title: WrestleMania XV

text: Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to be Pete Rose, trying to gain revenge for the previous year's incident but receiving a Tombstone piledriver. Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into the Mean Street Posse who were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried to Pedigree Kane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from a drop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but was backbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed a crossbody from the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted a sunset flip pin which began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform her Sable Bomb but Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified as Nicole Bass, came into the ring to gorilla press slam Tori. This allowed Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: Before X-Pac could make his way to the ring Pat Patterson and Gerald Brisco attacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping a Bronco Buster when Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shane scoop slammed him and attempted a Corporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as referee Mike Chioda was distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by an X Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turning heel and allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver a swinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with his night stick causing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick and cut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with a fireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed a leaping flying clothesline of his own before going Old School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards. Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signaling The Brood to descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it. After the match a video package of the "Rage Party" was shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: Before the main event, Michael Cole announced Jim Ross returning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by Commissioner Shawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with a Rock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, with Tim White now officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used a sitting chin hold to subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with a Samoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him, which gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with a Stone Cold Stunner, with Earl Hebner eventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform, throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with a Lou Thesz Press but Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried the Corporate Elbow but Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: The event was met with mixed critical response. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, "Like most Attitude Era shows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin. Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match "solid by default" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience. In 2012, Bleacher Report ranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event "underwhelming" and criticizing the Hell in a Cell match.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship at in 1998. With The Ministry of Darkness continuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock at while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughter Stephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices including Ryan Shamrock leading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House.


title: WrestleMania XV

text: When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. After Christian told Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion. Edge and Gangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stable The Brood and were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Enzo Ferrari (Type F140) is a mid-engine sports car manufactured by Italian automobile manufacturer Ferrari and named after the company's founder, Enzo Ferrari. It was developed in 2002 using Formula One technology, such as a carbon-fibre body, F1-style automated-shift manual transmission, and carbon fibre-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) ceramic composite disc brakes, as well as technologies not allowed in F1, such as active aerodynamics. The Enzo Ferrari generates substantial amounts of downforce through its front underbody flaps, small adjustable rear spoiler and rear diffuser, which work in conjunction to produce 3,363 newtons (756 lb) of downforce at and 7,602 newtons (1,709 lb) of downforce at , before decreasing to 5,738 N (1,290 lb) at top speed.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Enzo's F140 B V12 engine was the first of a new generation for Ferrari. It is based on the design of the V8 engine found in the Maserati Quattroporte, using the same basic design and 104 mm (4.1 in) bore spacing.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Enzo was designed by Ken Okuyama, the then Pininfarina head of design, and initially announced at the 2002 Paris Motor Show with a limited production run of 399 units. The company sent invitations to existing customers, specifically, those who had previously bought the F40 and F50. All 399 cars were sold in this way before production began. In 2004, the 400th production car was built and donated to the Vatican for charity, which was later sold at a Sotheby's auction for US$1.1 million.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Three development mules were built: M1, M2, and M3. Each mule utilised the bodywork of a 348, a model which had been succeeded by two generations of mid-engined V8 sports cars—the F355 and the 360 Modena—by the time the mules were built. The third mule was offered for auction alongside the 400th Enzo in June 2005, selling for €195,500 (US$236,300).


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The engine in the Enzo is longitudinally mounted, and the car has a rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout with a 44%/56% front/rear weight distribution. The powerplant is Ferrari's F140B naturally aspirated 65° V12 engine with DOHC 4 valves per cylinder, variable valve timing and Bosch Motronic ME7 fuel injection with a displacement of generating a power output of at 7,800 rpm and of torque at 5,500 rpm. The redline is 8,200 rpm.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Enzo has an automated manual transmission (known as the "F1" gearbox) using paddle-shifters to control an automatically actuated electrohydraulic clutch and shifting mechanism, with LED lights on the steering wheel telling the driver when to change gears. The gearbox has a shift time of 150 milliseconds and was built by Graziano Trasmissioni. The transmission was a first-generation "clutchless" design from the late 1990s, and there have been complaints about its abrupt shifting.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Enzo has four-wheel independent suspension with push-rod-actuated shock absorbers, which can be adjusted from the cabin, complemented with anti-roll bars at the front and rear.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Enzo uses wheels and has Brembo disc brakes. The wheels are held by a single lug nut and fitted with Bridgestone Potenza Scuderia RE050A tyres.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: One-way downhill with 1-foot rollout the Enzo can accelerate to in 3.14 seconds and can reach in 6.6 seconds. The ¼-mile (~400 m) time is about 11 seconds, on skidpad it has reached 1.05"g", and the top speed has been recorded to be as high as . It is rated at in the city, on the highway and combined.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: "Evo" tested the Enzo on the famed Nordschleife Circuit and ran a 7:25.21 lap time. The Enzo in the test had a broken electronic damper. They also tested it at Bedford Autodrome West circuit, where it recorded a 1:21.3 lap time, which is 1.1 seconds slower than the Porsche Carrera GT, but faster than the Litchfield Type-25.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: In 2004, American magazine "Sports Car International" named the Enzo Ferrari number three on their list of Top Sports Cars of the 2000s. American magazine "Motor Trend Classic" named the Enzo as number four in their list of the ten "Greatest Ferraris of all time".


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: However, the Enzo Ferrari was described as one of the "Fifty Ugliest Cars of the Past 50 Years", as "Bloomberg Businessweek" cited its superfluous curves and angles as too flashy, particularly the V-shaped hood, scooped-out doors, and bulbous windshield.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Before being unveiled at the Paris Motor Show, the show car was flown from Italy to the U.S. to be filmed in "". It was driven on a beach by actress Demi Moore. After filming was complete, the Enzo was flown to France to be at the Motor Show.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Ferrari decided to use some of the technology developed for the Enzo in a small-scale program to get more feedback from certain customers for use in future car design as well as their racing program. The core of this program is the Ferrari FXX. It was loosely based on the Enzo's design with a highly tuned 6.3-liter version of the Enzo's engine generating a power output of approximately . The gearbox is specially developed for the car as well as the tires (custom-designed for this car by Bridgestone) along with the brakes (developed by Brembo). In addition, the car is fitted with extensive data-recording and telemetry systems to allow Ferrari to record the car's behavior. This information is used by Ferrari to develop their future sports cars.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Like the Enzo, the car was sold to specially selected existing clients of Ferrari only. The initial price was €1.3 million. Unlike the Enzo, the clients did not take delivery of the car themselves. Rather, it is maintained and kept by Ferrari and available for the client's use on various circuits as arranged by Ferrari and also during private track sessions. The car is not expected to be suitable for road use.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Italian design studio Pininfarina had wanted to make a special one-off sports car based on the Enzo Ferrari flagship and was looking for a backer. After sending out feelers to its clients, American Ferrari collector James Glickenhaus eventually agreed to back the project by commissioning his car as a modern homage to great Ferrari sports racing cars such as the 330 P3/4, 512 S, 312 P, and 333 SP on the last unregistered U.S.-spec Enzo chassis. The car was named the Ferrari P4/5 by Pininfarina, and retains the Enzo's drivetrain and vehicle identification number. The car was unveiled at the 2006 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance and appeared in the September issue of "Car and Driver". After its unveiling at Pebble Beach, the P4/5 returned to Europe for high-speed testing, press days, and an appearance at the Paris Auto Show in September 2006.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Upon seeing the P4/5, the president of Ferrari Luca di Montezemolo felt that the car deserved to be officially badged as a Ferrari and along with Andrea Pininfarina and James Glickenhaus agreed that its official name would be "Ferrari P 4/5 by Pininfarina". Ted West wrote an article in "Car and Driver" about how this came to be: "The Beast of Turin".


