent light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under fluorescent lighting. Neodymium may be used to color glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray.


title: Neodymium

text: The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927. The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day. Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e.g. Lalique, in France, or Murano). Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to 1980. Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China.


title: Neodymium

text: The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under daylight or yellow incandescent light, but blue under white fluorescent lighting, or greenish under trichromatic lighting. This color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors. In combination with gold or selenium, red colors are produced. Since neodymium coloration depends upon "forbidden" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of the glass. However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in the silica used to make the glass. The same forbidden nature of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity. The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "rare-earth doped" glasses. Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly.


title: Neodymium

text: Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated. Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae. Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass.


title: Neodymium

text: Neodymium is a component of "didymium" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and praseodymium) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589 nm. The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578 nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting. Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting. Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in incandescent light bulbs. These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight. During World War I, didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit Morse Code across battlefields. Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for enamels.


title: Neodymium

text: Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used in lasers as gain media for infrared wavelengths (1054–1064 nm), e.g. (yttrium aluminium garnet), Nd:YAP (yttrium aluminium perovskite), Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO (yttrium orthovanadate), and Nd:glass. Neodymium-doped crystals (typically Nd:YVO) generate high-powered infrared laser beams which are converted to green laser light in commercial DPSS hand-held lasers and laser pointers.


title: Neodymium

text: Trivalent neodymium ion Nd was the first lanthanide from rare-earth elements used for the generation of laser radiation. The Nd:CaWO laser was developed in 1961. Historically, it was the third laser which was put into operation (the first was ruby, the second the U:CaF laser). Over the years the neodymium laser became one of the most used lasers for application purposes. The success of the Nd ion lies in the structure of its energy levels and in the spectroscopic properties suitable for the generation of laser radiation. In 1964 Geusic et al. demonstrated the operation of neodymium ion in YAG matrix YAlO. It is a four-level laser with lower threshold and with excellent mechanical and temperature properties. For optical pumping of this material it is possible to use non-coherent flashlamp radiation or a coherent diode beam.


title: Neodymium

text: The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-terawatt neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads. HELEN can create plasmas of around 10 K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured.


title: Neodymium

text: Neodymium glass solid-state lasers are used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion. Nd:glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices.


title: Neodymium

text: Uranyl acetate has been the standard contrasting agent in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for decades. However, its use is increasingly hampered by regulations by governments due to its radioactive properties as well as its high toxicity. Therefore, alternatives are being searched for, including lanthanide acetates or platinum blue as well as the use of less defined substances such as oolong tea extract. Despite these published alternatives, uranyl acetate (UAc) is still the standard for EM contrasting.


title: Neodymium

text: In the periodic table the vertical ordering of elements in groups is based on the presence of the same number of electrons in their outermost shell, which determines their chemical and physical properties. Because neodymium (Nd) is right above uranium (U) the chemical properties of UAc and NdAc would be very similar in binding to tissue in ultrathin sections thus leading to a similar amount of contrast.


title: Neodymium

text: The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as "Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum": lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective. Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms.


title: Neodymium

text: Neodymium metal dust is combustible and therefore an explosion hazard. Neodymium compounds, as with all rare-earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however, its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated. Neodymium salts are regarded as more toxic if they are soluble than if they are insoluble if they are ingested. Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin. Breathing the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver. Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously.


title: Neodymium

text: Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread application. Commercially available magnets made from neodymium are exceptionally strong and can attract each other from large distances. If not handled carefully, they come together very quickly and forcefully, causing injuries. For example, there is at least one documented case of a person losing a fingertip when two magnets he was using snapped together from 50 cm away.


title: Neodymium

text: Another risk of these powerful magnets is that if more than one magnet is ingested, they can pinch soft tissues in the gastrointestinal tract. This has led to an estimated 1,700 emergency room visits and necessitated the recall of the Buckyballs line of toys, which were construction sets of small neodymium magnets.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) persons in the United Arab Emirates face legal challenges not experienced by other residents. Homosexuality is illegal in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Under UAE law same-sex sexual activity is punishable by the death penalty, in compliance with Sharia. , there are no known arrests or prosecutions for same-sex sexual activity in the UAE since at least 2015. Individuals have been prosecuted for related offences, under public decency laws, for acts such as kissing in public, or for cross-dressing.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: Additionally, non-marital or extramarital sexual activity, including heterosexual acts, may be subject to criminal prosecution as adultery or fornication at the behest of a spouse or guardian; such provisions could potentially be applied to same-sex relations.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: The Federal Penal Code, which follows Sharia law, does not replace the legal system of each emirate, unless it is contrary to the federal law. Persons may be charged under the Federal Penal Code, or under a local (emirate) penal code.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA) report that there are differing opinions on the effect of this provision, saying:


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: Neither Amnesty International nor ILGA have found evidence of the death penalty being applied for same-sex sexual activity , while Amnesty categorically "considers this article [of law] to address rape, not consensual same-sex sexual relations." Nevertheless, as ILGA comment:


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: There are no known instances of imposition of the death penalty, or sentences to life in prison, according to the US Department of State, Amnesty and the ILGA. Prison sentences, fines, floggings, and deportation for foreign nationals, are known to have been consequences of suspected or established same-sex sexual conduct. Involuntary medical and psychological "treatments", including administration of hormonal therapies, and detention for forced psychological treatments, have occurred. There have been reports of mistreatment in detention such as beatings, and forced anal examinations, amounting to torture.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: The law against "voluntary debasement", variously rendered in English as "indecent assault", "indecency", or "carnal knowledge is used against consensual same-sex (and other consensual non- or extramarital) activities. This provision, Article 356, imposes penalties of terms of imprisonment of at least one year and up to fifteen years. According to the British non-profit, Human Dignity Trust, , all U.S. Department of State human rights reports on UAE since 2015, have stated there are no records of arrests or prosecutions for same-sex sexual activity in the country.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: Article 80 of the Abu Dhabi Penal Code makes sodomy punishable by imprisonment of up to 14 years. Several news reports have revealed how the law is typically enforced. Cross-dressing is also likewise illegal.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In 2005, 26 young men were arrested at an Abu Dhabi hotel after police discovered the men engaging in cross-dressing and homosexual practices. In discussing the raid, Mohammed bin Nukhaira Al Dhahiri, Minister of Justice, Islamic Affairs and Auqaf stated, "There will be no room for homosexual and queer acts in the UAE. Our society does not accept queer behaviour, either in word or in action". Initial reports suggested that some of these men were ordered to be given experimental hormone treatments, although the Government subsequently backed off from these statements. The men were all given a five-year prison sentence.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: On 9 August 2017, Emirati police in Abu Dhabi detained two Singaporean nationals in a shopping mall. A court convicted them of crimes and sentenced them to one year in prison "for attempting to resemble women". The UAE deported them on 28 August after they spent nearly three weeks in custody, much of that time in a cell they said was designated for "effeminate" people.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: Article 177 of the Penal Code of Dubai imposes imprisonment of up to 10 years on consensual sodomy. The most common depiction in the local media of LGBT people involves foreigners, disease, and sex crimes such as rape.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In July 2007, a case involved the kidnapping and rape of a sixteen-year-old French Swiss boy by a group of men. The boy stated in a closed court session that soon after leaving the arcade, he saw a 17-year-old acquaintance who offered to drive him home and after him entering the SUV and driving past his home, the three men soon after raped the boy. Initially, the police treated the victim as a suspect and the fear of being charged under Article 177 prompted the boy and his family to leave the country. The mother accused the United Arab Emirates authorities of not notifying the family of the victim that one of the rapists was HIV-positive, testing positive 2003, thus delaying the seeking of medical attention for her son. The Dubai Police Chief brushed aside this accusation stating "The case is a court case... I think she is blaming everyone... Eventually, no formal charges were brought against the teenager who returned to testify against his rapists. The story generated international media attention with government representatives defending the criminal laws against homosexuality, saying: "This is a conservative society. Homosexuality, conducted homosexuality is an illegal act. And we are not ashamed of that." The boy's mother had launched an international campaign to boycott Dubai for the treatment of her son, but ended the campaign when the Government agreed to certain demands. The boy was also awarded AED15 million (US$4 million) in civil compensation.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In 2008, two lesbian tourists were given a one-month jail sentence and then deported for engaging in public displays of affection while visiting a beach. The trial, reportedly the first of its kind, prompted the police to create a special task force to combat homosexuality and other "indecent acts" from taking place on the beaches.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: The legal and social sanctions against LGBT people mean that no formal LGBT organizations or nightclubs exist in Dubai. One nightclub called the "Diamond Club" sponsored a special night for the LGBT community, featuring a British cross-dressing DJ, only to be shut down by the Government.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In 2011, two men were caught having sex in a car and were sentenced to a year each in prison. One man was Pakistani, 24, while the other was Filipino, 33, both found guilty of "homosexuality", which occurred in the International City area of Dubai. Both men were deported following their prison terms.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In 2012, police arrested two Indian men for having consensual sex in a public toilet at a bus station. Both were jailed for six months each and were deported following their prison terms. In the same year, a 28-year-old British man who drunkenly had sex with another man in public were both sentenced to three years in jail followed by deportation. On 21 March 2012, police raided and broke up a gay party consisting of 30 men. On 7 June 2012, a Belgian man admitted to police that he was in a homosexual relationship with a Filipino. He was arrested and jailed for a year to be followed by deportation.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In December 2013, Karen Mke and Kamilla Satto, two transgender women from Brazil, were arrested at a hotel nightclub in Dubai for "imitating women" after calling the police due to prejudices they witnessed in the nightclub. After the law enforcement arrived to the nightclub and learned the two were transgender, they were arrested and the two were detained for two days without any explanation. The women were not allowed to leave Dubai once their passports were taken, and faced criminal charges. The two were held in Dubai until their sentencing in March 2014 and were fined by the courts Dh 10,000 ($2722.50) and ordered to be deported.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: Canadian YouTuber and model Gigi Gorgeous, who is a transgender woman, was detained for five hours by officials at Dubai International Airport on 9 August 2016 due to authorities not recognizing her gender as legitimate. Her passport was confiscated during her detention. After being released from detention, she departed immediately for Sweden.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In October 2017, Jamie Harron from Stirling, Scotland, faced a three-year jail sentence after putting his hand on a man in a bar so as to not "bump and spill drinks". He was arrested for public indecency after touching the man's hip. The charges of public indecency were eventually dropped following the intervention of the ruler of the Emirate Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: The Government in the United Arab Emirates has restricted access to various websites and monitors chat rooms, instant messages and blogs. There were only a few reports of prosecutions and punishments but many people on the internet have been censored their conversations and identity in gay chat rooms. The country's only internet service provider has a proxy server which blocks any website that goes against the country's moral values. Sites regarding dating or marriage, LGBT issues, the Baháʼí Faith or sites related to unblocking the censorship are all inaccessible. Some reports or sites related to unblocking the censorship are all inaccessible. Reports even suggest that any site with the word gay or sex is blocked.


