title: Fence (criminal)

text: Under traditional Chinese law a fence, or receiver, (銷贓者), was a merchant who bought and sold stolen goods. Fences were part of the extensive network of accomplices in the criminal underground of Ming and Qing China. Their occupation entailed criminal activity, but as fences often had a non-criminal primary occupation, they acted as liaisons between the respectable community and the criminal underworld, living a "precarious existence on the fringes of respectable society."


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Fences often worked alongside bandits in a network of criminal accomplices that was essential to ensuring both the safety and the success of fences.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: The path into the occupation of a fence stemmed, to a large degree, from necessity. As most fences came from the ranks of poorer people, they often took whatever work they could—both legal and illegal. Working as a fence was an option that was not too strenuous, but had the potential to bring in a fair sum of income.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Most fences worked within their own town or village. For example, in some satellite areas of the capital, military troops lived within or close to the commoner population and they had the opportunity to hold illegal trades with commoners.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: In areas like Baoding and Hejian, local peasants and community members not only purchased military livestock such as horses and cattle, but also helped to hide the stolen livestock from the military. Local peasants and other members of the community became fences and hid criminal activities from officials, in exchange for goods or money from soldiers.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Most fences were not individuals who only bought and sold stolen goods to make a living. The majority of fences had a variety of legitimate occupations, including labourers and peddlers. Such individuals encountered criminals, for example in the markets while working, and formed acquaintances and temporary associations for mutual aid and protection. In one example, an owner of a teahouse overheard the conversation between Deng Yawen, a criminal, and others planning a robbery and offered to help to sell the loot for a portion of the spoils.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: At times, the robbers themselves filled the role of fences, selling to people they met on the road. This may have been preferable for robbers because they would not have to pay the fence a portion of the spoils.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Butchers received stolen animals because owners could no longer recognise their livestock after the animal had been slaughtered. Animals were very valuable commodities within Ming China, and a robber could potentially sustain a living from stealing livestock and selling them to butcher-fences.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Although fences usually worked with physical stolen property, fences who also worked as itinerant barbers also sold information as a good. Itinerant barbers often amassed important sources of information and news as they travelled, and sold significant pieces of information to those who offered money. Often, such information was sold to criminals in search of places to hide or individuals to rob. In this way, itinerant barbers also served the role as a keeper of information that could be sold both to members of the criminal underground and to powerful clients.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Fences not only sold stolen goods but were also occasionally involved in human trafficking hostages that bandits had kidnapped. Women and children were the easiest to sell and among the most common "objects" the fences sold. Most female hostages were sold to fences and then sold as prostitutes, wives, or concubines. One example of human trafficking comes from Chen Akuei's gang, who abducted a servant girl and sold her to Lin Baimao, who in turn sold her as a wife for thirty pieces of silver. In contrast to women who required beauty to sell for a high price, children were sold regardless of their physical appearance or family background. Young boys were often sold as servants or entertainers, while young girls were often sold as prostitutes.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: As with merchants of honest goods, one of the most significant tools of a fence was their network of connections. As the middlemen between robbers and clients, fences needed to form and maintain widespread connections in both the “polite” society and among criminals. There were cases in which members of “well-respected” society became receivers and harbourers. They not only helped bandits to sell the stolen goods but also acted as agents of the bandits in collecting protection money from local merchants and residents. These "part-time" fences with high social status used their connection with bandits to help themselves gain social capital as well as wealth.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: It was important for fences to maintain a positive relationship with their customers, especially their richer gentry clients. When some members of the local elites joined the ranks of fences, they not only protected bandits to protect their own business interests, but they actively took down any potential threats to their illegal profiting, even government officials. In the Zhejiang Province, local elites not only caused the dismissal of provincial commissioner, Zhu Wan, but also eventually “[drove] him to suicide”.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: It was also essential for fences to maintain a relationship with bandits in order to protect their livelihood. However, it was just as true that bandits needed fences to make a living. As a result, fences often held dominance in their relationship with bandits. Taking advantage of their dominance in their relationships with bandits, fences also cheated bandits by manipulating the prices they paid bandits for stolen property. This was possible because fences often had an official and legal means of making a living, as well as illegal activities, and could threaten to turn bandits in to the authorities.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Aside from simply buying and selling stolen goods, fences often played additional roles in the criminal underground of early China. Inns and teahouses became places for bandits and gangs to gather in order to exchange information and plan for their next crime. Harborers (people who provided safe houses for criminals) often played the role of a fence as well, in receiving stolen goods from their harboured criminals to sell to other customers. Safe houses also included brothels and opium dens, as well as gambling parlors, and employees or owners of such institutions often functioned as harborers, as well as fences. These safe houses were located in places where there was a and where people from a variety of social backgrounds interacted.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Brothels also helped bandits to hide and sell stolen goods because of the special Ming Law that exempted brothels from being held responsible “for the criminal actions of their clients.” Although the government required brothel owners to report any suspicious activity, the lack of government enforcement as well as the motivation of owners to make an extra income from fencing led brothels to become safe houses for bandits and gangs.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Pawnshops were also affiliated with fencing stolen goods. The owners or employees of such shops often paid a low sum far below market value for stolen goods to bandits, and resold the goods to earn a profit.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Two different Ming Laws, the "Da Ming Lü 大明律" and the "Da Gao 大诰," drafted by the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, sentenced fences to different penalties based on the category and value of the products that were stolen.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: In coastal regions, illegal trading with foreigners, as well as smuggling became a concern for the government during the mid to late Ming era. The government passed a law in which illegal smugglers who traded with foreigners without the consent of the government would be punished with exile to the border for military service.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: In areas where military troops were stationed, stealing and selling military property would result in more severe punishment. In the Jiaqing time, a case was recorded of a robber stealing and selling military horses. The emperor himself gave orders that the thieves who had stolen the horses and the people who had helped to sell the horses would be put on a cangue and sent to labour in a border military camp.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: In salt mines, the penalty for workers who stole and/or sold salt was the most severe. Because of the enormous value of salt in Ming China, anyone who was arrested and found guilty of stealing and selling government salt was put to death.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Fencing is often conducted through legal businesses. Some fences maintain a legitimate-seeming "front" through which they can sell stolen merchandise. Depending on the type of stolen merchandise a fence deals in, "front" businesses might be discount stores, used goods stores, coin and gem stores, auction houses, flea markets, or auto salvage yards. The degree of illicit activity in each "front" business differs from fence to fence. Fences will often attempt to mix stolen goods with legitimately-obtained merchandise, so that if the actual source of the stolen goods is discovered they can plausibly deny any knowledge of such illegal activity. Thus, while one fence's salvage yard may consist mainly of stolen auto parts, another fence's used goods store might consist mainly of legitimately purchased used goods, with the stolen merchandise acting as a minor, but profitable, sideline.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Thieves agree to use fences because their alternatives may present a greater risk of the thief being caught. As well, selling stolen goods takes a great deal of time and effort (transaction costs), as the thief would have to try to contact a number of potential buyers and show them the merchandise. Some habitual thieves are so well known to police that if the thief were to attempt to sell any used goods, this would quickly draw the attention of law enforcement.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: The fence disguises the stolen nature of the goods, if possible, so that he or she can sell them closer to the market price. Depending on the stolen item, the fence may attempt to remove, deface, or replace serial numbers on the stolen item before reselling it. In some cases, fences will transport the stolen items to a different city to sell them, because this lessens the likelihood that the items will be recognised. However, a disadvantage of trying to sell stolen goods outside a fence's home city directly to buyers is that the fence may not be well-known in the community and thus not likely to be trusted by potential customers whether law-abiding or otherwise. To overcome this, fences often develop clandestine relationships with trusted fences in other locales, thus allowing stolen goods to be easily exchanged in bulk by fences in different cities.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: For some types of stolen goods, fences disassemble the good and sell the individual parts, because the sale of parts is less risky. For example, a stolen car or bicycle may be disassembled so that the parts can be sold individually. Another tactic used by some fences is to retain stolen items for some time before selling them, which lessens the likelihood that the burglary victims or police will be actively looking for the items in auctions and pawnshops.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: The prices fences pay thieves typically depend both on norms and on legitimate market rates for the items in question. Vulnerable sellers, such as drug addicts or casual thieves, may receive less than 20% of an item's value. Higher prices, sometimes as high as 50% of an item's value in a legal market, can be commanded by a professional thief, especially one who has managed to remain relatively unknown to police and/or who concentrates on valuable items. Fences may take advantage of thieves by deceiving them about the value of items and the relevant market conditions. For example, a fence may falsely tell a petty thief that the market for the type of good which the thief is selling is flooded with this type of merchandise, to justify paying out a lower price.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: There are different types of fences. One way to categorise fences is by the type of good in which they trade, such as jewels, power tools, or electronics. Another way is by their level of involvement in buying and selling stolen goods; for some, fencing is an occasional "sideline" activity, while it is an economic mainstay for others. At the lowest level, a hustler or drug dealer may occasionally accept stolen goods. At the highest level would be a fence whose main criminal income comes from buying and selling stolen items. Two tiers of fences can be distinguished: The lower level of fences are those who directly buy stolen goods from thieves and burglars. At a higher level are the "master fences", who do not deal with street-level thieves, but only with other fences.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Research on fences shows that they view themselves as entrepreneurs, relying on networking with and patronage by prominent criminals to become successful in their word-of-mouth-based "wheeling and dealing." They occupy the middle ground between the criminal world (thieves, burglars, and shoplifters) and the legitimate world (everyday people who purchase used goods). Some active fences go farther in their business, maintaining longstanding contacts and even teaching thieves how to practice their craft, whether by identifying specific products or by teaching them tools of the trade.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: The degree to which the purchasers of the stolen goods know or suspect that the items are stolen varies. If a purchaser buys a high-quality item for a low price, in cash, from a stranger at a bar or from the back of a van, there is a higher likelihood that the items may be stolen. On the other hand, if a purchaser buys the same high-quality item for the standard retail price from a used goods store, and obtains a proper receipt, the purchaser may reasonably believe that the item is not stolen (even if, in fact, it is a stolen item).


