title: Paraquat

text: There is an ongoing international campaign for a global ban, but the cheap and popular paraquat continues to be unrestricted in most developing countries. A small group of countries, including India and Guatemala and supported by manufacturers, have blocked the listing of paraquat as a hazardous chemical for the purposes of the Rotterdam Convention.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat is an oxidant that interferes with electron transfer, a process that is common to all life. Addition of one electron gives the radical cation:


title: Paraquat

text: As an herbicide, paraquat acts by inhibiting photosynthesis. In light-exposed plants, it accepts electrons from photosystem I (more specifically ferredoxin, which is presented with electrons from PS I) and transfers them to molecular oxygen. In this manner, destructive reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced. In forming these reactive oxygen species, the oxidized form of paraquat is regenerated, and is again available to shunt electrons from photosystem I to restart the cycle. This induces necrosis, and unlike with some mechanisms of necrosis, does not produce double-stranded breaks.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat is often used in science to catalyze the formation of ROS, more specifically, the superoxide free radical. Paraquat will undergo redox cycling "in vivo", being reduced by an electron donor such as NADPH, before being oxidized by an electron receptor such as dioxygen to produce superoxide, a major ROS.


title: Paraquat

text: Problems with herbicide resistant weeds may be addressed by applying herbicides with different modes of action, along with cultural methods such as crop rotation, in integrated weed management (IWM) systems. Paraquat, with its distinctive mode of action, is one of few chemical options that can be used to prevent and mitigate problems with weeds that have become resistant to the very widely used non-selective herbicide glyphosate.


title: Paraquat

text: One example is the "double knock" system used in Australia. Before planting a crop, weeds are sprayed with glyphosate first, then followed seven to ten days later by a paraquat herbicide. Although twice as expensive as using a single glyphosate spray, the "Double Knock" system is widely relied upon by farmers as a resistance management strategy. Nevertheless, herbicide resistance has been seen for both herbicides in Western Australia.


title: Paraquat

text: A computer simulation showed that with alternating annual use between glyphosate and paraquat, only one field in five would be expected to have glyphosate-resistant annual ryegrass ("Lolium rigidum") after 30 years, compared to nearly 90% of fields sprayed only with glyphosate. A "Double Knock" regime with paraquat cleaning-up after glyphosate was predicted to keep all fields free of glyphosate resistant ryegrass for at least 30 years.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat is toxic to humans (Category II) by the oral route and moderately toxic (Category III) through the skin. Pure paraquat, when ingested, is highly toxic to mammals, including humans, causing severe inflammation and potentially leading to severe lung damage, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and death. The mortality rate is estimated between 60-90%.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat is also toxic when inhaled and is in the Toxicity Category I (the highest of four levels) for acute inhalation effects. For agricultural uses, the EPA determined that particles used in agricultural practices (400–800 μm) are not in the respirable range. Paraquat also causes moderate to severe irritation of the eye and skin. Diluted paraquat used for spraying is less toxic; thus, the greatest risk of accidental poisoning is during mixing and loading paraquat for use.


title: Paraquat

text: The standard treatment for paraquat poisoning is first to remove as much as possible by pumping the stomach. Fuller's earth or activated charcoal may also improve outcomes depending on the timing. Haemodialysis, haemofiltration, haemoperfusion, or antioxidant therapy may also be suggested. Immunosuppressive therapy to reduce the inflammation is an approach suggested by some, however only low certainty evidence supports using medications such as glucocorticoids with cyclophosphamide in addition to the standard care to reduce mortality. It is also unknown if adding glucocorticoid with cyclophosphamide to the standard care has unwanted side effects such as increasing the risk of infection. Oxygen should not be administered unless SpO levels are below 92%, as high concentrations of oxygen intensify the toxic effects.


title: Paraquat

text: Lung injury is a main feature of poisoning. Liver, heart, lung, and kidney failure can occur within several days to weeks that can lead to death up to 30 days after ingestion. Those who suffer large exposures are unlikely to survive. Chronic exposure can lead to lung damage, kidney failure, heart failure, and oesophageal strictures. The mechanism underlying paraquat's toxic damage to humans is still unknown. The severe inflammation is thought to be caused by the generation of highly reactive oxygen species and nitrite species that results in oxidative stress. The oxidative stress may result in mitochondrial toxicity and the induction of apoptosis and lipid peroxidation which may be responsible for the organ damage. it is known that the alveolar epithelial cells of the lung selectively concentrate paraquat. It has been reported that a small dose, even if removed from the stomach or spat out, can still cause death from fibrous tissue developing in the lungs, leading to asphyxiation.


title: Paraquat

text: Accidental deaths and suicides from paraquat ingestion are relatively common. For example, there are more than 5,000 deaths in China from paraquat poisoning every year. Long-term exposures to paraquat would most likely cause lung and eye damage, but reproductive/fertility damage was not found by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in their review.


title: Paraquat

text: During the late 1970s, a controversial program sponsored by the US government sprayed paraquat on cannabis fields in Mexico. Following Mexican efforts to eradicate marijuana and poppy fields in 1975, the United States government helped by sending helicopters and other technological assistance. Helicopters were used to spray the herbicides paraquat and 2,4-D on the fields; marijuana contaminated with these substances began to show up in US markets, leading to debate about the program.


title: Paraquat

text: Whether any injury came about due to the inhalation of paraquat-contaminated marijuana is uncertain. A 1995 study found that "no lung or other injury in cannabis users has ever been attributed to paraquat contamination". Also a United States Environmental Protection Agency manual states: "... toxic effects caused by this mechanism have been either very rare or nonexistent. Most paraquat that contaminates cannabis is pyrolyzed during smoking to dipyridyl, which is a product of combustion of the leaf material itself (including cannabis) and presents little toxic hazard."


title: Paraquat

text: In a study by Imperial Chemical Industries, rats that inhaled paraquat showed development of squamous metaplasia in their respiratory tracts after a couple of weeks. This study was included in a report given to the State Department by the Mitre Corporation. The U.S. Public Health Service stated that "this study should not be used to calculate the safe inhalation dose of paraquat in humans."


title: Paraquat

text: A large majority (93 percent) of fatalities from paraquat poisoning are suicides, which occur mostly in developing countries. For instance, in Samoa from 1979 to 2001, 70 percent of suicides were by paraquat poisoning. Trinidad and Tobago is particularly well known for its incidence of suicides involving the use of Gramoxone (commercial name of paraquat). In southern Trinidad, particularly in Penal, Debe from 1996 to 1997, 76 percent of suicides were by paraquat, 96 percent of which involved the over-consumption of alcohol such as rum. Fashion celebrity Isabella Blow committed suicide using paraquat in 2007. Paraquat is widely used as a suicide agent in third-world countries because it is widely available at low cost. Further, the toxic dose is low (10 mL or 2 teaspoons is enough to kill). Campaigns exist to control or even ban paraquat, and there are moves to restrict its availability by requiring user education and the locking up of paraquat stores. When a 2011 South Korean law completely banned paraquat in the country, death by pesticide plummeted 46%, contributing to the decrease of the overall suicide rate.


title: Paraquat

text: The indiscriminate paraquat murders, which occurred in Japan in 1985, were carried out using paraquat as a poison.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat was used in the UK in 1981 by a woman who poisoned her husband. Steven David Catlin killed two of his wives and his adoptive mother with paraquat between 1976 and 1984.


title: Paraquat

text: In 2011, a US National Institutes of Health study showed a link between paraquat use and Parkinson's disease in farm workers. A co-author of the paper said that paraquat increases production of certain oxygen derivatives that may harm cellular structures, and that people who used paraquat, or other pesticides with a similar mechanism of action, were more likely to develop Parkinson's. Paraquat-induced toxicity in rats has also been linked to Parkinson's-like neurological degenerative mechanisms. A study by researchers at the Buck Institute for Research on Aging showed a connection between exposure to paraquat and iron in infancy and mid-life Parkinson's in laboratory mice. A 2013 meta-analysis published in "Neurology" found that "exposure to paraquat ... was associated with about a 2-fold increase in risk" of Parkinson's disease.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat is structurally similar to MPP, a known fast-acting inducer of Parkinson's disease in primate brains. The chloride of MPP was sold under the trade name Cyperquat.


title: Paraquat

text: Paraquat also induces oxidative stress in invertebrates such as "Drosophila melanogaster". Paraquat-fed flies suffer early-onset mortality and significant increases in superoxide dismutase activity.


title: Paraquat

text: While in 2022 UK farmers were calling for a ban on the UK production of paraquat, a BBC article stated that "There is no scientific consensus and many conflicting studies on any possible association between Paraquat and Parkinson's"; in the USA a class action lawsuit against Syngenta is ongoing; the company rejects the claims but has paid £187.5 million into a settlement fund.


title: Stockbroker

text: A stockbroker is a regulated broker, broker-dealer, or registered investment adviser (in the United States) who may provide financial advisory and investment management services and execute transactions such as the purchase or sale of stocks and other investments to financial market participants in return for a commission, markup, or fee, which could be based on a flat rate, percentage of assets, or hourly rate. The term also refers to financial companies, offering such services.


title: Stockbroker

text: Examples of professional designations held by individuals in this field, which affects the types of investments they are permitted to sell and the services they provide include chartered financial consultants, certified financial planners or chartered financial analysts (in the United States and UK), chartered strategic wealth professionals (in Canada), chartered financial planners (in the UK). The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority provides an online tool designed to help understand professional designations in the United States.