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: The UAE's Media Regulatory Office banned the screening of Pixar's "Lightyear" in cinemas in June 2022, stating that the movie violated the Emirates' media content standards. The movie was opposed for depicting a same-sex relationship. Later that month, "Majid", a popular Arabic-language comic book series for children, came under investigation by the UAE authorities for allegedly promoting homosexuality. The magazine withdrew its May 2022 edition, which depicted a multi-colored character. In one dialogue the character said, "Amazing, I have the capability to colour things... Ali will wish to become like me." According to "The New Arab", a number of social media users had complained that "Majid" had intentionally used the Arabic word () in this character's speech, a word which means both a "homosexual" and "like me".


title: LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates

text: In May 2015, PlanetRomeo, an LGBT social network, published its first Gay Happiness Index (GHI). Gay men from over 120 countries were asked about how they feel about society's view on homosexuality, how they are treated by other people and how satisfied are they with their lives. The UAE was ranked 85th with a GHI score of 37.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: Coitus interruptus, also known as withdrawal, pulling out or the pull-out method, is a method of birth control in which a man, during sexual intercourse, withdraws his penis from a woman's vagina prior to ejaculation and then directs his ejaculate (semen) away from the vagina in an effort to avoid insemination.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: This method was used by an estimated 38 million couples worldwide in 1991. "Coitus interruptus" does not protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs).


title: Coitus interruptus

text: Perhaps the oldest description of the use of the withdrawal method to avoid pregnancy is the story of Onan in the Torah and the Bible. This text is believed to have been written down over 2,500 years ago. Societies in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome preferred small families and are known to have practiced a variety of birth control methods. There are references that have led historians to believe withdrawal was sometimes used as birth control. However, these societies viewed birth control as a woman's responsibility, and the only well-documented contraception methods were female-controlled devices (both possibly effective, such as pessaries, and ineffective, such as amulets).


title: Coitus interruptus

text: After the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, contraceptive practices fell out of use in Europe; the use of contraceptive pessaries, for example, is not documented again until the 15th century. If withdrawal was used during the Roman Empire, knowledge of the practice may have been lost during its decline.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: From the 18th century until the development of modern methods, withdrawal was one of the most popular methods of birth-control in Europe, North America, and elsewhere.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: Like many methods of birth control, reliable effect is achieved only by correct and consistent use. Observed failure rates of withdrawal vary depending on the population being studied: American studies have found actual failure rates of 15–28% per year. One U.S. study, based on self-reported data from the 2006-2010 cycle of the National Survey of Family Growth, found significant differences in failure rate based on parity status. Women with 0 previous births had a 12-month failure rate of only 8.4%, which then increased to 20.4% for those with 1 prior birth and again to 27.7% for those with 2 or more.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: An analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys in 43 developing countries between 1990 and 2013 found a median 12-month failure rate across subregions of 13.4%, with a range of 7.8-17.1%. Individual countries within the subregions were even more varied. A large scale study of women in England and Scotland during 1968–1974 to determine the efficacy of various contraceptive methods found a failure rate of 6.7 per 100 woman-years of use. This was a “typical use” failure rate, including user failure to use the method correctly. In comparison, the combined oral contraceptive pill has an actual use failure rate of 2–8%, while intrauterine devices (IUDs) have an actual use failure rate of 0.1–0.8%. Condoms have an actual use failure rate of 10–18%. However, some authors suggest that actual effectiveness of withdrawal could be similar to the effectiveness of condoms; this area needs further research. (See Comparison of birth control methods.)


title: Coitus interruptus

text: For couples that use "coitus interruptus" consistently and correctly at every act of intercourse, the failure rate is 4% per year. This rate is derived from an educated guess based on a modest chance of sperm in the pre-ejaculate. In comparison, the pill has a perfect-use failure rate of 0.3%, IUDs a rate of 0.1-0.6%, and internal condoms a rate of 2%.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: It has been suggested that the pre-ejaculate ("Cowper's fluid") emitted by the penis prior to ejaculation may contain spermatozoa (sperm cells), which would compromise the effectiveness of the method. However, several small studies have failed to find any viable sperm in the fluid. While no large conclusive studies have been done, it is believed by some that the cause of method (correct-use) failure is the pre-ejaculate fluid picking up sperm from a previous ejaculation. For this reason, it is recommended that the male partner urinate between ejaculations, to clear the urethra of sperm, and wash any ejaculate from objects that might come near the woman's vulva (e.g. hands and penis).


title: Coitus interruptus

text: However, recent research suggests that this might not be accurate. A contrary, yet non-generalizable study that found mixed evidence, including individual cases of a high sperm concentration, was published in March 2011. A noted limitation to these previous studies' findings is that pre-ejaculate samples were analyzed after the critical two-minute point. That is, looking for motile sperm in small amounts of pre-ejaculate via microscope after two minutes – when the sample has most likely dried – makes examination and evaluation "extremely difficult". Thus, in March 2011 a team of researchers assembled 27 male volunteers and analyzed their pre-ejaculate samples within two minutes after producing them. The researchers found that 11 of the 27 men (41%) produced pre-ejaculatory samples that contained sperm, and 10 of these samples (37%) contained a "fair amount" of motile sperm (i.e. as few as 1 million to as many as 35 million).


title: Coitus interruptus

text: This study therefore recommends, in order to minimize unintended pregnancy and disease transmission, the use of condoms from the first moment of genital contact.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: As a point of reference, a study showed that, of couples who conceived within a year of trying, only 2.5% included a male partner with a total sperm count (per ejaculate) of 23 million sperm or less.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: However, across a wide range of observed values, total sperm count (as with other identified semen and sperm characteristics) has weak power to predict which couples are at risk of pregnancy. Regardless, this study introduced the concept that some men may consistently have sperm in their pre-ejaculate, due to a "leakage," while others may not.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: Similarly, another robust study performed in 2016 found motile sperm in the pre-ejaculate of 16.7% (7/42) healthy men. What more, this study attempted to exclude contamination of sperm from ejaculate by drying the pre-ejaculate specimens to reveal a fern-like pattern, characteristics of true pre-ejaculate. All pre-ejaculate specimens were examined within an hour of production and then dried; all pre-ejaculate specimens were found to be true pre-ejaculate.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: It is widely believed that urinating after an ejaculation will flush the urethra of remaining sperm. However, some of the subjects in the March 2011 study who produced sperm in their pre-ejaculate did urinate (sometimes more than once) before producing their sample. Therefore, some males can release the pre-ejaculate fluid containing sperm without a previous ejaculation.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: The advantage of "coitus interruptus" is that it can be used by people who have objections to, or do not have access to, other forms of contraception. Some people prefer it so they can avoid possible adverse effects of hormonal contraceptives or so that they can have a full experience and be able to "feel" their partner. Other reasons for the popularity of this method are it has no direct monetary cost, requires no artificial devices, has no physical side effects, can be practiced without a prescription or medical consultation, and provides no barriers to stimulation.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: Compared to the other common reversible methods of contraception such as IUDs, hormonal contraceptives, and male condoms, "coitus interruptus" is less effective at preventing pregnancy. As a result, it is also less cost-effective than many more effective methods: although the method itself has no direct cost, users have a greater chance of incurring the risks and expenses of either child-birth or abortion. Only models that assume all couples practice perfect use of the method find cost savings associated with the choice of withdrawal as a birth control method.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: The method is largely ineffective in the prevention of sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs), like HIV, since pre-ejaculate may carry viral particles or bacteria which may infect the partner if this fluid comes in contact with mucous membranes. However, a reduction in the volume of bodily fluids exchanged during intercourse may reduce the likelihood of disease transmission compared to using no method due to the smaller number of pathogens present.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: Based on data from surveys conducted during the late 1990s, 3% of women of childbearing age worldwide rely on withdrawal as their primary method of contraception. Regional popularity of the method varies widely, from a low of 1% in Africa to 16% in Western Asia.