title: Fence (criminal)

text: E-fencing is the sale of items on the Internet that have been obtained illegally. There are some key differences between "e-fencing" and traditional fencing. Both involve fraudulently obtained goods and/or services are being bought and sold in a (series of) transactions involving a "minimum of three" distinct parties. In traditional fencing these parties are usually understood to be the thief who stole the goods, the fence who acts as an intermediary, and the final purchaser, with only the final purchaser possibly being the innocent and unwitting party. On the other hand, e-fencing may describe transactions in which there is direct interaction between the original thief and the final purchaser. In a typical case, the "intermediary" is an online platform. In e-fencing (unlike traditional fencing) the level of culpability on the part of the "intermediary" platform varies greatly. On one hand, the platform's operators may be knowingly or recklessly permitting such activity (for instance in a darknet market) and thus might be thought of as a "fence" in a more traditional sense. At the other extreme are "intermediaries" that are legitimate and respected platforms being used in defiance of their terms and conditions and in spite of aggressive and ongoing actions to interdict such illegal activities.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: E-fencing can be mixed with sales to pawnbrokers. The auction website eBay, being easy to reach for the average thief, is a popular location for e-fencing; customers reported more than eight thousand crimes from the website in 2008, many of which involved the sale of stolen property. Classified websites like Craigslist, AutoTrader.com, Pennysaver online, etc. are used for fencing goods online and circumventing the middleman fencer, as are a number of illegal darknet markets.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: E-fenced items may have been shoplifted or otherwise stolen, or they may have been purchased with stolen credit cards or similar banking information. The latter practice is often intertwined with carding, which is the trafficking of stolen credit card numbers "en masse". The sale of stolen credit cards, which usually takes place on the darknet markets, is a form of e-fencing in its own right, and plays a role in purchasing physical goods that may be either e-fenced themselves or fenced through more traditional means.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Crime rings steal and/or use stolen financial information to pay for in-demand items from retailers and then sell those items online, relying on the Internet's ability to reach buyers around the world and its anonymity; some theft rings even take pre-orders, confident that they can steal and/or fraudulently pay for whatever is currently in demand. In the United States, major retailers such as Wal-Mart and Target have advocated for federal legislation to combat Internet fencing. Some such proposed legislation would require major sales websites (e.g. eBay and Amazon.com) to retain some items' serial numbers and to release information to retailers about major sellers whom the retailers believe to be relying on stolen property. Such proposals have been opposed by the online retailers who would be required to maintain these records and take these actions.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Stolen financial information can also itself be e-fenced by using such data to purchase intangible goods and services on behalf of unsuspecting buyers. In some cases, criminals anonymously pose as agents selling items such as airline tickets at significantly discounted prices, while they are actually using stolen financial information to purchase such goods and services at the regular price from legitimate websites using the real identity of the final purchaser. Such criminals may request payment in cryptocurrency such as bitcoin to further cover their tracks. Once the fraud is discovered, it is usually the final purchaser(s) who will be held liable for the full amount of the purchase(s), and possibly even be at risk of criminal prosecution themselves depending on the jurisdiction. One airline representative described the practice as being "akin to buying a television set in a bar."


title: Fence (criminal)

text: An eBay spokesman stated, "Perhaps the dumbest place to try to fence stolen materials is on eBay," and news agencies have reported incidents of the police purchasing stolen property directly from thieves, leading to their capture. By early 2007, e-fencing had become a $37 billion business.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Fencing is illegal almost everywhere, usually under a similar rationale as in the United States, where receipt of stolen property is a crime in every state, as well as a federal crime if the property crossed a state line. Occasionally federal agents will temporarily set up a false fence sting operation. Fencing is a common source of income for organised crime. In England and Wales, as in many U.S. states, the crime requires three elements: stolen property, the receiver's act of receiving or hiding it, and his knowledge of its stolen status.


title: Fence (criminal)

text: Pawnbrokers have often been associated with fencing, though in many jurisdictions, government identification must be shown in order to pawn an item and police regularly check pawnshops for stolen goods and repossess any stolen items. While pawnbrokers do not like this characterisation of their business, police efforts have indicated that some pawnbrokers are involved in fencing.


title: Pilar Pallete

text: Pilar Pallete (born 3 September 1928) is a Peruvian actress and the widow of American actor John Wayne.


title: Pilar Pallete

text: Pallete was born as the daughter of a Peruvian senator in the Paita Port (northern Peru). She married and divorced professional big-game hunter Richard Weldy. She met John Wayne, 21 years her senior, in Tingo María, Peru, around 1952 or 1953, while still married to Weldy. Wayne was in Peru scouting locations for "The Alamo".


title: Pilar Pallete

text: In 1953, Pallete came to Los Angeles to dub a film in English, when she ran into John Wayne for the second time. A year later on November 1, 1954, they married in Kona, Hawaii, the same day Wayne's divorce became final. Pallete retired from her motion picture career to be a wife and mother to their three children: Aissa, Ethan, and Marisa.


title: Pilar Pallete

text: During the next ten years of their marriage, they traveled extensively, usually on location for John Wayne's many films. In 1965, they moved to Newport Beach, California. She rented a studio inside the Fernleaf Courtyard, in Corona Del Mar, California, where she would entertain her clients outdoors with coffee and finger sandwiches and found herself, one year later, with a full-time restaurant.


title: Pilar Pallete

text: Pallete married Wayne in 1954, and they remained married until his death in 1979. In 1973 she moved out of their house; however, they were never legally separated or divorced. She has always made clear that they remained married until his death.


title: Pilar Pallete

text: In 1984, five years after Wayne's death, Pallete married Stephen Stewart, a municipal court judge. The marriage was brief, with Pallete later describing the relationship as a "two-week mistake."


title: Beriev A-50

text: The Beriev A-50 (NATO reporting name: Mainstay) is a Soviet airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft based on the Ilyushin Il-76 transport. Developed to replace the Tupolev Tu-126 "Moss", the A-50 first flew in 1978. Its existence was revealed to the Western Bloc in 1980 by Adolf Tolkachev. It entered service in 1984, with about 40 produced by 1992.


title: Beriev A-50

text: The mission personnel of the 15-man crew derive data from the large Liana surveillance radar with its antenna in an over-fuselage rotodome, which has a diameter of Detection range is for air targets and for ground targets.


title: Beriev A-50

text: The A-50 can control up to ten fighter aircraft for either air-to-air intercept or air-to-ground attack missions. The A-50 can fly four hours at from its base at a maximum takeoff weight of . The aircraft can be refuelled by Il-78 tankers.


title: Beriev A-50

text: The radar "Vega-M" is designed by MNIIP, Moscow, and produced by NPO Vega. The "Vega-M" can track up to 150 targets simultaneously within . Large targets, like surface ships, can be tracked at a distance of .


title: Beriev A-50

text: Development work on a modernized version, the A-50U, began in 2003; state tests started on 10 September 2008, using a Russian Air Force A-50 "37 Krasnyy" as a prototype. It replaces analog avionics with a new digital avionics suite, made by Vega Radio Engineering Corporation, that speeds data processing and improves signal tracking and target detection. Crew rest, toilet and galley facilities are also included in the upgrade.


title: Beriev A-50

text: After completing the joint state tests, Beriev has delivered the first A-50U to the Russian Air Force. The aircraft, "47 Krasnyy'"RF-92957, was handed over at Beriev's facility in Taganrog on 31 October 2011. It was accepted by an aircrew serving with the 2457th Aviation Base for Combat Operation of Airborne Early Warning Aircraft (Aviabaza Boevogo Primeneniya Samolyotov Dal'nego Radiolokatsionnogo Obnaruzheniya) at Ivanovo Severny, which is the only base using the A-50 operationally (it operates 16 aircraft). The fourth A-50U, "41 Taganrog", was delivered to the Russian Aerospace Forces on 7 March 2017. The fifth A-50U, "45 Krasnyy", was delivered on 6 December 2018. 7 aircraft have been delivered as of December 2021.