title: Stockbroker

text: The other names or titles include share holder registered representative (in the United States and Canada), trading representative (in Singapore), or more broadly, an investment broker, investment adviser, financial adviser, wealth manager, and investment professional.


title: Stockbroker

text: The first recorded buying and selling of shares occurred in Rome in the 2nd century BC. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, stockbroking did not become a profession until after the Renaissance, when government bonds were traded in Italian city-states such as Genoa and Venice. In 1602, the Amsterdam Stock Exchange (now Euronext Amsterdam) became the first official stock market with trading in shares of the Dutch East India Company, the first company to issue stock. In 1698, the London Stock Exchange, opened at the Jonathan's Coffee-House. On May 17, 1792, the New York Stock Exchange opened under a platanus occidentalis (buttonwood tree) in New York City, as 24 stockbrokers signed the Buttonwood Agreement, agreeing to trade five securities under that buttonwood tree.


title: Stockbroker

text: Up until January 1, 2019, investment professionals that offer financial advice in Australia had to pass training pursuant to RG146. They must hold an Australian Financial Services Licence that is overseen by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission. They are subject to fiduciary obligations.


title: Stockbroker

text: As of 2019, Australia's biggest online stockbroker was Commonwealth Securities, other large brokers were ANZ Share Investing, nabtrade and Westpac Online Investing.


title: Stockbroker

text: In Canada, to be licensed as a "registered representative" or an "investment advisor" and thus be qualified to offer investment advice and trade all instruments with the exception of derivatives, an individual employed by an investment firm must have completed the Canadian Securities Course, the Conduct & Practices Handbook, and the 90-day Investment Advisor Training Program. Within 30 months of obtaining designation as a "registered representative", the registrant is further required to meet the post-licensing proficiency requirement to complete the Wealth Management Essentials course. A registered representative is also required to complete 30 hours of professional development (product knowledge) and 12 hours of compliance training every three year continuing education cycle as set out by the Investment Industry Regulatory Organization of Canada. To trade options and/or futures, a registered representative must pass the Derivatives Fundamentals Course in addition to the Options Licensing Course and/or the Futures Licensing Course, or alternatively, the Derivatives Fundamentals Options Licensing Course for options.


title: Stockbroker

text: In Hong Kong, to become a representative one has to work for a licensed firm and pass 3 exams to prove competency. Passing a fourth exam results in obtaining a "specialist" license. All tests can be taken with the Hong Kong Securities Institute. After passing all tests, approval must be received by the Securities and Futures Commission.


title: Stockbroker

text: Share brokers in India are governed by the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992 and brokers must register with the Securities and Exchange Board of India. The National Stock Exchange of India and the Bombay Stock Exchange via brokers, provide an ecosystem to investors to trade in capital markets through various channels- broker offices, investment advisor or screen-based electronic trading system. An individual employed by an investment firm must complete the National Institute of Securities Markets (NISM) exam and apply to SEBI for registration as an Investment Advisor.


title: Stockbroker

text: Stock market advisory and research services are highly regulated in India. Only SEBI registered stock advisory and investment research analysts are allowed to do so. The complete details of these authorized persons are available on website of SEBI for protection of investors.


title: Stockbroker

text: The recognized benchmark designation for investment professionals in Ireland is the QFA ("qualified financial adviser") designation, which is awarded to those who pass the Professional Diploma in Financial Advice and agree to comply with the ongoing "continuous professional development" (CPD) requirements. The qualification, and attaching CPD program, meets the "minimum competency requirements" specified by the Financial Regulator, for advising on and selling five categories of retail financial products:


title: Stockbroker

text: In New Zealand, the New Zealand Qualifications Authority oversees qualifications. The New Zealand Certificate in Financial Services (Level 5) is the minimum level of qualification necessary to offer investment advice.


title: Stockbroker

text: In Singapore, becoming a trading representative requires passing 4 exams, modules 1A, 5, 6 and 6A, from the Institute of Banking and Finance and applying for the license through MAS and SGX.


title: Stockbroker

text: The Johannesburg Securities Exchange rules require that member firms must be under the control of a "qualified stockbroker", who is also an executive director of the firm; and branches, likewise managed.


title: Stockbroker

text: The South African Institute of Stockbrokers (SAIS) offers the six exams required to become such, a Certified Stockbroker, or CSb(SA), following 3 years' work experience, and with other educational requirements met.


title: Stockbroker

text: See also re. "Regulated Positions" and "Registered Persons" at The South African Institute of Financial Markets.


title: Stockbroker

text: In South Korea, the Korea Financial Investment Association oversees the licensing of investment professionals.


title: Stockbroker

text: Stockbroking is a regulated profession in the United Kingdom and brokers must achieve a recognised qualification from the Appropriate Qualifications list of the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA). The Chartered Institute for Securities & Investment (CISI), established in 1992, is the largest UK professional body for investment professionals. It evolved from the London Stock Exchange, has around 45,000 members in over 100 countries and delivers more than 40,000 exams each year. CFA UK also offers qualifications. It represents the interests of around 12,000 investment professionals and is part of the worldwide network of members of the CFA Institute.


title: Stockbroker

text: Qualifications include: the CISI Level 4 Diploma in Investment Advice and the CISI Level 7 Diploma in Wealth Management


title: Stockbroker

text: The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, a self-regulatory organization, regulates investment professionals in the United States. Exams that individuals may take for accreditation include the Series 7 exam, the Uniform Securities Agent State Law Exam (Series 63), the Uniform Combined State Law Exam (Series 66), and the Uniform Investment Adviser Law Exam (Series 65).


title: Stockbroker

text: Individuals holding some of those licenses, such as the Series 6 exam, cannot be called stockbrokers since they are prohibited from selling stocks. Selling variable products, such as a variable annuity contract or variable universal life insurance policy, typically requires the broker to also have one or another state insurance department licenses.


title: Stockbroker

text: Individuals and firms are regulated by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and laws related to the Investment Advisers Act of 1940, including laws related to fiduciary.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk ( ) is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) in the Town of East Hampton in Suffolk County, New York, on the eastern end of the South Shore of Long Island. As of the 2020 United States census, the CDP's population was 4,318.


title: Montauk, New York

text: The CDP encompasses an area that stretches approximately from Napeague, New York, to the easternmost tip of New York State at Montauk Point Light. The hamlet encompasses a small area about halfway between the two points.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Located at the tip of the South Fork peninsula of Long Island, east of Midtown Manhattan, Montauk has been used as an Army, Navy, Coast Guard, and Air Force base. The Montauk Point Light was the first lighthouse in New York state and is the fourth oldest active lighthouse in the United States.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk is a major tourist destination and has six state parks. It is particularly famous for its fishing, claiming to have more world saltwater fishing records than any other port in the world. Located off the Connecticut coast, it is home to the largest commercial and recreational fishing fleet in New York state.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk derives its name from the Montaukett tribe, an Algonquian-speaking tribe who lived in the area. In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block encountered the tribe at Montauk Point, which he named "", or "Point of the Fishers". Two decades later, in 1637, the Montauketts sided for their own protection with the New England settlers in the Pequot War in Connecticut. In the aftermath the Montauketts were to sell Gardiners Island. In 1648 what would become the Town of Easthampton (first Maidstone) was sold to settlers by the colony of Connecticut and the colony of New Haven while retaining the lands to the east, from the hills rising above where the first fort stood (Napeague, New York) to Montauk Point. The western boundary of today's Hither Hills State Park is also known as the 1648 purchase line.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1653, Narragansetts under Ninigret attacked and burned the Montaukett village, killing 30 and capturing one of Chief Wyandanch's daughters. The daughter was recovered with the aid of Lion Gardiner (who in turn was given a large portion of Smithtown, New York in appreciation). The Montauketts, ravaged by smallpox and fearing extermination by the Narragansetts, were provided temporary refuge by white settlers in East Hampton. Many short but famous battles ensued. The skirmishes ended in 1657. Fort Pond Bay derives its name from a Montaukett "fort" on its shore. A deed was issued in 1661 titled "Ye deed of Guift" which granted all of the lands east of Fort Pond to be for the common use of both the indigenous people and the townsmen.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Further purchase agreements were entered into in 1661, 1672 and 1686 which, among other things, allowed a group of Easthampton townsmen to graze cattle on the Montaukett lands. While some lands were protected in the agreements as forest land, for the most part, all of Montauk was maintained by the townsmen as a private livestock and fisheries operation. As a result of Montauk being operated as a livestock operation, it is considered to be the oldest cattle ranch in the United States.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1660, Wyandanch's widow sold all of Montauk from Napeague to the tip of the island for 100 pounds to be paid in 10 equal installments of "Indian corn or good wampum at six to a penny". However, the tribe was to be permitted to stay on the land, to hunt and fish at will on the land, and to harvest the tails and fins of whales that washed up dead on the East Hampton shores. Town officials who bought the land were to file for reimbursement for rum they had plied the tribe. The tribe was to continue residence until the 19th century in the area around Big Reed Pond in what was to be called "Indian Fields".


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1686, Governor of New York Thomas Dongan issued a patent creating the governing system for East Hampton. The patent did not extend beyond Napeague to Montauk. This lack of authority has formed the basis for various control disputes ever since.


title: Montauk, New York

text: During the Siege of Boston in the Revolutionary War, a British ship visited Fort Pond Bay in 1775 in search of provisions—notably cattle. John Dayton, who had limited troops at his disposal on a hill above the bay, feigned that he had more by walking them back and forth across a hill turning their coats inside out to make it look like there were more of them (a tactic referred to as "Dayton's Ruse").