title: Coitus interruptus

text: In the United States, according to the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) in 2014, 8.1% of reproductive-aged women reported using withdrawal as a primary contraceptive method. This was a significant increase from 2012 when 4.8% of women reported the use of withdrawal as their most effective method. However, when withdrawal is used in addition to or in rotation with another contraceptive method, the percentage of women using withdrawal jumps from 5% for sole use and 11% for any withdrawal use in 2002, and for adolescents from 7.1% of sole withdrawal use to 14.6% of any withdrawal use in 2006–2008. When asked if withdrawal was used at least once in the past month by women, use of withdrawal increased from 13% as sole use to 33% ever use in the past month. These increases are even more pronounced for adolescents 15 to 19 years old and young women 20 to 24 years old Similarly, the NSFG reports that 9.8% of unmarried men who have had sexual intercourse in the last three months in 2002 used withdrawal, which then increased to 14.5% in 2006–2010, and then to 18.8% in 2011–2015. The use of withdrawal varied by the unmarried man's age and cohabiting status, but not by ethnicity or race. The use of withdrawal decreased significantly with increasing age groups, ranging from 26.2% among men aged 15–19 to 12% among men aged 35–44. The use of withdrawal was significantly higher for never-married men (23.0%) compared with formerly married (16.3%) and cohabiting (13.0%) men. For 1998, about 18% of married men in Turkey reported using withdrawal as a contraceptive method.


title: Jacqueline Ray

text: Jacqueline Ray is a former American actress and model, who became known for her performance in the movies "In Like Flint" and "Beyond the Universe", and in the television show "Magnum, P.I.".


title: Jacqueline Ray

text: Ray booked her first role in the movie "In Like Flint". She starred in two further movies "The Killings at Outpost Zeta" (1980) and "Beyond The Universe" (1981), and also appeared in the American drama series "Magnum, P.I.". In 2006 she earned a role in the teen TV show "Unfabulous" and its spin-off "Unfabulous: The Best Trip Ever".


title: Jacqueline Ray

text: Ray married three times. She was married to film producer and actor Tom Selleck on May 15, 1971, becoming Hollywood's power couple. However, after 11 years, she filed for divorce because Tom Selleck moved to Hawaii in order to film a movie. As she later played alongside Selleck in "Magnum, P.I.", in March 1992, she married for the third time, to Clarence Barry Witmer.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The 2019–20 UEFA Europa League was the 49th season of Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 11th season since it was renamed from the UEFA Cup to the UEFA Europa League.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: Sevilla defeated Inter Milan in the final, played at the RheinEnergieStadion in Cologne, Germany, 3–2 for a record sixth title in the competition. As winners, Sevilla earned the right to play against Bayern Munich, the winners of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, in the 2020 UEFA Super Cup. Since they had already qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage through their league performance, the berth originally reserved for the Europa League title holders was given to the third-placed team of the 2019–20 Ligue 1 (Rennes), the 5th-ranked association according to next season's access list.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the tournament was suspended in mid-March 2020 and resumed in August. The quarter-finals onwards were played as a single match knockout ties at neutral venues in Germany (RheinEnergieStadion, MSV-Arena, Merkur Spiel-Arena, Arena AufSchalke) behind closed doors from 10 to 21 August. The video assistant referee (VAR) system was used in the competition from the knockout stage onwards.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: As the title holders of the Europa League, Chelsea qualified for the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, although they had already qualified before the final through their league performance. They were unable to defend their title as they advanced to the Champions League knockout stage, and were eliminated by the ultimate winners Bayern Munich in the round of 16.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: A total of 213 teams from all 55 UEFA member associations participated in the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League. The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients was used to determine the number of participating teams for each association:


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: For the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League, the associations were allocated places according to their 2018 UEFA country coefficients, which took into account their performance in European competitions from 2013–14 to 2017–18.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations could have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below:


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: Changes were made to the default access list, if any of the teams that qualified for the Europa League via their domestic competitions also qualified for the Champions League as the Champions League or Europa League title holders, or if there were fewer teams transferred from the Champions League due to changes in the Champions League access list. In any case where a spot in the Europa League was vacated, cup winners of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds were promoted accordingly.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: A Europa League place was vacated when a team qualified for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualified for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place was vacated, it was redistributed within the national association by the following rules:


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: One team not playing a national top division took part in the competition; Vaduz (representing Liechtenstein) played in 2019–20 Swiss Challenge League, which is Switzerland's 2nd tier.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The schedule of the competition was as follows (all draws were held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise). Matches could also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The competition was suspended on 17 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. A working group was set up by UEFA to decide the calendar of the remainder of the season. On 17 June 2020, UEFA announced the revised schedule for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final of the competition, to be played in single-leg matches.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: Due to the varying rates of transmission of COVID-19 across European countries during the time of the Round of 16 first leg ties, different matches were affected in different ways. Because of this severity of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy at the time, the games involving Inter Milan and A.S. Roma were postponed, whereas games hosted in Greece, Germany, and Austria went ahead but behind closed doors. Games hosted in Turkey and Scotland went ahead as normal. On 15 March, UEFA announced that none of the Round of 16 second leg ties would go ahead in the following week, postponing them indefinitely, with a taskforce convened to reschedule the rest of the season. On 23 March, it was announced that the Stadion Energa Gdańsk in Gdańsk, Poland would no longer host the competition Final, originally scheduled for 27 May, but would host the 2021 Final instead.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: On 17 June it was announced that the Europa League would return on 5 August and conclude on 21 August, with a last-eight tournament to be held across four venues in Germany. The remainder of the competition would be played in a mini-tournament style with remaining fixture to be played as single legged ties except for the Round of 16 fixtures where the first leg had already been played. All remaining ties of the competition were played behind closed doors due to the remaining presence of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: In the preliminary round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The second qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for cup winners and league non-champions).


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for cup winners and league non-champions).


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The play-off round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for cup winners and league non-champions).


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: The draw for the group stage was held on 30 August 2019, 13:00 CEST, at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco. The 48 teams were drawn into twelve groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 32, where they were joined by the eight third-placed teams of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League group stage. The matchdays were 19 September, 3 October, 24 October, 7 November, 28 November, and 12 December 2019.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: A total of 26 national associations were represented in the group stage. Espanyol, Ferencváros, LASK, Oleksandriya, Wolfsberger AC and Wolverhampton Wanderers made their debut appearances in the group stage (although Espanyol and Ferencváros had appeared in the UEFA Cup group stage).


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.


title: 2019–20 UEFA Europa League

text: Votes were cast by coaches of the 48 teams in the group stage, together with 55 journalists selected by the European Sports Media (ESM) group, representing each of UEFA's member associations. The coaches were not allowed to vote for players from their own teams. Jury members selected their top three players, with the first receiving five points, the second three and the third one. The shortlist of the top three players was announced on 17 September 2020. The award winner was announced during the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage draw in Switzerland on 2 October 2020.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: A Bachelor of Commerce (abbreviated BComm or BCom; also, "baccalaureates commercii") is an undergraduate degree in business, usually awarded in Canada, Australia, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Ireland, New Zealand, Ghana, South Africa, Myanmar, Egypt, and additional Commonwealth countries. The degree was previously offered in the United Kingdom.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: The Bachelor of Commerce degree is designed to provide students with a wide range of managerial skills, while building competence in a particular area of business (see aside).