title: Beriev A-50

text: The A-50U upgrade forms the basis of the concept for Beriev A-100 AEW&C. Its configuration will be similar, but with a new Vega "Premier" active electronically scanned array radar.


title: Beriev A-50

text: In late December 2015, the A-50 started operations over Syria, flying from Russia, to support Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War. In December 2018, it was deployed to Crimea.


title: Injera

text: Injera (, ; ; ) is a sour fermented pancake-like flatbread with a slightly spongy texture, traditionally made of teff flour. In Ethiopia, Eritrea, and some parts of Sudan, injera is the staple. Injera is central to the dining process, like bread or rice elsewhere.


title: Injera

text: Traditionally, injera is made with just two ingredients – teff flour and water. Teff flour is ground from the grains of "Eragrostis tef", also known as teff, an ancient cereal crop from the Ethiopian Highlands. Teff production is limited to certain middle elevations with adequate rainfall, and, as it is a low-yield crop, it is relatively expensive for the average farming household. As many farmers in the Ethiopian highlands grow their own subsistence grains, wheat, barley, corn, or rice flour are sometimes used to replace some or all of the teff content. Teff seeds are graded according to color, used to make different kinds of injera: "nech" (white), "key" or "quey" (red), and "sergegna" (mixed). When teff is not available, usually because of location or financial limitations, injera is made by fermenting a variety of different grains, including barley, millet, and sorghum. Teff is, however, the preferred grain for making injera, primarily because of its sensory attributes (color, smell, taste). Teff flour is gluten-free.


title: Injera

text: To make injera, teff flour is mixed with water. The fermentation process is started by adding ersho, a clear, yellow liquid that accumulates on the surface of fermenting teff flour batter and is collected from previous fermentations. Ersho contains (aerobic) "Bacillus" species and several yeasts (in order of abundance): "Candida milleri", "Rhodotorula mucilaginosa", "Kluyveromyces marxianus", "Pichia naganishii" and "Debaromyces hansenii". The mixture is then allowed to ferment for an average of two to three days, giving it a mildly sour taste.


title: Injera

text: The baking method for injera has changed little since its origin. Traditionally, the flour is mixed with water and fermented. It is baked by pouring the mixture onto a large circular griddle, known as a "mitad."


title: Injera

text: The injera is baked into large, flat and round pieces. The dough's viscosity allows it to be poured onto the baking surface, rather than rolled out, which is unusual for a yeast or sourdough bread.


title: Injera

text: In terms of shape, injera compares to the French "crêpe" and the Indian "dosa" as a flatbread cooked in a circle and used as a base for other foods. In taste and texture, it is more similar to the South Indian "appam". The bottom surface of the injera, which touches the heating surface, has a relatively smooth texture, while the top is porous. This porous texture makes injera good for scooping up sauces and dishes.


title: Injera

text: Baking is done on a circular griddle—either a large black clay plate over a fire or a specialized electric stove. The griddle is known as a () (in Amharic) or () (in Tigrinya). "Mitads" have been found at archaeological sites dating back as far as 600 AD. Nowadays, "mitads" are no longer always made out of clay, and can also be electric.


title: Injera

text: Traditional clay stoves can be inefficient in that they consume large amounts of firewood and produce a lot of smoke, creating household pollution and making them dangerous to use around children. In 2003, an Eritrean research group designed a stove for cooking injera and other foods that uses more easily available fuel, such as twigs instead of large branches, crop residues and dung, locally called "kubet". Several parts of this new stove are made in the central cities of Ethiopia and Eritrea, while other parts are moulded from clay by women in local areas.


title: Injera

text: Many women in urban areas—especially those living outside Ethiopia and Eritrea—now use electric injera stoves, which are topped with a large metal plate, or simply non-stick frying pans.


title: Injera

text: In Ethiopia and Eritrea, a variety of stews, salads (during Ethiopian Orthodox fasting, for which believers abstain from most animal products), and more injera (called "injera firfir") are placed on the injera for serving. Using one's hand (traditionally only the right one), small pieces of injera are torn and used to grasp the stews and salads for eating. The injera under these stews soaks up the juices and flavors of the foods, and after the stews and salads are gone, this bread is also consumed. Injera is thus simultaneously a food, eating utensil, and plate. When the entire "tablecloth" of injera is gone, the meal is over.


title: Injera

text: In Ethiopia and Eritrea, injera is eaten daily in virtually every household. Outside of Ethiopia and Eritrea, injera may be found in grocery stores and restaurants specializing in Ethiopian and Eritrean cooking.


title: Injera

text: Injera is the most important component of food in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is often both the serving platter and utensil for a meal. Hearty stews such as "wat" are placed on top of the bread and then the meal is eaten by tearing pieces of injera off and scooping up the stews. While injera's literal use as the base and staple of any Ethiopian and Eritrean meal has not changed since its creation, its symbolic value has changed. Different varieties of injera can be found in the highlands versus the lowlands of Ethiopia. In the lowlands, injera is often made with sorghum and in the highlands it is more commonly made with barley. Either way, because it is made with something other than teff, its symbolic value has already decreased compared to the symbolic value of injera made with teff. There are symbolic value differences with types of teff as well. White-grained teff is more expensive to buy and thus symbolizes a higher status than its cheaper counterpart, red-grained teff.


title: Injera

text: There are similar variants to injera in other African countries, namely Sudan and Chad. The variant eaten in South Sudan, Sudan and Chad is known as "kisra".


title: Injera

text: Injera became more common in the United States during a spike in Ethiopian immigration in the 1980s and 1990s, largely because of the Refugee Act passed in 1980. Teff flour is now being produced in the United States by the Teff Company in Idaho, making teff more accessible to expatriate Ethiopians.


title: Form W-9

text: Form W-9 (officially, the "Request for Taxpayer Identification Number and Certification") is used in the United States income tax system by a third party who must file an information return with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). It requests the name, address, and taxpayer identification information of a taxpayer (in the form of a Social Security Number or Employer Identification Number).


title: Form W-9

text: The form is never actually sent to the IRS; it is maintained by the individual who files the information return for verification purposes. The information on the Form W-9 and the payment made are reported on a Form 1099.


title: Form W-9

text: Form W-9 is most commonly used in a business–contractor arrangement. Businesses can use Form W-9 to request information from contractors they hire. When a business pays a contractor in excess of $600 during a tax year, the business is required to file Form 1099-MISC, a variant of Form 1099. To fill out Form 1099-MISC, the business may need to request information (such as address and Tax Identification Number) from the contractor, for which Form W-9 is used. The business does not send Form W-9 to the IRS.


title: Form W-9

text: Another purpose of Form W-9 is to help the payee avoid backup withholding. The payer must collect withholding taxes on certain reportable payments for the IRS. However, if the payee certifies on the W-9 they are not subject to backup withholding they generally receive the full payment due them from the payer. This is similar to the withholding exemptions certifications found on Form W-4 for employees.


title: Form W-9

text: Financial institutions sometimes send Form W-9 to a customer to request information. However, it is not necessarily required for the customer to fill out the form if the institution already has the requested information from when the customer opened an account.


title: Form W-9

text: In an employer–employee arrangement, Form W-9 and Form 1099 should not be used. Instead, the corresponding Form W-4 (to provide information) and Form W-2 (to report amount paid) should be filed instead.


title: Form W-9

text: However an employer may still send Form W-9 to have the information on record that the payee doesn't need to be sent Form 1099.


title: Form W-9

text: Form W-9 can be completed on paper or electronically. For electronic filing, there are several requirements. Namely, a requester who establishes an electronic filing system must ensure that the electronic system provides the same information as on a paper Form W-9, that a hard copy can be supplied to the IRS on demand, that "the information received is the information sent and […] all occasions of user access that result in the submission [are documented]", that the person accessing the system and providing the information is the individual identified on the form, and that an electronic signature is used.


title: Form W-9

text: Some certified public accountants consider it best practice to ensure the completion of Form W-9 by payees before issuing any payments.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Chaz Bear (born Chazwick Bradley Bundick; November 7, 1986), known professionally as Toro y Moi, is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and graphic designer. He is often recognized as a spearhead of the chillwave genre in the 2010s, alongside contemporaries Washed Out and Neon Indian, although his music has explored various styles since. His stage name is a multilingual expression consisting of the Spanish words "toro" and "y" (meaning "bull" and "and", respectively) and the French word "moi" (meaning "me").