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Maserati MC12 is a two-seat mid-engine sports car that is a derivative of the Enzo Ferrari developed by Maserati while under the control of Ferrari. It was developed specifically to be homologated for racing in the FIA GT Championship, with a minimum requirement of 25 road versions to be produced before the car could be allowed to compete. Maserati built 50 units, all of which were presold to selected customers. A track-only variation, the MC12 Corsa was later developed, similar to the Ferrari FXX.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Maserati MC12 has the same engine, chassis, and gearbox as the Enzo but the only externally visible component from the Enzo is the windshield. Due to this, the Maserati MC12 is sometimes nicknamed the "Second Generation Ferrari Enzo". The MC12 is slower in acceleration (0–100 km/h or 0–62 mph being achieved in 3.8 seconds), has a lower top speed of 330 km/h (205 mph) due to engine tuning and less drag coefficient (due to a sharper nose and smoother curves) than the Enzo Ferrari. However, the MC12 has lapped race tracks faster than the Enzo before, specifically on the UK motoring show "Top Gear", and the Nurbürgring Nordschleife (at colder outside temperatures). However, this could be attributed to the MC12's Pirelli P-Zero Corsa tires which have more grip than the Enzo's Bridgestone Scuderia tires.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Maserati Birdcage 75th is a concept car created by automobile manufacturer Maserati and designed by Pininfarina, as a celebration of Pininfarina's 75th anniversary, and was introduced at the 2005 Geneva Auto Show. It is an evolution of the MC12 and draws inspiration from the Maserati Tipo Birdcages of the 1960s. There were rumors that Maserati was going to produce the car as the MC13, for which Maserati confirmed to have plans, but they were cancelled due to problems with Pininfarina giving Maserati total control over the design of the car.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Maserati MC12 Versione Corse is a variant of the MC12 intended for racetrack use. In contrast to the race version of the MC12, of which street-legal versions were produced for homologation purposes, the MC12 Versione Corse is intended for private use, albeit restricted to the track, as the Versione Corse's modifications make it illegal to drive on the road.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Versione Corse was developed directly from the MC12 GT1, which won the 2005 FIA GT Manufacturers Cup. The car was released in mid-2006, "in response to the customer demand to own the MC12 racing car and fueled by the growth in track days, where owners can drive their cars at high speeds in the safety of a race track", as stated by Edward Butler, General Manager for Maserati in Australia and New Zealand. In similar fashion to the Ferrari FXX, although the owners are private individuals, Maserati is responsible for the storage, upkeep, and maintenance of the cars, and they are only driven on specially organized track days. Unlike the FXX, the MC12 Corsa is not intended for research and development, and is used only for entertainment. A single MC12 Versione Corse has been modified by its owner to make it street-legal the conversion was carried out by German tuning firm Edo Competition.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Only twelve MC12 Versione Corses were sold to selected customers, each of whom paid €1 million (US$1.47 million) for the privilege. Another three vehicles were produced for testing and publicity purposes. The Versione Corse shares its engine with the MC12 GT1; the power plant produces at 8,000 rpm, more than the road-legal MC12. The MC12 Versione Corse shares the GT1's shortened nose, which was a requirement for entry into the American Le Mans Series. The car was available in a single standard colour, named "Blue Victory", though the car's paint could be customized upon request. The MC12 Versione Corse possesses steel/carbon racing brakes, but is not fitted with an anti-lock braking system.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: Millechili, Italian for "one thousand" (mille) "kilograms" (chili), is the code name for a prototype sports car to be manufactured by Ferrari. It was a lightweight version of the Enzo Ferrari that would borrow features from Formula One race cars, using the F430's aluminium space frame on a wheelbase. The hybrid power train utilising a V10 engine used in the car would exceed . The car was mainly a technological concept with no intention of production.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Millechili was developed in collaboration with the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Millechili Lab is a cross-project in which students are working on light-weight car design.


title: Ferrari Enzo

text: The Ferrari FXX program continued until 2009. The car continued to be improved under the Evoluzione kit, which continually adjusts specifics to generate more power and quicker gear changes, along with reducing the car's aerodynamic drag. The V12 engine under the Evoluzione kit generates at 9,500 rpm and enables the car to accelerate from in 2.5 seconds. Certain changes were made to the gearbox in order to reduce the shift time to 60 milliseconds per shift, a reduction of 20 milliseconds over the original FXX. The car also underwent aerodynamic changes and improvements to the traction control system were made in order to make the car more responsive around the track. The modifications also allow the Evoluzione to reach a top speed of .


title: Continental shelf

text: A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an island is known as an "insular shelf".


title: Continental shelf

text: The continental margin, between the continental shelf and the abyssal plain, comprises a steep continental slope, surrounded by the flatter continental rise, in which sediment from the continent above cascades down the slope and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the slope. Extending as far as 500 km (310 mi) from the slope, it consists of thick sediments deposited by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope. The continental rise's gradient is intermediate between the gradients of the slope and the shelf.


title: Continental shelf

text: Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the name continental shelf was given a legal definition as the stretch of the seabed adjacent to the shores of a particular country to which it belongs.


title: Continental shelf

text: The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope (called the "shelf break"). The sea floor below the break is the "continental slope". Below the slope is the "continental rise", which finally merges into the deep ocean floor, the abyssal plain. The continental shelf and the slope are part of the continental margin.


title: Continental shelf

text: The shelf area is commonly subdivided into the "inner continental shelf", "mid continental shelf", and "outer continental shelf", each with their specific geomorphology and marine biology.


title: Continental shelf

text: The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly ; this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.


title: Continental shelf

text: The continental slope is much steeper than the shelf; the average angle is 3°, but it can be as low as 1° or as high as 10°. The slope is often cut with submarine canyons. The physical mechanisms involved in forming these canyons were not well understood until the 1960s.


title: Continental shelf

text: Continental shelves cover an area of about 27 million km (10 million sq mi), equal to about 7% of the surface area of the oceans. The width of the continental shelf varies considerably – it is not uncommon for an area to have virtually no shelf at all, particularly where the forward edge of an advancing oceanic plate dives beneath continental crust in an offshore subduction zone such as off the coast of Chile or the west coast of Sumatra. The largest shelf – the Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean – stretches to in width. The South China Sea lies over another extensive area of continental shelf, the Sunda Shelf, which joins Borneo, Sumatra, and Java to the Asian mainland. Other familiar bodies of water that overlie continental shelves are the North Sea and the Persian Gulf. The average width of continental shelves is about . The depth of the shelf also varies, but is generally limited to water shallower than . The slope of the shelf is usually quite low, on the order of 0.5°; vertical relief is also minimal, at less than .


title: Continental shelf

text: Though the continental shelf is treated as a physiographic province of the ocean, it is not part of the deep ocean basin proper, but the flooded margins of the continent. Passive continental margins such as most of the Atlantic coasts have wide and shallow shelves, made of thick sedimentary wedges derived from long erosion of a neighboring continent. Active continental margins have narrow, relatively steep shelves, due to frequent earthquakes that move sediment to the deep sea.


title: Continental shelf

text: The continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments; that is, those derived from erosion of the continents. However, little of the sediment is from current rivers; some 60–70% of the sediment on the world's shelves is "relict sediment", deposited during the last ice age, when sea level was 100–120 m lower than it is now.


title: Continental shelf

text: Sediments usually become increasingly fine with distance from the coast; sand is limited to shallow, wave-agitated waters, while silt and clays are deposited in quieter, deep water far offshore. These accumulate every millennium, much faster than deep-sea pelagic sediments.


title: Continental shelf

text: "Shelf seas" refers to the ocean waters on the continental shelf. Their motion is controlled by the combined influences of the tides, wind-forcing and brackish water formed from river inflows (Regions of Freshwater Influence). These regions can often be biologically highly productive due to mixing caused by the shallower waters and the enhanced current speeds. Despite covering only about 8% of Earth's ocean surface area, shelf seas support 15–20% of global primary productivity.


title: Continental shelf

text: In temperate continental shelf seas, three distinctive oceanographic regimes are found, as a consequence of the interplay between surface heating, lateral buoyancy gradients (due to river inflow), and turbulent mixing by the tides and to a lesser extent the wind.


title: Continental shelf

text: Indian Ocean shelf seas are dominated by major river systems, including the Ganges and Indus rivers. The shelf seas around New Zealand are complicated because the submerged continent of Zealandia creates wide plateaus. Shelf seas around Antarctica and the shores of the Arctic Ocean are influenced by sea ice production and polynya.


title: Continental shelf

text: There is evidence that changing wind, rainfall, and regional ocean currents in a warming ocean are having an effect on some shelf seas. Improved data collection via Integrated Ocean Observing Systems in shelf sea regions is making identification of these changes possible.


title: Continental shelf

text: Continental shelves teem with life because of the sunlight available in shallow waters, in contrast to the biotic desert of the oceans' abyssal plain. The pelagic (water column) environment of the continental shelf constitutes the neritic zone, and the benthic (sea floor) province of the shelf is the sublittoral zone. The shelves make up less than 10% of the ocean, and a rough estimate suggests that only about 30% of the continental shelf sea floor receives enough sunlight to allow benthic photosynthesis.


title: Continental shelf

text: Though the shelves are usually fertile, if anoxic conditions prevail during sedimentation, the deposits may over geologic time become sources for fossil fuels.


title: Continental shelf

text: The continental shelf is the best understood part of the ocean floor, as it is relatively accessible. Most commercial exploitation of the sea, such as extraction of metallic ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbons, takes place on the continental shelf.