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1781, the British ran aground near what today is called Culloden Point while pursuing a French frigate. The ship was scuttled, but its remains were discovered in the 1970s. It is now on the National Register of Historic Places and is the only underwater park in the state of New York.


title: Montauk, New York

text: The first hamlet of Montauk was built on Fort Pond Bay near what is now the train station for the Long Island Rail Road.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1839, slaves who had seized the schooner "La Amistad" came ashore in the hamlet looking for provisions after being told by the white crew they had returned to Africa. American authorities were alerted, and the slaves were recaptured and ultimately freed in a historically significant trial.


title: Montauk, New York

text: A judgment was entered in 1851 against the Trustees of the Freeholders and Commonalty of the Town of Easthampton, and on March 9, 1852, a deed to Montauk was given to plaintiffs Henry P. Hedges and others, because their predecessors had contributed the money to purchase Montauk from the native Montaukett Indians in the 1600s. This deed caused the lands covered by the Dongan Patent to be split, leaving the still unsettled lands at Montauk without government. Less than one month later, on April 2, 1852, a state law was passed that incorporated the Proprietors Montauks, establishing the corporation of the trustees of Montauk and affirming its right to govern.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Stephen Talkhouse was displayed in 1867 by P. T. Barnum as "the last king of the Montauks." Talkhouse became famous for his walks from Indian Fields to New York City.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1879, Arthur W. Benson paid US$151,000 for for the east end. The deed releasing claim to Montauk was entered on March 9, 1852. Benson also received clear title to the Montaukett property at Big Reed Pond, buying it from tribesmen for $10 each, and in one case one of the tribesmen's houses was burned down. The legitimacy of the transaction is still being contested in court by the tribe. Construction began in 1882 on seven Shingle-style "cottages" designed by Stanford White, which were the centerpiece of Benson's plans. The most prominent of the six Montauk Association houses is Tick Hall, which was owned by entertainer Dick Cavett from 1967 to October 2021, when he sold it for $23.6 million.


title: Montauk, New York

text: The first train from the Austin Corbin extension of the Long Island Rail Road pulled into Montauk in 1895, the land having been bought in 1882. Corbin planned to turn Montauk into a "shortcut", saving a day each way for voyages between New York City and London: ships would dock at the Fort Pond Bay terminal and passengers would travel by rail to New York City at ). Corbin built the dock on Fort Pond Bay, but the plans never materialized when, among other things, Fort Pond Bay was found to be too shallow and rocky to handle oceangoing ships.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1898, after the Benson/Corbin plan did not work out as planned, the United States Army bought the Benson property to establish a base called Camp Wikoff to quarantine Army personnel returning from the Spanish–American War. The most prominent of the returning quarantined soldiers were Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders. Several soldiers died during the quarantine, prompting a visit from President William McKinley.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1924, Robert Moses began condemning the Benson land to establish state parks on either end of Montauk − Hither Hills State Park in the west and Montauk Point State Park in the east. The two parks were to be connected via the Montauk Point State Parkway.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1926, Carl G. Fisher bought most of the East End of Long Island () for only $2.5 million. He planned to turn Montauk into the "Miami Beach of the North", a "Tudor village by the sea". His projects included blasting a hole through the freshwater Lake Montauk to access Block Island Sound to replace the shallow Fort Pond Bay as the hamlet's port; establishing the Montauk Yacht Club and the Montauk Downs Golf Course; and building Montauk Manor, a luxury resort hotel; the Montauk Tennis Auditorium, which became a movie theater (and is now the Montauk Playhouse); and the six-story Carl Fisher Office Building (later the Montauk Improvement Building and now The Tower at Montauk, a residential condominium). This last building remains East Hampton's tallest occupied building, as zoning ordinances restricted heights of later buildings. The 30 or so buildings Fisher put up between 1926 and 1932 were designed in the Tudor Revival style. Fisher had successfully developed Miami Beach before beginning his Montauk project, but although he continued to pour his money into the development, to the extent of $12 million in total, he eventually lost his fortune due to the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and most of his enterprises were shut down. Other hotels that opened at the time of Fisher's project include Gurney's Inn, built by W. J. and Maude Gurney, who had managed a Fisher hotel in Miami Beach.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In the Great Hurricane of 1938, water flooded across Napeague, turning Montauk into an island. Floodwaters from the hurricane inundated the main downtown, and it was moved to the south, immediately next to the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Montauk, New York

text: During World War II the United States Navy bought most of the east end, including Montauk Manor, to turn it into a military base. Fort Pond Bay became a seaplane base. The U.S. Army established Camp Hero with guns to protect New York shipping lanes. Several concrete bunker observation posts were built along the coast, including one immediately to the east of the Montauk Lighthouse. Base buildings were disguised so they would appear from above as a New England fishing village.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1951, sport fisherman Frank Mundus began to lead charter fishing trips out of Lake Montauk, initially looking for bluefish but soon found fishing for sharks was more lucrative. The sport of "monster fishing" became Montauk's signature draw.


title: Montauk, New York

text: On September 1, 1951, the "Pelican", captained by Eddie Carroll, capsized in the shoals off Montauk Point, resulting in the deaths of 45 passengers and crew. The "Pelican" was carrying 64 people, most of whom had taken the Fisherman's Special trains to the Montauk LIRR station from New York City. The boat left the Fishangrila Dock at Fort Pond Bay at 7:30 a.m., severely overloaded. After fishing in the Atlantic Ocean on the south side of Montauk for several hours, it returned home, encountering engine trouble on the way. The weather turned stormy, and a northeast wind developed against an outgoing tide, resulting in standing waves of several feet at Endeavor Shoals, just off the Point. The vessel, wallowing in the heavy seas, became unstable in its overloaded state, capsized and then foundered at 2:10 p.m. Nearby vessels were only able to rescue 19 passengers. The wreck was secured by fabled sport fisherman Frank Mundus and towed into Lake Montauk by the Coast Guard. As a result of the disaster, strict new regulations regarding overloading of fishing vessels were adopted nationwide.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1957, the Army closed Camp Hero, and it was taken over by the United States Air Force, which in 1958 built a AN/FPS-35 radar. A massive building was erected to house its computers.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1959, following the Kitchen Debate between United States Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the designers of the kitchen, including Raymond Loewy, announced plans to sell affordable prefabricated houses, called Leisurama, to be used for second homes. One of the houses was exhibited on the 9th floor of Macy's. Two hundred of the houses, the largest installation, were assembled at Culloden Point in Montauk.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1967, the United States Coast Guard announced plans to tear down the Montauk Lighthouse and replace it with a taller steel tower. Erosion had reduced its buffer from the edge of a cliff from when it was built to less than . After protests, the Coast Guard backed down from the plan. In 1982, the Air Force base formally closed, and the military began selling its surplus property.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk Friends of Olmsted Parks LLC was established in 1994 to protect an extensive system of beaches and waterfront properties and roadways.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 1995, Montauk became the birthplace of the extreme surfcasting technique known as skishing. The sport involves donning a wetsuit and flippers and swimming into the ocean with rod and reel to catch fish while drifting offshore.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In October 2007, a fishing boat dragged up a large 19th-century anchor, which was speculated to have been lost by the SS "Great Eastern" in 1862.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 2008, an unidentifiable carcass known as the “Montauk Monster” was discovered near the hamlet's business district, with much speculation as to its identity.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In August 2016 OCEARCH designated the waters off of Montauk and the rest of the South Shore of Long Island as a birthing ground for great white sharks.


title: Montauk, New York

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the hamlet has a total area of , of which is land and , or 11.53%, is water.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"), under the Köppen climate classification, and using the isotherm, is one of the northernmost locations in North America with this climate type. The presence of the Atlantic Ocean brings warmer winters than inland areas of the same latitude as well as cooler springs and summers: despite an extensive urban heat island and warmer lows throughout much of the year, Central Park in Manhattan, as compared to Montauk, averages twice as many days with a low reaching or below. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July. There is of precipitation annually, with a slight dry season in summer and wet season in late fall and early winter. Montauk's warm subtropical climate makes it a popular vacation destination in the winter for New Yorkers and people from update New York.


title: Montauk, New York

text: According to the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service, Montauk is in Plant Hardiness Zone 7b/8a, with an annual average extreme minimal temperature of 10 degrees Fahrenheit, which allows tropical plants to grow that would otherwise only be able to grow in the Deep South.


title: Montauk, New York

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 3,326 people, down from 3,851 at the time of the 2000 census. There are 1,422 total households in the CDP. The population density was 190 people per square mile. There were 4,666 housing units. The racial makeup of the hamlet was 91.2% White, 3.3% African American, 0.6% Native American, 1.2% Asian, Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander 0.1% and 5.0% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.10% of the population.


title: Montauk, New York

text: There were 1,593 households, out of which 26.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.7% were non-families. 28.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.90.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 20.0% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 33.9% from 25 to 44, 25.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.2 males.