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: Most universities, therefore, plan the degree such that in addition to their major, students are exposed to general business principles, taking courses in accounting, finance, economics, business management, human resources and marketing.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: Programs often require foundational courses in business statistics and mathematics, and information systems.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: Depending on the institution, a formal academic major may or may not be established. Regardless, a Bachelor of Commerce degree requires students to take the majority of their courses in business-related subjects, including the aside, among others.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: The degree has a specialization aspect, analogous to the BBA, developing the student's business skills and/or providing in-depth knowledge of the field.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: It requires additional academic courses to be completed, and usually with higher academic performance standards, and may also require a researched thesis component.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: It often serves as an abridgement (or entry requirement) between the undergraduate program and postgraduate programs, including the Master of Commerce (M.Com. or M.Comm.) and the Master of Business Administration (MBA) degrees.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: It may consist of a four-year program or of a one-year program taken subsequent to a three-year Bachelor's degree;


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: The curriculum generally lasts three years in Australia, New Zealand, India, Malta, South Africa, some parts of Canada, and Hong Kong. The curriculum requires four years of study in the Republic of Ireland, the majority of Canada, Egypt, Ghana, Pakistan, the Philippines, the Netherlands, Sri Lanka and Nepal.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: In South Africa, New Zealand, Australia and some universities in India, the BCom (Hons) degree is considered an additional postgraduate qualification, whereas in Malta, an additional year of study is not considered a postgraduate qualification.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: The Bachelor of Commerce degree was first offered at the University of Birmingham. The University's School of Commerce was founded by William Ashley, an Englishman from Oxford University, who was the first professor of Political Economy and Constitutional History in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Toronto. Ashley left Toronto in 1892, spent a few years at Harvard University, and then went back to England to the new University of Birmingham where he founded the School of Commerce. Ashley began the programme which was the forerunner of many other BCom degree programmes throughout the British Empire.


title: Bachelor of Commerce

text: Eighteenth-century economists had divided the English economy into three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. Commerce included the transport, marketing and financing of goods. The Birmingham programme in commerce included economic geography, economic history, general economics, modern languages, and accountancy.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Halo 3: ODST is a 2009 first-person shooter game developed by Bungie and published by Microsoft Game Studios. The fourth installment in the "Halo" franchise, it was released on the Xbox 360 in September 2009. Players assume the roles of United Nations Space Command Marines, known as "Orbital Drop Shock Troopers" or ODSTs, during and after the events of "Halo 2". In the game's campaign mode, players explore the ruined city of New Mombasa to discover what happened to their missing teammates in the midst of an alien invasion. In the "Firefight" multiplayer option, players battle increasingly difficult waves of enemies to score points and survive as long as possible; "Halo 3"s multiplayer is contained on a separate disc packaged with "ODST".


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Bungie initially conceived "ODST" as a small side project to produce in the lull between "Halo 3"s completion and "". Instead of featuring recognizable characters such as armored protagonist Master Chief, the developers focused on the ODSTs. Story director Joseph Staten penned a detective story utilizing film noir designs, settings, and characters. Composer Martin O'Donnell abandoned his previous "Halo" themes to create a quieter, jazz-influenced sound. During development, the planned expansion grew in scope to that of a full-sized game. Release marketing for the game included a tie-in comic, live-action trailers, and print and web advertisements.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Upon release, "ODST" became the top-selling Xbox 360 game worldwide. The title received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the atmosphere, music, and story approach. Reviewers were divided on whether the relatively short campaign and included extras were enough to justify the game's US$60 price tag. The game was the top-selling title in the United States in September 2009, and sold more than 3 million copies worldwide. Softpedia, "Time", and "Wired" were among publications that declared the game one of the year's best. The single-player campaign was re-released as downloadable content for the "" for Xbox One in May 2015 and was released on PC, also as part of "The Master Chief Collection", on September 22, 2020.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "Halo 3: ODST" is a shooter video game with most gameplay taking place from a first-person perspective. The game features an open world environment in the updated Kenyan city of Mombasa, referred to as New Mombasa. Although the gameplay of "ODST" bears a strong resemblance to that of previous "Halo" titles, the player does not assume the role of the enhanced human supersoldier Master Chief, protagonist of "Halo 3". Instead, the player controls human soldiers known as "Orbital Drop Shock Troopers" or ODSTs. Since ODSTs do not possess the Master Chief's advanced armor and reflexes, they cannot jump as high, move as fast, or survive large falls. Instead of the Master Chief's damage-absorbing energy shield, the game uses a recharging stamina mechanic. After the player sustains damage, the screen flashes red and the stamina score decreases. If the player receives additional damage before the stamina can recover, the player's health is reduced. Loss of all health causes the player character to die and restart at the last saved checkpoint. Medical packs scattered around the game environment can restore the player's health. The player's head-up display (HUD) includes a "VISR" mode that outlines enemies in red, allies in green, and items of interest in either blue or yellow.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: The game's Campaign mode may be played alone or cooperatively with a maximum of three additional players. As a lone human soldier known as "the Rookie," the player's goal is to discover what happened to his missing teammates. After finding a piece of evidence left behind, such as a sniper rifle hanging from a power line, the player will enter a flashback mission, where they assume the role of the missing soldier six hours earlier. After the player has found the first piece of evidence, the choice of where to go next is left open; campaign levels may be played in any order.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: In the multiplayer matchmaking, "ODST" includes "Halo 3"s multiplayer game modes contained on a separate disc. The offering contains 21 multiplayer maps released for "Halo 3" as well as 3 additional maps titled Citadel, Heretic, and Longshore. Along with the "Halo 3" maps, "ODST" includes a version of the Forge map editor—a utility that allows player customizations of multiplayer levels.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "ODST" contains a cooperative game mode called Firefight, where players take on increasingly difficult waves of enemies in a timed survival game. Firefight can be played cooperatively with up to three other players via networked consoles (System Link) or Microsoft multiplayer service Xbox Live, or up to two players on the same console in splitscreen mode. Players start Firefight with only the Rookie as a playable character; completing the campaign mode unlocks other characters and maps. Players are awarded medals for making special kills, and individual and team scores are tracked throughout the games. Inside Firefight, players have a shared pool of seven lives, which are replenished after completing five rounds. Adding to the difficulty are modifiers called "skulls", which give enemies new abilities or a handicap to the player – the "Catch" skull, for example, causes enemies to throw greater numbers of grenades. Each of the first three rounds in a set activates a different skull. On the fourth set, all skulls are activated and the players must survive 60 seconds.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "ODST" takes place in the 26th century, when humans under the command of the United Nations Space Command (UNSC) are locked in a war with a theocratic alliance of alien races known as the Covenant. During the events of the 2004 video game "Halo 2", the Covenant discover the location of Earth and launch an assault on the city of New Mombasa in Africa. Though the UNSC manages to repel most of the fleet, a large ship hovers over the city, depositing an invasion force. The ship eventually retreats via a slipspace jump, creating a massive shockwave. While the rest of "Halo 2"s storyline follows the ship to an ancient installation similar to the first Halo, "ODST" focuses on the aftermath of the shockwave, while the Covenant still occupy the city.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: During the game, the player can unlock audio files to an additional narrative called "Sadie's Story", which tells the story of a civilian girl caught in the initial stages of the Covenant invasion and her quest to find her father. The tale can also provide useful information for the player during the game, such as helping to locate hidden caches of weapons.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: The game's protagonist is the unnamed Rookie, a new member of a group of Orbital Drop Shock Troopers. Troopers, known as ODSTs or "Helljumpers", often deploy in small, one-man Human Entry Vehicles (HEVs), referred to in-game as Single Occupant Exo-Atmospheric Insertion Vehicles (SOEIV), launched from spaceships in the upper atmosphere.<ref name="bwu-11/21/08"></ref> The Rookie is assisted in finding his teammates by Mombasa's city maintenance AI, called the Superintendent or Vergil. The Rookie's teammates are Buck, Dutch, Romeo, Mickey, and Dare. The lattermost is a UNSC Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) agent in charge of the squad's operation.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: The game begins with Dutch (Adam Baldwin), Romeo (Nolan North), and Mickey (Alan Tudyk) discussing the Covenant Supercarrier above New Mombasa, with the Rookie asleep nearby. Buck (Nathan Fillion) arrives and introduces Dare (Tricia Helfer). Romeo wakes the Rookie and the team enter their HEVs and drop through the atmosphere; at the last minute, Dare changes their trajectory to miss the ship due to a classified mission she has for the team. The Covenant ship enters slipspace with a UNSC ship that can be seen pulling alongside it, sending a shockwave toward the ODSTs; the Rookie's pod collides with Mickey's and crashes into a building on the ground, knocking him unconscious for six hours. He awakens and proceeds to find clues as to what happened to his squadmates.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Buck makes a rough landing after the drop and fights through Covenant forces to find Dare. However, Dare has vanished without a trace when he arrives at her drop pod, leaving behind only her helmet which is later found by the Rookie. Buck finds Romeo instead and the two resolve to find the others and get out of the city. Dutch drops near a nature preserve and helps Marines fighting there. Mickey commandeers a tank and fights his way along a Mombasa boulevard. Meeting up with Dutch, the two defend an ONI base from the Covenant, destroying the facility to keep it from being captured. They are evacuated by a police dropship and make contact with Buck, arranging a rendezvous at police headquarters, but are shot down. Buck and Romeo rescue Dutch and Mickey, but Romeo is seriously wounded. The squad hijacks a Covenant dropship, but instead of leaving the city, Buck decides to have them turn back and find Dare, having realized that Dare has continued her classified mission on her own.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Back in the city, the Rookie is assisted by the Superintendent Vergil, the city's maintenance AI. The Rookie receives a distress call from Dare and locates her in the city's underground tunnels. The two reach the Superintendent's data core, which possesses information on something the Covenant is looking for underneath the city. Inside the core, they discover a Covenant Engineer that has combined the Superintendent into itself. Dare explains that the Engineers are "biological supercomputers" that have been enslaved by the Covenant, and the one they found wishes to defect to the humans; with the Engineer's information on the Covenant combined with the Superintendent's data, Dare's mission changes from downloading the Superintendent's data to escorting the alien to safety. The Rookie, Dare, and the Engineer reunite with Buck and fight their way out of the city where they reunite with the rest of the squad. As they fly away in the hijacked dropship, the squad watches as Covenant ships destroy New Mombasa and excavate a massive alien artifact.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: In the epilogue, one month after the events of the campaign, the ODST squad has been keeping guard over the Engineer. Sergeant Major Avery Johnson arrives, informing the Engineer that he intends to ask it everything it knows about the Covenant—and what they are looking for. Hating the Covenant as much as the humans do, the Engineer lights Johnson's cigar in a sign of agreement. If the campaign is completed on the Legendary difficulty level, a scene shows the Prophet of Truth overseeing the excavation of the Forerunner artifact buried beneath the Superintendent's data core.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Much of "ODST"s development team started work on director Peter Jackson's "Halo Chronicles" video game during the production of "Halo 3". However, the failure of a "Halo" film adaptation and the subsequent cancellation of "Chronicles" meant a sizable team no longer had a project. Around the same time, production for "" began, and Bungie realized that there was a window of time for the studio to create a new product, what producer Curtis Creamer described as a two-to-three-hour "mini-campaign". After looking at the proposal and the budget, studio head Harold Ryan gave the go-ahead.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: With a game engine already assembled, the team began honing the concept. Bungie was interested in bringing changes to the classical "Halo" format which had remained essentially unchanged over three games. The developers spent weeks considering which characters they wanted to focus on. Having players control previous protagonists such as the Master Chief or Arbiter would have brought with it story baggage and expectations. At one point, they considered making the game a Covenant-themed story about an elite strike force. Instead, the developers looked at human characters; while they considered Avery Johnson, they settled on the ODSTs. "The ODSTs have always been fan favorites," Bungie community director Brian Jarrard explained. "We never really got inside [the ODSTs]," story director Joseph Staten said, and he saw that game as an opportunity to flesh out the black-armored soldiers.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Making the player an ODST required gameplay changes to preserve the classic "Halo" gameplay formula while branching it in new directions. The addition of silenced weapons and a revamped pistol were attempts to split the functionality of "Halo 2" and "Halo 3"s "battle rifle" weapon and give the ODSTs unique armaments. The sound designers increased the loudness of the game's submachine gun to make it feel more powerful. The health mechanism was added to provide a level of tension; "it reminds you that you're vulnerable," Staten said.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: With the main characters in place, the development team had to decide on a setting. "The events that unfolded on Earth is something fans still clamor for after being 'short changed' in "Halo 2"," Jarrard said. "Fans wanted to know what happened back on Earth, how humanity was defending it." New Mombasa's urban environments fit the intended feel of the game, as Bungie felt that the change of protagonists required a change in location: "We know the kinds of problems Master Chief solves," Staten explained. "He goes to ancient, alien ring artifacts, fights galaxy-consuming parasitic alien monsters and destroys alien empires [...] The ODST, they maybe take small parts in that larger struggle. But the kind of fights they usually get into are usually the kind of fights they can tackle in a day."