title: Continental shelf

text: Sovereign rights over their continental shelves down to a depth of or to a distance where the depth of waters admitted of resource exploitation were claimed by the marine nations that signed the Convention on the Continental Shelf drawn up by the UN's International Law Commission in 1958. This was partly superseded by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The 1982 convention created the exclusive economic zone, plus continental shelf rights for states with physical continental shelves that extend beyond that distance.


title: Continental shelf

text: The legal definition of a continental shelf differs significantly from the geological definition. UNCLOS states that the shelf extends to the limit of the continental margin, but no less than and no more than from the baseline. Thus inhabited volcanic islands such as the Canaries, which have no actual continental shelf, nonetheless have a legal continental shelf, whereas uninhabitable islands have no shelf.


title: True Story (film)

text: True Story is a 2015 American mystery drama film directed by Rupert Goold in his directorial debut based on a screenplay by Goold and David Kajganich. Based on the memoir of the same name by Michael Finkel, it stars Jonah Hill, James Franco and Felicity Jones, with Gretchen Mol, Betty Gilpin and John Sharian in supporting roles.


title: True Story (film)

text: Franco plays Christian Longo, a man on the FBI's most-wanted list accused of murdering his wife and three children in Oregon. He hid in Mexico using the identity of Michael Finkel, a journalist played by Hill. The film premiered at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival and was released theatrically on April 17, 2015, in the United States. It explores the relationship that develops between the two men after journalist Finkel begins to meet with Longo in prison.


title: True Story (film)

text: In 2001, Christian Longo, an Oregon man whose wife and three children have been discovered murdered, is arrested by police in Mexico, where he had been identifying himself as a reporter for "The New York Times" named Michael Finkel. Meanwhile, in New York City, Finkel, an ambitious and successful reporter, is confronted by his editors about a cover story he has written for "New York Times Magazine" in which he has used a composite character as the focus of his story, violating basic journalism principles. Finkel briefly attempts to defend his actions but is unsuccessful and is fired. He returns home to his wife Jill and struggles to find work as a journalist due to his public firing from the "Times".


title: True Story (film)

text: In 2003, Finkel is contacted by a reporter for "The Oregonian", seeking his opinion on Longo's assumption of his identity. Unaware of Longo's case, Finkel is intrigued and arranges to meet Longo in prison. During their first conversation, Longo claims he has followed Finkel's career and admired his writing. Longo agrees to tell Finkel his side of the crimes he is accused of in exchange for writing lessons and Finkel's promise not to share their conversations until after the conclusion of the murder trial.


title: True Story (film)

text: Finkel becomes increasingly absorbed with Longo, who is likable but evasive about his guilt. Convinced the story will be redemptive, Finkel visits Longo in prison and corresponds with him for several months. Longo sends Finkel numerous letters and an 80-page notebook entitled "Wrong Turns," which contains what Longo describes as a list of every mistake he has made. Finkel begins to recognize similarities between Longo and himself, their handwriting and drawing, and Longo's letters and Finkel's journals. As the trial approaches, Finkel becomes increasingly doubtful that Longo is guilty of the murders, and Longo informs Finkel that he intends to change his plea to not guilty.


title: True Story (film)

text: In court, Longo pleads not guilty to two of the murders but pleads guilty to the murder of his wife and one of his daughters. Finkel confronts Longo, who claims he cannot share everything he knows because he has to protect certain people he refuses to name. Greg Ganley, the detective who tracked Longo down and arrested him, approaches Finkel and claims Longo is an extremely dangerous and manipulative man. He tries to convince Finkel to turn over as evidence all his correspondence with Longo. Finkel refuses, and Ganley does not press him for an explanation.


title: True Story (film)

text: At the trial, Longo takes the stand and describes his version of the events in detail. After an argument with his wife about their financial situation, he claims he had come home to discover two of his children missing, one of his daughters unconscious, and his wife sobbing, saying she put the children "in the water." Longo says he strangled his wife to death in a blind rage. He says he thought his other daughter was dead at first but realized she was still breathing and strangled her as well because she was all but dead. Finkel's wife, Jill, watches Longo's testimony. As the jury deliberates, Jill visits Longo in jail and tells him he is a narcissistic murderer who will never escape who he is.


title: True Story (film)

text: Longo is found guilty and sentenced to death. After he is sentenced, he winks at Finkel, who, to his shock and rage, realizes Longo has been lying throughout their conversations, using him to make his testimony more believable. A short time later, Finkel meets Longo on death row. Longo tries to convince Finkel he discovered his wife strangling their daughter and then blacked out, so he has no memory of the murders. Finkel angrily tells Longo he will not believe any more of his lies and will warn the judge, when Longo appeals against his sentence, of Longo's manipulative nature. Longo retorts by pointing out Finkel's success with his book about their encounters, leaving the reporter shaken.


title: True Story (film)

text: Finkel reads a section of his book, "True Story", at a promotional event in a bookstore. Taking questions from the audience, he imagines Longo standing in the back of the room. Finkel is unable to respond. Longo says if he has lost his freedom, Finkel must have also lost something.


title: True Story (film)

text: A year later, title cards reveal that Longo admitted to killing his entire family. The final title card says Finkel and Longo still speak on the first Sunday of every month. Finkel never wrote for the "Times" again, but Longo has contributed articles to several publications from death row, including the "Times".


title: True Story (film)

text: Principal photography began in March 2013 in Warwick, New York and New York City. Brad Pitt produced, along with several others, and Fox Searchlight Pictures distributed.


title: True Story (film)

text: When Jill visits Longo in prison, she plays him a recording of "Se la mia morte brami" (If you desire my death), a madrigal by the Italian renaissance composer Carlo Gesualdo. She explains that despite its beauty she can not hear it without remembering the facts of the composer's life: that Gesualdo murdered his wife, her lover, and their child.


title: True Story (film)

text: The film was originally scheduled for a limited theatrical release on April 10, 2015. That release date was delayed for one week in favor of a wide release.


title: True Story (film)

text: "True Story" has received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 45%, based on 169 reviews, with an average rating of 5.44/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "James Franco and Jonah Hill make a watchable pair, but "True Story" loses their performances—and the viewer's interest—in a muddled movie that bungles its fact-based tale." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 50 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 is the fourth studio album by American singer-songwriter Janet Jackson, released on September 19, 1989, by A&M Records. Although label executives wanted material similar to her previous album, "Control" (1986), Jackson insisted on creating a concept album addressing social issues. Collaborating with songwriters and record producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, she drew inspiration from various tragedies reported through news media, exploring racism, poverty, and substance abuse, in addition to themes of romance. Although its primary concept of a sociopolitical utopia was met with mixed reactions, its composition received critical acclaim. Jackson came to be considered a role model for youth because of her socially conscious lyrics.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: As with "Control", recording for "Rhythm Nation 1814" took place at Lewis and Jam's Flyte Tyme Studios in Minneapolis, Minnesota where they worked in seclusion with Jackson to complete the album. Noted for its use of sampling and utilizing heavily swung synthesized percussion throughout its production, the record encompasses a variety of musical styles, such as new jack swing, hard rock, pop, dance and industrial music. Songs range from mechanized dance rhythms to soft balladry, giving it appeal across multiple radio formats. It is the only album in the history of the US "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart to have seven commercial singles peak within the top five positions. It is also the first album to produce number one hits on the chart in three separate calendar years, beginning with "Miss You Much" in 1989, "Escapade" and "Black Cat" in 1990, and culminating with "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" in 1991.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: "Rhythm Nation 1814" became Jackson's second consecutive album to top the "Billboard" 200 and was certified 6× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It became the best-selling album of 1990 in the United States and has sold an estimated 12 million copies worldwide. Due to its innovative production and lyrical exploration, critics have come to regard it as the pinnacle of Jackson's artistic achievement. Music scholars note the record garnered her a level of cross-cultural appeal unmatched by industry peers. Considered a "landmark" album, it has also been cited as an influence in the works of numerous music artists, setting stylistic trends in the years following its release.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Visuals in music videos and live performances further elevated Jackson's superstardom. The 30-minute "Rhythm Nation 1814" film, a film depicting two aspiring musicians whose lives are disrupted by substance abuse, aired on MTV to promote the album. Jackson's Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990 became the most successful debut concert tour by a recording artist at the time. She was regarded as a fashion icon, with various attire the album's promotional tour and music videos being emulated by youth. Jackson received nine Grammy Award nominations, becoming the first woman to be nominated for Producer of the Year and winning Best Long Form Music Video for "Rhythm Nation 1814". Jackson received the MTV Video Vanguard Award and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her significant contributions to popular culture. Her handwritten lyrics to the album's title track "Rhythm Nation" as well as her militaristic uniform for its music video have been preserved by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2021, the Library of Congress announced it selected the album for preservation in the National Recording Registry as part of the class of 2020, deeming it "culturally, historically, or artistically significant."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Following the critical and commercial breakthrough of her third studio album "Control" (1986), Jackson was motivated to take a larger role in her album's creative process. According to "Billboard's Hottest Hot 100 Hits" (2002), A&M Records requested she record an album similar to "Control". It was rumored that label executives suggested a concept album entitled "Scandal", which would have centered on her personal and family life. However, Jam later denied the claim that "Scandal" was ever suggested, although he confirmed there was encouragement to produce a ""Control II"". Jackson opposed the idea of a direct sequel to "Control", stating "that's what I didn't want to do. I wanted to do something that I really believed in and that I really felt strong about." She was initially criticized for choosing to dedicate the album's theme to social consciousness, but remained committed. Jam stated that her inspiration came primarily from watching CNN and other news sources. In particular, her reaction to the Stockton playground murders led to recording "Livin' in a World (They Didn't Make)", "Rhythm Nation" and "State of the World".