title: Montauk, New York

text: The median income for a household in the CDP was $42,329, and the median income for a family was $50,493. Males had a median income of $40,063 versus $28,299 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $23,875. About 8.3% of families and 10.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.9% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk is considered a beach resort, using its position at the tip of Long Island to promote itself as “The End" or "The Last Resort", and has become one of the busiest tourist locations in East Hampton. It has many restaurants, bed and breakfasts, and hotels, and is a popular vacation spot in the warm months. Such accommodations are rarer elsewhere in the Hamptons. Many Montauk hotels are only open from April to November, some for shorter time periods, and a few year-round, including Gurney's Inn.


title: Montauk, New York

text: The Montauk station on the Long Island Rail Road provides train service along the Montauk Branch to other parts of Long Island and to New York City, and Hampton Jitney provides bus service to Manhattan. Suffolk Transit's 10C and seasonally operated S94 bus routes serve the village. The 10C connects the village with East Hampton and the Amagansett, East Hampton and Montauk Long Island Rail Road stations on the Montauk Branch, and the seasonally operated S94 connects the village with the Montauk Point Light. Small planes can fly into the Montauk Airport.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Lake Montauk, a small bay on the north side of town, is home to a US Coast Guard station and a small fishing fleet, both commercial and recreational.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In 2007, "Newsday" listed 47 businesses in the category of "Hotel" in Montauk. They represented 2,030 rooms.


title: Montauk, New York

text: Montauk is a favored destination for weekend partiers who, as of 2015, had exceeded the local inhabitants' tolerance for noise and disruption.


title: Montauk, New York

text: In addition, there is Montauk County Park and several East Hampton parks and Nature Conservancy areas.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Richard Severin Fuld Jr. (born April 26, 1946) is an American banker best known as the final chairman and chief executive officer of investment bank Lehman Brothers. Fuld held this position from the firm's 1994 spinoff from American Express until 2008. Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy protection under Chapter 11 on September 15, 2008, and subsequently announced the sale of major operations to parties including Barclays Bank and Nomura Securities.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld was named in "Time"'s "25 People to Blame for the Financial Crisis" list and in CNN's "Ten Most Wanted: Culprits of the Collapse". Fuld was nicknamed "the gorilla" for his intimidating presence.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld was born to Jewish parents, the son of Richard Severin Fuld Sr. He is a second cousin of professional baseball player and executive Sam Fuld.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: He received both a B.A. and B.S. in 1969 from the University of Colorado Boulder, where he participated in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps program and was president of the school's chapter of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. Fuld completed his M.B.A. at New York University's Stern School of Business in 1973.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld's first career as an Air Force pilot came to an end when he got into a fistfight with a commanding officer. He said he had been defending a young cadet who was being taunted by the senior officer. Fuld then began his career with Lehman Brothers in 1969, the year the firm's senior partner Robert Lehman died. Fuld started trading commercial paper and developed a reputation as an accomplished fixed income trader.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld worked for Lehman for nearly 40 years. During this time, Fuld witnessed and participated in numerous evolutions within the organization, including its merger with Kuhn, Loeb & Co, its acquisition by American Express, its merger with E.F. Hutton and its ultimate spin-off from American Express in 1994, once again as Lehman Brothers. Once public, the new company traded under the stock ticker LEH.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld was the longest-tenured CEO on Wall Street at the time of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Fuld had steered Lehman through the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, a period where the firm's share price dropped to $12 in 1998. Lehman had a yearly loss of $102 million in 1993, but after Fuld became CEO the firm had fourteen straight years of profits, including one of $4.2 billion in 2007, although in 2008 it reported a Q2 loss of $2.8 billion and filed for bankruptcy later that year. Similar to the fall of Barings Bank, this was accomplished by driving up company earnings through excessive leverage and risk.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld had a succession of "number twos" under him, usually titled as president and chief operating officer. T. Christopher Pettit served until November 26, 1996, when he lost a power struggle with his deputies, likely brought about after Pettit had a mistress, which violated Fuld's unwritten rules on marriage and social etiquette. This president and COO position would remain vacant until Joseph M. Gregory was appointed president and COO in 2002. Bradley Jack and Gregory were appointed co-COOs in 2002, however Jack was demoted to the Office of the chairman in May 2004 and departed in June 2005 with a severance package of $80 million, making Gregory the sole COO and president. Along with CFO Erin Callan, Gregory was demoted on June 12, 2008 and replaced by Bart McDade, who would see Lehman through bankruptcy.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In 2006, "Institutional Investor" magazine named Fuld America's top chief executive in the private sector. That same year in December, Fuld told "The Wall Street Journal", "as long as I am alive this firm will never be sold."


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In March 2008, Fuld appeared in "Barron's" list of the 30 best CEOs and was dubbed "Mr. Wall Street".


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Overall, Fuld received nearly half a billion dollars in total compensation from 1993 to 2007. In 2007, he was paid a total of $22,030,534, which included a base salary of $750,000, a cash bonus of $4,250,000 and stock grants of $16,877,365. According to "Bloomberg Businessweek", Fuld "famously demanded loyalty of everyone around him and demonstrated his own by keeping much of his wealth tied up in the firm", even buying Lehman shares on margin, according to a friend.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld was initially praised for handling the initial subprime mortgage crisis well, better than any of the other bulge bracket firms, behind Goldman Sachs.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld was said to have underestimated the downturn in the US housing market and its effect on Lehman's mortgage bond underwriting business. Fuld was already the longest-tenured CEO on Wall Street and kept his job as the subprime mortgage crisis took hold, while CEOs of rivals like Bear Stearns, Merrill Lynch and Citigroup were forced to resign. In addition, Lehman's board of directors, which includes retired CEOs like Vodafone's Christopher Gent and IBM's John Akers, were reluctant to challenge Fuld as the firm's share price spiraled lower.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld was criticized for not completing several proposed deals, either a capital injection or a merger, that would have saved Lehman Brothers from bankruptcy. Interested parties had included Warren Buffett and the Korea Development Bank. Fuld was said to have played a game of brinkmanship, refusing to accept offers that could have rescued the firm because they didn't reflect the value he saw in the bank.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: However, "New York" magazine had a different view on Fuld's last three months as CEO before the firm's bankruptcy. Hugh "Skip" McGee III, then-head of the Investment Banking Division, had earlier disagreed with COO Joseph M. Gregory's appointment of one of his subordinates, Erin Callan, as CFO. On June 11, 2008, McGee organized a meeting of the firm's senior bankers, who forced Fuld to demote Callan and Gregory. Gregory's replacement as president and COO was Bart McDade. While Fuld remained CEO in title, it has been said that a management coup had taken place and that the one person in charge then was McDade. "New York" magazine's account also stated that Fuld was desperately searching for a buyer during the summer and even offering to step aside as CEO to facilitate the sale of the firm, being quoted as saying "We have two priorities, that the Lehman name and brand survive and that as many employees as possible be saved and you'll notice our priority isn't price".


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In his 2009 book "A Colossal Failure Of Common Sense", Larry McDonald—a senior Lehman Brothers trader in the years leading up to the crash—wrote that Fuld's "smoldering envy" of Goldman Sachs and other Wall Street rivals led him to ignore warnings from Lehman executives about the impending crash and that Fuld insisted the firm's chief risk officer leave the boardroom during key discussions.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In October 2008, Fuld was among twelve Lehman Brothers executives who received grand jury subpoenas in connection to three criminal investigations led by the United States Attorney's offices in the Eastern and Southern Districts of New York as well as the District of New Jersey, related to the alleged securities fraud associated with the collapse of the firm.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: On October 6, 2008, Fuld testified before the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform regarding the causes and effects of the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers. During the testimony, Fuld was asked if he wondered why Lehman Brothers was the only firm that was allowed to fail, to which he responded: "Until the day they put me in the ground, I will wonder."


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: The Report of Anton R. Valukas, the official court-mandated investigation into the Lehman bankruptcy, concluded that "While the business decisions that brought about the crisis were largely within the realm of acceptable business judgement, the actions to manipulate financial statements do give rise to "colorable claims", especially against the CEO and CFOs but also against the auditors.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In the opinion of the Examiner, "colorable" is generally meant to mean that sufficient evidence exists to support legal action and possible recovery of losses." "Regarding liquidity, throughout 2008 Lehman made false claims of having billions of dollars in available cash to repay counterparties when in reality, significant portions of the reported amounts were in fact encumbered or otherwise unavailable for use. On September 12, 2008, two days after reporting $41 billion in liquidity, true available funds totaled only $2 billion." Lehman filed for bankruptcy on September 15.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: On November 10, 2008, Fuld transferred his Florida mansion to his wife Kathleen for $100. They had bought it four years earlier for $13.75 million.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In May 2010, Fuld was registered by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) as employed by Legend Securities, a securities brokerage and investment banking firm in New York. Fuld left the firm in early 2012.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: By July 2015, Matrix Advisors, led by Fuld, had grown to about two dozen employees. The firm focuses on small and medium-sized enterprises, advising clients on a range of matters, from opening product distribution channels to completing mergers and acquisitions, and sourcing private equity and venture capital funding. By 2016, Matrix Private Capital LLC had $100 million in assets under management from 18 families. By November 2017, the company had expanded by opening offices in Los Angeles and Palm Beach.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Also in mid-2015, Fuld put up for auction his 71-acre estate in Sun Valley, Idaho. The property was estimated to sell for $30 to $50 million in August 2015, but sold at an auction in September for just over $20 million.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: As of 2018, Fuld remained critical of the government's decision not to bail out Lehman despite bailing out other financial firms in distress. Fuld reserves his most pointed criticisms for his longtime rival, Henry Paulson, who ran Goldman Sachs Group Inc. before heading the U.S. Treasury during the financial crisis of 2007–2008. By 2018, almost all claims brought against Lehman since the bankruptcy had been resolved (with $4.1 billion remaining from $1.2 trillion).