title: Toro y Moi

text: Chaz Bear was born on November 7, 1986, in Columbia, South Carolina, to a Filipino mother and an African American father. He attended Ridge View High School, where he formed the indie rock band the Heist and the Accomplice with three schoolmates.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear graduated from the University of South Carolina in spring of 2009 with a bachelor's degree in graphic design. Late in his school career, Toro y Moi formed a close musical relationship with fellow chillwave artist Ernest Greene, who performs under the name Washed Out.


title: Toro y Moi

text: In mid-2009, Bear was signed to Carpark Records, on which he released his debut Toro y Moi full-length album, "Causers of This", in January 2010. On "Causers of This", Bear experimented with sampling and production techniques using the digital audio workstation Reason. The album garnered comparisons to the "chillwave" subgenre; however, Bear stated that he never classified his music as such. Bear refers to the album's subject matter as "personal," calling it a "break-up album." Tours supporting Ruby Suns, Caribou, and Phoenix followed the album's release.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear's second album, "Underneath the Pine", was released on February 22, 2011. The album was recorded at Bear's home between tours while supporting "Causers of This". "Underneath the Pine" marked a stylistic departure from the previous album in that it was made up of all live instrumentation and contained no samples. Bear cites horror movie soundtracks, space disco, and film composers Piero Umiliani and François de Roubaix as inspiration for the album's sound. Further, Bear states that "...what influenced "Underneath the Pine" was finding stuff that I wanted to sample for "Causers". A lot of the things I sampled for "Causers" ended up being the main musical inspiration for "Underneath the Pine.""


title: Toro y Moi

text: In an interview with the website At the Sinema, he suggested that he had moved beyond the chillwave genre: "All that stuff is really good music, like Ernest Green (Washed Out) and Neon Indian. I'm a big fan of all of that, but I think [chillwave] was just a small little period where we all were, coincidentally."


title: Toro y Moi

text: On September 13, 2011, Toro y Moi released an EP titled "Freaking Out", featuring a cover of "Saturday Love" by Cherrelle and Alexander O'Neal. The EP's sound was heavily influenced by 80's Boogie and R&B.


title: Toro y Moi

text: The band was chosen by Caribou to perform at the ATP Nightmare Before Christmas festival that they co-curated in December 2011 in Minehead, England.


title: Toro y Moi

text: In January 2013, Bear released his third Toro y Moi studio album, "Anything in Return", which he described as having a '90s dance and R&B sound. According to him, the album was "influenced by lots of different types of house, from deep house to two-step [...] The chords ['Harm in Change' and 'Say That'] use—that's just something I've been a fan of for a while. I really wanted to mess around with those kinds of elements and revisit what I did on "Causers of This", but make those elements a little bit better and more apparent." The album was called "highly indebted to the late sacrosanct hip-hop producer J Dilla" by the "San Francisco Bay Guardian". Bear stated that he wanted to combine the electronic production of his first record with the elements of traditional instrumentation of his second album.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear released "What For?", his fourth studio album as Toro y Moi, on April 7, 2015, on Carpark Records. The album marked a further departure in sound from previous releases with a guitar-based rock sound, drawing inspiration from artists such as Big Star, Talking Heads, Todd Rundgren, Tim Maia, and Cortex.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Later that year, Bear released the hip hop–influenced mixtape "Samantha" via a Dropbox link. The free, 20-track mixtape features collaborations with Washed Out, Rome Fortune and Nosaj Thing, among others.


title: Toro y Moi

text: In April 2016, Bear traveled with his touring band to the Mojave Desert to film a live concert film and album. The concert, which had no audience, was filmed in a single day among the Trona Pinnacles. The band added Bay Area multi-instrumentalist Brijean Murphy on congas, and were joined by The Mattson 2 to play the song "JBS". Bear shared with "The Fader" that the film was inspired by Pink Floyd's "Live At Pompeii", which featured a live performance without an audience.


title: Toro y Moi

text: The film, directed by Harry Israelson, premiered online in August 2016. The live recording was released as a double LP by Carpark Records in August as well.


title: Toro y Moi

text: The studio album follow up to "What For?", "Boo Boo", was released on July 7, 2017, by Carpark Records. In creating "Boo Boo", Bear was influenced by an eclectic mix of Daft Punk, Frank Ocean, Travis Scott, and Oneohtrix Point Never. "Boo Boo" moved back towards a more R&B, electronic sound, diverging from the live instrumentation of "What For?".


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear released the sixth Toro y Moi album, "Outer Peace", on January 18, 2019, on Carpark Records. "Outer Peace" is arguably the most pop-influenced Toro y Moi album to date. Tracks like "Ordinary Pleasure" and "Freelance" showcase the continued funk, disco, and house influence that is woven through the entire Toro y Moi discography. On First Listen with NPR in January 2019, Bear explained a bit about the album title, stating that "usually the peace is within, so to have peace on the outside is the challenge. I kind of just wanted to call that out."


title: Toro y Moi

text: A week after the release of "Outer Peace" and while on tour supporting the album, Bear shared a Dropbox link to a cassette bounce of his newest mixtape, "Soul Trash". In October 2019, an updated version of "Soul Trash" was released on streaming platforms. The official release was accompanied by a psychedelic short film directed by Bay Area artist Laneya Billingsley.


title: Toro y Moi

text: In late 2019, Bear started working with Flume on the drum and bass-inspired track "The Difference", which was released on March 11, 2020. The song was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording for 2020.


title: Toro y Moi

text: In October 2021, Bear announced that he had signed with Dead Oceans to release the next Toro y Moi album in progress.


title: Toro y Moi

text: On January 26, 2022, Bear announced his seventh studio album as Toro y Moi, "Mahal", alongside the release of its first two singles, "Postman" and "Magazine". Two more singles "The Loop" and "Déjà Vu" were released on February 22 and March 31 that year, respectively. The album was released on April 29 via Dead Oceans.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear DJs and makes electronic dance music under the moniker Les Sins. As Les Sins, Bear has put out a series of 12" records on Carpark Records and Jiaolong Records. Bear stated that Les Sins "was just another way to make weirder music without having to feel I'm alienating Toro y Moi [fans]. So it's kind of nice to do whatever kind of song I want to do without having to worry about it being accessible." Les Sins's debut full-length album, "Michael", was released on November 4, 2014, on Bear's own Company Records (now called Company Studio). The next Les Sins release was a split EP with New York house music producer AceMo called "C'mon Les' Go", released on August 27, 2020, by Company Studio.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear produces and performs ambient music as Plum. The first Plum release was a self-titled single-track tape that came out on Leaving Records on September 28, 2016. The next Plum release was a full-length called "StreetView" released on Company Studio on October 24, 2020. StreetView's release was accompanied by the debut of an immersive website, plum.link, that paired streaming of the album with drone footage and effects that enhanced the experience of the music.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear released a collaborative album, "Star Stuff", with The Mattson 2, a jazz duo from California. "Star Stuff" was released on Company Records on March 31, 2017, and subsequently reached #1 on the contemporary jazz Billboard Charts. While touring together in support of "Star Stuff", Bear and the Mattson 2 performed their collaborative album alongside existing songs from Toro y Moi's catalog.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Alongside his music career, Bear also maintains a visual art and design practice. In 2016, Bear founded Company Studio as a framework and vehicle for his visual endeavors. Company Studio works across various disciplines including graphic design, art direction, fine art, murals and installations, event production, and video production.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear's fine art is primarily centered around painting, but also includes drawing, collage, and sculpture. Bear has had solo shows in at New Image Art (Los Angeles), FISK Projects (Portland), and Gallery Commune (Tokyo).


title: Toro y Moi

text: Company Studio is also the name of Bear's record label, an imprint under Carpark Records, on which he releases his own side projects as well as records by selected artists that he has produced.


title: Toro y Moi

text: Bear lives and works in the San Francisco Bay Area, where he moved after leaving South Carolina. On June 27, 2017, the city of Berkeley, California officially declared June 27 to be 'Chaz Bundick Day'. This public recognition of Bear's contribution to music and the arts was presented by Jesse Arreguin, Mayor of Berkeley.


title: Jeen-Yuhs

text: jeen-yuhs: A Kanye Trilogy (or jeen-yuhs) is a 2022 American documentary film directed by Coodie & Chike about the life of American rapper, record producer, and fashion designer Kanye West and, to a lesser extent, Coodie Simmons.


title: Jeen-Yuhs

text: It received a nomination for Best Music Documentary at the 2022 MTV Movie & TV Awards and Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series at the 74th Primetime Emmy Awards.


title: Jeen-Yuhs

text: On May 6, 2021, it was announced that Netflix had acquired a documentary about Kanye West with unreleased archival footage from the prior two decades, including his career in music and fashion, the death of his mother, Donda West, and his unsuccessful 2020 presidential campaign.


title: Jeen-Yuhs

text: "Variety" reported Netflix acquired the documentary for around US$30 million. On September 25, 2021, Netflix revealed that the documentary would be titled "Jeen-Yuhs" and released in 2022.