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: While discussing the origin of the title "Rhythm Nation", Jackson stated she first uttered the phrase during a conversation with her producers. "I thought it would be great if we could create our own nation" adding that it would be "one that would have a positive message and that everyone would be free to join." She based the idea on the prevalence of various youth groups and organizations that are formed as a means of creating a common identity. The usage of the number "1814" represents the year the national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner" was written. "Rolling Stone" emphasized the core concept is further explored in the album's opening pledge (the first track of the recording), which states: "We are a nation with no geographic boundaries, bound together through our beliefs. We are like-minded individuals, sharing a common vision, pushing toward a world rid of color-lines." Several critics noted that "R" (Rhythm) and "N" (Nation) are the eighteenth and fourteenth letters of the alphabet, though Jackson said this was coincidental.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Jackson's primary goal for the record was to reach a younger audience who may have been unaware of what it means to be socially conscious individuals. She expressed: "I wanted to capture their attention through my music." She was influenced by other musical acts such as Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, Tracy Chapman, and U2, although she felt their music appealed primarily to adults who were already invested in social change. She also stated, "I'm not naive—I know an album or a song can't change the world. I just want my music and my dance to catch the audience's attention" hoping it would motivate people to "make some sort of difference".


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: "Rhythm Nation 1814" was recorded over a period of seven months. Its production took place at Flyte Tyme studios in Minneapolis, Minnesota, with majority of the album being recorded in the winter of 1988. According to Jam, he, Lewis and Jackson chose to isolate themselves to compose the record. No one from A&M Records was invited to the studio to observe and label executives complied with their request. The trio co-authored six of the album's songs: "Rhythm Nation", "State of the World", "Alright", "Escapade", "Come Back to Me" and "Someday Is Tonight". Five of the six remaining songs for the record, "The Knowledge", "Miss You Much", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)", "Livin' in a World (They Didn't Make)" and "Lonely" were penned by Jam and Lewis, while "Black Cat" was written solely by Jackson. She co-produced the album with Jam and Lewis, while John McClain served as executive producer; the song "Black Cat" was produced by Jellybean Johnson.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The LP was produced primarily through use of synthesizers and drum machines. Prior its recording, Jam and Lewis had begun to update their equipment for Flyte Tyme studios, experimenting with different types of drum machines and keyboards. While "Control" had been recorded primarily using the LinnDrum machine, songs for "Rhythm Nation 1814" were mostly recorded using the E-mu SP-1200, which was more commonplace for hip hop music at the time. The Oberheim OB-8 analog synthesizer, as well as those made by Sequential Circuits, were also used for mixing and recording. The only equipment utilized for the recording of "Control" that was also used for producing "Rhythm Nation 1814" was the Ensoniq Mirage keyboard. The instrumental tracks for "Miss You Much", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" and "Escapade" were among the first to be recorded, considered to be follow-ups to the "beat-heavy, catchy songs" that Jackson, Jam and Lewis crafted on "Control" which "defined the punch and power of 1980s dance and pop music."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Jam noted it was commonplace for Jackson to sing her vocals with the base track first and then have the rest of the song built around it in order to make her voice the center of the piece. "Janet did all of her background vocals and not just the lead vocals. The idea with her has always been that she does all of her own vocals, so that it's totally a Janet record." On the title track "Rhythm Nation", her vocals range from Bb to A, climaxing within its middle eight. Musicologist Richard J. Ripani observed the album and title track showcased the variety of contemporary R&B styles, making "use of elements across the R&B spectrum, including use of a sample loop ("Rhythm Nation" samples "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)" by Sly and the Family Stone), triplet swing, rapped vocal parts and blues notes (D naturals and G naturals)." This style of music, known as new jack swing, was immensely popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Though officially credited to the production techniques of Teddy Riley, Ripani theorized Riley was influenced by Jackson's 1986 single "Nasty", which also features a distinctive triplet swing. Jon Pareles observed the album's diversity catered to a wide variety of radio formats, including pop, quiet storm, Adult contemporary and mainstream rock. "Black Cat" was a stand-out for the record, not only for being composed exclusively by Jackson, but for its stark departure from her general style of music, delving into hard rock. While Jellybean Johnson was elected to produce it, Dave Berry was recruited to play guitar for the song. It was recorded using a mixture of Rockman and Marshall amplifier to give the song a heavy metal sound.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The sequencing of the record's track list was done strategically, starting with songs that lyrically depict societal injustices and ending with those that explore love, relationships and sexuality. This decision also factored into the album's artwork and marketing, giving it an overt black and white militant imagery. Jam explained that "[t]he idea of putting 'Rhythm Nation', 'State of the World' and 'The Knowledge' as the first three songs on the record really set the tone as to what the record was. Then to have the segue after that where she says, 'Get the point? Good. Let's dance ...' and then go into 'Miss You Much', that was purposely done." He also stated that the safer marketing strategy for the project would have been "a beautiful colored picture of Janet on the cover" with "Escapade" as its title, starting the track listing with "Miss You Much", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" and "Escapade", and ending it with "Livin' in a World (They Didn't Make)", "The Knowledge" and "Rhythm Nation" but noted that despite being the same collection of songs, the alternate sequencing and imagery would not have had the same impact. Of its lyrical themes, Kate Kelly stated the album "reveals a social conscience speaking of getting an education, avoiding drugs, and feeding the homeless. All this might seem a little heavy for dance music or pop radio, but Jackson fuses her concepts with driving dance energy that hits the hearts of those hitting the dance-floor." Andrew Barker of "Variety" described it as "a quasi-concept album whose opening three songs directly addressed crime, the crack epidemic, racism, homelessness and youth illiteracy — not exactly a recipe for a party. And yet the record was somehow even more successful than "Control", generating a then-record seven top 5 singles."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Upon the release of the album's lead single "Miss You Much", A&M Records issued a press release for the record, announcing social themes to "run throughout much of the material". Jackson performed "Rhythm Nation" on several television shows internationally, including "Top of the Pops" and the Royal Variety Performance, in celebration of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother's ninetieth birthday. She also performed a controversial rendition of "Black Cat" at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards in which she tore open her snapped blouse; although this was routine for performances of the song in concert, it was considered to have "ushered in a new age of sexual spontaneity" for the singer and viewed as the first "shocking" performance of her career.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: A thirty-minute long-form music video, "Rhythm Nation 1814", was produced to promote the album. Referred to as a "telemusical", the storyline incorporates three separate music videos: "Miss You Much", "The Knowledge", and "Rhythm Nation". Jackson and director Dominic Sena developed the screenplay, which centers around two boys whose dreams of pursuing music careers are destroyed through substance abuse and drug trafficking. Sena referred to the film as the "1814 Project", attempting to keep the public unaware that Jackson was filming on the streets of Los Angeles. The project had a budget of $1.6 million and was aired on MTV prior to the album's release. A&M co-founder Jerry Moss stated that the decision to film the composite videos all at once for "Rhythm Nation 1814" regardless of budget was "a brilliant way to go" allotting Jackson more time to focus her attention elsewhere.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: "Parallel Lines: Media Representations of Dance" (1993) observed that in "Rhythm Nation 1814", Jackson represents a "modern good fairy" attempting to guide troubled youth to a more positive way of life. Each of the three segments serve a different purpose, beginning with affinity and companionship in "Miss You Much", followed by anger and frustration in her rooftop solo and ending with "Rhythm Nation", in which Jackson and her dancers "have become a uniformed, formidable army, whose controlled energetic moves and shouts project a disciplined resolution to inspire others through dance and music." Their group dynamic visually depicts a gender neutral equality, with Jackson "performing asexually and anonymously in front of, but as one of the members of the group." It is also noted that the success of the film is not only the final product, but in the commercial and social implications of its development. In selecting an unknown street dancer, Anthony Thomas, to develop her choreography, "Janet Jackson secures a threefold achievement: she satisfies the dictates of the commercial pop music industry by creating a dance image which is significantly different from her earlier work; she demonstrates that, despite fame, she is still in touch with contemporary youth pop culture and its fashions; and finally, she [utilizes], not the dance traditions of Hollywood musical ... but the work of a young black man whose training is outside the institutions of Western theatre and clearly an Afro-American cultural expression of the late 1980s." The film received positive reception. Jefferson Graham in "USA Today" commented that "she dances up a storm in the moody black-and-white video's three songs ... and plays the role of a mystical figure to young kids." Jon Pareles remarked that "[it] juxtaposes her dance routines with grim urban imagery and a plot line about drugs versus dreams." It was later released on VHS and LaserDisc as the "Rhythm Nation 1814 Compilation", and reissued the following year with each of the album's promotional music videos. Jackson received two MTV Music Video Award nominations for "Best Dance Video" and "Best Choreography" for "Rhythm Nation", winning the latter.