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In a 2018 book on the subject, "The Fed and Lehman Brothers: Setting the Record Straight on a Financial Disaster", economist Laurence M. Ball argues that Lehman had ample collateral to justify a U.S. government loan that would have staved off bankruptcy, rejecting statements from former officials that such a bailout would have been illegal. The Report of Anton R. Valukas, however, established that Lehman's assets were shrouded in uncertainty around the time of the bankruptcy, due to extensive balance sheet manipulation and accounting fraud.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In 2006, Fuld was named No. 1 CEO in the Brokers & Asset Managers category, by "Institutional Investor" magazine. In 2007 he received a $22 million bonus.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In October 2008, CNN named Fuld as one of the "Ten Most Wanted: Culprits of the Collapse" regarding the financial crisis of 2007–2008; he was placed 9th on the list.


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: In December 2008, Fuld was given the "Lex Overpaid CEO" award of the "Financial Times" for having received $34 million in 2007 and $40.5 million in 2006, the last two years before his bank's failure. The total compensation he received from 2000 until the bankruptcy was $484 million


title: Richard S. Fuld Jr.

text: Fuld at one time served on the board of directors of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, a position he ceased holding shortly before the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers. He is a member of the International Business Council of the World Economic Forum and the Business Council. He also serves on the Board of Trustees of New York-Presbyterian Hospital. He was also on the board of directors of the Robin Hood Foundation but was removed from the Board following the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerism, which may also be known as Late Renaissance, is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Vasari, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. Notable for its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities, this artistic style privileges compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting. Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication.


title: Mannerism

text: The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continues to be a subject of debate among art historians. For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature (especially poetry) and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is also used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists—a group unrelated to the Italian movement. Mannerism has also been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature.


title: Mannerism

text: The word "Mannerism" derives from the Italian "maniera", meaning "style" or "manner". Like the English word "style", "maniera" can either indicate a specific type of style (a beautiful style, an abrasive style) or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification (someone "has style"). In the second edition of his "Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects" (1568), Giorgio Vasari used "maniera" in three different contexts: to discuss an artist's manner or method of working; to describe a personal or group style, such as the term "maniera greca" to refer to the medieval Italo-Byzantine style or simply to the "maniera" of Michelangelo; and to affirm a positive judgment of artistic quality. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as "la maniera moderna", or the "modern style". James V. Mirollo describes how "bella maniera" poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of "bella maniera" suggests that artists who were thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, rather than confronting nature directly. In essence, "bella maniera" utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new.


title: Mannerism

text: As a stylistic label, "Mannerism" is not easily defined. It was used by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt and popularized by German art historians in the early 20th century to categorize the seemingly uncategorizable art of the Italian 16th century – art that was no longer found to exhibit the harmonious and rational approaches associated with the High Renaissance. "High Renaissance" connoted a period distinguished by harmony, grandeur and the revival of classical antiquity. The term "Mannerist" was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman following the exhibition of Mannerist paintings organised by Fritz Grossmann at Manchester City Art Gallery in 1965. The label "Mannerism" was used during the 16th century to comment on social behaviour and to convey a refined virtuoso quality or to signify a certain technique. However, for later writers, such as the 17th-century Gian Pietro Bellori, "la maniera" was a derogatory term for the perceived decline of art after Raphael, especially in the 1530s and 1540s. From the late 19th century on, art historians have commonly used the term to describe art that follows Renaissance classicism and precedes the Baroque.


title: Mannerism

text: Yet historians differ as to whether Mannerism is a style, a movement, or a period; and while the term remains controversial it is still commonly used to identify European art and culture of the 16th century.


title: Mannerism

text: By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists experienced a crisis: it seemed that everything that could be achieved was already achieved. No more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be solved. The detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, the innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, the use of the subtle gradation of tone, all had reached near perfection. The young artists needed to find a new goal, and they sought new approaches. At this point Mannerism started to emerge. The new style developed between 1510 and 1520 either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously.


title: Mannerism

text: This period has been described as a "natural extension" of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo developed his own style at an early age, a deeply original one which was greatly admired at first, then often copied and imitated by other artists of the era. One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his "terribilità", a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and subsequent artists attempted to imitate it. Other artists learned Michelangelo's impassioned and highly personal style by copying the works of the master, a standard way that students learned to paint and sculpt. His Sistine Chapel ceiling provided examples for them to follow, in particular his representation of collected figures often called "ignudi" and of the Libyan Sibyl, his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, the figures on his Medici tombs, and above all his "Last Judgment". The later Michelangelo was one of the great role models of Mannerism. Young artists broke into his house and stole drawings from him. In his book "Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects", Giorgio Vasari noted that Michelangelo stated once: "Those who are followers can never pass by whom they follow".


title: Mannerism

text: The competitive spirit was cultivated by patrons who encouraged sponsored artists to emphasize virtuosic technique and to compete with one another for commissions. It drove artists to look for new approaches and dramatically illuminated scenes, elaborate clothes and compositions, elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and a lack of clear perspective. Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were each given a commission by Gonfaloniere Piero Soderini to decorate a wall in the Hall of Five Hundred in Florence. These two artists were set to paint side by side and compete against each other, fueling the incentive to be as innovative as possible.


title: Mannerism

text: The early Mannerists in Florence—especially the students of Andrea del Sarto such as Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino—are notable for elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. Parmigianino (a student of Correggio) and Giulio Romano (Raphael's head assistant) were moving in similarly stylized aesthetic directions in Rome. These artists had matured under the influence of the High Renaissance, and their style has been characterized as a reaction to or exaggerated extension of it. Instead of studying nature directly, younger artists began studying Hellenistic sculpture and paintings of masters past. Therefore, this style is often identified as "anti-classical", yet at the time it was considered a natural progression from the High Renaissance. The earliest experimental phase of Mannerism, known for its "anti-classical" forms, lasted until about 1540 or 1550. Marcia B. Hall, professor of art history at Temple University, notes in her book "After Raphael" that Raphael's premature death marked the beginning of Mannerism in Rome.


title: Mannerism

text: In past analyses, it has been noted that mannerism arose in the early 16th century contemporaneously with a number of other social, scientific, religious and political movements such as the Copernican heliocentrism, the Sack of Rome in 1527, and the Protestant Reformation's increasing challenge to the power of the Catholic Church. Because of this, the style's elongated forms and distorted forms were once interpreted as a reaction to the idealized compositions prevalent in High Renaissance art. This explanation for the radical stylistic shift c. 1520 has fallen out of scholarly favor, though early Mannerist art is still sharply contrasted with High Renaissance conventions; the accessibility and balance achieved by Raphael's "School of Athens" no longer seemed to interest young artists.


title: Mannerism

text: The second period of Mannerism is commonly differentiated from the earlier, so-called "anti-classical" phase.


title: Mannerism

text: Subsequent mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected "manner" ("maniera"). Maniera artists looked to their older contemporary Michelangelo as their principal model; theirs was an art imitating art, rather than an art imitating nature. Art historian Sydney Joseph Freedberg argues that the intellectualizing aspect of maniera art involves expecting its audience to notice and appreciate this visual reference—a familiar figure in an unfamiliar setting enclosed between "unseen, but felt, quotation marks". The height of artifice is the Maniera painter's penchant for deliberately misappropriating a quotation. Agnolo Bronzino and Giorgio Vasari exemplify this strain of Maniera that lasted from about 1530 to 1580. Based largely at courts and in intellectual circles around Europe, Maniera art couples exaggerated elegance with exquisite attention to surface and detail: porcelain-skinned figures recline in an even, tempered light, acknowledging the viewer with a cool glance, if they make eye contact at all. The Maniera subject rarely displays much emotion, and for this reason works exemplifying this trend are often called 'cold' or 'aloof.' This is typical of the so-called "stylish style" or "Maniera" in its maturity.


title: Mannerism

text: The cities Rome, Florence, and Mantua were Mannerist centers in Italy. Venetian painting pursued a different course, represented by Titian in his long career. A number of the earliest Mannerist artists who had been working in Rome during the 1520s fled the city after the Sack of Rome in 1527. As they spread out across the continent in search of employment, their style was disseminated throughout Italy and Northern Europe. The result was the first international artistic style since the Gothic. Other parts of Northern Europe did not have the advantage of such direct contact with Italian artists, but the Mannerist style made its presence felt through prints and illustrated books. European rulers, among others, purchased Italian works, while northern European artists continued to travel to Italy, helping to spread the Mannerist style. Individual Italian artists working in the North gave birth to a movement known as the Northern Mannerism. Francis I of France, for example, was presented with Bronzino's "Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time". The style waned in Italy after 1580, as a new generation of artists, including the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio and Cigoli, revived naturalism. Walter Friedlaender identified this period as "anti-mannerism", just as the early Mannerists were "anti-classical" in their reaction away from the aesthetic values of the High Renaissance and today the Carracci brothers and Caravaggio are agreed to have begun the transition to Baroque-style painting which was dominant by 1600.