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Returning to a previous setting offered the artists new challenges and opportunities to expand the scope of the city. Having the player walk through the streets at night inspired a film noir ambiance. Color shifts and a high degree of contrast pushed the game's look beyond what previous "Halo" games had offered, but the team had to make sure that even dark portions of the city were playable. The entire core development team looked at commissioned concept paintings to decide how lighting schemes would affect the gameplay. The genre also influenced the character names and archetypes. The player character, for example, fits the concept of a lone, hardboiled detective. To increase the depth of the surroundings, Bungie added touches such as advertisements, trash collectors, and civilian versions of previously seen military hardware.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Bungie began development of "ODST" in March 2008. "ODST" was the first Bungie title completed in less than three years, as production lasted 14 months. Since the team—numbering around 70, plus a five-person core design group—had such a small window for development, they had to prioritize features; for example, rather than completely redesigning the enemies, only a small new subset of artificial intelligence behaviors were added. Because the game featured an open world different from most "Halo" missions, certain gameplay tweaks, such as the revamped weapons and an overhead map, were necessary. Whereas in a traditional "Halo" game, the designers would know from what locations players would approach groups of enemies, "ODST" required a different strategy. "We had to make sure we had groups of Covenant patrolling the city who could react from wherever you attack from and look intelligent doing it," Creamer said. Though the game engine remained unchanged, graphical enhancements such as fullscreen shader system and parallax mapping added greater detail and realism.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: The Firefight game mode was a late addition to the game. Staffer Tim Williams built a prototype shortly after "Halo 3" shipped, placing the player in a portion of a "Halo 3" campaign map and fighting enemies. When development commenced on "ODST", William's concept was adopted for the game and refined. Designer Lars Bakken described one advantage of the game mode as providing a more friendly multiplayer environment than hardcore players online. The designers reused the campaign scoring and medal system from "Halo 3" to add a competitive edge.<ref name="bungie podcast-06/02/09"></ref>