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Five other music video were produced to promote the album's singles. While the video for "Black Cat" was taken from live footage of Jackson's concerts, those for "Escapade" and "Alright" utilized a Broadway-influenced production. The video for "Alright" was an homage to choreographer Michael Kidd, who was asked to participate in the project and also featured appearances by the flash dancing Nicholas Brothers, actress Cyd Charisse and bandleader Cab Calloway. An extended version of the video also features rapper Heavy D. The somber video for "Come Back To Me" was filmed near the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. Similarly, "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" was a notable departure from the typically elaborate choreography associated with Jackson's other videos, focusing on her as an individual rather than as a part of a dancing troupe. Featuring appearances by Antonio Sabàto Jr. and Djimon Hounsou, the sandy beach setting exemplifies director Herb Ritts "signature style through use of graceful movements, bold contrasts, and wide-open spaces." The music video is also regarded as the origin of what would later become Jackson's sexually overt persona, freely displaying her legs, torso and cleavage, as well as touching her own bare skin and Sabàto, Jr's in a sensual manner. In "Present Tense: Rock & Roll and Culture" (1992), Anthony DeCurtis states that "[t]he video celebrates hedonism and voyeurism; there are languorous displays of Jackson's body in ripped jeans and brief top, and of several muscular male bodies, black and white, with bare arms, and chests." She received the MTV Video Vanguard Award, regarded as MTV's highest honor for artists whose videography has significantly impacted pop culture.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990 was Jackson's debut concert tour. Described as "an elaborately choreographed spectacle", it aimed to recreate the award-winning, innovative music videos of "Rhythm Nation 1814" and those of its predecessor, "Control". Anthony Thomas served as the tour's main choreographer, while Chuckii Booker became its musical director and opening act. She was assisted by a team of eleven musicians, five back-up singers, and six dancers. Jackson's total production and staging reportedly cost $2 million. In addition to Jackson's choreography, the tour was reported to portray "dazzling lighting effects and pyrotechnics", as well as illusionary magic, in which Jackson was transformed into a leopard on stage.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Writing for "Time" magazine, Jay Cocks observed the show to integrate "sleek high tech and smooth dance rhythm into an evening of snazzy soul with a social conscience." Chris Willman of the "Los Angeles Times" remarked that Jackson's choreography "represents the pinnacle of what can be done in the popping 'n' locking style—a rapid-fire mixture of rigidly jerky and gracefully fluid movements." Several critics noted Jackson lip synced portions of the show, in a similar fashion to her contemporaries. Jon Pareles commented, "most lip-synched shows are done by video-era pop performers whose audiences are young and television trained. They fill arenas to enjoy a spectacle like what they saw on television—the dancing ... the stage effects and incidentally the songs." Michael MacCambridge considered it a "moot point" stating, "Jackson was frequently singing along with her own pre-recorded vocals, to achieve a sound closer to radio versions of singles."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The tour became the most successful debut concert tour in history, with an attendance of over two million. It also set a record for the fastest sell-out of Japan's Tokyo Dome, selling out within seven minutes. Jackson became the only female artist other than Madonna to fill arenas at the time. It was ranked the fifth most successful tour of 1990, making her the only female artist to place within the top ten. It also solidified her reputation as a fashion icon, as fans imitated her "Rhythm Nation" outfit and regalia. "Ebony" magazine reported "hoards of teen girls were imitating her distinctive look—black quasi-military long jackets, black tight-tight pants, and big white shirts." Joel Selvin of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote "the 23-year-old has been making smash hit records for four years, becoming a fixture on MTV and a major role model to teenage girls across the country." Over $450,000.00 in proceeds from the tour's Madison Square Garden show were used to establish the Rhythm Nation scholarship program. The annual scholarship awards $5,000.00 to students majoring in performing arts and communications at United Negro College Fund member colleges and universities. William Allen, then-executive vice president of the UNCF, remarked: "Jackson is a role model for all young people to emulate and the message she has gotten to the young people of this country through the lyrics of 'Rhythm Nation 1814' is having positive effects."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: "Rhythm Nation 1814" produced a record-setting seven top five hit singles on the "Billboard" Hot 100. With lead single "Miss You Much", along with "Escapade", "Black Cat" and the album's final single "Love Will Never Do (Without You)", it also yielded four number one hits. "Miss You Much" topped the chart for four weeks. It also topped the Hot Dance Club Songs and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA. It also reached number two in Canada and New Zealand, one in Japanese airplay and South Africa, twelve in Australia, the top fifteen in Belgium and the Netherlands, the top twenty in Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland, and twenty-two in the United Kingdom, as well as charting in Brazil. According to "Radio & Records", "Miss You Much" was the biggest airplay hit of the year. It sold over four million copies worldwide, and became the year's second-best selling single behind Phil Collins's "Another Day in Paradise".


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: "Rhythm Nation" peaked at number two, behind "Another Day in Paradise". It peaked atop Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs. The single was certified gold by the RIAA. It reached number six in Canada, two in Japanese airplay and South Africa, eleven in the Netherlands, fifteen in Belgium, the top twenty of New Zealand and Sweden, and the top twenty-five of Switzerland, Poland, and the United Kingdom. "Escapade" topped the Hot 100, as well as the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs. It was certified gold in May 1990. It reached number one in Canada and Japanese airplay, four in South Africa, ten in Sweden and Belgium, thirteen in the Netherlands, seventeen in the United Kingdom, and twenty-three in Germany. The single version of "Alright" featuring additional vocals from rapper Heavy D peaked at number four on the Hot 100 and Hot Dance Club Songs, while reaching number two on Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. It was certified gold in June 1990. It reached number six in Canada, three in South Africa, and one in Japanese airplay. "Come Back to Me" peaked at number two on the Hot 100. It reached number three in Canada, as well as number one in Japanese airplay and South Africa, and the top twenty in Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: "Black Cat" topped the Hot 100 and received gold certification. It reached number four in Canada and three in Japanese airplay, five in Norway, six in Australia, the top ten in Sweden, France, and Switzerland, the top fifteen in the United Kingdom, the top twenty in Belgium, and twenty-one in the Netherlands. "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" was released as the album's seventh and final commercial single. It reached number one on January 19, 1991, topping the chart for one week. It reached number one in Canada and Japanese airplay, and two in South Africa. The single was certified gold by the RIAA. Lastly, "State of the World" was issued solely for radio airplay, making it ineligible to chart. It reached number five on the Hot 100 Airplay (Radio Songs) chart. "Billboard" noted it likely would have been the album's eighth top five hit if a commercial product had been distributed.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The album received generally positive reviews, with a mixed reaction to Jackson's social and political themes. Dennis Hunt of the "Los Angeles Times" called it "intriguing" and diverse, ranging from "social commentary to lusty, sensual tunes, from dance music to songs laced with jazz and Brazilian textures." Vince Aletti of "Rolling Stone" likened Jackson's themes to a politician, "abandoning the narrow 'I' for the universal 'we' and inviting us to do the same." Aletti complimented Jackson's balance of "despair with optimism, anger with hope", incorporated within its theme of social progress. Andy Ellis-Widders of "Keyboard" considered it "a powerful statement on racial integration, social accountability, and personal integrity." In his review for "The Boston Globe", Steve Morse compared its success to that of Aerosmith and Billy Joel, declaring it "a dance record with a ruthlessly frank social conscience that addresses drugs, homelessness, illiteracy and teen runaways. She's reached far beyond dance music's fluffy image to unite even serious rockers and rappers who usually look the other way." Michael Snyder of the "San Francisco Chronicle" considered it a worthy successor to Jackson's previous album "Control", adding "a little sociopolitical substance" as she "bounces between the two extremes of romance and generalized, politically correct topicality."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Writing for "The New York Times", Jon Pareles viewed "Rhythm Nation 1814" as having been "thoroughly calculated" for massive commercial success, noting that, as with Pink Floyd's "The Dark Side of the Moon" (1973) and Guns N' Roses' "Appetite for Destruction" (1987), consumers might find that "[b]uying the album can mean endorsing an attitude ... the album becomes a cause without a rebellion." Pareles commended its musicality and vocals, stating "[t]he tone of the music is airless, sealing out imprecision and reveling in crisp, machine-generated rhythms; Ms. Jackson's piping voice, layered upon itself in punchy unisons or lavish harmonies, never cracks or falters." Robert Christgau wrote in his review for "The Village Voice", "Her voice is as unequal to her vaguely admonitory politics as it was to her declaration of sexual availability, but the music is the message."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: In 1990, the album earned Grammy Award nominations for "Best Female R&B Vocal Performance" and "Best Rhythm & Blues Song" for "Miss You Much", and "Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist" and "Best Long Form Music Video" for "Rhythm Nation", winning the latter award. Jackson was also nominated for "Producer of the Year, Non-Classical", becoming the first woman to be nominated for the award. The following year, Jackson received nominations for "Best Female Rock Vocal Performance" for "Black Cat", in addition to "Best Rhythm & Blues Song" and "Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female" for "Alright".