title: Jeen-Yuhs

text: Divided into three acts, its first episode, "VISION", premiered at the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2022. It also had a limited theatrical release for one night only on February 10, 2022, the eighteenth anniversary of West's debut album "The College Dropout" (2004). "VISION" premiered on Netflix on February 16, 2022, and the following episodes, "PURPOSE" and "AWAKENING", released in weekly intervals, on February 23 and March 2, 2022, respectively.


title: Jeen-Yuhs

text: "Jeen-Yuhs" was met with positive reception from critics. It holds a positive 82% critic score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 60 critics, and a "generally favorable" weighted mean score of 71 on Metacritic based on 24 critic reviews. Various musical acts took to Twitter to give favorable thoughts about the documentary, including Juicy J, J. Cole, Key Glock, Noname, Russ, SZA, Wale, among others. The attention from the documentary caused West's debut album to re-chart on the Billboard 200, reaching as far up as #18.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The prime minister of Spain, officially president of the Government (), is the head of government of Spain. The office was established in its current form by the Constitution of 1978 and it was first regulated in 1823 as a chairmanship of the extant Council of Ministers, although it is not possible to determine when it actually originated.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Upon a vacancy, the Spanish monarch nominates a presidency candidate for a vote of confidence by the Congress of Deputies, the lower house of the Cortes Generales (parliament). The process is a parliamentarian investiture by which the head of government is indirectly elected by the elected Congress of Deputies. In practice, the prime minister is almost always the leader of the largest party in the Congress. Since current constitutional practice in Spain calls for the king to act on the advice of his ministers, the prime minister is the country's "de facto" chief executive.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Pedro Sánchez of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) has been Prime Minister since 2 June 2018, after a successful motion of no confidence against former prime minister Mariano Rajoy. The Sánchez government technically ceased on 29 April 2019 after the 2019 Spanish general election, but was acting afterwards. However, following the November 2019 general election, Sánchez earned a second mandate as Prime Minister after receiving a plurality of votes in the second round vote of his investiture at the Congress of Deputies on 7 January 2020. He then resumed being the official prime minister after he was sworn in by King Felipe on 8 January 2020. His new government was then sworn in by King Felipe on 13 January 2020.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The Spanish head of government has, since 1938, been known in Spanish as the – literally ""President of the Government"", but the term 'president' is far older. Spain was not unique in this regard: it was one of several European parliamentary systems including France, Italy and Ireland that styled the head of government as 'presidents' of the government rather than the Westminster term of 'prime minister' (see President of the Council for the full list of corresponding terms); similarly, the president of the Congress or Senate referred to the parliamentary speakers. This system of multiple distinct offices all labelled 'president' causes confusion among English-speakers: both President George W. Bush and his brother, Florida governor Jeb Bush, referred to José María Aznar as "president" on separate occasions, and Donald Trump referred to Mariano Rajoy both as "President" and "Mr. President" during Rajoy's 2017 White House visit. While this term of address was not incorrect, it could be culturally misleading to or for English-speakers, so that "prime minister" is often used as an inexact but culturally equivalent term to ensure clarity.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The custom to name the head of government as "president" dates back to the reign of Isabella II, specifically to 1834 and the regency of Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies when, styled after the head of government of the French July Monarchy (1830), the official title was the ("President of the Council of Ministers"). This remained until 1939, when the Second Spanish Republic ended. Before 1834 the figure was known as ("Secretary of State"), a denomination used today for junior ministers.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Since the 15th century, the Spanish monarch has delegated his executive powers in relevant personalities. Two are the most important: the validos and the secretaries of state. The "validos", which existed since early 15th century to the late 17th century were people of the highest confidence of the kings and they exercised the Crown's power in the King's name. Since the 18th century, the "validos" disappeared and the secretaries of state were introduced. Both positions were a "de facto" prime ministers, although they can not be completely compared.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: On 19 November 1823, after a brief liberal democratic period called the Liberal Triennium between 1820 and 1823, King Ferdinand VII re-established the absolute monarchy and created the Council of Ministers that continues to exist today. This Council was chaired by the Secretary of State, who acted as Prime Minister. The Spanish Royal Statute of 1834 replaced the chair with a President of the Council of Ministers invested with executive powers.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: During the nineteenth century, the position changed names frequently. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868, it was renamed "President of the Provisional Revolutionary Joint" and later "President of the Provisional Government". In 1869, the office resumed the name of "President of the Council of Ministers". Following the abdication of King Amadeus I, during the First Republic the office was the "President of the Executive Power" and was head of state. In 1874, the office name reverted to "President of the Council of Ministers".


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Since its inception, the Prime Minister has been appointed and dismissed by the will of the monarch. Successive constitutions have confirmed this royal prerogative of the monarch in the Constitution of 1837 (article 47), article 46 of the Constitution of 1845, the Constitution of 1869 (article 68), and the Constitution of 1876 (article 54).


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: With the fall of the republic and the restoration of the Bourbon Dynasty on King Alfonso XII, the office maintained its original name until the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, when it was renamed to "President of the Military Directory". In 1925, the original name was restored again.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: During the Second Republic the title was the same but when the Civil War started, the head of government among the Nationalists was called "Chief of the Government of the State" and since January 1938 the office acquired the current name, "President of the Government," but between that date and 1973 the office was held by Francisco Franco as dictator of Spain.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The Republican Constitution of 1931 provided for the Prime Minister and the rest of the government to be appointed and dismissed by the President of the Republic but they were responsible before the Parliament and the Parliament could vote to dismiss the Prime Minister or a minister even against the will of the President of the Republic.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: In 1973, Franco separated the Head of the State from the Head of the Government and that division still exists today, with the Prime Minister democratically elected by a Parliament which is itself elected by universal suffrage, free and equal.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Once a general election has been announced by the king, political parties designate their candidates to stand for Prime Minister —usually the party leader. A Prime Minister is dismissed from office the day after the election, but remains in office as a caretaker until his/her successor is sworn in.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Following every general election to the "Cortes Generales", and other circumstances provided for in the constitution, the king meets with and interviews the leaders of the parties represented in the Congress of Deputies, and then consults with the Speaker of the Congress of Deputies (officially, "Presidente de Congreso de los Diputados", who, in this instance, represents the "whole" of the Cortes Generales and was himself elected from within the Congress to be the Speaker) before nominating a candidate for the presidency. This process is spelled out in Section 99 of Title IV. Often minor parties form part of a larger major party, and through that membership it can be said that the king fulfills his constitutional mandate of consulting with party representatives with Congressional representation.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Under the Spanish Constitution of 1978, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet are responsible to the Congress of Deputies. Due to the need for the Prime Minister to command the confidence of the Congress, the monarch must nominate a candidate for the office after consulting the political groups with parliamentary representation. For this reason, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the Congress. For the Crown to nominate the political leader whose party controls the Congress can be seen as a royal endorsement of the democratic process— a fundamental concept enshrined in the 1978 Constitution.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: By political custom established by Juan Carlos I since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have usually been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress. However, there is no legal requirement for this. The largest party can end up not ruling if rival parties gather into a majority, forming a coalition—as happened in 2018 with the election of PSOE leader Sánchez. As political activity in Spain has effectively coalesced into a two-party system between the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party and the People's Party, the two major parties usually adopt some aspects of the minor party platforms in an effort to attract them into parliamentary pacts to edge out their rival party if no party is able to command an absolute majority of the Congress by themselves.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The monarch's order nominating a Prime Ministerial candidate is countersigned by the Speaker of the Congress, who then presents the nominee before the Congress of Deputies in a process known as a "Congressional Investiture" ("Investidura parlamentaria"). During the Investiture proceedings the nominee presents his political agenda in an "Investiture Speech" to be debated and submitted for a vote of confidence ("Cuestión de confianza") by the Congress, effecting an indirect election of the head of government. A simple majority confirms the nominee and his program. At the moment of the vote, the confidence is awarded if the candidate receives a majority of votes in the first poll (currently 176 out of 350 MPs), but if the confidence is not awarded, a second vote is scheduled two days later in which a simple majority of votes cast (i.e., more "yes" than "no" votes) is required.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: After the nominee is confirmed, the Speaker of the Congress formally reports to the king of the congressional confirmation. The king then appoints the candidate as the new Prime Minister. The king's order of appointment is countersigned by the Speaker. During the swearing-in ceremony presided over by the king, customarily at the "Salón de Audiencias" in the Zarzuela Palace, the Prime Minister-elect of the Government takes an oath of office over an open Constitution and – at choice – next to a Bible and a crucifix. The prime minister must take the oath or affirmation placing the right hand on the Constitution. Currently, only one prime minister has refused to take the oath of office next to the Bible: Pedro Sánchez, along with most of his Cabinet members. His predecessor Mariano Rajoy, catholic, put his right hand on the Constitution and, at the same time, his left hand on the Bible. As per tradition, if the members of the government choose not to take the oath along with any religious symbols, they use the word "prometo" ("I promise"), whereas if the take the oath with the Bible, they use the word "juro" ("I swear"). The oath as taken by Prime Minister Zapatero on his first term in office on 17 April 2004 was:


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: In 2008, from the time the king nominated José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero for a second term as Prime Minister immediately following the 2008 general election, almost a month passed before Zapatero was able to present his Investiture Speech before the Congress and stand for a Vote of Confidence. If no overall majority was obtained on the first Vote of the Confidence, then the same nominee and program is resubmitted for a second vote within forty-eight hours. Following the second vote, if confidence by the Congress is still not reached, then the monarch again meets with political leaders and the Speaker, and submits a new nominee for a vote of confidence. If, within two months, no candidate has won the confidence of the Congress then the King dissolves the Cortes and calls for a new general election. The King's royal decree is countersigned by the Speaker of the Congress.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Once appointed, the Prime Minister forms his government whose ministers are appointed and removed by the King on the Prime Minister's advice. In the political life of Spain, the king would already be familiar with the various political leaders in a professional capacity, and perhaps less formally in a more social capacity, facilitating their meeting following a general election. Conversely, nominating the party leader whose party maintains a plurality and who are already familiar with their party manifesto facilitates a smoother nomination process. In the event of coalitions, the political leaders would customarily have met beforehand to hammer out a coalition agreement before their meeting with the King.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Government and the Cortes sit for a term no longer than four years when the Prime Minister tenders his resignation to the king and advises the king to dissolve the Cortes, prompting a general election. It remains within the king's prerogative to dissolve the Cortes if, at the conclusion of the four years, the Prime Minister has not asked for its dissolution, according to Title II Section 56. The king may call for earlier elections on the advice of the Prime Minister, known as a snap election, but no sooner than a year after the prior general election. Additionally, if the Government loses the confidence of the Cortes, then it must resign.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: If a Prime Minister resigns without advising the monarch to call for new elections, dies or becomes incapacitated while in office, then the government as a whole resigns and the process of royal nomination and appointment takes place. The deputy Prime Minister, or in the absence of such office the first minister by precedence, would then take over the day-to-day operations in the meantime as acting-prime minister, even while the deputy Prime Minister themselves may be nominated by the King and stand for a vote of confidence.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The Prime Minister's position is strengthened by constitutional limits on the Congress' right to withdraw confidence from the government. Following the German model, a Prime Minister can only be removed by a constructive vote of no confidence. While the Congress can censure the government at any time, the censure motion must also include the name of a prospective replacement for the incumbent Prime Minister. If the censure motion is successful, the replacement candidate is automatically deemed to have the confidence of the Congress, and the monarch is required to appoint him as the new Prime Minister.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Title IV of the Constitution defines the government and its responsibilities. The government consists of the President of the Government and ministers of state. The government conducts domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration, and the defense of the nation all in the name of the king on behalf of the people. Additionally, the government exercises executive authority and statutory regulations.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: There is no provision in the Spanish Constitution for explicitly granting any emergency powers to the government, which could be understood as exorcising the ghost of the recent dictatorship in Spain. However, Title II, Sections 56 of the constitution vests the monarch as the "arbitrator and moderator of the institutions" of government, "[The King] arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions" ("arbitra y modera el funcionamiento regular de las instituciones"). This provision could be understood as allowing the king or his government ministers to exercise emergency authority in times of national crisis, such as when the king used his authority to back the government of the day and call for the military to abandon the 23-F coup attempt in 1981.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Adolfo Suárez was the first democratically elected Prime Minister of the post-Franco government, the 149th Spanish Prime Minister since 1834. He was appointed by King Juan Carlos on 3 July 1976. In the 1977 Spanish general election his position as Prime Minister was confirmed by a vote.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: Peerages in Spain are created by the Grace of the King, according to the Spanish Ministry of Justice, and are the highest marks of distinction that he may bestow in his capacity as the "fons honorum" in Spain. Conventionally, the "Title of Concession" creating the dignity must be countersigned by a government minister. When a title is created for a former president, the succeeding president customarily countersigns the royal decree. As a reward for national service, the king awarded peerages to two of his former presidents who have since retired from active politics: Adolfo Suárez was created 1st Duke of Suárez; and Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo was created 1st . Additional titles of nobility have been created by the king for other government ministers, usually at the advice of the president of the government.