title: Mannerism

text: Outside of Italy, however, Mannerism continued into the 17th century. In France, where Rosso traveled to work for the court at Fontainebleau, it is known as the "Henry II style" and had a particular impact on architecture. Other important continental centers of Northern Mannerism include the court of Rudolf II in Prague, as well as Haarlem and Antwerp. Mannerism as a stylistic category is less frequently applied to English visual and decorative arts, where native labels such as "Elizabethan" and "Jacobean" are more commonly applied. Seventeenth-century Artisan Mannerism is one exception, applied to architecture that relies on pattern books rather than on existing precedents in Continental Europe.


title: Mannerism

text: Of particular note is the Flemish influence at Fontainebleau that combined the eroticism of the French style with an early version of the vanitas tradition that would dominate seventeenth-century Dutch and Flemish painting. Prevalent at this time was the "pittore vago", a description of painters from the north who entered the workshops in France and Italy to create a truly international style.


title: Mannerism

text: As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very largely an attempt to find an original style that would top the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculpture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo's "David". Baccio Bandinelli took over the project of "Hercules and Cacus" from the master himself, but it was little more popular then than it is now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to "a sack of melons", though it had a long-lasting effect in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of statues. Like other works of his and other Mannerists, it removes far more of the original block than Michelangelo would have done. Cellini's bronze "Perseus with the head of Medusa" is certainly a masterpiece, designed with eight angles of view, another Mannerist characteristic, and artificially stylized in comparison with the "David"s of Michelangelo and Donatello. Originally a goldsmith, his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was his first sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.


title: Mannerism

text: Small bronze figures for collector's cabinets, often mythological subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance form at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but based in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century. He also created life-size sculptures, of which two entered the collection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers devised elegant elongated examples of the "figura serpentinata", often of two intertwined figures, that were interesting from all angles.


title: Mannerism

text: Giorgio Vasari's opinions about the art of painting emerge in the praise he bestows on fellow artists in his multi-volume "Lives of the Artists": he believed that excellence in painting demanded refinement, richness of invention ("invenzione"), expressed through virtuoso technique ("maniera"), and wit and study that appeared in the finished work, all criteria that emphasized the artist's intellect and the patron's sensibility. The artist was now no longer just a trained member of a local Guild of St Luke. Now he took his place at court alongside scholars, poets, and humanists, in a climate that fostered an appreciation for elegance and complexity. The coat-of-arms of Vasari's Medici patrons appears at the top of his portrait, quite as if it were the artist's own. The framing of the woodcut image of Vasari's "Lives" would be called "Jacobean" in an English-speaking milieu. In it, Michelangelo's Medici tombs inspire the anti-architectural "architectural" features at the top, the papery pierced frame, the satyr nudes at the base. As a mere frame it is extravagant: Mannerist, in short..


title: Mannerism

text: Another literary figure from the period is Gian Paolo Lomazzo, who produced two works—one practical and one metaphysical—that helped define the Mannerist artist's self-conscious relation to his art. His "Trattato dell'arte della pittura, scoltura et architettura" (Milan, 1584) is in part a guide to contemporary concepts of decorum, which the Renaissance inherited in part from Antiquity but Mannerism elaborated upon. Lomazzo's systematic codification of aesthetics, which typifies the more formalized and academic approaches typical of the later 16th century, emphasized a consonance between the functions of interiors and the kinds of painted and sculpted decors that would be suitable. Iconography, often convoluted and abstruse, is a more prominent element in the Mannerist styles. His less practical and more metaphysical "Idea del tempio della pittura" ("The ideal temple of painting", Milan, 1590) offers a description along the lines of the "four temperaments" theory of human nature and personality, defining the role of individuality in judgment and artistic invention.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerism was an anti-classical movement which differed greatly from the aesthetic ideologies of the Renaissance. Though Mannerism was initially accepted with positivity based on the writings of Vasari, it was later regarded in a negative light because it solely view as, "an alteration of natural truth and a trite repetition of natural formulas." As an artistic moment, Mannerism involves many characteristics that are unique and specific to experimentation of how art is perceived. Below is a list of many specific characteristics that Mannerist artists would employ in their artworks.


title: Mannerism

text: Jacopo da Pontormo's work is one of the most important contributions to Mannerism. He often drew his subject matter from religious narratives; heavily influenced by the works of Michelangelo, he frequently alludes to or uses sculptural forms as models for his compositions. A well-known element of his work is the rendering of gazes by various figures which often pierce out at the viewer in various directions. Dedicated to his work, Pontormo often expressed anxiety about its quality and was known to work slowly and methodically. His legacy is highly regarded, as he influenced artists such as Agnolo Bronzino and the aesthetic ideals of late Mannerism.


title: Mannerism

text: Pontormo's "Joseph in Egypt", painted in 1517, portrays a running narrative of four Biblical scenes in which Joseph reconnects with his family. On the left side of the composition, Pontomoro depicts a scene of Joseph introducing his family to the Pharaoh of Egypt. On the right, Joseph is riding on a rolling bench, as cherubs fill the composition around him in addition to other figures and large rocks on a path in the distance. Above these scenes, is a spiral staircase which Joseph guides one his sons to their mother at the top. The final scene, on the right, is the final stage of Jacob's death as his sons watch nearby.


title: Mannerism

text: Pontormo's "Joseph in Egypt" features many Mannerist elements. One element is utilization of incongruous colors such as various shades of pinks and blues which make up a majority of the canvas. An additional element of Mannerism is the incoherent handling of time about the story of Joseph through various scenes and use of space. Through the inclusion of the four different narratives, Ponotormo creates a cluttered composition and overall sense of busyness.


title: Mannerism

text: Rosso Fiorentino, who had been a fellow pupil of Pontormo in the studio of Andrea del Sarto, in 1530 brought Florentine Mannerism to Fontainebleau, where he became one of the founders of French 16th-century Mannerism, popularly known as the School of Fontainebleau.


title: Mannerism

text: The examples of a rich and hectic decorative style at Fontainebleau further disseminated the Italian style through the medium of engravings to Antwerp, and from there throughout Northern Europe, from London to Poland. Mannerist design was extended to luxury goods like silver and carved furniture. A sense of tense, controlled emotion expressed in elaborate symbolism and allegory, and an ideal of female beauty characterized by elongated proportions are features of this style.


title: Mannerism

text: Agnolo Bronzino was a pupil of Pontormo, whose style was very influential and often confusing in terms of figuring out the attribution of many artworks. During his career, Bronzino also collaborated with Vasari as a set designer for the production "Comedy of Magicians", where he painted many portraits. Bronzino's work was sought after, and he enjoyed great success when he became a court painter for the Medici family in 1539. A unique Mannerist characteristic of Bronzino's work was the rendering of milky complexions.


title: Mannerism

text: In the painting, "Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time", Bronzino portrays an erotic scene that leaves the viewer with more questions than answers. In the foreground, Cupid and Venus are nearly engaged in a kiss, but pause as if caught in the act. Above the pair are mythological figures, Father Time on the right, who pulls a curtain to reveal the pair and the representation of the goddess of the night on the left. The composition also involves a grouping of masks, a hybrid creature composed of features of a girl and a serpent, and a man depicted in agonizing pain. Many theories are available for the painting, such as it conveying the dangers of syphilis, or that the painting functioned as a court game.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerist portraits by Bronzino are distinguished by a serene elegance and meticulous attention to detail. As a result, Bronzino's sitters have been said to project an aloofness and marked emotional distance from the viewer. There is also a virtuosic concentration on capturing the precise pattern and sheen of rich textiles. Specifically, within the "Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time", Bronzino utilizes the tactics of Mannerist movement, attention to detail, color, and sculptural forms. Evidence of Mannerist movement is apparent in the awkward movements of Cupid and Venus, as they contort their bodies to partly embrace. Particularly, Bronzino paints the complexion with the many forms as a perfect porcelain white with a smooth effacement of their muscles which provides a reference to the smoothness of sculpture.


title: Mannerism

text: Alessandro Allori's (1535–1607) "Susanna and the Elders" ("below") is distinguished by latent eroticism and consciously brilliant still life detail, in a crowded, contorted composition.


title: Mannerism

text: Jacopo Tintoretto has been known for his vastly different contributions to Venetian painting after the legacy of Titian. His work, which differed greatly from his predecessors, had been criticized by Vasari for its, "fantastical, extravagant, bizarre style." Within his work, Tintoretto adopted Mannerist elements that have distanced him from the classical notion of Venetian painting, as he often created artworks which contained elements of fantasy and retained naturalism. Other unique elements of Tintoretto's work include his attention to color through the regular utilization of rough brushstrokes and experimentation with pigment to create illusion.


title: Mannerism

text: An artwork that is associated with Mannerist characteristics is the "Last Supper"; it was commissioned by Michele Alabardi for the San Giorgio Maggiore in 1591. In Tintoretto's "Last Supper", the scene is portrayed from the angle of group of people along the right side of the composition. On the left side of the painting, Christ and the Apostles occupy one side of the table and single out Judas. Within the dark space, there are few sources of light; one source is emitted by Christ's halo and hanging torch above the table.


title: Mannerism

text: In its distinct composition, the "Last Supper" portrays Mannerist characteristics. One characteristic that Tintoretto utilizes is a black background. Though the painting gives some indication of an interior space through the use of perspective, the edges of the composition are mostly shrouded in shadow which provides drama for the central scene of the "Last Supper". Additionally, Tintoretto utilizes the spotlight effects with light, especially with the halo of Christ and the hanging torch above the table. A third Mannerist characteristic that Tintoretto employs are the atmospheric effects of figures shaped in smoke and float about the composition.