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Retrospective reviews continue to assess the album favorably. Eric Henderson of "Slant Magazine" declared the album a "masterpiece". Henderson also praised its diversity, stating: "She was more credibly feminine, more crucially masculine, more viably adult, more believably childlike. This was, of course, critical to a project in which Janet assumed the role of mouthpiece for a nationless, multicultural utopia." Though referring to Jackson's voice as "wafer-thin", Alex Henderson of AllMusic applauded Jackson's spirit and enthusiasm, praising the album's numerous "gems". Henderson regarded it "an even higher artistic plateau" than her prior album, adding: "For those purchasing their first Janet Jackson release, "Rhythm Nation" would be an even wiser investment than "Control"—and that's saying a lot." Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" described the album as a more "grandiose" counterpart to "Control", "tough, funky and driving – the second of a perfect pair."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The album debuted at number twenty-eight on the "Billboard" 200 and eighty-seven on Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, eventually reaching the number one position on both charts. It topped the "Billboard" 200 for four consecutive weeks, selling three million copies within the first four months of its release. It sold an additional 1.10 million through BMG Music Club. In November 1989, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album gold. It was certified double platinum by the end of the year and ultimately certified sixfold platinum by the RIAA. It emerged as the best selling album of 1990 in the territory.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Internationally, the album reached number one in Australia, where it was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and South Africa. In Canada, it entered the top five and was certified platinum. The album peaked at number four in the United Kingdom, receiving a platinum certification. It also entered the top ten of Japan and New Zealand, where it was certified double platinum and gold. It reached the top twenty-five of Sweden, as well as the top thirty in the Netherlands and Germany. It also received gold certifications in Switzerland and Hong Kong. It has sold an estimated 12 million copies worldwide. The "Rhythm Nation 1814" video compilation and its reissue were each certified double platinum in United States.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: The commercial success of "Rhythm Nation 1814" was an unexpected achievement for mainstream pop music. Although Jackson was told focusing her album's theme on social consciousness would negatively impact sales, it was "a prediction soon proved wrong when the album was certified multi-platinum" and subsequently topped the pop, R&B and dance music charts. In "She Bop II: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul" (2003), Lucy O'Brien wrote that contrary to A&M's fear that the album would underperform, its multi-platinum sales pushed Jackson to a level of superstardom rivaling her brother Michael, calling it a "personal manifesto" and regarding it as a female counterpart to Marvin Gaye's "What's Going On" (1971). Timothy E. Scheurer, author of "Born in the USA: The Myth of America in Popular Music from Colonial Times to the Present" (2007), wrote that the album "may remind some of Sly Stone prior to "There's a Riot Going On" and other African-American artists of the 1970s in its tacit assumption that the world imagined by Dr. King is still possible, that the American Dream is a dream for all people." It made history as the only album to generate seven top-five hits on the "Billboard" Hot 100, surpassing Michael Jackson's "Thriller" (1982) and Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." (1984), which each have seven top ten hits. It is also the first album to achieve number one hits in three separate calendar years, with "Miss You Much" in 1989, "Escapade" and "Black Cat" in 1990, and "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" in 1991. This feat would subsequently be matched by The Weeknd's "After Hours" in 2021. Additionally, it is one of only nine albums—alongside Michael Jackson's "Bad" (1987), "Saturday Night Fever: The Original Movie Sound Track" (1977), Whitney Houston's "Whitney" (1987), George Michael's "Faith" (1987), Paula Abdul's "Forever Your Girl" (1989), Mariah Carey's self-titled debut (1990), Usher's "Confessions" (2004) and


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Aside from its commercial performance, the album's composition has continued to receive acclaim for its sonic innovation. Upon its 25th anniversary, music critic and scholar Joseph Vogel observed that when viewed "as a complete artistic statement, "Rhythm Nation 1814" was a stunning achievement. It married the pleasures of pop with the street energy and edge of hip-hop." Kyle Anderson of "Entertainment Weekly" asserted the record "has barely aged—it sounds as rich and vital as it did when it was first released, and stylistically as contemporary as anything on the "Billboard" charts." Anderson also underscores that it pioneered several musical trends, citing records by pop and R&B artists including Rihanna, Pink, Beyoncé, Frank Ocean, Gwen Stefani, The Weeknd, Lady Gaga, Jhené Aiko, Miguel, Christina Aguilera, FKA Twigs, and Tinashe that have exhibited similarities to the "landmark" album. Its single for "Alright" featuring Heavy D made Jackson the first pop artist to team with a rapper, "setting the trend for future pop and hip-hop collaborations." Additionally, "Black Cat" set a precedent for female pop stars segueing into glam metal. The album notably influenced Michael Jackson's "Dangerous" (1991) and "" (1995), the latter of which features the sibling's duet "Scream", produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Its impact also extends to indie and alternative rock music, with School of Seven Bells, A Sunny Day in Glasgow, and Alexis Krauss of Sleigh Bells citing the album as an influence in their work. MTV's Brenna Ehrlich remarked: "From Beyoncé ... to Britney Spears to Robyn to Sleigh Bells, the influence of Jackson's game-changer of a record is still rippling through the radio waves (or SoundCloud waves) today."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Jackson's handwritten lyrics to "Rhythm Nation" have been preserved by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "Women Who Rock" exhibit, which Kathryn Metz describes as "the perfect platform to talk about song structure" for the museum's "Women Who Rock: Songwriting and Point of View" course, in which students analyze music written by female songwriters. The Hall has also preserved her military styled "Rhythm Nation" uniform. "Rolling Stone" observed the song's music video "set the template for hundreds of videos to come in the Nineties and aughts." Mike Weaver remarked the "innovative, one-of-a-kind, funk-and-groove choreography was unlike anything seen in the history of pop music." Although music historian Ted Gioia considered the song to be an "awkward chant" he commented that "Rhythm Nation" became "one of the most riveting videos of the era, a kind of sensual steampunk for MTV viewers." In 1990, Jackson received MTV's Video Vanguard Award for her contributions to the art form. That same year, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in recognition of her impact on the recording industry and philanthropic endeavors, including her Rhythm Nation Scholarship fund. With her contractual obligations to A&M fulfilled in 1991, she signed with Virgin Records for an unprecedented multimillion-dollar deal, becoming the world's highest paid musician at the time.