title: Prime Minister of Spain

text: The most recent Prime Minister to die was Adolfo Suárez (served 1976–1981) on 23 March 2014, aged 81.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Ricardo Alberto Silveira de Carvalho (; born 18 May 1978) is a Portuguese former professional footballer who played as a centre-back.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho began his career at Porto, where he had loan spells at Leça, Vitória de Setúbal and Alverca, before winning domestic and European trophies under José Mourinho's management. In July 2004, Carvalho transferred to Chelsea for a fee of just under €30 million. With the Blues, he won two Premier League titles in a row and one League Cup, in his first two seasons. In 2008, he was voted the team's Players' Player of the Year. Two years later, he helped Chelsea win the league and FA Cup, the first Double in the club's history. In August 2010, after six years with Chelsea, he transferred to Real Madrid for a fee of £6.7 million, winning two domestic honours under Mourinho's management before a free transfer to Monaco in 2013.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: In international football, Carvalho's national team career began on 11 October 2003 in a friendly match against Albania. He represented Portugal in three UEFA European Championships and two FIFA World Cups, and was a member of the team that won UEFA Euro 2016. He was a regular in Portugal's lineup during Euro 2004, when his country advanced all the way to the final before losing to Greece. At the 2006 World Cup, he played in six matches for Portugal, who finished fourth after reaching the semi-finals.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Ricardo Carvalho was brought to the Porto junior team in the 1996–97 season. In the oncoming season, Carvalho made his professional debut when he signed on loan for Leça. Between 1999 and 2001, he had loan spells at Vitória de Setúbal and FC Alverca. He returned to Porto in the 2001–02 season, being third choice behind Jorge Costa and Jorge Andrade, but he quickly won a place in the starting XI, forming a terrific partnership with Andrade in the centre of defence, which brought disappointment to captain Jorge Costa who, in April 2002, joined Charlton Athletic on a five-month loan spell. Carvalho made 25 appearances in the Portuguese league that season. In the following season, Jorge Costa returned to Porto and Jorge Andrade moved to Deportivo de La Coruña in Spain. With José Mourinho in charge, Carvalho started the campaign as the third option behind Costa and Pedro Emanuel, but later, his excellent form led him to a place in the first team, appearing in the most important games of the season, including the UEFA cup semi-finals matches against Lazio and the UEFA Cup final where Porto beat Celtic 3–2 in extra time. It was Carvalho's first international trophy. By his great season, he was named Portuguese League Footballer of the Year and Porto Footballer of the Year.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: It was in the 2003–04 season that Carvalho made his name as a world-class footballer. His solid performances helped the club win the Portuguese league title for the second year in a row, and the most prestigious club trophy in European football, the UEFA Champions League. In this tournament, Carvalho played in all of Porto's matches, including the 3–0 win against Monaco in the final. Subsequently, his great performances merited the UEFA Club Best Defender of the Year award, voted into the UEFA Team of the Year, and was named one of the 50 players shortlisted for the 2004 Ballon d'Or), finishing ninth in the voting, being the only defender in top ten. He was selected for the Portuguese UEFA Euro 2004 squad, in which tournament he was also nominated for the UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament. At the end of the season, Carvalho has been tracked by a host of top European clubs, including Internazionale, Barcelona, Real Madrid and Manchester United. Real Madrid offered €8.2 (£7) million for Carvalho, but Porto warned the Spaniards they would not accept anything less than €23.5 (£20) million for the defender after the Spanish team made a much lower offer. Days later, English club Chelsea offered €30 (£25.5) million for the centre back, which the Portuguese team accepted.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: At Stamford Bridge, Carvalho, who was considered one of the best centre-backs at Euro 2004, joined his former manager José Mourinho and former teammate Paulo Ferreira on a three-year contract. He signed for a fee of €30 million (£20 million at the time) and performed extremely well in his first season with Chelsea, helping them win the Premier League title, their first top-flight domestic title in 50 years, and the League Cup. He scored his first goal for Chelsea in a 3–1 victory over Norwich City. His partnership with captain John Terry in central defence was hailed as a major factor behind Chelsea's two Premier League titles in a row.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: The start of 2005–06 season was not as smooth for him, as he was publicly lambasted by Mourinho after making comments about his selection policy. Carvalho said the Chelsea manager's decision to drop him for the first game of the season was "incomprehensible", but Mourinho responded, "Carvalho seems to have problems understanding things, maybe he should have an IQ test," and then left him out for next game, against Arsenal, and fined him a reported £85,000. He later returned to favour, though, and was a near-regular in the side from September. On 19 October 2005, he scored his first goal of the season in a 4–0 home win against Real Betis in the UEFA Champions League group stage. Carvalho continued his scoring run in Europe by netting his second goal of the season in Chelsea's 2–0 away victory over Anderlecht on 23 November. In January, in a 1–1 Premier League draw against Charlton Athletic, Carvalho received the first red card of his Chelsea career, after he received his second yellow for what the referee judged to be a tackle from behind on Charlton striker Darren Bent. Later, on 29 April 2006, he scored again a goal, his third of the season, in a 3–0 Premier League victory over Manchester United, finishing off a move he had started on the edge of his own penalty area by smashing the ball into the net, to help Chelsea clinch the title for the second consecutive year.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: In the 2006–07 season, Carvalho scored again against Manchester United an important goal in a 1–1 draw – a header from a Frank Lampard corner that also bounced off Louis Saha's head. On 7 April, he scored another goal against Tottenham Hotspur, firing a low, 30-yard drive past the reach of Spurs goalkeeper Paul Robinson; as a result Chelsea narrowed the gap on Premier League leaders Manchester United to three points. Just 21 days later, on 28 April, Carvalho injured the medial ligaments of his right leg in a Premier League match against Bolton Wanderers. The injury meant Carvalho missed the second leg of the Champions League semi-final against Liverpool. He also missed the FA Cup final against Manchester United, which Chelsea won after a goal from Didier Drogba during extra time. On 18 May 2007, the day of his 29th birthday, Carvalho signed a five-year contract extension with Chelsea, keeping him at the club through the 2011–12 season. For his great performances during the 2006–07 season, Carvalho has been recognized by a number of organisations. Sky Sports listed him as one of seven candidates for the Premiership's "Defender of the Year". He was also one of three Chelsea players nominated for the club's "Player of the Year" honour, which was ultimately won by Michael Essien.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho continued his excellent form into the 2007–08 season. Following the departure of manager José Mourinho, the Spanish champions, Real Madrid, have once again expressed their interest in Carvalho. A Madrid source said, "We have never been able to get Carvalho because of his connection with Mourinho. Now he has left Chelsea, we feel there's a real chance." But the Portuguese did not leave the English club. On 26 December 2007, in a 4–4 home draw against Aston Villa, on the 79th minute, the home side were outmanoeuvred in the middle of the field leaving only goalkeeper Petr Čech and Carvalho between Villa's striker, Gabriel Agbonlahor, and the goal, Carvalho attempted the block, went in two-footed and was red carded for the foul, in the same night, he issued a public apology for his horror tackle on the forward. In that season, Carvalho was one of the most consistent performers at the club and his efforts were rewarded when he scored his first goal of the season in his 150th appearance for the club, a 1–0 Premier League victory over Middlesbrough. Later, on 26 April, Carvalho made his 100th appearance in the Premier League against Manchester United, despite Chelsea's 2–1 win, he marred his centenary mark with an error that allowed Wayne Rooney to equalise. His solid performances in the Champions League helped the club reach the final, Chelsea's first ever Champions League final appearance and Carvalho's second. "The Blues", however, lost 6–5 on penalties against Manchester United after a 1–1 draw following extra time. Carvalho played in all 120 minutes and he was booked one time for a high challenge on Cristiano Ronaldo right before the end of first half. On 8 May 2008, Carvalho was voted by his fellow Chelsea colleagues as Chelsea's "Players Player of the Year", while finishing in the top three for Chelsea's "Player of the Year" award voted by Chelsea fans, along with Michael Ballack and Joe Cole.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho opened his account for the 2008–09 season against Manchester City in a 1–3 away victory, on 13 September 2008. He was a somewhat peripheral figure for the rest of the season, as injury, the sacking of Luiz Felipe Scolari, and subsequent appointment of Guus Hiddink meant that he lost his place in the team to Brazilian teammate Alex. He clocked up only 18 appearances in all competitions, two as substitute, scoring one goal.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: In July 2009, Carvalho told Chelsea he wanted to quit the club to join Internazionale. He said, "I have had four extraordinary years at Chelsea until this year, which has not been very good - indeed it was the worst of my career." He played only 18 times in that season at Chelsea. But a move to Inter to link up with Mourinho collapsed when the Italian club wanted to sign him as a free transfer.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: The appointment of Carlo Ancelotti, coupled with recovery from injury, saw Carvalho regain his place in the Chelsea team. He made a fine start to the 2009–10 season, scoring a diving header in the 2009 FA Community Shield match against Manchester United, a game in which he also received the Man of the Match award. Chelsea got off to a terrible start conceding inside 10 minutes, but second-half goals from Carvalho and Frank Lampard looked enough to pull the team back from behind to win the trophy, only for Wayne Rooney to clip home an equaliser in stoppage time, forcing penalties. Chelsea went on to win the match 4–1 on penalties, following a 2–2 draw at the end of normal time. On 20 December 2009, Carvalho made his 200th appearance in a 1–1 draw against West Ham United in the Premier League, where the defender was booked just before the half-hour mark for a challenge on Guillermo Franco, before West Ham had their best chance of the opening stages. On 24 March, in a 5–0 win over Portsmouth, Carvalho suffered ankle ligament damage; it seemed serious but it was not necessary a corrective surgery on this injury, leaving the team with just two first-choice central defenders in Alex and captain John Terry, and scaring the Portugal national team head coach, Carlos Queiroz, with the risk of not being able to go to 2010 FIFA World Cup. Due to the injury, Carvalho missed all the following league matches, including the title match victory against Wigan Athletic. It was Carvalho's third Premier League title with the Blues. Six days later, on 15 May, he missed another important match, the 2010 FA Cup final, which they won after a single goal from Didier Drogba. By winning the title, Chelsea secured the first ever Double in the club's history. At the end of the season, on 24 July, "The Sun" carried reports that Carvalho had expressed his desire to leave Chelsea and link up with former manager José Mourinho, who was now in charge at Real Madrid in Spain.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: On 10 August 2010, Real Madrid signed Carvalho for a reported fee of €7.9 (£6.7) million on a two-year contract. He made his debut on 13 August 2010 in a friendly match against Bayern Munich, which Real Madrid won 4–2 on penalties after a 0–0 draw. His La Liga debut came on 29 August, in a 0–0 draw against Mallorca, and, in the following match, against Osasuna, he scored his first Liga goal; Mesut Özil raced to the penalty area and managed to thread a low cross for Cristiano Ronaldo, whose first time shot was blocked by the Osasuna's goalkeeper Ricardo, but the Portuguese managed to tip-toe the rebound for Carvalho to score the go-ahead goal, giving his team a 1–0 home victory. On 19 October 2010, in a UEFA Champions League victory against Milan, Carvalho was named the Man of the match by the Spanish newspaper "Marca". Some weeks later, on 7 November, Carvalho proved again to be in good shape in a 2–0 derby victory against Atlético Madrid, where he scored his second goal in La Liga, being named again the man of the match. Next month on day 19, in a 1–0 home victory against Sevilla, Carvalho received his first red card for the club; having already been booked in the first half, he was shown a second yellow following an aerial challenge with Sevilla's Álvaro Negredo in the second half. On 19 February 2011, he scored his third and last season goal against Levante in another 2–0 league victory. Carvalho made 48 appearances in all competitions that season, bringing calmness and solidness to the defence, and was a heavy reason why Real Madrid had the best defense in Champions League, only letting five goals get past their goalkeeper.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho started the 2011–12 season well and remained as first-choice centre-back along with Pepe, until a lower back injury kept him sidelined. He returned to action on 18 January in Real Madrid's 2–1 home defeat to Barcelona, in the Copa del Rey quarter-finals first leg at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: There was significant speculation about his future with Real Madrid in the 2012–13 season, with manager José Mourinho publicly stating on 29 August 2012 that "his services were no longer needed" by the club. However, he opted to stay at the club until the end of his contract.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: On 28 May 2013, Monaco confirmed on their website that they had secured the services of the Portuguese defender from Real Madrid. He moved to the newly promoted Ligue 1 club on a free transfer when his Real Madrid contract expired on 1 July. Carvalho signed a one-year contract with Monaco, with the option of a second year.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho was sent off for two yellow cards on 10 August 2014, as Monaco began their season with a 2–1 defeat at home against Lorient. On 14 April 2015, he fouled Álvaro Morata to concede a penalty which was converted by Arturo Vidal as Monaco lost to Juventus in the first leg of the quarter-finals of the Champions League. In July 2015, he signed a new one-year deal, keeping him at the club until July 2016.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: On 10 August 2016, it was announced that Monaco had not renewed his contract, ending a three-year spell with the Ligue 1 club.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: On 9 January 2017, Carvalho was announcing his engagement by André Villas-Boas's Shanghai SIPG in the Chinese Super League. He officially joined Shanghai SIPG on 15 February 2017.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: During the 2003–04 season, Carvalho earned his first cap for the Portugal national team on 11 October 2003 in a 5–3 friendly match win over Albania. He established himself as a key member of the national team starting XI during the UEFA Euro 2004 championship on home soil, after replacing captain Fernando Couto in the heart of Portugal's defence following the team's defeat against Greece in the opening group game. In the tournament, he was nominated for the UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament along with his compatriots Maniche, Luís Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo. Carvalho formed a strong partnership with Jorge Andrade in the Portuguese defence as his country reached the final, though they lost 1–0 to Greece in a stunning upset. Carvalho started in all of Portugal's six games in the tournament, including an epic game against England, where the defender was named Carlsberg Man of the Match, and Portugal emerged victorious 6–5 on penalties. BBC Sport football expert Alan Hansen said that Carvalho was, along with Sol Campbell, the best defender at Euro 2004.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho represented Portugal at the 2006 World Cup in Germany, finishing fourth overall. During the quarter-final game against England, referee Horacio Elizondo adjudged Wayne Rooney to have trodden on Carvalho's groin, right in front of him, and the English player was sent off for violent conduct. The English media, however, speculated that teammate Cristiano Ronaldo had influenced Elizondo's decision by aggressively complaining, after which he was seen in replays winking at the Portuguese bench following Rooney’s dismissal. In the following semi-final game against France in Munich on 5 July 2006, Carvalho was whistled for a foul against France's Thierry Henry in the penalty area, resulting in a penalty kick. Zinedine Zidane converted the spot kick to give France a 1–0 win over Portugal. Also in the same game, Carvalho was booked with his second yellow card of the knockout phase, and was forced to miss the third place game against hosts Germany on 8 July in Stuttgart, which ended in a 3–1 defeat. He in played each of his team's other preceding matches throughout the World Cup, as a member of Portugal's central defensive pairing in the team's starting lineup alongside Fernando Meira, and as a result of his performances, he was one of the 23 players nominated for the All Star Team of the tournament.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho was named in the Portuguese squad for Euro 2008. He played in three of Portugal's four matches in the tournament, including the 2–0 win against Turkey and the 3–1 victory over Czech Republic in the group stage and the quarter-finals match where Portugal lost 3–2 to Germany. Two years later, Carvalho was named again in the Portuguese squad for the 2010 World Cup. He formed a partnership with Bruno Alves in the centre of defence, playing in all group stage matches without conceding a goal. This time, Portugal reached the round of 16, where they subsequently lost 1–0 against Spain via a David Villa goal.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: On 31 August 2011, Carvalho retired from international football after leaving the concentration without talking to his coach and teammates before Portugal's match against Cyprus for a Euro 2012 qualifying match, announcing in a statement carried by state news agency Lusa he had been "disrespected".