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Sadie's Story was created by Fourth Wall Studios in partnership with Staten and artist Ashley Wood. Fourth Wall Studios was formed by former members of 42 Entertainment, who produced the highly successful "I Love Bees" alternate reality game to promote "Halo 2". Recalled Staten, "we realized that in "Halo" we do a pretty good job of describing the clash of these military industrial complexes, but it really is the soldiers' story," and "Halo 3: ODST" offered a chance to take a look at the unexplored civilian story.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: By December 2008, the game was "representational", meaning that players could experience the game from start to finish, albeit in an unfinished state. The entire Bungie staff was pulled from other duties to play through the game and offer feedback. Among the unfinished elements was the lack of finished dialogue delivered by voice actors, in which Staten filled in placeholder audio. The entire game was completed just before its presentation at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Bungie's audio director Martin O'Donnell and his partner Michael Salvatori composed the music for "ODST". In contrast to "Halo"s signature Gregorian chant, there is no choral music in "ODST", and no previous "Halo" themes make a return appearance. Two out of the game's three hours of music were packaged in a two-disc soundtrack released September 22, 2009. Due to "ODST"'s shift to a new protagonist, O'Donnell wanted to create new music that was evocative of "Halo" but branched in a different direction. Because the game tells a "human story, not a cyborg story", O'Donnell said, the score was more "intimate and personal". For the Rookie's rain-slicked investigations, O'Donnell felt that a jazz-influenced approach worked best in echoing the noir atmosphere. Other characters did not have any themes written specifically for them but became paired with motifs that suited them.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: O'Donnell began writing the game's music while Bungie was crafting the "ODST" announcement trailer. O'Donnell based the trailer's music on a small segment from the first "ODST" piece he wrote, titled "Rain". Salvatori joined the project in February 2009 and helped complete the music chores in two months. Once O'Donnell felt they had enough material, the Chicago-based Salvatori flew to Seattle, Washington, finishing arrangements and recording live musicians. Most of the music was recorded during early 2009. Additional composition chores were handled by Bungie sound designer C. Paul Johnson and orchestrator Stan LePard. The Northwest Sinfonia, which recorded the music for "Halo 3", performed orchestral sections at Studio X in Washington.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Members of Bungie were fans of the television series "Firefly", and in "Halo 3"s development brought in several of the actors to fill Marine voice roles. Three of them voiced the four main characters of the "ODST" squad: Nathan Fillion (a "Halo" fan himself), Adam Baldwin, and Alan Tudyk. Tricia Helfer provided the voice for the ONI agent Dare; Helfer and Fillion recorded their cinematic dialog together in the same room, a rarity in voice acting. Staten said that "their performances were stronger having them together at the same time". While Staten wrote much of the cinematic dialogue, combat lines could be improvised by the voice actors. Adding Sadie's Story to the game doubled the amount of voice work in the game. After the voice roles were filled, Bungie licensed Fillion and Helfer's likenesses for their respective characters.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: In July 2008, Microsoft head of Xbox business Don Mattrick told MTV that Bungie was working on a new "Halo" game for Microsoft, independent of the franchise spinoffs "Halo Wars" and "Chronicles". An announcement of the new "Halo" project was expected at the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) 2008 trade fair, with Bungie unveiling a countdown on their web site, but the announcement was shelved by Microsoft. Microsoft stated that it wanted the game to have its own event. On September 25, 2008, a year after the release of "Halo 3", Bungie debuted a teaser for the new project on their web site. A full trailer was released during the Tokyo Game Show on October 9, 2008, officially unveiling the game's name as "Halo 3: Recon" and a release date of Autumn 2009. In an unusual approach for Bungie, the trailer used pre-rendered graphics instead of the game engine or existing assets. Staten explained that it was too early in the game's development to spend a large amount of time on the trailer, and it would not have allowed Bungie to add touches for fans to discuss.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: In post-trailer interviews, Bungie staff members told gaming press that "Recon" was the last installment in the "Halo" trilogy. Though Bungie did not consider "Recon" a full game, with writer Luke Smith comparing it to "" expansion "", the game shipped with all "Halo 3" multiplayer maps and did not require "Halo 3" to play. Smith asserted the game would not be a crossover into stealth and squad-based genres, noting, "this isn't ": Halo" or "Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Halo"." On November 25, Jarrard announced the game had been retitled to "Halo 3: ODST" as a "more straightforward" description of the game.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Bungie and Microsoft first showed "ODST" in a playable form at E3 2009, where the game's release date and retail versions were finalized. Bungie initially marketed "ODST" as a title smaller in scope than previous numbered entries in the series. When the game's retail versions were announced, however, the game received a standard price of US$60, which Bungie and Microsoft attributed to the game growing beyond the planned scope. "Over the course of development it got a lot bigger than we were anticipating," said Bungie's Lars Bakken. "We thought of it more as an expansion and then it grew well beyond that." Creamer explained that since the development platform was stable, "we were able to create quite a bit more content than we originally thought we would". The game's length increased from original estimates of 3–5 hours to 8–10. The discrepancy was not discussed until E3 2009 when Microsoft decided it was a full game.<ref name="ign-odst preview 07/09"></ref> Unlike the post-launch support for "Halo 3", "ODST" does not have downloadable content.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "Halo 3: ODST" ships as a two-disc set. The first disc contains the campaign mode as well as the Firefight co-op mode, while the second disc contains the multiplayer mode with the complete set of "Halo 3" maps. Owners of the game received an invitation to participate in the "" multiplayer beta, which went live on May 3, 2010. Pre-orders included a token to unlock Avery Johnson as a playable character in the Firefight multiplayer mode. This code was included only by certain retailers. A special edition "Collector's Pack" contained the game and a special "ODST"-branded wireless Xbox 360 controller. Toys "R" Us offered an ODST action figure and a US$20 gift card as a buying incentive.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: By April 2009, market research firm OTX reported that "ODST" was the most highly anticipated video game, a spot it continued to hold in late August. Before its release the title was the top-selling game on Amazon.com based on preorders alone, spending 107 days atop the merchant's top 100 video games and software list. Copies of "ODST" were sold early in France. Microsoft responded by launching an investigation and threatening to ban any players on Xbox Live playing "ODST" before its official release; Xbox lead manager Stephen Toulouse later clarified that they would not ban legitimate buyers.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Microsoft prepared what was described as a "mammoth" advertising campaign for the game, with Entertainment Director Stephen McGill affirming that the game "is absolutely a key title to us ... this is the first time we've ever done anything like this, and "Halo 3: ODST" is a great way to kick it off." Numerous promotional materials were released through Xbox Live, and many more via online and television advertising. Marvel Comics published a limited comic series, "Helljumper", featuring "ODST"s main characters.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: A live-action trailer titled "The Life" was posted on the Internet in September and later used in television spots as part of the promotional material released for the game. Filmed at several locations in Budapest, Hungary, "The Life" follows an ODST named Tarkov from a military funeral where he is inspired to become a soldier, through training and combat and up to the moment he becomes a leader in battle. The short film was created by advertising agency TAG SF with effects by Asylum, and directed by Rupert Sanders from production company MJZ, who also handled the award-winning "Halo 3" "Believe" advertisement. Legacy Effects designed and fabricated props, weapons, armor, and a Covenant Brute costume within two weeks. Bungie supplied 3D geometry that allowed the company to quickly create accurate representations of in-game items, and provided input on the UNSC dress uniforms. The initial cemetery scene was filmed inside the cooling tower of an active nuclear power plant in Budapest, and outside the tower the production team created a mud pit and obstacle course to simulate basic training. Members of the Hungarian special forces served as drill instructors in the training sequence, firing blanks. Finally, filming moved to an abandoned Soviet-era aluminum refinery for the short's final memorial scene. An additional scene was shot there, but did not appear in the final product.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "ODST" launch events were held around the United States. Bungie and Microsoft sponsored an official launch event at the Experience Music Project and Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame in Seattle, Washington. Featured at the event were discussion panels about the series and advance looks at other "Halo" content such as the anime collection "Halo Legends". About 800 fans attended from around 6–11 pm before heading to nearby game stores to get their copy of the game. GameStop held almost 3,700 launch parties across the United States.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: On release "Halo 3: ODST" became the top-selling Xbox 360 game worldwide. More than 2.5 million copies of the game were sold within two weeks of release, totaling more than US$125 million in sales. "ODST" claimed the overall top spot in UK game sales, becoming the 12th highest sell-through for a single platform title in the market. "ODST" took the top spot on Australian game charts on release and, after being outsold by "FIFA 10" in early October, reclaimed the best seller position. In Japan, where first-person shooters have generally fared poorly, "ODST" sold 30,000 copies by September 27. "ODST" sold 1.5 million units during September in the United States, the best-selling title for that month. In October, the game sold 271,000 units in North America (taking sixth place for game sales); Microsoft reported that "ODST" sold 3 million units worldwide by November. Overall, it was the ninth bestselling game of the year in the United States, one of only two Xbox 360 games to chart. Expecting sales of the game to increase as players wanted to access the "Reach" beta, UK retailers slashed its price in April 2010.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: The remastered campaign of "Halo 3: ODST" was released as downloadable content for "" on May 30, 2015, and was free to all owners of said game that played from launch to December 19, 2014. It is available to purchase separately to those who are not eligible for a free code for the add-on.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "Halo 3: ODST" garnered generally positive reviews, and holds an average of 83/100 on aggregate web site Metacritic. "Time"s Lev Grossman wrote "ODST" was a "milestone" as it proved "Bungie can use the same instrument to play in totally different key," adding to the longevity of the "Halo" franchise. In contrast, Pete Metzger of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that although "ODST" was a good game with a compelling story, action, and graphics, "the same can be said for nearly every first-person shooter that is released these days" and that "ODST" failed to raise the bar set by previous "Halo" games. 1UP.com's Jeremy Parish noted that while "ODST" had its flaws, its greatest success was bringing together players who preferred either the multiplayer or campaign portions with a game that would satisfy both camps.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Critics were split on whether "ODST" was worth its price. "Official Xbox Magazine" critic Ryan McCaffrey confidently wrote that given the campaign, multiplayer mode, and second "Halo 3" multiplayer disc, "no one should have any qualms about "ODST"s value as a [US]$60 offering!" Other critics who judged the title a full game included the staff of "Edge" Magazine, Parish, and "Computer and Video Games" Mike Jackson. Erik Brudvig of IGN did not consider "ODST" a "true sequel", but more than an expansion, and recommended that those hesitant about buying the game do so. Those who disagreed included Ars Technica's Ben Kuchera, GamesRadar's Charlie Barratt, Eurogamer's Tom Bramwell, and IGN Australia's Narayan Pattison. In "The New York Times" Seth Schiesel wrote that "Microsoft Game Studios has overreached in trying to charge the typical retail price for a full game, around [US]$60, for a product that either should cost [US]$40 or have a lot more content for the single-player aspect of the product."


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Critics also disagreed sharply regarding whether the game was a large step forward for the series. Parish said that less enemy variety was balanced by changes he considered the most experimental things Bungie had done for years. "Edge" and Bramwell praised the contrast between the Rookie's nighttime segments and the more fast-paced flashback vignettes. "Edge" added that while the narrative design was not groundbreaking, it served as a structure for exploring every possible weapon choice and strategy in the series. While Parish considered the ODST's abilities much different from those of the Chief, other critics such as Jackson wrote that the "Halo" feel was barely changed and that this was not detrimental. Brett Molina of "USA Today" felt that the game disappointed by not spending more time in the Rookie's open environment; "instead," Molina wrote, "roughly two-thirds of "ODST"s combat feels very much like a traditional "Halo" game" instead of exploring new mechanics.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: "ODST"s visuals and atmosphere were praised. McShea wrote that while the "Halo 3" engine was showing its age, the game could still "wow" because of the art design. Parish wrote that the feel of Mombasa changed dramatically when played cooperatively; G4TV found that additional players spoiled much of the solitary feel. Travis Moses of "GamePro" wrote that while the game's graphics were consistently outclassed by other shooters, the game's frame rate remained consistently high as expected from "Halo" games. Technology company Digital Foundry said that, despite welcome improvements in AI, the main flaws from "Halo 3"s graphics engine—namely a sub-720p native resolution and lower-quality human faces—remained.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: The game's audio and sound were lauded. McCaffrey wrote that while the music of "Halo 3" was "too familiar", "ODST" had freed O'Donnell to "craft his best work yet", which the critic considered good enough for a standalone purchase. A significant departure from the consensus was offered by Kuchera, who wrote that the saxophone touches "[sound] like the softcore porn they show on Cinemax after midnight", and GameSpy's Anthony Gallegos, who felt that the music did not mesh when extended into combat segments.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Firefight was praised as "addictive", especially for showcasing the excellent artificial intelligence of enemies. Jeff Marchiafava of "Game Informer" credited the enemies with differentiating Firefight from similar game modes in games such as "Gears of War 2" or "Left 4 Dead", which featured mindless zombies or cannon fodder. The staff of "Official Xbox Magazine UK" wrote that the gametype's depth and options made "Gears of War"s comparable mode look "simple" in comparison, and that Firefight extended the life of the game. In contrast, Bramwell felt that in Firefight "there is both a sense of futility in the knowledge that death is only a matter of time and odds, and fatigue in the realisation that many levels play out just as they did in the campaign, except a bit more so".