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Sal Cinquemani noted her popularity had eclipsed Michael Jackson's, "as she would continue to do for more than a decade". Music scholars John Shepherd and David Horn wrote that as a crossover artist on the pop and R&B charts, she emerged "the most dominant female performer of the 1980s" behind Whitney Houston. Dan Rubey observed that she presented herself as a role model for black women and as a creative intellect whose work advocated the advancement of black people. Joseph Vogel stated that her rising popularity towards the end of the decade was important for several reasons, "not the least of which was how it coincided with (and spoke to) the rise of black feminism". At a time when radio airplay and MTV primarily catered to white rock musicians, her album and its predecessor garnered widespread critical acclaim alongside other "unprecedented breakthroughs" by black women—including Alice Walker's "The Color Purple" (1982), Toni Morrison's "Beloved" (1987) and Patricia Hill Collins's "Black Feminist Thought" (1990)—musically capturing the spirit of the movement and presenting an alternate model on both womanhood and feminism to that of Madonna. Regarding her diverse appeal among youth, he also stated: "Janet didn't have the vocal prowess of Whitney Houston, or the poetic subtlety of Kate Bush; she didn't have Annie Lennox's penchant for the avant-garde or Madonna's predilection for shock. But none of these artists achieved the cross-racial impact (particularly on youth culture) of Janet. And none of them had an album like "Rhythm Nation 1814"."


title: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814

text: Jackson herself would comment on the album's legacy on her 2015 album "Unbreakable". In the song "Shoulda Known Better", she reflects on her optimistic wish that "Rhythm Nation 1814" could have profoundly changed the world, noting that there are many, deeper issues to fix and that broad strokes aren't enough. The chorus includes the line, "Cause I don't want my face to be / That poster child for being naive"; and "Rhythm Nation"s title is referred to as "an epiphany", with Jackson mentioning that "next time, I'll know better". Album co-producer Jimmy Jam told the BBC: "When you're young, you feel like: 'I can change the world! I'm going to lead the revolution!' And then you look 25 years later and you go: 'OK, I should have known better. The same problems still exist but there's a different way to go about tackling it. It still involves mobilising people, but I can't do it by myself.' It's just a wiser, more mature look at the reality of trying to make a positive change, a social change." In 2021, the Library of Congress announced it had selected "Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814" for preservation and inducted it into the National Recording Registry. The album is one of 25 recordings inducted into the registry's class of 2020 that are considered to be "audio treasures worthy of preservation for all time based on their cultural, historical or aesthetic importance in the nation’s recorded sound heritage."


title: Soyuz 11

text: Soyuz 11 () was the only crewed mission to board the world's first space station, Salyut 1 (Soyuz 10 had soft-docked, but had not been able to enter due to latching problems). The crew, Georgy Dobrovolsky, Vladislav Volkov, and Viktor Patsayev, arrived at the space station on 7 June 1971, and departed on 29 June 1971. The mission ended in disaster when the crew capsule depressurised during preparations for re-entry, killing the three-man crew. The three crew members of Soyuz 11 are the only humans to have died in space.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The original prime crew for Soyuz 11 consisted of Alexei Leonov, Valeri Kubasov, and Pyotr Kolodin. A medical X-ray examination four days before launch suggested that Kubasov might have tuberculosis, and according to the mission rules, the prime crew was replaced with the backup crew. For Dobrovolski and Patsayev, this was to be their first space mission. After the failure of Salyut 2 to orbit, Kubasov and Leonov were reassigned to Soyuz 19 for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The Soyuz 7K-OKS spacecraft was launched on 6 June 1971, from Baikonur Cosmodrome in central Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, and used the callsign "Yantar" (Amber). Several months earlier, the first mission to the Salyut, Soyuz 10, had failed to successfully dock with the station. During the first day of the flight, manoeuvres were made to effect a rendezvous with the unmanned Salyut (1971-032A). When Soyuz 11 was 6 to 7 km from Salyut, automatic devices took over, and in 24 minutes closed the gap between the two ships to 9 m and reduced the relative speed difference to 0.2 m/s. Control of the ships went from automatic back to manual at 100 m. Docking took 3 hours 19 minutes to complete and involved making the connection mechanically rigid, engaging various electrical and hydraulic links, and establishing air-tight seals before locks could be opened. When the pressure was equalized between the ships, the locks were opened and all three members of the crew passed into Salyut 1. Soyuz 11 successfully docked with Salyut 1 on 7 June 1971 and the cosmonauts remained on board for 22 days, setting space endurance records that would hold until the American Skylab 2 mission in May and June 1973.


title: Soyuz 11

text: Upon first entering the station, the crew encountered a smoky and burnt atmosphere, and after replacing part of the ventilation system, spent the next day back in their Soyuz until the air cleared. Their stay in Salyut was productive, including live television broadcasts. A fire broke out on day 11 of their stay, causing mission planners to consider abandoning the station. The planned highlight of the mission was to have been the observation of an N1 rocket launch, but the launch was postponed. The crew also found that using the exercise treadmill, as they were required to twice a day, caused the whole station to vibrate. "Pravda" released news of the mission and regular updates while it was in progress.


title: Soyuz 11

text: On 29 June 1971, the three cosmonauts loaded scientific specimens, films, tapes, and other gear into Soyuz 11, then transferred manual control back from Salyut 1 to Soyuz 11 and returned to their ferry craft. Undocking occurred at 18:28 GMT. Soyuz 11 flew co-orbit for a while before it retro-fired at 22:35 GMT in preparation for re-entry. Before re-entering Earth's atmosphere, both the work compartment and the service module were jettisoned. This occurred at about 22:47 GMT, when radio communications abruptly ended when the work compartment separated, well before the normal ionospheric blackout.


title: Soyuz 11

text: Almost 25 minutes later, Soyuz 11's automatic systems landed the craft at 23:16:52 GMT, 90 km southwest of Karazhal in Kazakhstan, after an apparently normal return to Earth. The total flight duration of the crew had been 570.22 hours and involved 383 orbits—18 prior to docking, 362 docked, and three after undocking. However, when the recovery team opened the capsule of the Soyuz 11, they found all three men dead.


title: Soyuz 11

text: Kerim Kerimov, chair of the State Commission, recalled: "Outwardly, there was no damage whatsoever. They knocked on the side, but there was no response from within. On opening the hatch, they found all three men in their couches, motionless, with dark-blue patches on their faces and trails of blood from their noses and ears. They removed them from the descent module. Dobrovolsky was still warm. The doctors gave artificial respiration. Based on their reports, the cause of death was suffocation".


title: Soyuz 11

text: It quickly became apparent that they had asphyxiated. The fault was traced to a breathing ventilation valve, located between the orbital module and the descent module, that had been jolted open as the descent module separated from the service module, 12 minutes and 3 seconds after retrofire. The two modules were held together by explosive bolts designed to fire sequentially; in fact, they had fired simultaneously. The explosive force of the simultaneous bolt firing caused the internal mechanism of the pressure equalisation valve to loosen a seal that was usually discarded later and which normally allowed for automatic adjustment of the cabin pressure. The valve opened at an altitude of , and the resultant loss of pressure was fatal within seconds. The valve was located beneath the seats and was impossible to find and block before the air was lost. Flight recorder data from the single cosmonaut outfitted with biomedical sensors showed cardiac arrest occurred within 40 seconds of pressure loss. By 15 minutes 35 seconds after retrofire, the cabin pressure was zero, and remained there until the capsule entered the Earth's atmosphere. Patsayev's body was found positioned near the valve, and he may have been attempting to close or block the valve at the time he lost consciousness. An extensive investigation was conducted to study all components and systems of Soyuz 11 that could have caused the accident, although doctors quickly concluded that the cosmonauts had died of asphyxiation.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The autopsies at Burdenko Military Hospital found that the cause of death for the cosmonauts was haemorrhaging of the blood vessels in their brains, with lesser amounts of bleeding under their skin, in their inner ears, and in their nasal cavities, all of which occurred as exposure to a vacuum environment caused the oxygen and nitrogen in their bloodstreams to bubble and rupture vessels. Their blood was also found to contain heavy concentrations of lactic acid; lactic acid build up (in tissues and blood) is a sign of inadequate mitochondrial oxygenation, which may be due to hypoxemia (low blood oxygen), poor blood flow (e.g., decompression) or a combination of both. Although they could have remained conscious for almost 40 seconds after decompression began, less than 20 seconds would have passed before the effects of oxygen starvation made it impossible for them to function.


title: Soyuz 11

text: Alexei Leonov, who would have originally commanded Soyuz 11, had advised the cosmonauts before the flight that they should manually close the valves between the orbital and descent modules, as he did not trust them to shut automatically, a procedure he thought up during extensive time in the Soyuz simulator. However, it appears that the crew did not do this. After the flight, Leonov went back and tried closing one of the valves himself, and found that it took nearly a minute to do so, too long in an emergency situation with the spacecraft's atmosphere escaping fast.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The Soviet state media attempted to downplay the tragic end of the mission, and instead emphasized its accomplishments during the crew's stay aboard Salyut 1. Since they did not publicly announce the exact cause of the cosmonauts' deaths for almost two years afterwards, United States space planners were extremely worried about the upcoming Skylab program, as they could not be certain whether prolonged time in a micro-g environment had turned out to be fatal. However, NASA doctor Charles Berry maintained a firm conviction that the cosmonauts could not have died from spending too many weeks in weightlessness. Until the Soviets finally disclosed what had really happened, Berry theorised that the crew had died from inhaling toxic substances.