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: On 3 October 2014, after an absence of more than three years, Carvalho was called up by newly appointed Portugal manager Fernando Santos, for the friendly against France and the Euro 2016 qualifying match against Denmark. On 29 March 2015, in a qualifier against Serbia, he headed the opening goal in a 2–1 home victory, his first international goal for over eight years. At 38, he was the oldest outfield player at the Euro 2016 finals in France. He started in all three of his team's group stages matches, but was dropped from the starting line-up for the knock-out stages of the competition; Portugal went on to win the tournament, defeating the hosts 1–0 in the final in extra time, although Carvalho remained on the bench.


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho has always been a centre back who stood out in particular for his intelligence, and ability to read the game and time his challenges. He is quick, good in the air and possesses superb technique and good passing ability, which has led him to be compared to the legendary Italian defender Franco Baresi. Although he does not possess the physical strength of other defenders, he is known for his tenacity and hard-tackling style of play; in an interview with the Champions League's official magazine, Carvalho said of his playing style and physique:


title: Ricardo Carvalho

text: Carvalho's Real Madrid profile describes him as "known for his perfect positioning, his foresight and his ability to advance the ball out of the first third". At his peak, Carvalho was regarded by several pundits and football figures as one of the best defenders in the world, and is considered to be one of the greatest defenders in the history of the Premier League.


title: Fuel

text: A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy, such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).


title: Fuel

text: The heat energy released by reactions of fuels can be converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine. Other times, the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that accompanies combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable energy. Hydrocarbons and related organic molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, but other substances, including radioactive metals, are also utilized.


title: Fuel

text: Fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy (such as batteries and capacitors) or mechanical energy (such as flywheels, springs, compressed air, or water in a reservoir).


title: Fuel

text: The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by "Homo erectus" nearly two million years ago. Throughout most of human history only fuels derived from plants or animal fat were used by humans. Charcoal, a wood derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century. Charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking.


title: Fuel

text: Crude oil was distilled by Persian chemists, with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi. He described the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, in his "Kitab al-Asrar" ("Book of Secrets"). Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled. Rāzi also gave the first description of a kerosene lamp using crude mineral oil, referring to it as the "naffatah".


title: Fuel

text: The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.


title: Fuel

text: With the energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released through combustion, but the concept


title: Fuel

text: development of the steam engine in the United Kingdom in 1769, coal came into more common use as a power source. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the primary use of coal is to generate electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply in 2005.


title: Fuel

text: Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the Industrial Revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources, such as water power. They have become a pivotal part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power, but are falling out of favor due to the global warming and related effects that are caused from burning them.


title: Fuel

text: Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion.


title: Fuel

text: Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence: "primary (natural fuel)" and "secondary (artificial fuel)". Thus, a general classification of chemical fuels is:


title: Fuel

text: Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used as fuel to produce energy and provide heating, usually released through combustion. Solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood (see wood pellets), corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel (see solid propellants). Solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire. Coal was the fuel source which enabled the industrial revolution, from firing furnaces, to running steam engines. Wood was also extensively used to run steam locomotives. Both peat and coal are still used in electricity generation today.


title: Fuel

text: The use of some solid fuels (e.g. coal) is restricted or prohibited in some urban areas, due to unsafe levels of toxic emissions. The use of other solid fuels as wood is decreasing as heating technology and the availability of good quality fuel improves. In some areas, smokeless coal is often the only solid fuel used. In Ireland, peat briquettes are used as smokeless fuel. They are also used to start a coal fire.


title: Fuel

text: Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy. They must also take the shape of their container; the fumes of liquid fuels are flammable, not the fluids.


title: Fuel

text: Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure inside the Earth's crust. However, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, jet fuel and bio-diesel, which are all categorized as liquid fuels. Emulsified fuels of oil in water, such as orimulsion, have been developed as a way to make heavy oil fractions usable as liquid fuels. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in transportation and the economy.


title: Fuel

text: Some common properties of liquid fuels are that they are easy to transport and can be handled easily. They are also relatively easy to use for all engineering applications and in home use. Fuels like kerosene are rationed in some countries, for example in government-subsidized shops in India for home use.


title: Fuel

text: Conventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons extracted from petroleum. Kerosene is used in kerosene lamps and as a fuel for cooking, heating, and small engines. Natural gas, composed chiefly of methane, can only exist as a liquid at very low temperatures (regardless of pressure), which limits its direct use as a liquid fuel in most applications. LP gas is a mixture of propane and butane, both of which are easily compressible gases under standard atmospheric conditions. It offers many of the advantages of compressed natural gas (CNG) but is denser than air, does not burn as cleanly, and is much more easily compressed. Commonly used for cooking and space heating, LP gas and compressed propane are seeing increased use in motorized vehicles. Propane is the third most commonly used motor fuel globally.


title: Fuel

text: Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary conditions. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they may be detected by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in current use is natural gas.


title: Fuel

text: Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known as "biomass fuel". Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacture.


title: Fuel

text: Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is unknown which hominid species first used fire, as both "Australopithecus" and an early species of "Homo" were present at the sites. As a fuel, wood has remained in use up until the present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other sources. Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg.


title: Fuel

text: Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for example bioethanol and biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about how carbon efficient these fuels are.


title: Fuel

text: Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as "mineral fuels".


title: Fuel

text: They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.


title: Fuel

text: It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year.


title: Fuel

text: Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.


title: Fuel

text: The amount of energy from different types of fuel depends on the stoichiometric ratio, the chemically correct air and fuel ratio to ensure complete combustion of fuel, and its specific energy, the energy per unit mass.


title: Fuel

text: Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy. Technically speaking, all matter can be a nuclear fuel because any element under the right conditions will release nuclear energy, but the materials commonly referred to as nuclear fuels are those that will produce energy without being placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel is a material that can be 'burned' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. "Nuclear fuel" can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials.


title: Fuel

text: Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.


title: Fuel

text: The most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (U) and plutonium-239 (Pu). The actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the nuclear fuel cycle. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission. Plutonium-238 and some other elements are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries. Also, light nuclides such as tritium (H) can be used as fuel for nuclear fusion.