title: Mannerism

text: El Greco attempted to express religious emotion with exaggerated traits. After the realistic depiction of the human form and the mastery of perspective achieved in High Renaissance, some artists started to deliberately distort proportions in disjointed, irrational space for emotional and artistic effect. El Greco still is a deeply original artist. He has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional school. Key aspects of Mannerism in El Greco include the jarring "acid" palette, elongated and tortured anatomy, irrational perspective and light, and obscure and troubling iconography. El Greco's style was a culmination of unique developments based on his Greek heritage and travels to Spain and Italy.


title: Mannerism

text: El Greco's work reflects a multitude of styles including Byzantine elements as well as the influence of Caravaggio and Parmigianino in addition to Venetian coloring. An important element is his attention to color as he regarded it to be one of the most important aspects of his painting. Over the course of his career, El Greco's work remained in high demand as he completed important commissions in locations such as the Colegio de la Encarnación de Madrid.


title: Mannerism

text: El Greco's unique painting style and connection to Mannerist characteristics is especially prevalent in the work "Laocoön". Painted in 1610, it depicts the mythological tale of Laocoön, who warned the Trojans about the danger of the wooden horse which was presented by the Greeks as peace offering to the goddess Minerva. As a result, Minerva retaliated in revenge by summoning serpents to kill Laocoön and his two sons. Instead of being set against the backdrop of Troy, El Greco situated the scene near Toledo, Spain in order to "universalize the story by drawing out its relevance for the contemporary world."


title: Mannerism

text: El Greco's unique style in "Laocoön" exemplifies many Mannerist characteristics. Prevalent is the elongation of many of the human forms throughout the composition in conjunction with their serpentine movement, which provides a sense of elegance. An additional element of Mannerist style is the atmospheric effects in which El Greco creates a hazy sky and blurring of landscape in the background.


title: Mannerism

text: Benvenuto Cellini created the "Cellini Salt Cellar" of gold and enamel in 1540 featuring Poseidon and Amphitrite (water and earth) placed in uncomfortable positions and with elongated proportions. It is considered a masterpiece of Mannerist sculpture.


title: Mannerism

text: Lavinia Fontana (1552–1614) was a Mannerist portraitist often acknowledged to be the first female career artist in Western Europe. She was appointed to be the Portraitist in Ordinary at the Vatican. Her style is characterized as being influenced by the Carracci family of painters by the colors of the Venetian School. She is known for her portraits of noblewomen, and for her depiction of nude figures, which was unusual for a woman of her time.


title: Mannerism

text: Taddeo Zuccaro was born in Sant'Angelo in Vado, near Urbino, the son of Ottaviano Zuccari, an almost unknown painter. His brother Federico, born around 1540, was also a painter and architect.


title: Mannerism

text: Federico Zuccaro’s documented career as a painter began in 1550, when he moved to Rome to work under Taddeo, his elder brother. He went on to complete decorations for Pius IV, and help complete the fresco decorations at the Villa Farnese at Caprarola. Between 1563 and 1565, he was active in Venice with the Grimani family of Santa Maria Formosa. During his Venetian period, he traveled alongside Palladio in Friuli.


title: Mannerism

text: Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638) continued to paint in a Northern Mannerist style until the end of his life, ignoring the arrival of the Baroque art, and making him perhaps the last significant Mannerist artist still to be working. His subjects included large scenes with still life in the manner of Pieter Aertsen, and mythological scenes, many small cabinet paintings beautifully executed on copper, and most featuring nudity.


title: Mannerism

text: Giuseppe Arcimboldo is most readily known for his artworks that incorporate still life and portraiture. His style is viewed as Mannerist with the assemblage style of fruits and vegetables in which its composition can be depicted in various ways—right side up and upside down. Arcimboldo's artworks have also applied to Mannerism in terms of humor that it conveys to viewers, because it does not hold the same degree of seriousness as Renaissance works. Stylistically, Arcimboldo's paintings are known for their attention to nature and concept of a "monstrous appearance."


title: Mannerism

text: One of Arcimboldo's paintings which contains various Mannerist characteristics is, "Vertumnus". Painted against a black background is a portrait of Rudolf II, whose body is composed of various vegetables, flowers, and fruits. The joke of the painting communicates the humor of power which is that Emperor Rudolf II is hiding a dark inner self behind his public image. On the other hand, the serious tone of the painting foreshadows the good fortune that would be prevalent during his reign.


title: Mannerism

text: "Vertumnus" contains various Mannerist elements in terms of its composition and message. One element is the flat, black background which Arcimboldo utilizes to emphasize the status and identity of the Emperor, as well as highlighting the fantasy of his reign. In the portrait of Rudolf II, Arcimboldo also strays away from the naturalistic representation of the Renaissance, and explores the construction of composition by rendering him from a jumble of fruits, vegetables, plants and flowers. Another element of Mannerism which the painting portrays is the dual narrative of a joke and serious message; humor wasn't normally utilized in Renaissance artworks.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerist architecture was characterized by visual trickery and unexpected elements that challenged the Renaissance norms. Flemish artists, many of whom had traveled to Italy and were influenced by Mannerist developments there, were responsible for the spread of Mannerist trends into Europe north of the Alps, including into the realm of architecture. During the period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style, and a pioneer at the Laurentian Library, was Michelangelo (1475–1564). He is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade. He used this in his design for the Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. The "Herrerian style" ( or "arquitectura herreriana") of architecture was developed in Spain during the last third of the 16th century under the reign of Philip II (1556–1598), and continued in force in the 17th century, but transformed by the Baroque style of the time. It corresponds to the third and final stage of the Spanish Renaissance architecture, which evolved into a progressive purification ornamental, from the initial Plateresque to classical Purism of the second third of the 16th century and total nudity decorative that introduced the Herrerian style.


title: Mannerism

text: Prior to the 20th century, the term "Mannerism" had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general, non-judgmental terms. Mannerist architecture has also been used to describe a trend in the 1960s and 1970s that involved breaking the norms of modernist architecture while at the same time recognizing their existence. Defining Mannerism in this context, architect and author Robert Venturi wrote "Mannerism for architecture of our time that acknowledges conventional order rather than original expression but breaks the conventional order to accommodate complexity and contradiction and thereby engages ambiguity unambiguously."


title: Mannerism

text: An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, in the rugged countryside outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles.


title: Mannerism

text: Dense with ornament of "Roman" detailing, the display doorway at Colditz Castle exemplifies the northern style, characteristically applied as an isolated "set piece" against unpretentious vernacular walling.


title: Mannerism

text: From the late 1560s onwards, many buildings in Valletta, the new capital city of Malta, were designed by the architect Girolamo Cassar in the Mannerist style. Such buildings include St. John's Co-Cathedral, the Grandmaster's Palace and the seven original auberges. Many of Cassar's buildings were modified over the years, especially in the Baroque period. However, a few buildings, such as Auberge d'Aragon and the exterior of St. John's Co-Cathedral, still retain most of Cassar's original Mannerist design.


title: Mannerism

text: In English literature, Mannerism is commonly identified with the qualities of the "Metaphysical" poets of whom the most famous is John Donne. The witty sally of a Baroque writer, John Dryden, against the verse of Donne in the previous generation, affords a concise contrast between Baroque and Mannerist aims in the arts:


title: Mannerism

text: The rich musical possibilities in the poetry of the late 16th and early 17th centuries provided an attractive basis for the madrigal, which quickly rose to prominence as the pre-eminent musical form in Italian musical culture, as discussed by Tim Carter:


title: Mannerism

text: The word Mannerism has also been used to describe the style of highly florid and contrapuntally complex polyphonic music made in France in the late 14th century. This period is now usually referred to as the "ars subtilior".


title: Mannerism

text: "The Early Commedia dell'Arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context" by Paul Castagno discusses Mannerism's effect on the contemporary professional theatre. Castagno's was the first study to define a theatrical form as Mannerist, employing the vocabulary of Mannerism and maniera to discuss the typification, exaggerated, and "effetto meraviglioso" of the "comici dell'arte". See Part II of the above book for a full discussion of Mannerist characteristics in the commedia dell'arte. The study is largely iconographic, presenting a pictorial evidence that many of the artists who painted or printed commedia images were in fact, coming from the workshops of the day, heavily ensconced in the maniera tradition.


title: Mannerism

text: The preciosity in Jacques Callot's minute engravings seem to belie a much larger scale of action. Callot's "Balli di Sfessania" (literally, dance of the buttocks) celebrates the commedia's blatant eroticism, with protruding phalli, spears posed with the anticipation of a comic ream, and grossly exaggerated masks that mix the bestial with human. The eroticism of the "innamorate" (lovers) including the baring of breasts, or excessive veiling, was quite in vogue in the paintings and engravings from the second School of Fontainebleau, particularly those that detect a Franco-Flemish influence. Castagno demonstrates iconographic linkages between genre painting and the figures of the commedia dell'arte that demonstrate how this theatrical form was embedded within the cultural traditions of the late cinquecento.