title: Soyuz 11

text: A film that was later declassified showed support crews attempting cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on the cosmonauts. Until autopsy, they were not known to have died because of a capsule depressurisation. The ground crew had lost audio contact with the crew before re-entry began, and had already begun preparations for contingencies in case the crew had been lost.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The cosmonauts were given a large state funeral and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis at Red Square, Moscow, near the remains of Yuri Gagarin. United States astronaut Tom Stafford was one of the pallbearers. They were also each posthumously awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union medal.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The Soyuz spacecraft was extensively redesigned after this incident to carry only two cosmonauts. The extra room meant that the crew could wear Sokol space suits during launch and landing. The Sokol was a lightweight pressure suit intended for emergency use; updated versions of the suit remain in use to the present day.


title: Soyuz 11

text: The Soyuz 11 landing coordinates are which is south-west of Karazhal, Karagandy, Kazakhstan, and about north-east of Baikonur. At the site was placed a memorial monument in the form of a three-sided metallic column, with the engraved image of the face of each crew member set into a stylized triangle on each of the three sides near the top. The memorial is in open, flat country, far from any populated area, within a small, circular fence. In 2012, the memorial was found to have been vandalized beyond repair, with only the base of the metallic column remaining and any roads leading to it overgrown. In 2013, Russian space agency Roscosmos restored the site with a redesigned monument, reflecting the three-sided form of the original, but this time constructed from brick. Also placed at the site was a sign explaining the history of the location and the fate of the original monument.


title: Soyuz 11

text: Craters on the Moon were named after the three cosmonauts: Dobrovol'skiy, Volkov, and Patsaev. The names of the three cosmonauts are included on the "Fallen Astronaut" commemorative plaque placed on the Moon during the Apollo 15 mission in August 1971. To honour the loss of the Soyuz 11 crew, a group of hills on Pluto is also named Soyuz Colles.


title: Soyuz 11

text: In the city of Penza, Russia, near the school gymnasium No. 39, in honour of the dead astronauts, a memorial stele was made with quotes from the poem by the poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko "Between our Motherland and you is a two-way eternal connection" (Russian version: "Между Родиной нашей и вами – двусторонняя вечная связь")


title: Soyuz 11

text: In addition to the Soviet postage stamp depicted above, a series of postage stamps of Ajman and Bulgaria was issued in memory of the cosmonauts in 1971.


title: Triple point

text: In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is that temperature and pressure at which the sublimation curve, fusion curve and the vaporisation curve meet. For example, the triple point of mercury occurs at a temperature of and a pressure of 0.165 mPa.


title: Triple point

text: In addition to the triple point for solid, liquid, and gas phases, a triple point may involve more than one solid phase, for substances with multiple polymorphs. Helium-4 is a special case that presents a triple point involving two different fluid phases (lambda point).


title: Triple point

text: The triple point of water was used to define the kelvin, the base unit of thermodynamic temperature in the International System of Units (SI). The value of the triple point of water was fixed by definition, rather than measured, but that changed with the 2019 redefinition of SI base units. The triple points of several substances are used to define points in the ITS-90 international temperature scale, ranging from the triple point of hydrogen (13.8033 K) to the triple point of water (273.16 K, 0.01 °C, or 32.018 °F).


title: Triple point

text: The single combination of pressure and temperature at which liquid water, solid ice, and water vapor can coexist in a stable equilibrium occurs at exactly and a partial vapor pressure of . At that point, it is possible to change all of the substance to ice, water, or vapor by making arbitrarily small changes in pressure and temperature. Even if the total pressure of a system is well above the triple point of water, provided that the partial pressure of the water vapor is 611.657 pascals, then the system can still be brought to the triple point of water. Strictly speaking, the surfaces separating the different phases should also be perfectly flat, to negate the effects of surface tension.


title: Triple point

text: The gas–liquid–solid triple point of water corresponds to the minimum pressure at which liquid water can exist. At pressures below the triple point (as in outer space), solid ice when heated at constant pressure is converted directly into water vapor in a process known as sublimation. Above the triple point, solid ice when heated at constant pressure first melts to form liquid water, and then evaporates or boils to form vapor at a higher temperature.


title: Triple point

text: For most substances the gas–liquid–solid triple point is also the minimum temperature at which the liquid can exist. For water, however, this is not true because the melting point of ordinary ice decreases as a function of pressure, as shown by the dashed green line in the phase diagram. At temperatures just below the triple point, compression at constant temperature transforms water vapor first to solid and then to liquid (water ice has lower density than liquid water, so increasing pressure leads to a liquefaction).


title: Triple point

text: The triple point pressure of water was used during the Mariner 9 mission to Mars as a reference point to define "sea level". More recent missions use laser altimetry and gravity measurements instead of pressure to define elevation on Mars.


title: Triple point

text: At high pressures, water has a complex phase diagram with 15 known phases of ice and several triple points, including 10 whose coordinates are shown in the diagram. For example, the triple point at 251 K (−22 °C) and 210 MPa (2070 atm) corresponds to the conditions for the coexistence of ice Ih (ordinary ice), ice III and liquid water, all at equilibrium. There are also triple points for the coexistence of three solid phases, for example ice II, ice V and ice VI at 218 K (−55 °C) and 620 MPa (6120 atm).


title: Triple point

text: For those high-pressure forms of ice which can exist in equilibrium with liquid, the diagram shows that melting points increase with pressure. At temperatures above 273 K (0 °C), increasing the pressure on water vapor results first in liquid water and then a high-pressure form of ice. In the range , ice I is formed first, followed by liquid water and then ice III or ice V, followed by other still denser high-pressure forms.


title: Triple point

text: Triple-point cells are used in the calibration of thermometers. For exacting work, triple-point cells are typically filled with a highly pure chemical substance such as hydrogen, argon, mercury, or water (depending on the desired temperature). The purity of these substances can be such that only one part in a million is a contaminant, called "six nines" because it is 99.9999% pure. A specific isotopic composition (for water, VSMOW) is used because variations in isotopic composition cause small changes in the triple point. Triple-point cells are so effective at achieving highly precise, reproducible temperatures, that an international calibration standard for thermometers called ITS–90 relies upon triple-point cells of hydrogen, neon, oxygen, argon, mercury, and water for delineating six of its defined temperature points.


title: Triple point

text: This table lists the gas–liquid–solid triple points of several substances. Unless otherwise noted, the data come from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now NIST, National Institute of Standards and Technology).


title: Rubber hose animation

text: Rubber hose animation was the first animation style that became standardized in the American animation field. The defining feature is the curving motion most things possess, resembling that of a rubber hose. While the style fell out of fashion during the 1930s, there has been a minor revitalization of it in recent years with works such as the video games "Cuphead" and "Bendy and the Ink Machine", and the film "".


title: Rubber hose animation

text: In the early days of hand drawn animation in the 1920s, the studios' main areas were not in Hollywood, but New York City. Animation was a new phenomenon and there were no experienced animators; yet there were skilled artists working on newspapers, creating comic strips in a time when even the comic strips themselves were relatively new. Many of them became fascinated with the introduction of moving drawings, and saw them as new possibilities and challenges to use their skills on something they found more exciting than the newspaper strips.


title: Rubber hose animation

text: For this reason, many of the first cartoons had many similarities with moving comic strips. The artists experimented with what worked and what did not, and what they could and could not do. In the strips, they had no need to think of their work in three dimensions or how they moved, but at the same time this extra aspect gave them the opportunity to introduce gags and elements not possible in comic stills. Moreover, because the drawings had to be mass-produced to create the illusion of movement, they had to come up with a compromise where characters were less detailed and time-consuming, but at the same time alive and complex enough. As animators gained experience through trial, error and collaborations, cartoons became more professional and dominated by specific rules of how to make them.


title: Rubber hose animation

text: The studios had to be sensitive to any new business trend to survive the competition. A consequence of this was that the style and design of the most successful and popular cartoons had a great impact on the rest of the animation business. One of the earliest examples was Felix the Cat, who quickly spawned imitators at different studios. Combined with the natural evolution of animation, this resulted in a dominating design that would be known as the "rubber hose style", despite individual differences between the studios. Bill Nolan is credited with the introduction of this animation style.