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Interviewed by G4TV, Bungie representatives saw part of the mixed and negative reception as stemming from their own marketing of the title—first as an expansion pack, then a full game. "If you look at the lower scores, they almost all cite an issue in perceived value based on an initial expectation that was set for an 'expansion' and then a feeling that they were overcharged for the final product," Jarrad said, echoing Staten's comment that "if we'd never said the words 'expansion pack' we would have seen an appreciable increase in the review scores". Other elements they wish they had improved had they the time were the pacing and navigation of the nighttime segments and matchmaking for Firefight. "Halo" manager 343 Industries director Frank O'Connor said that he was glad "ODST" "didn't take off", in his view, because it allowed people to focus on "Reach" and its launch and marketing.


title: Halo 3: ODST

text: Lev Grossman and Peter Ha ranked "ODST" as the eighth best game of the year for "Time", lauding the game as "a dark, slow, jazzy, hard-boiled take on the "Halo" world". Softpedia branded "ODST" the best first-person shooter of the year; games editor Andrei Dumitrescu wrote that while the game occasionally felt formulaic, it was bolstered by a good plot, great music, and supporting characters that players could care about. Chris Kohler from "Wired" ranked "ODST" as the third best Xbox 360 title of the year, writing that the game "injected a fresh breath into the staid corridors of Bungie's shooter franchise". "Halo 3: ODST" also won "Best Original Score" at the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards. "The Life" was a finalist in the "Outstanding Visual Effects in a Video Game Trailer" category by the Visual Effects Society in the group's eighth annual awards.


title: Lichen planus

text: Lichen planus (LP) is a chronic inflammatory and immune-mediated disease that affects the skin, nails, hair, and mucous membranes. It is not an actual lichen, and is only named that because it looks like one. It is characterized by polygonal, flat-topped, violaceous papules and plaques with overlying, reticulated, fine white scale (Wickham's striae), commonly affecting dorsal hands, flexural wrists and forearms, trunk, anterior lower legs and oral mucosa. The hue may be gray-brown in people with darker skin. Although there is a broad clinical range of LP manifestations, the skin and oral cavity remain as the major sites of involvement. The cause is unknown, but it is thought to be the result of an autoimmune process with an unknown initial trigger. There is no cure, but many different medications and procedures have been used in efforts to control the symptoms.


title: Lichen planus

text: The term lichenoid reaction (lichenoid eruption or lichenoid lesion) refers to a lesion of similar or identical histopathologic and clinical appearance to lichen planus (i.e., an area which resembles lichen planus, both to the naked eye and under a microscope). Sometimes dental materials or certain medications can cause a lichenoid reaction. They can also occur in association with graft versus host disease.


title: Lichen planus

text: "Lichen planus" lesions are so called because of their "lichen-like" appearance and can be classified by the site they involve, or by their morphology.


title: Lichen planus

text: Although lichen planus can present with a variety of lesions, the most common presentation is as a well defined area of purple-coloured, itchy, flat-topped papules with interspersed lacy white lines (Wickham's striae). This description is known as the characteristic "6 Ps" of lichen planus: planar (flat-topped), purple, polygonal, pruritic, papules, and plaques. This rash, after regressing, is likely to leave an area of hyperpigmentation that slowly fades. That said, a variety of other lesions can also occur.


title: Lichen planus

text: Variants of cutaneous lichen planus are distinguished based upon the appearance of the lesions and/or their distribution. Lesions can affect the:


title: Lichen planus

text: Lichen planus affecting mucosal surfaces may have one lesion or be multifocal. Examples of lichen planus affecting mucosal surfaces include:


title: Lichen planus

text: Oral lichen planus (also termed "oral mucosal lichen planus"), is a form of mucosal lichen planus, where lichen planus involves the oral mucosa, the lining of the mouth. This may occur in combination with other variants of lichen planus. Six clinical forms of oral lichen planus (OLP) are recognized:


title: Lichen planus

text: These types often coexist in the same individual. Oral lichen planus (OLP) tends to present bilaterally as mostly white lesions on the inner cheek, although any mucosal site in the mouth may be involved. Other sites, in decreasing order of frequency, may include the tongue, lips, gingivae, floor of the mouth, and very rarely, the palate.


title: Lichen planus

text: Generally, oral lichen planus tends not to cause any discomfort or pain, although some people may experience soreness when eating or drinking acidic or spicy foodstuffs or beverages. When symptoms arise, they are most commonly associated with the atrophic and ulcerative subtypes. These symptoms can include a burning sensation to severe pain. They may also experience mucosal bleeding in response to mild trauma, such as toothbrushing. Additionally, the Koebner phenomenon (the development of new lesions at sites of trauma) is not only present in cutaneous lichen planus (CLP) but can also occur in the setting of OLP.


title: Lichen planus

text: Residual postinflammatory hyperpigmentation has been reported in association with OLP, manifesting as brown to black pigmentation on the oral mucosa and may most likely occur in dark-skinned individuals.


title: Lichen planus

text: OLP may occur as a sole manifestation of the disease or in conjunction with other clinical manifestations of LP, including cutaneous LP, genital LP, nail LP, and lichen planopilaris (scalp LP).


title: Lichen planus

text: Cutaneous LP is a self-limiting condition. It usually resolves within 6 to 12 months. Oral LP is a non infectious, chronic inflammatory condition that involves the oral mucosa and may be accompanied by skin lesions. The etiology of oral LP are unknown.


title: Lichen planus

text: It is not clear whether the mechanisms causing isolated oral LP are different from those causing oral LP with cutaneous LP. An immune-mediated mechanism where basal keratinocytes are being targeted as foreign antigens by activated T cells, especially CD8+ T cells, has been proposed. Upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and cytokines associated with T-helper 1 immune response, may also play an important role in the pathogenesis of lichen planus.


title: Lichen planus

text: Stress is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of oral LP. Patients with anxiety and depression are reported more commonly with oral LP if compared to normal healthy individuals. Some studies have indicated that stressful events can induce LP lesions in otherwise healthy individuals. However, a cause effect relationship between stress and the onset of oral LP has not been demonstrated.


title: Lichen planus

text: Autoimmune response to epithelial self-antigens remains a possibility. A single study of cutaneous LP reported evidence in support of autoimmunity by expanding in vitro T cells isolated from the skin lesions of two patients, followed by testing the ability of these T cells to kill autologous keratinocytes (cytotoxicity).


title: Lichen planus

text: Oral LP is considered to be a T-cell mediated chronic inflammatory tissue reaction that results in a cytotoxic reaction against epithelial basal cells. The inflammatory infiltrate in oral LP is primarily composed of CD8+ T cells. A potential pathway for CD8+ T cell-mediated cytotoxicity in oral LP is described as follows:


title: Lichen planus

text: Antigens presented on MHC 1 molecules activates CD8+ T cells on keratinocytes or by encounters with activated CD4+ helper T cells or cytokines produced by activated CD4+ helper T cells


title: Lichen planus

text: Activated CD8+ T cells induce keratinocyte apoptosis through various mechanisms such as secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, secretion of granzyme B, or Fas-Fas ligand interactions. Chemokines are produced by activated CD8+ T cells that attract additional inflammatory cells, thereby promoting continued inflammation.


title: Lichen planus

text: Oral LP may also be caused by genetic factor which influence the immune function. A separate study performed in China found an association between a polymorphism in the TNF-alpha gene and risk for oral LP in a subset of patients. An Italian study found a significant increase in a genetic polymorphism of the first intron of the interferon (IFN)-gamma promoter in patients with oral LP compared with controls.


title: Lichen planus

text: Patient history and clinical presentation need to be taken to diagnose lichen planus. Patients with suspected cutaneous lichen planus need to be evaluated clinically through patient interviews and physical examinations. Patients should be questioned about their medication history, any history of pruritus or genital pain and history of dysphagia or odynophagia. Examination of entire cutaneous surface including the scalp, oral cavity and external genitalia need to be included. Wickham's striae often can be seen during microscopic examination of cutaneous lesions of lichen planus.


title: Lichen planus

text: To confirm the diagnosis of cutaneous lichen planus, a skin biopsy can be done. A punch biopsy of sufficient depth to the mid dermis is usually significant. Immunofluorescence studies are not always needed. Direct immunofluorescence (DIF) can be useful in patients with bullous lesions to differentiate the condition from an autoimmune vesiculobullous disease.