title: Mannerism

text: Important corollaries exist between the "disegno interno", which substituted for the "disegno esterno" (external design) in Mannerist painting. This notion of projecting a deeply subjective view as superseding nature or established principles (perspective, for example), in essence, the emphasis away from the object to its subject, now emphasizing execution, displays of virtuosity, or unique techniques. This inner vision is at the heart of commedia performance. For example, in the moment of improvisation the actor expresses his virtuosity without heed to formal boundaries, decorum, unity, or text. Arlecchino became emblematic of the mannerist "discordia concors" (the union of opposites), at one moment he would be gentle and kind, then, on a dime, become a thief violently acting out with his battle. Arlecchino could be graceful in movement, only in the next beat, to clumsily trip over his feet. Freed from the external rules, the actor celebrated the evanescence of the moment; much the way Benvenuto Cellini would dazzle his patrons by draping his sculptures, unveiling them with lighting effects and a sense of the marvelous. The presentation of the object became as important as the object itself.


title: Mannerism

text: In the 20th century, the rise of Neo-Mannerism stemmed from artist Ernie Barnes. The style was heavily influenced by both the Jewish Community, as well as the African-American Community, leading to "The Beauty of the Ghetto" exhibition between 1972 - 1979. The Exhibition toured major American cities, and was hosted by dignitaries, professional athletes, and celebrities. When the exhibition was on view in 1974 at the Museum of African Art in Washington, DC, Rep. John Conyers stressed the important positive message of the exhibit in the "Congressional Record".


title: Mannerism

text: The style of Neo-Mannerism, as developed by Barnes, includes subjects with elongated limbs and bodies, as well as exaggerated movement. Another common theme was closed eyes of the subjects, as a visual representation of "how blind we are to one another's humanity". "We look upon each other and decide immediately: This person is black, so he must be ... This person lives in poverty, so he must be ...".


title: Mannerism

text: In an interview, film director Peter Greenaway mentions Federico Fellini and Bill Viola as two major inspirations for his exhaustive and self-referential play with the insoluble tension between the database form of images and the various analogous and digital interfaces that structure them cinematically. This play can be called neo-mannerist precisely insofar as it is distinguished from the (neo-)baroque: "Just as Roman Catholicism would offer you paradise and heaven, there is an equivalent commercial paradise being offered very largely by the whole capitalistic effect, which is associated with Western cinema. This is my political analogy in terms of the use of multimedia as a political weapon. I would equate, in a sense, the great baroque Counter-Reformation, its cultural activity, with what cinema, American cinema predominantly, has been doing in the last seventy years."


title: Mannerism

text: According to art critic Jerry Saltz, "Neo-Mannerism" (new Mannerism) is among several clichés that are "squeezing the life out of the art world". Neo-Mannerism describes art of the 21st century that is turned out by students whose academic teachers "have scared [them] into being pleasingly meek, imitative, and ordinary".


title: Mannerism

text: Harmondsworth and New York: Penguin. (cased) (pbk) [Reprinted with corrections, 1986; 8th edition, Harmondsworth and New York: Penguin, 1991.]


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Professional Football Club Ludogorets 1945 (), commonly known as Ludogorets Razgrad or simply Ludogorets, is a Bulgarian professional association football club based in Razgrad, which currently competes in the First Professional Football League, the top tier of the Bulgarian football league system.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: In their inaugural 2011–12 season in A Group after promotion, Ludogorets won the treble by capturing the league championship, the Bulgarian Cup and the Bulgarian Supercup. Subsequently, the club made a significant continental impact in the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League when they reached the Round of 16 in only their second European run. To date they have reached the knockout stages of the Europa League four times, more than any other club in Bulgaria. Ludogorets are also only the second Bulgarian team after Levski Sofia to enter the group stage of the UEFA Champions League, a feat which they achieved in the following 2014–15 season. During that same campaign, they became the first Bulgarian team to score points in the modern Champions League group stage following a 1–0 win over Basel in Sofia.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Since their introduction to the Bulgarian top-flight in 2011, Ludogorets have established themselves as a dominant force in Bulgarian football, claiming every possible league title since then. They have also won the Bulgarian Cup twice, as well as the Bulgarian Supercup on six occasions.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets' traditional home colours are green and white. The club's home ground is the Huvepharma Arena in Razgrad, a stadium with a capacity of 10,500 spectators. Their current manager is Ante Šimundža.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Established in November 1945 after the merging of several rural football clubs from the Ludogorie Region, Ludogorets Razgrad was initially participating in the Third football division of Bulgaria. They promoted to the Second division in 1961. In 1997 the club merged with FC Antibiotic Razgrad and was renamed to FC Antibiotic-Ludogorets. In 2005 the club was defunct. The rise of Ludogorets started in season 2009/10 when Aleksandar Aleksandrov, director of FC Razgrad 2000, inherited the history and traditional club records of the former Antibiotic-Ludogorets, returning the name to PFC Ludogorets 1945 Razgrad. The team managed to enter Second division when Ivaylo Petev was designated as a Head Coach.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: In September 2010 the club was purchased by a Bulgarian pharmaceutical entrepreneur Kiril Domuschiev, with the clear intention of bringing Ludogorets to the top division. This happened in May 2011 with Ivaylo Petev as a Head Coach when the team promoted to top division for the first time in the club's history.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: In May 2012, Ludogorets completed the domestic double when they won their first Bulgarian Cup title following a 2:1 victory against Lokomotiv Plovdiv at Lazur Stadium in Burgas, and in August 2012, they won the Bulgarian Supercup, defeating Lokomotiv 3:1, thus becoming the first team to win a treble in its first season in A Group and one of the few in the history of international football to do so.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets started the 2012–13 season with eight straight wins and nine matches without a loss, and finished the half-season in first place, as in the previous season, with just one loss and seven goals conceded out of 15 matches. However, in the 2012–13 Bulgarian Cup, the club was eliminated in the round of 32 by CSKA Sofia 2:2 on aggregate, losing on away goals. In the spring half-season, Ludogorets occupied the first place with just three matches to play before the end of the season. Nevertheless, they were defeated 1:0 by Levski Sofia and they took the lead of A Group. On the final day of the season, Ludogorets had to beat the already relegated team of Montana and hope that Slavia Sofia would prevent Levski from winning their match. In the last minutes of the Levski–Slavia match, Levski conceived an own goal which subsequently led to a 1:1 draw, allowing Ludogorets to win their second championship title in dramatic fashion again. In the 2013 Supercup, they lost 5:3 on penalties to Beroe Stara Zagora after a 1:1 draw in regular time.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: In season 2013/14 Ludogorets became a hegemon in the Bulgarian club football. The "Eagles" earned their third consecutive title two rounds before the end of the championship on 7 May 2014. On 15 May 2014 Ludogorets achieved a treble after winning the Cup of Bulgaria against Botev (Plovdiv) 1-0 and the Super Cup. Both matches were played at the "Lazur" stadium in Burgas.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets' fourth title came after a home win against Lokomotiv (Sofia) with 4:1 on 15 May 2015. A new tribune, named after their defender Cosmin "Moti", and the 70th anniversary of the "Eagles" were celebrated at that time.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: The 2016/2017 season was the most successful in the history of Ludogorets. They became champions of Bulgaria for the sixth consecutive time with 16 points advantage over the runner-up. For the second time in the Bulgarian's football history the team entered the Champions League groups with Georgi Dermendzhiev as a Head Coach. They ranked third in the groups by winning 2 points and continued their European tournament participation in Europa League.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: The 2017/2018 season was another successful one for Ludogorets. The team won their domestic league Champion's Title and performed well at both European Tournaments – Champions League and Europa League.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets earned their 2018/2019 season title after a 4-1 home win over PFC Cherno More in May 2019.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets' domination in Bulgaria continue. The champions won their record-breaking 9th consecutive title after a 2:1 win against Beroe in May 2020.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets claimed their unprecedented record-breaking 10th consecutive title after a 3-1 home win against Beroe Stara Zagora in May 2021. This phenomenal achievement led to the club putting their first star on the club's badge/crest to represent 10 league titles in the domestic Bulgarian football league.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: After winning the 2011–12 Bulgarian title, Ludogorets entered the second qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League for the 2012–13 season, but were eliminated 3:4 on aggregate with a last minute away goal by Dinamo Zagreb.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: As Bulgarian champions in 2012–13 season, Ludogorets played in the UEFA Champions League where they came through the qualifiers, eliminating subsequently Slovan Bratislava and Partizan en route. Ludogorets then lost to Basel in the play-offs, but earned the right to play in the UEFA Europa League.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: Ludogorets played in Group B of the 2013–14 Europa League. They were unbeaten in the group stage finishing first in the group with five wins in six games, including both home and away victories over the prominent PSV and Dinamo Zagreb. Their only dropped points were a 1:1 home draw with Chornomorets Odesa. In the knockout phase, Ludogorets beat the Italian cup holders Lazio 1:0 away and drew 3:3 at home for a 4:3 aggregate win, but then lost 0:3 at home and 0:4 on aggregate to Valencia in the round of 16.


title: PFC Ludogorets Razgrad

text: In the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League, Ludogorets again won both their qualifiers, against F91 Dudelange of Luxembourg and Partizan. In the play-off, they defeated Steaua București to reach the group stage for the first time. Goalkeeper Vladislav Stoyanov was dismissed for a second yellow card in the last minute of extra time in the second leg, when Ludogorets had used all their substitutes. In the penalty shoot-out, centre-back Cosmin Moți, having converted the first penalty, went in goal and made two saves to put Ludogorets through 6:5 on penalties.