title: Lichen planus

text: A diagnosis of oral lichen planus (LP) is confirmed through review of the patient history, physical examination, and histologic findings.


title: Lichen planus

text: A full examination that includes the evaluation of the mucosal and cutaneous surfaces, including the vulva, vagina, penis, scalp, and nails should be performed. Thorough examination may lead to the detection of extraoral manifestations of LP that provide additional support for the diagnosis or the identification of clinical findings that suggest another diagnosis.


title: Lichen planus

text: Tissue biopsies of oral LP help to confirm the diagnosis and are particularly of value for erythematous and erosive LP, which share features with multiple other mucosal disorders, including oral malignancy. Biopsies to confirm oral LP are less essential in patients who present with classic reticular LP, particularly in patients in whom a diagnosis of LP has already been confirmed through biopsy of an extraoral manifestation of this disorder.


title: Lichen planus

text: Lichenoid drug eruptions may be caused by a variety of systemic medications and share clinical features with oral LP. Histologic findings of a deep mixed infiltrate with lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils (with or without eosinophils) and perivascular inflammation favor this diagnosis.


title: Lichen planus

text: Oral lichenoid contact reactions may be caused by a variety of substances. The clinical and histologic features of oral lichenoid contact reactions are similar to oral LP. Patch testing and recognition of the proximity of an offending substance to the eruption can aid with diagnosis.


title: Lichen planus

text: Mucous membrane pemphigoid and other autoimmune blistering diseases may present with oral erosions and desquamative gingivitis similar to that seen in erosive LP. Biopsies for routine histologic examination and direct immunofluorescence are useful for distinguishing these disorders from oral LP.


title: Lichen planus

text: Lacy, reticulated plaques or erosions that resemble oral LP may occur in GVHD. The histologic findings of these disorders are also similar. The patient history is useful for differentiating chronic GVHD from oral LP. Oral involvement in acute GVHD is less well characterized than chronic GVHD, but has been associated with erythematous, erosive, ulcerative, or lichenoid oral lesions.


title: Lichen planus

text: Leukoplakia is a manifestation of squamous epithelial hyperplasia that may be a precursor to oral squamous cell carcinoma. White patches or plaques usually appear on the oral mucosa. To rule out malignancy, a biopsy of leukoplakia is indicated.


title: Lichen planus

text: Oral squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) can present as erythematous or white patches, ulcers, or exophytic masses. The highest risk for oral SCC may occur in patients with erythematous or erosive oral LP. A biopsy is indicated.


title: Lichen planus

text: Leukoedema is a common, benign finding in the oral cavity that presents as white-gray, somewhat translucent plaques on the mucosa. The buccal mucosa is the most common site for involvement. Symptoms are absent, and no treatment is necessary.


title: Lichen planus

text: Oropharyngeal candidiasis (also known as thrush) is a common infection that has a predilection for infants, older adults with dentures, immunosuppressed individuals, and individuals utilizing intraoral corticosteroid therapy. Patients present with white plaques or erythematous patches on the buccal mucosa, palate, tongue, or oropharynx that may be mistaken for reticular LP.


title: Lichen planus

text: The histologic findings of oral LP can offer strong support for the diagnosis, but are not pathognomonic. Clinical correlation is required. Common histologic findings of oral LP include:


title: Lichen planus

text: Nonetheless, interpreting the histopathological features of oral LP has been associated historically with high intra-observer and inter-observer variabilities.


title: Lichen planus

text: There is no cure for lichen planus, and so treatment of cutaneous and oral lichen planus is for symptomatic relief or due to cosmetic concerns. When medical treatment is pursued, first-line treatment typically involves either topical or systemic corticosteroids, and removal of any triggers. Without treatment, most lesions will spontaneously resolve within 6–9 months for cutaneous lesions, and longer for mucosal lesions.


title: Lichen planus

text: Many different treatments have been reported for cutaneous lichen planus, however there is a general lack of evidence of efficacy for any treatment. Treatments tend to be prolonged, partially effective and disappointing. The mainstay of localized skin lesions is topical steroids. Additional treatments include retinoids, such as acitretin, or sulfasalazine. Narrow band UVB phototherapy or systemic PUVA therapy are known treatment modalities for generalized disease.


title: Lichen planus

text: Reassurance that the condition is benign, elimination of precipitating factors and improving oral hygiene are considered initial management for symptomatic OLP, and these measures are reported to be useful. Treatment usually involves topical corticosteroids (such as betamethasone, clobetasol, dexamethasone, and triamcinolone) and analgesics, or if these are ineffective and the condition is severe, then systemic corticosteroids may be used. Calcineurin inhibitors (such as pimecrolimus, tacrolimus or cyclosporin) are sometimes used. While topical steroids are widely accepted as first line treatment for mucosal lichen planus, there is only weak evidence to support their effectiveness for erosive oral lichen planus.


title: Lichen planus

text: Cutaneous lichen planus lesions typically resolve within six months to a year. However, some variant such as the hypertrophic variant might persist for years if left untreated or unmonitored.


title: Lichen planus

text: It is found that cutaneous lichen planus does not carry a risk of skin cancer. In contrast to cutaneous LP, which is self limited, lichen planus lesions in the mouth may persist for many years, and tend to be difficult to treat, with relapses being common.


title: Lichen planus

text: Although this condition was first described almost a century ago, it has been reported that its associated oral cancer risk has been exaggerated.


title: Lichen planus

text: Overall, it is found that patients with erythematous or erosive oral lichen planus have a higher risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma compared to patients diagnosed with other variants.


title: Lichen planus

text: Due to the possibility that oral LP may increase risk for oral cancer, patients with oral lichen planus are encouraged to avoid activities known to increase the risk for oral cancer, such as smoking and alcohol use.


title: Lichen planus

text: Patients with oral lichen planus should be followed-up at least every 6 to 12 months, to assess the disease activity, changes in symptoms or even detect early signs of malignancy.


title: Lichen planus

text: The overall estimated prevalence of lichen planus in worldwide population is in the range of 0.2% to 5%.


title: Lichen planus

text: It generally occurs more commonly in females, in a ratio of 3:2, and most cases are diagnosed between the ages of 30 and 60, but it can occur at any age.


title: Lichen planus

text: Lichen planus can occur in patients as diverse cutaneous manifestations alone or in combination with mucosal lichen planus and, or lichen planus of the nails. Study shows that frequency of mucosal involvement of lichen planus patients is 30- 70%.


title: Lichen planus

text: Oral lichen planus is relatively common, It is one of the most common mucosal diseases. The prevalence in the general population is about 1.27–2.0%, and it occurs more commonly in middle aged people. Oral lichen planus in children is rare. About 50% of females with oral lichen planus were reported to have undiagnosed vulvar lichen planus.


title: Lichen planus

text: Some studies suggest that cutaneous lichen planus is more commonly found in men whilst oral lichen planus lesions are more commonly found in women.


title: Lichen planus

text: The origin of the word is believed to be from the Greek word <nowiki>"Leichen", which means tree moss, and also from Latin word "planus"</nowiki>, which means flat and even surface. Dr Wilson explained the condition as an inflammatory disorder with unknown etiology. Initially, the characteristic surface markings or striae was described by Weyl in 1885. In 1895, Wickham further explained the characteristic of the lesion, now known as Wickham striae. Further on, Darier explained the presence of such characteristic markings by correlating with an increase thickness of the granular cell layer. The coexistence of oral, cervical and stomach lichen planus lesions were described by Guogerot and Burnier in 1937. A similar variant of mucosal lichen planus as the vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome with erosive lesions involving oral and vulvovaginal mucosa were introduced by Pelisse and colleagues in year 1982.


title: Nightcrawler (character)

text: Nightcrawler (Kurt Wagner) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with the X-Men. Created by writer Len Wein and artist Dave Cockrum, he debuted in the comic book "Giant-Size X-Men" #1 (May 1975).


title: Nightcrawler (character)

text: Nightcrawler is a member of a fictional subspecies of humanity known as mutants, who possess an X-gene that can cause possible physical mutations and in many cases grants some form of superhuman ability. Nightcrawler possesses superhuman agility, the ability to teleport, and adhesive hands and feet. His physical mutations include indigo-colored velvety fur which allows him to become nearly invisible in shadows, two-toed feet and three-fingered hands, yellow eyes, pointed ears and a prehensile tail. In Nightcrawler's earlier comic book appearances, he is depicted as being a happy-go-lucky practical joker and teaser, and a fan of swashbuckling fiction. Nightcrawler is a Catholic, and while this is not emphasized as much in his earlier comic book appearances, in later depictions Nightcrawler is more vocal about his faith.


title: Nightcrawler (character)

text: Since his inception, Nightcrawler has had a regular presence in Marvel-related comic books and video games. He has been featured in a small number of the episodes and was a regular on its successors, "" and "Wolverine and the X-Men". He was portrayed by Alan Cumming in the feature film "X2" (2003), while Kodi Smit-McPhee played a younger version of Nightcrawler in "" (2016), "Deadpool 2" (2018) and "Dark Phoenix" (2019).